Lab Name: To study and analyze the function of Bones, Joints and Cartilage in a Human

Skeleton system
Course Title: Human Factors Engineering
Practical No. 02
Course teacher/Lab Instructor:
Student Name:__________________________
Registration no.__________________________

Marking Evaluation Sheet

Taxonomy Max. Obtained
Knowledge components Domain Contribution
level marks marks
1. Student has conducted the
experiment by practicing the Manipulate (P2) 4
hands-on skills.
Psychomotor 60%
2. Student has achieved
required Result/Accuracy in Precision (P3) 2
performance.
3. Student has Followed the
safety instructions while Respond (A2) 1
performing the Experiment
Affective 20%
4. Student has followed all the
timelines provided during Valuing (A3) 1
the lab session
5. Student has analyzed and
Analyzed
compared the results with Cognitive 20% 2
(C4)
Standard.

Total Marks 10

Signed by Course teacher/ Lab Instructor

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 LAB. SESSION # 02

TITLE: Human Skeleton System

PERFORMANCE NAME: To study and analyze the function of Bones and Joints in
a Human Skeleton system
OBJECTIVE:
The objectives of the experiment are
1. To study about the Human Skeleton system
2. To study about different diseases occurred due to the human skeleton system.

APPARATUS:
Small and Big Skeleton

THEORY:
Human Skeleton:

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of around 206 bones in
a healthy young individual. At birth, the total number of bones in a child is 270, they merges with
the time and in an adult individual the number of bones are 206. The bone mass in the skeleton
reaches maximum density around age 21.

The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. About
14% of the individual’s weight possessed by the bones. The axial skeleton is formed by the
vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones.

The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle,
the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs. The human skeleton performs six
major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals,
and endocrine regulation.

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Figure 1: Human Skeleton System

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Functions of Human Skeleton System:
The skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells,
storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
1. Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis,
associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages,
costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
2. Movement
The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others,
e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck.
Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on
bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated
by the nervous system.
It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and
dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density
to reduce significantly.
3. Protection
1. The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged.
2. The skull protects the brain
3. The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
4. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
5. Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of hematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the
bone marrow. In children, hematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such
as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.
4. Storage
The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can
store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of
calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a
bone. Hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of
phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. Chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of
oxygen and carbon.

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 5. Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar
(glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in
addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.
Some important terminologies:
Medial
Medial refers to being toward the midline of the body or the median plane, which splits the body,
head-to-toe, into two halves, the left and right. The closer parts to the medial line are called medial
parts of the body. The fore arm bone ulna of the human skeleton is medial bone.
Lateral
Lateral is the side of the body or part of the body that is away from the middle. The lateral bones
are bones in the human skeleton system that are away from the medial line. Radius bone that is
present in the fore arm of the human skeleton system is lateral bone.

Figure 2: Medial and Lateral in Human body

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Distal and Proximal
These two terms are almost always used in reference to relative locations of parts or places on the
limbs. Proximal then refers to something closer to the body while distal refers to parts and places
away from the body. So a finger is distal to the wrist, which is distal to the elbow, which is distal
to the shoulder. Or, similarly, the femur is proximal to the pelvic bone. The distal and proximal
are described by using the relative location of the bones and joints with respect to the other bones
and joints.

Figure 3: Proximal and Distal in human body

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Classification of bones:
Bones are classified according to their different size and their shape, there are four different types
of bones classified following.
1. Long bones
2. Short bones
3. Flat bones
4. Irregular bones
Long bones:
A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Long bones are found
in the arms and legs as well as in the fingers and toes. The main function of the long bones to work
as a lever. They supports muscles in contraction and relaxation. Some examples of the long bones
are given below

• Humerus
• Radius
• Ulna
• Femur
• Tibia
• Fibula
• Phalanges
• Meta-carpals
• Meta-tarsals.

Figure 4: Long Bones

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Short Bones:
A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and
thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals
of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.

Figure 5: Short Bones

Flat Bones
Flat bones are those bones that have slightly curved shape. The function of these bones is to protect
the fragile and delicate parts of the body like brain, heart, lungs and liver etc. some examples of
the flat bones are given below.
1. Sternum
2. Scapula
3. Ribs
4. Skull

Figure 6: Flat Bones

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Vertebrae in Spinal cord:
There are total 33 vertebrae in the spinal cord that supports the whole body. In vertebral column
there are some vertebrae have some flexibility is their movement but some are not moveable.
According to their region in the body and they have different characteristics and names that are
given below.

Figure 7: Spinal Cord

Short name Number of Vertebrae Name Movement Region in body

𝑪𝟏 − 𝑪𝟕 7 Cervical Moveable Neck

𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟏𝟐 12 Thoracic Moveable Chest
𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝟓 5 Lumbar Moveable Lower Back
𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟓 5 Sacral Not moveable Pelvic Bones
---- 4 Coccyx Not moveable Tail bones
Total 33
Table 1: Verterae Classification

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Irregular Bones
An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not
fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that
support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the
ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones.

Figure 8: Irregular Bones

Classification of Joints:
Different types of joints enable the bones forming the joints to move relative to each other in
different ways and to different extents, i.e. from freely moveable to hardly any movement at all.
They allow the body move or stable the body. There are three types of joints.
1. Fibrous
2. Cartilaginous
3. Synovial
Fibrous:
These joints are the fixed joints in the human skeleton system, these joints are not moveable,
Fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue consisting mainly of collagen. These joints
are also called fixed or immovable joints because they do not move. Fibrous joints have no joint
cavity and are connected via fibrous connective tissue. The skull bones are connected by fibrous
joints called sutures. These joints are present in the body like skull etc.
Cartilaginous Joints:
These joint allows little movements in the body. Cartilaginous (synchondroses and sympheses):
These joints occur where the connection between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage for
example between vertebrae in the spine.
Synovial Joints:
Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of joint within
the human body. They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous structure)
surrounding the entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule) which secretes
synovial fluid (a lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends
of the articulating bones. There are 6 types of synovial joints which are classified by the shape of
the joint and the movement available.
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 1. Hing Joint
2. Piviot Joint
3. Ball and Socket Joint
4. Saddle Joint
5. Ellipsoid Joint
6. Plane Joint
Hinge Joint:
In a hinge joint, the convex end of one bone articulates with the concave end of the adjoining bone.
This type of joint allows only for bending and straightening motions along a single axis, and thus
hinge joints are functionally classified as uniaxial joints. A good example is the elbow joint, with
the articulation between the trochlea of the humerus and the trochlear notch of the ulna. Other
hinge joints of the body include the knee, ankle, and interphalangeal joints between the phalanges
of the fingers and toes.

Figure 9: Hing Joint

Pivot Joint:
At a pivot joint, a rounded portion of a bone is enclosed within a ring formed partially by the
articulation with another bone and partially by a ligament. The bone rotates within this ring. Since
the rotation is around a single axis, pivot joints are functionally classified as a uniaxial diarthrosis
type of joint. An example of a pivot joint is the atlantoaxial joint, found between the C1 (atlas) and
C2 (axis) vertebrae. Here, the upward projecting dens of the axis articulates with the inner aspect
of the atlas, where it is held in place by a ligament. Rotation at this joint allows you to turn your
head from side to side. A second pivot joint is found at the proximal radioulnar joint. Here, the
head of the radius is largely encircled by a ligament that holds it in place as it articulates with the
radial notch of the ulna. Rotation of the radius allows for forearm movements.

Figure 10: Piviot Joint

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Ball-and-Socket Joint:
The joint with the greatest range of motion is the ball-and-socket joint. At these joints, the rounded
head of one bone (the ball) fits into the concave articulation (the socket) of the adjacent bone. The
hip joint and the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body. At
the hip joint, the head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone, and at the
shoulder joint, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Ball-and-
socket joints are classified functionally as multiaxial joints. The femur and the humerus are able
to move in both anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions and they can also rotate around
their long axis. The shallow socket formed by the glenoid cavity allows the shoulder joint an
extensive range of motion. In contrast, the deep socket of the acetabulum and the strong supporting
ligaments of the hip joint serve to constrain movements of the femur, reflecting the need for
stability and weight-bearing ability at the hip.

Figure 11: Ball and Socket Joint

Saddle Joint:
At a saddle joint, both of the articulating surfaces for the bones have a saddle shape, which is
concave in one direction and convex in the other. This allows the two bones to fit together like a
rider sitting on a saddle. Saddle joints are functionally classified as biaxial joints. The primary
example is the first carpometacarpal joint, between the trapezium (a carpal bone) and the first
metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb. This joint provides the thumb the ability to move away
from the palm of the hand along two planes. Thus, the thumb can move within the same plane as
the palm of the hand, or it can jut out anteriorly, perpendicular to the palm. This movement of the
first carpometacarpal joint is what gives humans their distinctive “opposable” thumbs. The
sternoclavicular joint is also classified as a saddle joint.

Figure 12: Saddle Joint

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Ellipsoid Joint:
At a condyloid joint (ellipsoid joint), the shallow depression at the end of one bone articulates with
a rounded structure from an adjacent bone or bones. The knuckle (metacarpophalangeal) joints of
the hand between the distal end of a metacarpal bone and the proximal phalanx are condyloid
joints. Another example is the radiocarpal joint of the wrist, between the shallow depression at the
distal end of the radius bone and the rounded scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum carpal bones. In this
case, the articulation area has a more oval (elliptical) shape. Functionally, condyloid joints are
biaxial joints that allow for two planes of movement. One movement involves the bending and
straightening of the fingers or the anterior-posterior movements of the hand. The second movement
is a side-to-side movement, which allows you to spread your fingers apart and bring them together,
or to move your hand in a medial or lateral direction.

Figure 13: Ellipsiod Joint

Plane Joint:
At a plane joint (gliding joint), the articulating surfaces of the bones are flat or slightly curved and
of approximately the same size, which allows the bones to slide against each other. The motion at
this type of joint is usually small and tightly constrained by surrounding ligaments. Based only on
their shape, plane joints can allow multiple movements, including rotation and can be functionally
classified as a multiaxial joint. However, not all of these movements are available to every plane
joint due to limitations placed on it by ligaments or neighboring bones. Depending upon the
specific joint of the body, a plane joint may exhibit movement in a single plane or in multiple
planes. Plane joints are found between the carpal bones (intercarpal joints) of the wrist or tarsal
bones (intertarsal joints) of the foot, between the clavicle and acromion of the scapula
(acromioclavicular joint), and between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent
vertebrae (zygapophysial joints).

Figure 14: Plane Joint

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not fall the skeleton on the ground.

2. Carefully monitor the motion of joint
3. Person should not apply extra force on any joint.
4. Clean your work station after use

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Compare Medial and Lateral part of the body

Differentiate between Distal and Proximal area

Give example of Pivot Joint other than described in the module.

Enlist the types of joints in a human body

Describe Synovial Joints.

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