Planning & Scheduling in

manufacturing
Planning and Scheduling
Planning and scheduling are decision-making processes that are used on a regular
basis in many manufacturing and service industries. These forms of decision-making
play an important role in procurement and production, in transportation and
distribution, and in information processing and communication. The planning and
scheduling functions in a company rely on mathematical techniques and
heuristic methods to allocate limited resources to the activities that have to be
done. This allocation of resources has to be done in such a way that the company
optimizes its objectives and achieves its goals. Resources may be machines in a
workshop, runways at an airport, crews at a construction site, or processing units in
a computing environment. Activities may be operations in a workshop, take-offs and
landings at an airport, stages in a construction project, or computer programs that
have to be executed. Each activity may have a priority level, an earliest possible
starting time and a due date. Objectives can take many different forms, such as
minimizing the time to complete all activities, minimizing the number of activities that
are completed after the committed due dates, and so on.

Difference between Planning & Scheduling

Planning: What, How, Who
Scheduling: When and Why
Examples
System installation project
Semiconductor manufacturing facility
Automobile assembly line
Production planning in a paper mill
Planning and scheduling in supply chain
Reservation system
Routing and scheduling of airplanes
Scheduling nurses in Hospital
Planning and Scheduling in manufacturing
In a generic manufacturing environment orders that are released in a
manufacturing setting have to be translated into jobs with associated
due dates. These jobs often have to be processed on the machines in a
work center in a given order or sequence. The processing of jobs may
sometimes be delayed if certain machines are busy. Preemptions may
occur when high priority jobs are released which have to be processed
at once. Unexpected events on the shopfloor, such as machine
breakdowns or longer-than-expected processing times, also have to be
taken into account, since they may have a major impact on the
schedules. Developing, in such an environment, a detailed schedule of
the tasks to be performed helps maintain efficiency and control of
operations.
Planning and Scheduling Hierarchy
Long range planning
Intermediate range planning
Short term control
Forecasting
Introduction
The first step in planning the operation of a production system is
determining the accurate forecast of the demand of the to be
produces. This forecast is used to
specify control policies for inventory systems
To load the machines
Determine the machinery and material handling requirements
To determine the workforce level during production period
Forecasting is widely used in service and nonmanufacturing systesm
Forecasting
Forecasting is to use past data in order to predict or project future values.
Qualitative techniques:
These are used when no or very few historical data are available.
Expert opinion and their predictions are considered the ultimate forecasted
values. This approach is known as Delphi method
Historical analogy
Market research
Customer surveys
Panel consensus
SWAG(sophisticated wild arbitrary guessing)
These techniques can be used for sales of new product
Forecasting
Quantitative techniques:
Historical data pattern is used to extrapolate into the future
Time series analysis:
Moving averages
Exponential smoothing
Short range forecasting
More accurate than medium and long-range forecasting
Hours to 1 year
Hourly, daily, weekly and monthly forecasts are short range forecasts
Examples: Electric utility companies use hourly forecasting of
kilowatthour demand
Production planning of manufacturing plant is monthly sales of units
Medium range forecast
One to five years
Less accurate due to uncertainties
Example:
Enrollment of students in college or university
Long range forecast
More than 5 years
Less accurate due to economic factors
Example:
Telephone companies use this to forecast future demand for network
expansions
Forecasting procedures
First step in determining the forecast is to plot the historical data as a
function of time.
Curve fitting and forecasting techniques
Gregory-Newton Interpolation formula
This formula is used for interpolation and extrapolation when the
function is known at discrete evenly spaced points. The last point is
used as a base line. It is known that if there are n equally spaced data
points, there exists a polynomial of degree less than or equal to n-1
which passes through every data point. This polynomial can be used to
predict future values
Forward difference formula

Backward difference formula

Example
Example
Caution
These equations are poor tools when the underlying data generation
process contains randomness or noise. Economic data such as demand
are characterized by randomness, so forecasting technique accounting
for randomness must be used.
Analysis and control of production systems
By Elsayed and Boucher
Inventory Systems
Introduction
Demand forecast is one of the primary inputs for making inventory
decisions.
Inventory is the raw material, semi-finished parts and assemblies,
and finished goods that are in the production system at any point in
time. Inventories serve as the buffer between the stages of production
system and between the production system and its customers. The
main reason of analysis of inventory system 1. How much should be
ordered or produced?
2. When should the orders be placed so that the total inventory costs
are minimized?

Inventory costs
Cost of carrying the inventory, holding cost
The cost of incurring shortages, opportunity cost
The cost of replenishing the inventories, order cost
Inventory carrying costs
1. Opportunity cost
2. Storage and space charges, storage and maintenance cost, cost of
handling units, cost of computers to keep record of inventory
3. Taxes and insurance, cost of physical deterioration and its
prevention, dry cell batteries, vegetables, dairy products, ceramic
and electronics products
4. Cost of obsolescence, due to technology changes, computers,
robotics, and communication equipment
Shortage costs
Cost incurred if units of inventory are not available when demanded.
Lost sale, lost goodwill, overtime payments, customer dissatisfaction,
administrative efforts (telephonic calls, memos etc.)
1. One time shortage cost per unit short
2. Shortage cost per unit short per unit time
Ordering cost
Cost of preparing and placing the orders for replenishing inventories,
cost of handling and shipment of orders, cost of machine setups for
production runs, cost of inspection of received orders, and the costs
that do not vary with the size of the order.
In the analysis the analyst may add combine costs, because these are
difficult to calculate in detail.

Terminologies of inventory systems

Demand
Demand can be deterministic or probabilistic, static or dynamic.
It is the usage rate of the product
Demand rate is the quantity demanded per unit time. it can be uniform,
power, infinite or others.
In general the amount in inventory at time T, Q(T), is given by
Lead time and replenishment rate
Lead time is the time interval between when order is placed and the
time when it is actually received in the inventory.
Lead time can be deterministic or probabilistic, constant or time
varying.
The replenishment rate is the rate at which the inventory builds up.
Reorder Level
The reorder level is the inventory level at which orders are placed for
replenishing the inventory. It is the function of lead time demand
Safety stock
Safety stock is the inventory that is carried to prevent stockout when
there is uncertainty in the demand or supply process.
Inventory policies
Periodic review policy
Inventory levels are observed at equal intervals of time T. T is review
period length. If at the end of period T, the inventory level is higher
than the predetermined reorder level, no action is taken. However, if
it is less than or equal to the reorder level, an order is placed to bring
the inventory to the target level.
Order up to Imax Policy
This is a special case of periodic review policy. Under this policy, the
reorder level is set to equal Imax. An order of size Qi-Ii is placed at
the end of period Ti
Continuous review policy
Inventory level is continuously monitored and an order of Imax – Ii is
always placed if inventory level drops below the reorder level.
Fixed reorder quantity policy
In this policy an order of fixed size is placed, when the
inventory level becomes equal to reorder level
Base stock policy
Under this policy, reorder level is Imax and an order
is placed after each withdrawal from the inventory.
The max level of inventory is referred as base stock
level
Basic factory dynamics
Workstation: A workstation is collection of one or
more machines or manual that perform identical
functions.
A turning station made up of several vertical lathes
An inspection station made up of several benches
staffed by quality inspectors,
A burn-in station with a single room where
components are heated for testing purpose
Process oriented layout
Product oriented layout
Station, work center, process center are synonymous
to workstation Part: A part is a piece of raw material,
a component, a subassembly or an assembly that is
worked on at the workstations
Raw material: Refers to parts purchased from outside
the plant (e.g., bar stock).
Components are individual pieces that are assembled
into more complex products (e.g., gears).
Subassemblies are assembled units that are further
assembled into more complex products (e.g.,
transmissions)
Assemblies (or final assemblies) are fully assembled
products or end items (e.g., automobiles). Note that
one plant's final assemblies may be another's raw
material. For instance, transmissions are the final
assemblies of a transmission plant, but are raw
materials or purchased components to the
automotive assembly plant.
End item: A part that is sold directly to a customer,
whether or not it is an assembly, is called an end item.
The relationship between end items and their
constituent parts (raw materials, components, and
subassemblies) is maintained in the bill of material
(BOM).
Consumable: For the most part, consumables are
materials such as bits, chemicals, gases, and
lubricants that are used at workstations but do not
become part of a product that is sold. More formally,
we distinguish between parts and consumables in
that parts are listed on the bill of material, while
consumables are not. This means that some items
that do become part of the product, such as solder,
glue, and wire, can be considered either parts if they
are recorded on the bill of material or consumables if
they are not. Since different purchasing schemes are
typically used for parts and consumabIes (e.g., parts
might be ordered according to an MRP system, while
consumables are purchased through a reorder point
system), this choice may influence how such items are
managed
Routing: A routing describes the sequence of
workstations passed through by a part. Routings
begin at a raw material, component, or subassembly
stock point and end at either an intermediate stock
point or finished-goods inventory. For instance, a
routing for gears may start at a stock point of raw bar
stock; pass through cutting, hobbing, and deburring;
and end at a stock point of finished gears. This stock
of gears might in turm feed another routing that
builds gear subassemblies. The bill of material and the
associated routings contain the basic information
needed to make an end item
Order: A customer order is a request from a customer for
a particular part number, in a particular quantity, to be
delivered on a particular date. The paper or electronic
purchase order sent by the customer might contain
several customer orders. Inside the plant, an order can
also be an indication that certain inventories (e.g., safety
stocks) need to be replenished. While timing may be more
critical for orders originating with customers, both types
of orders represent demand.
Job: A job refers to a set of physical materials that
traverses a routing, along with the associated logical
information (e.g., drawings, BOM).
(1) jobs are measured in terms of specific parts (uniquely
identified by a part number), not the collection of parts
that may make up the assembly required to satisfy an
order, and (2) the number of parts in a job may depend
on manufacturing efficiency considerations (e.g., batch
size considerations) and thus may not match the
quantities ordered by customers.
Throughput (TH): The average output of a p
roduction process
(machine, workstation, line, plant) per unit time (e.g.,
parts per hour) is defined as the system's throughput,
or sometimes throughput rate. At the firm level,
throughput is defined as the production per unit time
that is sold. However, managers of production lines
generally control what is made rather than what is
sold. Therefore, for a plant, line, or workstation, we
define throughput to be the average quantity of good
(non defective) parts (the manager does have control
over quality) produced per unit time.
Capacity: An upper limit on the throughput of a production
process is its capacity.
Raw material inventory (RMI): As noted, the physical inputs at
the start of a production process are typically called raw
material inventory
Crib" and finished goods inventory (FGI): The stock point at
the end of a routing is either a crib inventory location (i.e., an
intermediate inventory location) o finished goods inventory.
Crib inventories are used to gather different parts within the
plant before further processing or assembly.
Work in process (WIP): The inventory between the start and
end points of a product routing is called work in process (WIP)
Inventory turns: A commonly used measure of the efficiency
with which inventory is used is inventory turns, or the turnover
ratio, which is defined as the ratio of throughput to average
inventory.
Cycle time (CT): The cycle time (also called variously average
cycle time, flow time, throughput time, and sojourn time) of a
given routing is the average time from release of a job at the
beginning of the routing until it reaches an inventory point at
the end of the routing (i.e., the time the part spends as WIP)
Lead time, service level, and fill rate: The lead time
of a given routing or line is the time allotted for
production of a part on that routing or line
Service level is rate at which customer orders are
satisfied by a line. fill rate is defined as the fraction of
orders that are filled from stock Utilization: The
utilization of a workstation is the fraction of time it is
not idle for lack of parts. This includes the fraction of
time the workstation is working on parts or has parts
waiting and is unable to work on them due to a
machine failure, setup, or other detractor.
Basic Factory Dynamics

Book: Factory Physics by Hopp and Spearman

Chapter 7
HAL Case

Large Panel Line: produces unpopulated printed circuit boards

Line runs 24 hr/day (but 19.5 hrs of productive time)

Recent Performance:
 • throughput = 1,400 panels per day (71.8 panels/hr)
• WIP = 47,600 panels
• CT = 34 days (663 hr at 19.5
hr/day)
• customer service = 75% on-time

delivery Is HAL lean?

What data do we need to decide?

HAL - Large Panel Line Processes

Lamination (Cores): press copper and prepreg into core blanks
Machining: trim cores to size
Internal Circuitize: etch circuitry into copper of cores
Optical Test and Repair (Internal): scan panels optically for defects
Lamination (Composites): press cores into multiple layer boards
External Circuitize: etch circuitry into copper on outside of composites
Optical Test and Repair (External): scan composites optically for
defects
Drilling: holes to provide connections between layers
Copper Plate: deposits copper in holes to establish
connections
Procoat: apply plastic coating to protect boards
Sizing: cut panels into boards
End of Line Test: final electrical test
HAL Case - Science?

External Benchmarking
 • but other plants may not be
comparable

Internal Benchmarking
• capacity data: what is utilization?
• but this ignores WIP effects

Need relationships between WIP, TH, CT, service!

Definitions

Workstations: a collection of one or more identical machines.

Parts: a component, sub-assembly, or an assembly that moves through

the workstations.
End Items: parts sold directly to customers; relationship to constituent
parts defined in bill of material.
Consumables: bits, chemicals, gasses, etc., used in process but do not
become part of the product that is sold.
Routing: sequence of workstations needed to make a part.
Order: request from customer.

Job: transfer quantity on the line.

Definitions (cont.)

Throughput (TH): for a line, throughput is the average quantity of

good (non-defective) parts produced per unit time.
Work in Process (WIP): inventory between the start and endpoints of
a product routing.
Raw Material Inventory (RMI): material stocked at beginning of
routing.
Crib and Finished Goods Inventory (FGI): crib inventory is
material held in a stockpoint at the end of a routing; FGI is material held
in inventory prior to shipping to the customer.
Cycle Time (CT): time between release of the job at the beginning of
the routing until it reaches an inventory point at the end of the routing.
Parameters

Descriptors of a Line:
1) Bottleneck Rate (rb): Rate (parts/unit time or jobs/unit time)
of the process center having the highest long-term utilization.

2) Raw Process Time (T0): Sum of the long-term average

process times of each station in the line.

3) Congestion Coefficient ( ): A unitless measure of

congestion. Note: we won’t use quantitatively,
• Zero variability case, = 0. but point it out to recognize that
• “Practical worst case,” = 1. lines with same rb and T0 can behave
• “Worst possible case,” = very differently.
W0.
 Parameters (cont.)

Relationship:

Critical WIP (W0): WIP level in which a line having no

congestion would achieve maximum throughput (i.e., rb) with
minimum cycle time (i.e., T0).

W0 = rb T0
 The Penny Fab

Characteristics:
• Four identical tools in series.
• Each takes 2 hours per piece (penny).
• No variability.
• CONWIP job releases. Parameters:
rb = 0.5 pennies/hour
T0 = 8 hours
= 0.5 8 = 4 pennies
W0
= 0 (no variability, best case conditions)
The Penny Fab
Time = 0 hours
Time = 2 hours

Time = 4 hours
Time = 6 hours

Time = 8 hours
Time = 10 hours

Time = 12 hours
Time = 14 hours

Time = 16 hours
 Penny Fab Performance

WIP TH CT TH CT
1 0.125 8 1
2
3
4
5
6
Time = 0 hours
Time = 2 hours

Time = 4 hours
Time = 6 hours

Time = 8 hours
Time = 10 hours

Time = 12 hours
Time = 14 hours

Time = 16 hours

Time = 18 hours
 Penny Fab Performance

WIP TH CT TH CT
1 0.125 8 1 2 0.250 8 2
3
4
5
6
Time = 0 hours
Time = 2 hours

Time = 4 hours
Time = 6 hours

Time = 8 hours
Time = 10 hours

Time = 12 hours

Time = 14 hours
 Penny Fab Performance

WIP TH CT TH CT
1 0.125 8 1 2 0.250 8 2 3 0.375
8 3
4 0.500 8 4
5
6
Time = 0 hours
Time = 2 hours

Time = 4 hours
Time = 6 hours

Time = 8 hours
Time = 10 hours

Time = 12 hours
 Penny Fab Performance

WIP TH CT TH CT
0.125 8 1
0.250 8 2
0.375 8 3
0.500 8 4
0.500 10 5
0.500 12 6
TH vs. WIP: Best Case

0.6
rb 0.5
0.4
TH
0.3
1/T0
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W0 WIP
CT vs. WIP: Best Case

26
24
22
20
18
CT 16
14
1/rb
12
10
T0 86
4
2
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 W WIP
0
 Best Case Performance

Best Case Law: The minimum cycle time (CTbest) for a given
WIP level, w, is given by T0, if w W0
CTbest

w/ rb, otherwise.
The maximum throughput (THbest) for a given WIP level, w is given by,
w/T0, if w W0
TH best

r b, otherwise.
Best Case Performance (cont.)

Example: For Penny Fab, rb = 0.5 and T0 = 8, so W0 = 0.5 8 = 4,

8, if w 4

CTbest

2w, otherwise. w/8, if w 4

THbest

0.5, otherwise.

which are exactly the curves we plotted.

A Manufacturing Law

Little's Law: The fundamental relation between WIP, CT, and

TH over the long-term is:

WIP TH CT

parts
parts hr hr Insights:
• Fundamental relationship
• Simple units transformation
• Definition of cycle time (CT = WIP/TH)
Penny Fab Two

2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
 Penny Fab Two

Station Number of Process Station

Number Machines Time Rate
1 1 2 hr 5 0.5 j/hr
2 2 hr 0.4 j/hr
3 6 10 hr 0.6 j/hr
4 2 3 hr
0.67 j/hr
0.4 p/hr 20 hr
rb = ____________ T0 = ____________ W0 =
8 pennies
____________
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=0)

2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=2)

7
4

2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=4)

7
6
9
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=6)

7
8
9
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=7)
17

12
8
9
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=8)
17

12
10
9
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=9)
17

19

12
10
14
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=10)
17

19

12
12
14
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=12)
17

19

17 22
14
14
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=14)
17

19

17 22
16
19 24
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=16)
17

19

17 22

19 24
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=17)
27

19

22 22 20

19 24
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=19)
27

29

22 22 20

24 24 22
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=20)
27
Note: job will arrive at
bottleneck just in time
to prevent starvation. 29

22 22
22
24 24 22
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=22)
27

29

27 32 25
24
24 24
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr

Note: job will arrive at

bottleneck just in time
to prevent starvation.
Penny Fab Two Simulation (Time=24)
27

29

27 32 25

29 34 27
2 hr
5 hr 3 hr
And so on….
Bottleneck will just
stay busy; all others
will starve periodically
 Worst Case

Observation: The Best Case yields the minimum cycle time and
maximum throughput for each WIP level.

Question: What conditions would cause the maximum cycle time

and minimum throughput?

Experiment:
• set average process times same as Best Case (so rb and T0 unchanged)
• follow a marked job through system
• imagine marked job experiences maximum queueing
Time = 0 hours
Time = 8 hours
Time = 16 hours
Time = 24 hours

Time = 32 hours Note:

CT = 32 hours = 4 8 = wT0

TH = 4/32 = 1/8 = 1/T0

TH vs. WIP: Worst Case

0.6
Best Case
rb 0.5
0.4
TH
0.3
0.2
Worst Case
1/T0 0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

W0
WIP
CT vs. WIP: Worst Case

32
Worst Case
28
24
20
CT 16 Best Case
12
T0 8
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W0 WIP
 Worst Case Performance

Worst Case Law: The worst case cycle time for a given WIP level, w, is given by,

CTworst = w T0

The worst case throughput for a given WIP level, w, is given by,

THworst = 1 / T0

Randomness? None - perfectly predictable, but bad!

 Practical Worst Case

Observation: There is a BIG GAP between the Best Case and Worst Case
performance.

Question: Can we find an intermediate case that:

• divides “good” and “bad” lines, and
• is computable?

Experiment: consider a line with a given rb and T0 and:

• single machine stations
• balanced lines
• variability such that all WIP configurations (states) are equally likely
PWC Example – 3 jobs, 4 stations
clumped up states
State Vector State Vector
1 (3,0,0,0) 11 (1,0,2,0)
2 (0,3,0,0) 12 (0,1,2,0)
3 (0,0,3,0) 13 (0,0,2,1)
4 (0,0,0,3) 14 (1,0,0,2)
5 (2,1,0,0) 15 (0,1,0,2)
6 (2,0,1,0) 16 (0,0,1,2)
7 (2,0,0,1) 17 (1,1,1,0)
8 (1,2,0,0) 18 (1,1,0,1)
9 (0,2,1,0) 19 (1,0,1,1)
10 (0,2,0,1) 20 (0,1,1,1) spread
out states
 Practical Worst Case

Let w = jobs in system, N = no. stations in line, and t = process time at all
stations:

= CT(single) = (1 + (w-1)/N) t [w/(w+W0-1)]rb

CT(line) = N [1 + (w-1)/N] t Practical
Worst = Nt + (w-1)t Case
= T0 + (w-1)/rb Performance
TH = WIP/CT From Little’s Law
Practical Worst Case Definition: The practical worst case
(PWC) cycle time for a given WIP level, w, is given by,
 CTPWC T0 w 1
rb

The PWC throughput for a given WIP level, w, is given by,

w
TH PWC rb, W0 w 1

where W0 is the critical WIP.

THvs.WIP:Practical Worst Case

0.6
Best Case
rb 0.5
0.4 Good (lean)
PWC
TH
0.3
0.2 Bad (fat) Worst Case
1/T0 0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W0 WIP
CTvs.WIP:Practical Worst Case

32 Worst Case PWC

28
24
20 Bad (fat)
CT 16 Best Case
Good
12 (lean)
T0 8
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W0 WIP
Penny Fab Two Performance

26
Penny Fab Two Performance (cont.)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
W0
WIP
Back to the HAL Case - Capacity Data
Process Rate (p/hr) Time (hr)
Lamination 191.5 1.2
Machining 186.2 5.9
Internal Circuitize 150.5 6.9
Optical Test/Repair - Int 157.8 5.6
Lamination – Composites 191.5 1.2
External Circuitize 150.5 6.9
Optical Test/Repair - Ext 157.8 5.6
Drilling 185.9 10.0
Copper Plate 136.4 1.5
Procoat 146.2 2.2
Sizing 126.5 2.4
EOL Test 169.5 1.8
rb, T0 126.5 33.1
HAL Case - Situation

Critical WIP: W0 = rbT0 = 126.5 33.9 = 4,187

Actual Values:
• CT = 34 days = 816 hours (at 24 hr/day)
• WIP = 37,000 panels
• TH = 45.8 panels/hour

Conclusions:
• Throughput is 36% of capacity
• WIP is 15 times critical WIP
• CT is 24.6 times raw process time
 HAL Case - Analysis
TH Resulting from PWC with WIP = 47,600? Much higher
w 37,400 than actual TH rb 126.5 105.4 TH!
w W0 1 37,400 4,187 1

WIP Required for PWC to Achieve TH = 0.63rb?

w
TH rb 0.36rb w W0 1
0.36Much lower than w (W0 1) (4,187 1) 2,354 actual WIP!
0.64
Conclusion: actual system is much worse than PWC!
HAL Internal Benchmarking Outcome
Th
ro
ug
hp
ut
(pa
nel
s/h
ou
r)

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000

WIP
Factory Dynamics Takeaways

Performance Measures:
• throughput
• WIP
• cycle time
• service
Range of Cases:
• best case
• practical worst case
• worst case Diagnostics:
• simple assessment based on rb, T0, actual WIP,actual TH
• evaluate relative to practical worst case
 Job Sequencing and Operation
Scheduling
Job Sequencing
Job sequencing problem is one of the interesting problems in
production analysis.
The problem is quite complex and far from being completely solved.
Optimal sequence could be found for job sequencing problems with a
small number of machines. However, optimal solutions for problems
with a large number of machines do not exist. In fact, it is impossible
to check for the optimality for such problems.
Job sequencing
The job sequencing problems can be stated as follows:
Given n jobs to be processed, each has a setup time, and a due date.
In order to be completed, each job is to be processed at several
machines. It is required to sequence these jobs on the machines in
order to optimize a certain performance criterion
Typical performance Criteria
Mean flow time or mean time in the shop
Idle time of machines
Mean lateness of jobs: lateness is the difference between actual completion
time of the job and its due date
Mean earliness of jobs: if a job is completed before its due date, then its
lateness value is negative, and it is referred to as earliness instead
Mean tardiness of the jobs: if a job is completed after due date, its
lateness is positive, and is referred to as tardiness instead mean queue
time
Mean number of jobs in the system
Percentage of jobs late
Scheduling problem factors
The number of jobs to be scheduled
The number of machines in the machine shop
Type of manufacturing facility (flow shop or job shop)
Manner in which jobs arrive at the facility (static or dynamic)
Criteria by which scheduling objectives will be evaluated
Example
Two jobs A and B, are required to be scheduled on two machines, M1
and M2. each job is processed first on M1 and then on M2. The
processing times of the jobs are given. Find the sequence of these jobs
that minimizes the makespan
Solution
Complexity of the scheduling problem
Number of jobs increase
Number of machines increase
No optimal solutions are there for larger size n and m
Heuristic algorithms are used to find near optimal solutions
Complete enumeration is possible for small sized problems only
If there are N jobs the number of sequences would be N!
Complexity of the scheduling problem
Dynamic job arrival pattern
Produce the scheduled jobs
Add the newly arrived jobs and reschedule them
It will increase computational time and is not economical
Failure rate of machines and uncertainty in the processing times also
complicate the problem
Simulation or heuristic methods are employed to solve such problems
n jobs, one machine
Simplest sequencing problem
Two types of times for each machine
Waiting time Wi and processing time ti
Criterion: minimize the mean flow time of the jobs
Example
Processing times of the jobs are given. Find the optimal sequence to
minimize the mean flow time

Job Processing Time

J1 7

J2 6

J3 8

J4 5
Mean Lateness
Maximum Lateness of the jobs
Mean weighted flow time Example
Assume the weight in previous example are 7, 5, 10 and 3 for jobs 1, 2,
3 and 4 respectively. Find the sequence that minimizes mean weighted
flow time.
Solution
Example
Job Processing time Priority

1 10 8

2 5 3

3 8 5

4 7 7

5 5 6

6 4 1

7 8 2
 Job sequencing and operation
scheduling
n jobs two machines
n jobs must be processed by two machine centers M1, followed by M2.
The processing times of all jobs on m1 and M2 are known and
deterministic. It is required to find optimal sequence that minimizes the
makespan for n jobs
Johnson developed an algorithm that can be used to find an optimal
sequence.
Lower limits
The lower limit can be obtained as follows
𝑛

𝐿1 = ෍ 𝑡𝑖,𝑀1 + 𝑡𝑛,𝑀2
𝑖=1

𝐿2 = 𝑡𝑖,𝑀1 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀2
 𝑖=1

𝐿 = max{𝐿1, 𝐿2}
Steps of Johnson’s Algorithm
1. List all the procession times of all the jobs on machines M1 and M2
2. Scan through all procession times of all the jobs. Locate the minimum
processing time
3. If the minimum processing time is on M1, place the corresponding
job first (as early as possible) in the sequence. If it is on M2, place the
job last (as late as possible) in the sequence.
4. Eliminate the assigned jobs and repeat the step 2 and 3 until all the
jobs are sequenced
5. A tie between two processing times is broken arbitrarily because it
can not affect the minimum elapsed time to complete all the jobs
Example
The drilling and riveting times for six jobs are given below. For every
job, a hole is drilled first followed by riveting. Find the optimum
sequence that minimizes the makespan for all the jobs
JOB DRILLING RIVETING
J1 4 11

J2 7 7

J3 3 10

J4 12 8

J5 11 10

J6 9 13
J3

JOB DRILLING RIVETING

J1 4 11

J2 7 7

J4 12 8

J5 11 10

J6 9 13

J3 J1
 JOB DRILLING RIVETING

J2 7 7

J4 12 8

J5 11 10

J6 9 13

J3 J1 J2

JOB DRILLING RIVETING

J4 12 8

J5 11 10
 J6 9 13

J3 J1 J2 J4

JOB DRILLING RIVETING

J5 11 10

J6 9 13

J3 J1 J2 J6 J5 J4

JOB DRILLING RIVETING

J5 11 10
J6 9 13
Calculate Makespan?
Using two formulas
Find second sequence
n jobs three machines-Johnsons Algorithm
Johnson’s algorithm can be applied for n jobs three machines M1, M2,
and M3. passing is not allowed.
Either of the two conditions hold
min ti1 ≥ max ti2 min ti3 ≥ max ti2
The problem is reformulated by constructing two dummy machines
M1’ and M2’to replace three existing machines
Processing time on M1’ is ti1 + ti2 Processing
time on M2’ is ti2 + ti3

Example
Find the optimal sequence of following jobs
Job M1 M2 M3 Job M1’ M2’

1 5 3 9 1 8 12

2 7 2 5 2 9 7

3 4 3 7 3 7 10
 4 8 4 3 4 12 7

5 6 2 2 5 8 4

6 7 0 8 6 7 8

Two Jobs, M Machines

Two jobs A and B have different processing sequence on M machines.
It is required to find the optimal sequence such that total processing
time is minimized
Graphical method
1. Construct a two -dimensional graph where x axis represents the
processing time and sequence of job 1 on M machines, while y axis
represents for the job 2
2. Shade the area where a machine will be occupied by the two jobs at the
same time
3. The processing of both jobs can be represented by continuous path which
consists of horizontal, vertical and 45 degree diagonal segment. The path
starts at lower left corner and ends at upper right corner while avoiding
the shaded areas in the graph. Since diagonal path represents that both
 jobs are processed by different machines at the same time so the
sequence that maximizes diagonal is optimal sequence

Example
P1 C A E F D B

Time 2 3 4 5 6 1

P1 B A E F C D

Time 3 2 5 3 2 3
Solution
Branch & Bound Algorithm
Sequencing of n jobs on two machines

Branch & Bound

• This method can be used when conditions for Johnson’s algorithm are
not met and optimal sequence is required to find.
• Ignall and Scharge developed branch and bound for n jobs three
machines
 • Problem is represented by a tree structure where each node is a partial
sequence. To determine which partial sequence we branch from, we
calculate lower bound for makespan on all the nodes. We than branch
from the node with least lower bound. The processes is continued until
sequence with the least lower bound is found
lower bound can be one of the
Lower bounds following:
𝑛
Consider n jobs and each job is to be
processed on three machines M1, 𝐿1 = ෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀1 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀2 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀3
M2, M3 in respective order. The 𝑖=1
 𝑛 𝑛

𝐿2 =𝑡1,𝑀1 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀2 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀3 𝐿3 =𝑡1,𝑀1 +𝑡1,𝑀2 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀3

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Lower bounds for branch and bound
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑀1 𝐽𝑟 +෍𝑡𝑖1 +𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐽𝑟ҧ (𝑡𝑖2 + 𝑡𝑖3)
𝑗𝑟ҧ

𝐿𝐵 𝐽𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑀2 𝐽𝑟 + ෍𝑡𝑖2 +𝑚𝑖𝑛𝐽𝑟ҧ 𝑡𝑖3)

𝑗𝑟ҧ

𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸𝑀3 𝐽𝑟 + ෍𝑡𝑖3
𝑗𝑟ҧ
Where
𝑡𝑖𝑗 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑏 𝑖 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑗 𝑖 = 1,2, … . . , 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2,3
𝐽𝑟ҧ = 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 − 𝑟 𝑗𝑜𝑏𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐽𝑟
LB(P)=LB(𝐽𝑟) = 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑃
Job Sequencing and Operations
Scheduling
n Jobs, M machines

Introduction
This problem is a typical static flow shop sequencing problem where n
jobs must be processed by set of M machines.
All the jobs are processed at the initiation of scheduling time period and
no new jobs arrive during the period.
Jobs are not allowed to pass each other. All the jobs maintain the same
position in the sequence.
Objective is to sequence n jobs so that jobs are completed in a minimum
span of time.
There are no general solutions for problems where M>3 Heuristic
methods may obtain near optimal solutions.
Campbell et al. Algorithm
This algorithm generates a series of sums for each job like the two sets
of sums generated in n job three machines. With M machines, M-1 two
column sets of job times can be developed and can be solved using
Johnson’s Algorithm for n jobs, two machines.
Example
Find the best sequence, processing times are given

Job M1 M2 M3 M4

1 5 6 4 5

2 4 7 3 5

3 9 5 5 3

4 6 8 4 1

Solution
First set of machines
M1 and M4
Second set of machines
M12 and M34
Third set of machines
M123 and M234
Apply Johnson’s Algorithm for n jobs two machines
Find sequences
Lower Bounds
𝑛

𝐿1 =෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀1 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀2 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀3 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀4

𝑖=1

𝑛
 𝐿2 =𝑡1,𝑀1 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀2 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀3 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀4
𝑖=1

𝐿3 =𝑡1,𝑀1 +𝑡1,𝑀2 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀3 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀4

𝑖=1

𝐿4 =𝑡1,𝑀1 +𝑡1,𝑀2 +𝑡𝑛,𝑀3 +෍𝑡𝑖,𝑀4

𝑖=1

Stinson-Smith Algorithm
Algorithm for static flow shop problem for n jobs, M machines.