SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT CLUSTER

NAME

VALERIO, STEVEN C.
STUDENT NO. COURSE & YEAR SUBJECT & SECTION

2016141805 CE / 3 CE175P-5W / B2
MODULE ASSESSMENT SIGNATURE

MODULE 1 CW2

Data and Databases

1. Data Development and Maintenance
• Functions of GIS for Spatial Data Capture:
• Tablet digitizing
 Has been a primary data-conversion function due to its simplicity and relatively
low capital cost.
 Most GISs include interfaces for tablet digitizing; some packages emphasize
this functionality as a primary product attribute.
• Scanning
 These technologies have advanced such that existing map stock can be captured
and processed using image-processing procedures.
• Format conversion
 One major source is conversion from CAD (computer-aided design) files.
 Most engineering organizations conduct their mapping and plan documentation
using digital measurement and computerized technologies.
• Surveying and COGO (coordinate geometry)
 Has traditionally been the primary mapping tool for engineering projects.
 It is not uncommon for land surveys to be conducted entirely in digital formats.
 Electronic distance measurements can be taken directly to the computer, plots
made, and uploaded to a GIS.
• GPS (global positioning system)
 Has revolutionized field-data collection.
 GPS is based on a constellation of satellites, each of which broadcasts a unique
signal.

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  By reading the radio signals broadcast from as few as three of these satellites
simultaneously, a receiver on Earth can pinpoint its location on the ground
through a process called trilateration.
• Photogrammetric data development
 A primary means for developing high-resolution spatial databases for urban
areas.
 Aerial overflights with high-resolution cameras provide the base data for
photogrammetric processing.
• Image processing
 Required to establish and maintain the features of a GIS database.
 All GISs require the capability to transform source data into the data structure
of the system and to edit those files once they have been created.
• Geometric transformations
 Applied to establish ground coordinates for a map.
 This requires that a registration correction be assigned to all data so that the
overlay will correspond to the coordinate control and other map layers.
• Projection conversions
 Involve the multiple ways that the oblate-spheroidal shape of the Earth is
mapped to a planar surface.
 Locations on Earth are mapped by a system of latitude and longitude, which is
then projected to a map sheet.
• Attribute entry and editing
 Involves the capture and management of the nonspatial data associated with
objects such as point, line, and polygon features.
 Attributes are the characteristics of the objects. GIS functions for attribute data
capture include forms for data entry that limit and check keyboard entries for
appropriate format and range (e.g., no text for number fields).
• Metadata
 Include information about the content, format, quality, accuracy, availability,
and other characteristics of a GIS database.
 They are data about data. Metadata can help answer questions about GIS
databases so users can decide which data sources may be useful for their needs.
2. Data Models and Sources
• Rasters and Vectors
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 • There are 2 major types of geometric data models in GIS, which are the rasters and
vectors.
• Rasters
 Field model; often defined on a x,y grid with each cell, or pixel (i.e., picture
element), specifying the value of the data.
 The uniform grid is also referred to as a raster data structure.
 Often used to represent variables that vary continuously over a region, such as
temperature, rainfall, and elevation.
• Vectors
 A data structure maps regions into polygons, lines into polylines, and points
into points.
 The vector model is used to represent spatial entities such as river and pipe
networks and facilities (e.g., fire hydrants).
3. Geodatabases
• Database management systems (DBMS) are computer programs for storing and managing
large amounts of data.
• Required functions of a DBMS include:
 consistency with little or no redundancy,
 maintenance of data quality, including updating,
 self-descriptive with metadata,
 a database language for query retrievals and report generation,
 security, including access control, and
 shareability among users.
• Hierarchical Database Structure
• Used when the data have a parent-child or one-to-many relation, such as various levels
of administration, soil series within a soil family, or pixels within a polygon.
• Network Database Structure
• Takes advantage of linkages between features that can be specified beforehand.
• Networks are composed of nodes and connecting links (or arcs) and are a somewhat
specialized data model for representing transportation and river networks.
• Relational Database Structure
• Database structures have become the norm over the past several decades through
development of the commercial DBMS products such as Oracle, Informix, and others.

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 • The relational database links the complex spatial relationships between features using
tables consisting of records having a set of attributes.
• Object-Oriented Database Model
• Uses functions to model spatial and nonspatial relationships of geographic objects and
their attributes.
• An object is an encapsulated unit that is characterized by attributes, a set of orientations,
and rules.
• In O-O databases, data are defined in terms of a series of unique objects, which are
organized into groups of similar phenomena (known as object classes).