A Representation of Integers, Congruence, and Multiplicative Number

Theoretic Functions

Keno Martin L. Adviento

BSE – Mathematics 2

July 2021
Abstract

Mathematics contains levels of structure that transcends untutored intuition. What's the
cognitive representation of abstract mathematical concepts that produces them makes it
meaningful? Within the context of the integers, which extend the natural numbers with zero and
negative numbers. Number theory is a branch of mathematics concerned with the properties of
the positive integer. As for its purpose number theory is about discovering the properties and
interesting an unexpected relationships of different sorts of numbers or integers. As for example
the set off odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, ... ), the set off even numbers (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14,
…), prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, … ), fibonacci sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …).
1modulo 4 numbers which are numbers congruent to 1(modulo 4) if it leaves a remainder of 1
when divided by 4, and similarly for the 3(modulo 4) number. One of the foremost salient
aspects of the discipline of number theory is that from a awfully small number of definitions,
entities and axioms one is led to a rare wealth and variety of theorems, relations and problems
some of which might be easily stated yet are so complex that they take centuries of concerted
efforts, studies, and theories to find its proofs. The purpose of this paper is to discuss a short
review of basic concepts of the three main topics of number theory which is integers, congruence
and multiplicative number theoretic functions.

Introduction

Integers are the building blocks of the theory of numbers. In this review we introduce
basic operations on integers and a few algebraic definitions which will be necessary to
understand basic concepts of this subject. Then introduce the Well Ordering Principle which
states basically that each set of positive integers incorporates a smallest element. Proof by
induction is additionally presented as ancient method for proving several theorems throughout
the topic. We then proceed to define the concept of divisibility and therefore the division
algorithm.

As with so many concepts we will see, congruence is perhaps the most useful and
powerful in the study of number theory. If n is a positive integer, we say the integers a and b are
congruent modulo n, and write a≡b (mod n), if they have the same remainder on division by n.
This notation, and much of the elementary theory of congruence, is due to the famous German
mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss the outstanding mathematician of his time. Congruences are
an important and useful tool for the study of divisibility. As they are also critical in the art of
cryptography.

Multiplicative functions are functions that are defined on integers. These functions have
the property that their value at the product of two relatively prime integers is equal to the product
of the value of the functions at these integers. A number-theoretic function is one such that the
function values depend upon the standard form of n. Multiplicative number theoretic functions
presents several multiplicative number theoretic functions which plays a crucial role in many
number theoretic results. The Euler phi-function will be defined in this part. We then define the
sum-of-divisors function and the number-of-divisors function along with their properties.

Integers

In this chapter the topics: Algebraic operations with integers, The well ordering principle
and mathematical induction, divisibility and division algorithm, and Euclidean algorithm. The
first topic Algebraic operations with integers, which is truly common since this has been taught
since elementary. This includes the properties: commutativity (a + b = b + a and a x b = b x a ),
associativity [ a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a x (b x c) = (a x b) x c] , distributivity [ a x (b + c) =
a x b + a x c], identity where there exist integers ex. 1 and 3 and for all integers a ( a + 0 = a and
a x 1 = a) and additive inverses where for any integer a there exist an integer –a denoted by( a
+ -a = 0, while for multiplication a x a-1 = 1). Other properties include closure where P is a set of
positive integers if a,b are positive integers then a + b and a x b are positive integers and
trichotomy where for every integer a exactly one of the following possibilities exist which is a is
a positive integer, a is a negative integer and a is equal to zero.. The well ordering principle and
mathematical induction are often use in proving properties of integers. The well ordering
principle denotes that every nonempty subset of positive integers contains a smallest element for
every set. Example: S = {2, 4, 6, 8} its smallest element is 2 so S is a well-ordered set.
Mathematical induction denotes an open mathematical statement P(n) containing reference to a
positive integer n such that P(1) is true and If P(k) is true for arbitrary chosen k ∈ Z +¿, ¿ then
P(k+1) is true. Thus P(n) is true for all positive integers n For example: Prove that 1+3+5+…
+(2n-1) = n2 for any integer n≥1. So prove that 1+3+5+…+ (2k-1) + (2k-1) = (k + 1)2, 1+3+5+…
+ (2k-1) + (2k-1) = = k2 + (2k + 1), = (k + 1)2. Thus 1+3+5+…+(2n-1) = n2 for any integer n≥1.
Divisibility and division algorithm are operations in integers. Divisibilty where in If a, b and c
are integers such that c = a(b), then a and b are factors or divisors of c or c is a multiple of a and
b or c is divisible by a and b, or if a and b are integers such that a ≠ 0, then a divides b if there
exists an integer k such that b = ka or written as a|b and a ∤b if a does not divide, (examples: 3
|21 since 21 = 7(3), 26∤ 4 since 4 = 2(2/13) and 2/13 is not an integer. Division algorithm If a
and b are integers such that b > 0, then there exist unique q and r such that a = bq + r where 0 ≤ r
< b. for example use division algorithm to find the quotient and remainder of when -100 is
−100
divided by 13. Let a = -100 and b = 13 q= = -7.69 = -8, r = -100 – (-8 x 13) = 4 therefore
13
-8 is the quotient and 4 is the remainder. Greatest common divisor or GCD of two integers a and
b is the greatest integer that divides both a and b. Denoted by (0,0) = 0. To find the GCD of two
integers simply follow the formula b = a x q + r where a,b are given integers q is the quotient of
the given and r is the remainder of the given. For example: find the greatest common divisor of
100 and 104. (Let a = 100 and b = 104) 104 = 100 x 1 +4 = 100 = 4 x 25 + 0, then the GCD is 4.
The Euclidean Algorithm is a systematic method that determines the greatest common divisor of
two integers. It states that the greatest common divisor of two integers is the last non zero
remainder of the successive division. Example: using the Euclidean algorithm find the greatest
common divisor of 780 and 150 and express it in terms of the two integers. Let a = 780 and b =
780
150 then, q= =5, r = 780 – (5 x 150) = 30.
150

Congruence

As with many concepts congruence is a significantly useful method in the study of

number theory. Congruence which is defined as, when if n is a positive integer we say the
integers a and b are congruent modulo n or written as a ≡ bmod n. The notation is used because
the properties of congruence “≡” is similar to the properties of equality. For example 29 ≡8 mod
7since 7|(29−8)or 7|21 and 60 ≡0 mod 15 since 15|( 60−0) or 15|60. Congruence has also
different results which is classified as 1. Reflexivity, 2. Symmetry and 3. Transitivity, the proof
of these three are as follows. n|(a−a) since 0 is divisible by any integer. Therefore a ≡ a mod n,
for example:n ≡5 because 0 = 0(5) + 0, If a ≡ b mod n then b ≡ a mod n for example: 28 ≡1 mod 9
since 9|27 hence 1 ≡28 mod 9, If a ≡ b mod n and b ≡ c mod n, then a ≡ c mod n for example:
28 ≡10 mod 9 and 28 ≡1 mod 9. Therefore 28 ≡1 mod 9. If the value of n is clear from the
context, which is written simply as a ≡ b it is clear that congruence of integers shares many
properties with equality. Therefore congruence modulo n satisfies the following: 1. a ≡ a mod n,
If a ≡ b mod n then b ≡ a mod n, 2. If a ≡ b mod n and b ≡ c mod n, then a ≡ c mod n, 3. If a ≡ b
mod n then b ≡ a+nq for some integer q and conversely, 4. If a ≡ b mod n then b ≡ a, then a and
b leave the same remainder when divided by n. Conversely if a and b leave the same remainder
when divided by n, then a ≡ b mod n. 5. If a ≡ b mod n and c ≡ d mod n, then a + c ≡ b + d mod
n, ac ≡ bd mod n. 6. If a ≡ b mod n and c is a positive integer, then ca ≡ cb mod cn. 7. If GCD(a,
n) = 1, then the congruence ax = b mod n has a solution x = c In this case, the general solution of
the congruence is given by x ≡ c mod n. 8. If ab≡ ac mod n and if gcd(a, n) = 1, then we have b
≡ c mod n. 9. If a ≡ b mod n and if gcd(a, n) = 1, then we have b ≡ c mod n. 10. Given the
congruence ax ≡ b mod n. Let d =gcd(a, n). Then a. If d does not divide b, the congruence has
no solution. b. If d |b then the congruence is equivalent to the congruence (a/d)x ≡ (b/d) mod
(n/d) which has a unique solution. mod n/d. Parts 1 to 4 are clear by the definition of congruence.
Part 5 to 8 can be summarized by saying that in any expression involving +,-, x and positive
integer exponents. (that is any “polynomial”. If individual terms are replaced by other terms that
are congruent to them modulo n, the resulting expression is congruent to the original. Parts 9 and
10 are more like practical to solve, for example: solve the congruence 8 x ≡ 13 mod 29. First
method we compute 8-1 mod 29, we express 1 as a linear combination of 8 and 29. Taking mod
29 we find 8-1 ≡ 11 mod 29. So solving for x we find x ≡ 13 ∙ 8-1 ≡ 13∙ 11=143≡ 27 mod 29.
13 13 52 23
Second method using fractions we write x mod 29, thus x ≡ ≡ ≡ mod 29, then do it
8 8 32 3
 23 230 27
again using a factor of 10 ≡ ≡ ≡27 mod 29, now with the full solution looking like this
3 30 1
13 52 23 230 27 13
x≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡27 mod 29. Then the third method we write x ≡ mod 29 we can
8 32 3 30 1 8
13 42 21 50 25 54 27
cancel at least one factor 2, if we add 29 to numerator. x ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ ≡ 27
8 8 4 4 2 2 1
mod 29 and this is the final answer. It is not necessary to use this method all the time. This is just
one of the methods use to illustrate different ways of solving a problem. To show the consistency
of small scale arithmethic.

Multiplicative number theoretic function

A multiplicative number theoretic function is number theoretic function. In this part the
euler phi function will be discussed. The euler phi function written as ∅(n) for positive integers
n. It is also defined as ∅(n) is the number of non-negative integers less than n that are relatively
prime to n. In other words, if n > 1 then ∅(n) is the number of elements in U n and ∅(1) = 1.
Theorem 38 if p is a prime number and a is a positive integer then ∅pa = pa - pa-1. The proof of
this is, if we want to calculate the number of non-negative integers less than n = pa that are
relatively prime to n. In many cases it is easier to calculate the numbers that are not relatively
prime to n and subtract the total. The non negative integers less than pa: 0, 1, 2, …, pa – 1. The
numbers that have a common factor with pa are the multiples of p: 0, p, 2p, … that is every pth
number. There are pa/p = pa-1 numbers in this list, so ∅pa = pa - pa-1. For example: ∅(32) = 32 – 16
= 16, ∅(125) = 125 – 25 = 100.Theorem 39, if a and b are relatively prime and n = ab, then ∅(n)
= ∅(a)∅(b). So to prove that ∅(n) = ∅(a)∅(b) as indicated, first is to exhibit a one to one
correspondence between the elements of ∅(n) and ∅(a) x∅(b). So the proof is |x| which is in ∅(n)
if and only if (x, n) = 1 if and only if (x, a) = 1 and (x, b) = 1 if and only if (|x|, |x|) ∈ ∅(a) x∅
(b). For example: ∅(200) = ∅(25)∅(8) = (25 – 5)(8 – 4) = 80. The sum of divisors denoted by σ
(n), is the sum of all positive divisors of n, for example:σ (12) = 1+2+3+4+6+12 = 2. The number
of divisors function denoted by τ ( n ) is the sum of all positive divisors nτ ( 8 ) = 4, for example:
τ ( 200 ) = τ (2352) = (3 + 1)(2 + 1) = 12

Conclusion

As with that all basic and necessary background needed to understand the advanced and
later concepts of investigating and proving relationship of integers. The importance of these
topics presented are helpfully related in number theory such as integers, for they are essential
numbers in mathematics. Integers help in computing the efficiency in positive and negative
numbers in all fields of mathematics. As to studying their relationships let us understand the
position of these number. Congruence as it is an important and powerful method in the study of
number theory, it may look simple at a glance but it gets far more complex as you progress
thoroughly. The multiplicative number theoretic function are of special importance especially in
the field of analytic number theory. Its very important tool the phi-function or euler phi-funtion
is truly interesting in its own right. The rising of Euler’s knowledge is as impressive as its depth
mathematical, especially in his contributions to analysis and number theory, his use of infinite
processes of infinite sums and products, continued fractions and the representation of the
symbols ∑ ¿represent a ∑ ¿ ¿, the modern representation of function f(x) and e for the base of
natural logarithms. This symbols are now the modern notations of mathematics. The study of
these topics are important as it contains foundational discipline in the study of number theory. Of
course all branches of mathematics have this property to some extent but number theory seems to
be the different case as it has the most concerted efforts at axiomization which was a study by
Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell.
Referemce

1. Cognition Volume 121, Issue 3, December 2011, Pages 363-385 The mental
representation of integers: An abstract-to-concrete shift in the understanding of
mathematical concepts
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S001002771100206X#:~:text=mak
e%20them%20meaningful%3F-,The%20integers%2C%20which%20extend%20the
%20natural%20numbers%20with%20zero,negative%20numbers%2C%20are%20abstract
%20numbers.&text=One%20does%20not%20handle%20negative,abstraction%2C%20a
%20form%20without%20substance.

2. American Council of Learned Societies. Biographical Dictionary of Mathematicians.

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1991.

3. Joseph Dauben. Georg Cantor, His Mathematics and Philosophy of the Infinite. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1979.
https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/higher_math_online/chapter06.html

4. G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright. An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers. Oxford

University Press, London, fourth edition, 1960.
https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/higher_math_online/chapter06.html

5. William Judson LeVeque. Topics in Number Theory. Addison–Wesley, Reading, MA,

1956. https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/higher_math_online/chapter06.html

6. Alexander Macfarlane. Lectures on Ten British Mathematicians of the Nineteenth

Century. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1916.
https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/higher_math_online/section03.01.html#:~:text=A
s%20with%20so%20many%20concepts,remainder%20on%20division%20by%20n.

7. G.H. Hardy, E.M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 6th edn.
(Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2008)
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-22321-6_1

8. Dr. Wissam Raji, Ph.D., of the American University in Beirut. His work was selected by
the Saylor Foundation’s Open Textbook Challenge for public release under a Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. Updated: Jul 8, 2021
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Combinatorics_and_Discrete_Mathematics/Book
%3A_Elementary_Number_Theory_(Raji)/04%3A_Multiplicative_Number_Theoretic_F
unctions

9. John D. Cook, PhD, President

https://www.johndcook.com/blog/applied-number-theory/