To enter answers or to print this guide, click the Expand icon on the right.

Then go to the
File Menu in the upper left. Click Make a Copy to create your own copy to type into, or
Download if you prefer to hand-write your answers

Learning Guide: Chapter Two Part 2 - Theories of

Cognitive Development
Below you will find study questions and graphic organizers to help you
organize the information for Chapter 2. Watch the podcasts and read
the indicated sections of your text, especially the “Suggestions for
Teaching” sections. In “Suggestions for Teaching” (and in the videos),
you will see how these concepts can be applied to an actual classroom
(and to the classroom scenario questions you will encounter on the
exam).
To jump to specific sections or pages, you may type the page number
into the “search this course” function or click on “chapter contents,”
which is in the top left once you click into the textbook.

 Seriation- the ability to sort objects or situations according to any characteristic, such as
size, shape, color, or type
● irreversibility- a stage in early child development n which a child falsely believes that
actions cannot be reversed or undone
● scientific concepts- the psychological tools that allow us to manipulate our environment
consciously and systematically
● empirical learning- the way in which young children acquire spontaneous concepts
● theoretical learning- the use of psychological tools to learn scientific concepts

1. Read Section 2-2a (p. 38-40), Focusing on the basic principles of Piaget’s theory. Explain
the following terms in your own words:

a. cognitive organization- the tendency to systematize and combine processes into

coherent general systems

b. adaptations- the tendency to adjust to the environment (assimilation- interpreting an

experience so that it fits an existing scheme) (accommodation- changing an existing
scheme to incorporate the experience)

c. schemes- organized, generalized patterns of behavior

 d. equilibration- the organization of schemes to achieve the best possible adaptation to
their environment

e. disequilibrium- a perceived discrepancy between an existing scheme and something

new

f. learning- relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience

2. Read Section 2-2b (p. 40-45), focusing on Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development.
Explain Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development. Include distinguishing characteristics
such as object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, and centration.

Explanation in your own words, including relevant cognitive

Stage Ages
milestones

Birth to 2 Develops schemes primarily through sense and motor activities.

years
Object permanence: recognizes performance of objects not seen
Sensorimotor
(p. 41)

2 to 7 Gradually acquires ability to conserve and decenter, but not capable

years of operations

Egocentrism: the inability to take another person’s point of view

Preoperational Conservation: a logical thinking ability that allows a person to

(p.41-42) determine that a certain quality will remain the same despite
adjustment of the container, shape or apparent size

Centration: the strong tendency to focus attention on only one

characteristic of an object or aspect of a problem or event at a time

Concrete 7 to 11 Capable of operations, but soles problems of generalizing from

operational years concrete experiences
(p.42-43)
 adolescent egocentrism: the phenomenon of adolescents inability t
distinguish between their perception of what others think about them
and what people

11 years Able to deal with abstractions, form hypotheses, solve problems

and older systematically, engage in mental manipulations
Formal
operational
(p.43-44)

3. Read Section 2-2c (p. 45-46), focusing on the role of social interaction and instruction in
cognitive development according to Piaget. Read Section 2-3a and 2-3b (p. 51-54), focusing
on the role of social interaction and instruction in cognitive development according to
Vygotsky.
Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s beliefs concerning these roles:

Theorist Role of Social Interaction Role of Instruction

Piaget (Sec 2-2c) Social interaction with peers leads to Instruction may hasten development of
Cognitive less egocentrism and development new schemes that have started to form
development of new schemes. Peer interactions
do more to spur cognitive
development that do interactions
with adults

Vygotsky (Sec 2- Cognitive development aided more Formal instruction replaces

3a & Sec 2-3b) by interacting with more intellectually spontaneous concepts( empirical
advanced peers, older children, and learning) with scientific concepts
adults who can transmit more (theoretical learning)
advanced psychological tools

4. Read Section 2-3c (p. 54-55), focusing on scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal
Development. Explain both concepts:
a. Scaffolding: used to support learning during early phases; as students become
more capable of working independently, supports are withdrawn
 b. ZPD: the difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be
accomplished with some assistance

5. Read Sections 2-4a and 2-4b (p. 56-58). Give two examples of how technology can be
applied to Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories:

Theorist Example 1 Example 2

Piaget Microworlds- simulated learning Microcomputer- based laboratories-

environments that provide opportunities
for students to think about problems for
which there are not obvious solutions or
situations that do not immediately make
sense.
provide an immediate link between a
hands-on experience and a symbolic
representation of that experience, their
use may facilitate the shift from concrete
to formal operational thinking.

Vygotsky Multi-user virtual environments- Telementoring- online mentoring

interactions with peers as well as experts relationships
on the web

6. Read Section 2-5a (p. 59-60) and Review table 2-3 (p. 60), focusing on Piaget’s morality of
constraint and morality of cooperation. Contrast morality of constraint (younger children)
with morality of cooperation (adults, older children):
Moral realism (morality of constraint) -rules are sacred, consequences determine all guilt; typical of
6-years-old
Moral relativism (morality of cooperation) – rules are flexible, intent is important in determining guilt;
typical of 12 years-old

7. Read Section 2-5b (p. 60-62) and Review table 2-4 (p. 61), focusing on Kohlberg’s 6 stages of
moral reasoning, including the concepts of pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Identify the characteristics of each stage below:.

Pre-conventional: (all about Conventional: (all about rules) Post-conventional: (all about
me) others)

1. Punishment-Obedience 3. Good boy-Nice girl 5. Social Contract

orientation: the physical
consequences of an
action determine
goodness of badness.
Those is authority have
superior power and
orientation: The right
action is one that would
be carried out by
someone whose
behavior is likely to
please or impress
orientation: rules
needed to maintain the
social order should be
based not on blind
obedience to authority
but in mutual
 should be obeys.
Punishment should be
avoided by staying out
of trouble
2. Instrumental Relativist
orientation: An action is
judged to be right if it is
instrumental in
satisfying one’s own
needs or involves an
even exchange.
Obeying rules should
bring some sort of
benefit in return
others
4. Law and Order
orientation: To maintain
the social order, fixed
rules must be
established and
obeyed. It is essential
to respect authority
agreement. At the
same time, the right of
the individual should be
protected
6. Universal Ethical
Principle orientation:
Moral decisions should
be made in terms of
self-chosen ethical
principles. Once
principles are chosen,
they should be applied
in consistent ways.

8. Important to know (p. 62): Macromoral issues are broad social issues such as civil rights, free
speech, the women’s movement, and wilderness preservation. Micromoral issues concern
personal interactions in everyday situations, such as courtesy, helpfulness, loyalty, dedication, and
caring.

9. Read Section 2-5c (p. 63-64), focusing on Gilligan's View of Identity and Moral Development.
In particular, focus on gender differences in how development occurs. What are these
differences, according to Gilligan?

Believe that females are far less concerned about separation and independence and more
concerned about remaining loyal through expressions of caring, understanding, and sharing
experiences. More likely to resolve identity vs. role confusion and intimacy vs. isolation at
the same time

11. Read Section 2-5e (p. 65-67), focusing on Character Development as an Educational
Goal. Explain in your own words in the list below:
1. Intellectual character: ways of thinking that direct and motivate what a person does when
faced with a learning task that often leads to a meaningful outcome
2. Moral character: a disposition to do both what is good and what is right
3. Civic character: the desire and willingness to use one’s knowledge and skills to become
engaged and responsible citizen
4. Performance character: personal qualities that facilitate the achievement of one’s goals