Signals and Systems

EC241
Syllabus
EC241 Signals and Systems 3-0-0-6
Syllabus :
Signals: Signal Basics, Elementary signals, classification of signals; signal operations: scaling, shifting and inversion; signal properties: symmetry,
periodicity and absolute integrability; Sampling and Reconstruction, Sampling and Nyquist theorem, aliasing, signal reconstruction: ideal
interpolator, zero-order hold, first-order hold; Sinc function, Practical reconstruction. Systems: classification of systems; Time-Domain Analysis
of Continuous-Time Systems; system properties: linearity, time/shift-invariance, causality, stability; continuous-time linear time invariant (LTI)
and discrete-time linear shift invariant (LSI) systems: impulse response and step response; response to an arbitrary input: convolution; circular
convolution; system representation using differential equations; Eigen functions of LTI/ LSI systems, frequency response and its relation to the
impulse response. Signal representation: signal space and orthogonal basis; continuous-time Fourier series and its properties; continuous-time
Fourier transform and its properties; Parseval’s relation, time-bandwidth product; discrete time fourier series; discrete-time Fourier transform
and its properties; relations among various Fourier representations. Linear Convolution using DFT. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT); Laplace
transform and properties, Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction and Z-transform: definition, region of convergence, properties;
transform-domain analysis of LTI/LSI systems, system function: poles and zeros; stability, inverse Z-Transform by Partial Fraction.
Text:
1. M. J. Roberts, ”Fundamentals of Signals and Systems”, 1st Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2007.
References:
1. A.V. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky and H.S. Nawab, ”Signals and Systems”, 2nd Edition Prentice Hall of India,2006.
2. B. P. Lathi,”Signal Processing and Linear Systems”, 1st Edition , Oxford University Press, 1998.
3. R.F. Ziemer, W.H. Tranter and D.R. Fannin, ”Signals and Systems - Continuous and Discrete”, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 1998.
4. Simon Haykin, Barry van Veen, ”Signals and Systems”, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
Evaluation
• Assignment/Mini Project/Quiz: 5
• 4 Term Examination: 90 (30 marks each; scores of 3 highest marks
scored out of 4 term examinations to be considered towards final
evaluation)
• Attendance: 5
• Total: 100
Introduction
Introduction to Signals
Examples of Real-world signals:
• Human speech
• Light from a light-house
• Microwave from a TV or mobile transmission tower
• Image projected by a projector
• Video projected by a projector
• Functions of independent variables be it time, space etc.
• Convey information about certain phenomenon
• Definition: Signals are physical functions of independent variables
that convey information about certain phenomenon
Introduction to Systems
Examples of Systems:
• Cellular phone, Television, Projector
• Measuring instruments
• Control mechanisms of Automobiles, Aircrafts and other machines
• Living beings
• Weather
• Stock Market
• Transforms one or more forms of signal (excitations) into one or multiple
forms (responses)
• Definition: System is an entity that acts upon one or more input signals
(excitations) to produce one or more output signals (responses)
Relationship between Signals and Systems - A
Block Diagrammatic Representation
Input signal Output signal
(Excitation) (Response)
System

Single input single output system

Input signals Output signals

(Excitations) (Responses)
System

Multiple inputs multiple outputs system

Classification of Signals
Classification of signals can be done based on whether they are
• Continuous-time or Discrete-time (CT or DT)
• Continuous-value or Discrete-value (CV or DV)
• Random or Nonrandom (RD, NRD)
Classification of Signals - Examples
• Let us consider some signals to understand the different classification
• Example 1: Human Speech Signal without any processing
• Example 2: Recorded human speech stored in a computer hard drive
• Example 3: A record of annual rainfall at a location over 10 years
• Example 4: A record of annual car sales of a company over 10 years
• Example 5: Periodic Pulsating Light signal from a light house
• Example 6: Light signal from a Indicator that glows each time a person enters
a shopping mall
Classification of Signals - Examples
• Let us consider some signals to understand the different classification
• Example 1: Human Speech Signal without any processing (CT, CV, RD)
• Example 2: Recorded human speech stored in a computer hard drive (DT, DV,
RD)
• Example 3: A record of annual rainfall at a location over 10 years (DT, CV, RD)
• Example 4: A record of annual car sales of a company over 10 years (DT, DV,
RD)
• Example 5: Periodic Pulsating Light signal from a light house (CT, DV, NRD)
• Example 6: Light signal from a Indicator that glows each time a person enters
a shopping mall (CT, DV, RD)
Overview of MATLAB, SCILAB
Continuous-Time Signals
Continuous-Time Signals
• Continuous-time signals are functions of the independent variable,
time
• The domain of such functions is all real numbers
• Definition: A continuous-time signal is function of the independent
variable time, t, i.e. g(t) and has defined values for every real value
of t.
Continuous function and Continuous-Time
Signals
• A function 𝑔1 (𝑡) is classified as a discontinuous function if at some
time 𝑡0
lim 𝑔1 (𝑡0 +∈) ≠ lim 𝑔1 (𝑡0 −∈)
∈→0 ∈→0
Some Continuous-Time Signals

Sine Signal AM Signal

Some Continuous-Time Signals

Arbitrary Signal Sawtooth Signal

Notations for Continuous and Discrete-Time
Signals
• For functions whose domain is a continuum of real or complex
number the argument is enclosed in parentheses (.).
• For functions whose domain is integers, the argument is enclosed in
square brackets [.]
• The domain of continuous-time (CT) signals is a continuum of real
numbers. E.g. of representation of a CT signal is 𝑥(𝑡)
• The domain of discrete-time (DT) signals is integers. E.g. of
representation of a DT signal is 𝑥[𝑛]
Some Important CT Signals
• Sinusoids:
2𝜋𝑡
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos + 𝜃 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑇0
• Complex exponentials:
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑒 (𝜎0+𝑗𝜔0 𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒 𝜎0 𝑡 [cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑗 sin(𝜔0 𝑡)
• Unit step function:
1, 𝑡 > 0
1
𝑢 𝑡 = ,𝑡 = 0
2
0, 𝑡 < 0
Some Important CT Signals (cont…)
• Signum function
1, 𝑡>0
sgn 𝑡 = ቐ 0, 𝑡=0
−1, 𝑡<0
• Unit Ramp function
𝑡
𝑡, 𝑡>0
ramp 𝑡 = ቊ = න 𝑢 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0, 𝑡≤0 −∞
Some Important CT Signals (cont…)
• Unit Rectangle function
1
1, 𝑡 <
2
1 1
rect 𝑡 = , |𝑡| =
2 2
1
0, |𝑡| >
2
• Unit Triangle function
1− 𝑡 , |𝑡| < 1
tri 𝑡 = ቊ
0, |𝑡| ≥ 1
Some Important CT Signals (cont…)
• Unit Sinc function
sin 𝜋𝑡
sinc 𝑡 =
𝜋𝑡
Sketch
𝑢 𝑡 , sgn 𝑡 , ramp 𝑡 , rect 𝑡 , tri 𝑡 , sinc(𝑡)
Sketch
𝑢 𝑡 , sgn 𝑡 , ramp 𝑡 , rect 𝑡 , tri 𝑡 , sinc(𝑡)
Some Important CT Signals – Unit Impulse
Function
• Consider the functions:
1 𝑎
, 𝑡 <
𝛿𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑎 2
𝑎
0, 𝑡 ≥
2

1 𝑡
(1 − ), |𝑡| < 𝑏
𝛿𝑏 𝑡 = ቐ 𝑏 𝑏
0, |𝑡| ≥ 𝑏
Sketch the functions 𝛿𝑎 (𝑡) and 𝛿𝑏 (𝑡)
Sketch the functions 𝛿𝑎 (𝑡) and 𝛿𝑏 (𝑡)
Determine
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿𝑏 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

A) 0.5, 0.5 B) 1, 0.5 C) 1, 1 D) Infinity, Infinity

Determine
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿𝑏 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

A) 0.5, 0.5 B) 1, 0.5 C) 1, 1 D) Infinity, Infinity

Consider:
• lim 𝛿𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝛿1 (𝑡)
𝑎→0

• lim 𝛿𝑏 (𝑡) = 𝛿2 (𝑡)

𝑏→0
Determine
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

A) 0, 0 B) 1, 0.5 C) 1, 1 D) Infinity, Infinity

Determine
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

A) 0, 0 B) 1, 0.5 C) 1, 1 D) Infinity, Infinity

Unit Impulse Function
• Let 𝑔(𝑡) be a finite and continuous function then determine:

∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 𝛿1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 𝛿2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

1 1
A) Infinity, Infinity B) 1, 1 C) 𝑔(0), 𝑔(0) D) ,
𝑎 𝑏
Unit Impulse Function
• Let 𝑔(𝑡) be a finite and continuous function then determine:

∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 𝛿1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 𝛿2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =?

1 1
A) Infinity, Infinity B) 1, 1 C) 𝑔(0), 𝑔(0) D) ,
𝑎 𝑏
Unit Impulse Function
• Both 𝛿1 𝑡 and 𝛿2 (𝑡) are manifestations of the unit impulse function
denoted by 𝛿(𝑡).
∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
• For any finite and continuous function 𝑔(𝑡)
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑔 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔(0)
𝑡
•𝑢 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
Notation for Unit Impulse Function

0 𝑡
Definition
• 𝛿 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 ≠ 0
𝑡2 1, 𝑡1 < 0 < 𝑡2
• ‫ = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡׬‬ቊ
1 0, otherwise
Periodic Impulse

0 𝑇 𝑇

𝛿𝑇 𝑡 = ෍ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇)
𝑛=−∞
Signals as Combinations of Functions
• Signals can be composed of multiple functions combined by addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
Signal Operations on Continuous-Time Signals
Time-Shifting
• Consider the two signals 𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑡𝑟𝑖(𝑡 − 0.5)
Time-Scaling
• Consider the two signals 𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑡𝑟𝑖(2𝑡)
Time Inversion
• Consider the signals 𝑢 𝑡 and 𝑢(−𝑡)
Time Shifting and Time Scaling
• Consider the two signals 𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑡𝑟𝑖(2𝑡 − 0.5)
Amplitude Scaling
• Consider the two signals 𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡 , 5𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡
The second version is the amplitude scaled version of the first.

Try plotting the two waveforms

Sketch
• 𝑓1 𝑡 = 5𝑢 𝑡 − 4𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
• 𝑓2 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑡 − 2𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
• 𝑓3 𝑡 = 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑡 + 1 − 2𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑡 + 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝(𝑡 − 1)
• 𝑓4 𝑡 = 𝑢 −𝑡 − 1
• 𝑓5 𝑡 = 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 −2𝑡 − 1
• 𝑓6 𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 −0.5𝑡 + 1
• 𝑓7 𝑡 = 2𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 −2𝑡 + 1
Sketch-1
Sketch-2
Sketch-3
Sketches
Sketches

𝑓7 𝑡 = 3𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 −2𝑡 + 1
Differentiation and Integration Operations on
Signals
• 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 =?
Even and Odd Functions
• An even function is one for which 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔(−𝑡)
• An odd function is one for which 𝑔 𝑡 = −𝑔(−𝑡)
Which of the following Functions is Even
• 1)
• a) 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) b) 𝐴 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
• 2)
• a) b)
Which of the following Functions is Even
• 3)
• a) b)
Odd and Even Parts of a Function
𝑔 𝑡 +𝑔(−𝑡)
• Even part of a function 𝑔(𝑡) is given as 𝑔𝑒 𝑡 =
2
𝑔 𝑡 −𝑔(−𝑡)
• Odd part of a function 𝑔(𝑡) is given as 𝑔𝑜 𝑡 =
2
Odd and Even Parts of a Function
• Find the even and odd parts of the function 𝑔 𝑡 = 2sin(7𝜋𝑡)
Combinations of Even and Odd Functions
Function Types Sum Difference Product Quotient
Both even Even Even Even Even
Both odd Odd Odd Even Even
One even, one odd Neither Neither Odd Odd
Transformation of Odd-Even Functions due to
Differentiation and Integration

Function Type Derivative Integration

Even Odd Odd + constant
Odd Even Even
Periodic Functions
• A periodic function 𝑔 𝑡 is one for which 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇) for any
integer value of 𝑛, where 𝑇 is the period of the function.
• The minimum positive interval, 𝑻𝟎 over with a periodic function
repeats is called the fundamental period of the function.
• The fundamental frequency, 𝒇𝟎 is defined as the reciprocal of the
fundamental period, i.e. 𝑓0 = 1/𝑇0
Periodicity of Sum of Periodic Signals and
Fundamental Period of the Combination
• The sum of two periodic functions 𝑔1 𝑡 and 𝑔2 (𝑡), with fundamental
period 𝑇01 and 𝑇02 and fundamental frequencies 𝑓01 and 𝑓02 ,
respectively, is periodic if 𝑇01 /𝑇02 (or 𝑓01 /𝑓02 ) is rational.
• If the sum of two periodic functions is periodic, the fundamental
period of the combination is the least common multiple (LCM) of the
fundamental periods of the combining functions.
• If the sum of two periodic functions is periodic, the fundamental
frequency of the combination is the greatest common divisor (GCD)
of the fundamental frequencies of the combining functions.
Find the Fundamental Frequency and
Fundamental Periods
• a) 𝑔 𝑡 = cos 50𝜋𝑡 + sin 15𝜋𝑡
3𝜋
• b) 𝑔 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑡 + sin 3𝜋𝑡 + cos 5𝜋𝑡 −
4
• c) 𝑔 𝑡 = 10 sin 5𝑡 − 4cos(7𝑡)
• d) 𝑔 𝑡 = 4 sin 3𝑡 − 3cos(√3𝑡)
Selected Answers
• a) fundamental frequencies are 25 Hz and 7.5 Hz. The ratio of the two is
rational hence, the resultant function is periodic. The GCD of 25 Hz and 7.5
Hz is 2.5 Hz i.e. fundamental frequency is 2.5 Hz. Fundamental period is
1/2.5 s or 0.4 s
• b) fundamental frequencies are 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz and 2.5 Hz. The ratio between
any of the two frequencies is rational hence, the resultant function is
periodic. The GCD of 1 Hz, 1.5 Hz and 2.5 Hz is 0.5 Hz i.e. fundamental
frequency is 0.5 Hz. Fundamental period is 1/0.5 s or 2 s
• c) fundamental frequencies are 5/2𝜋 Hz and 7/2𝜋 Hz. The ratio of the two
is rational hence, the resultant function is periodic. The GCD of 5/2𝜋 Hz
and 7/2𝜋 Hz is 1/2𝜋 Hz i.e. fundamental frequency is 1/2𝜋 Hz.
Fundamental period is 2𝜋 s
Signal Energy and Power
• Signal energy is defined as
∞
• 𝐸𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
• Signal energy is not necessarily equal to physical energy but is proportional to
it in general
• Average signal power is defined as
𝑇
1 2 2 𝑑𝑡
• 𝑃𝑥 = lim ‫𝑇 ׬‬ 𝑥 𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 − 2

• Average signal power for periodic signal is defined as

1 𝑡 +𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡
• 𝑃𝑥 = ‫ 𝑡׬‬0 𝑥 𝑡
𝑇 0
Energy and Power Signals
• Signals with finite energy are referred to as energy signals
• Signals with finite average power but infinite energy are termed as
power signals
Find Energy and Power
• Find energy of the following signals:
𝑡
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛿(𝑡), 𝑥 𝑡 = 2sin(200𝜋𝑡), 𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡( )
4
• Find power of the following signals
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 , 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗100𝜋𝑡
Discrete-Time Signals
Types of Discrete-Time signals
• Signals may be inherently discrete: E.g. annual rainfall data.
• Signals may be discretized in time by sampling continuous-time
signals: E.g. sampled speech data for digital processing.
An Ideal Sampler Modeling

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛]

Ideal sampler

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛]

𝑓𝑠

Ideal uniform sampler sampling at a rate of 𝑓𝑠 = 1/𝑇𝑠

Sampling

Uniform sampling of continuous-time signal 𝑇𝑠 = 0.1 𝑠

Discrete-Time Exponentials and Sinusoids
• Consider the continuous-time sinusoid
• 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
• Let this sinusoid be uniformly sampled with a period 𝑇𝑠 , thus,
• 𝑔 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑛𝑇𝑠 + 𝜃) or
• 𝑔[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝐹0 𝑛 + 𝜃), where 𝑔[𝑛] is the discrete-time counterpart of the continuous-
time sinusoid 𝑔(𝑡)
• Here, 𝐹0 = 𝑓0 𝑇𝑠
• Since sinusoids are periodic in integral multiples of 2𝜋, for 𝑔[𝑛] to be a
periodic function, we must have 2𝜋𝐹0 𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑚, or in other words, 𝐹0
should be a rational number.
• The period of 𝑚
the sinusoid can be determined from the denominator of the
fraction 𝐹0 = , when the fraction is reduced to its simplest form by
𝑛
cancelling the common factors.
Sketch
1 9 17
• 𝑔1 𝑛 = cos 𝜋𝑛 , 𝑔2 𝑛 = cos 𝜋𝑛 , g3 n = cos( 𝜋𝑛)
4 4 4
Sketch
11 91
• 𝑔1 [𝑛] = cos 2𝜋 𝑛 , 𝑔2 𝑛 = cos 2𝜋 𝑛 , g3 n =
24 24
17 1
cos(2𝜋 𝑛)
2 4
• Consider corresponding Continuous-time cosine signals with 𝑓0 =
1 9 17
𝐻𝑧, 𝐻𝑧 and Hz
2 2 2
1 9 17
• i.e. 𝑔1 (𝑡) = cos 2𝜋 𝑡 , 𝑔2 (𝑡) = cos 2𝜋 𝑡 , g 3 (𝑡) = cos(2𝜋 𝑡)
2 2 2
Sketch
Discrete-Time Exponential
• 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑛 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛽𝑛
Important Discrete-Time Signals
• Unit Impulse or Kronecker Delta Function
1, 𝑛 = 0
• 𝛿 𝑛 =ቊ
0, 𝑛 ≠ 0
• 𝛿 𝑛 = 𝛿[𝑎𝑛], for any nonzero, finite integer value of 𝑎
• Unit Step function
1, 𝑛 ≥ 0
• 𝑢 𝑛 =ቊ
0, 𝑛 < 0
• Signum function
1, 𝑛>0
• sgn 𝑛 = ቐ 0, 𝑛=0
−1, 𝑛<0
Important Discrete-Time Signals
• Unit Ramp signal
𝑛, 𝑛≥0
• 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑛 = ቊ = 𝑛𝑢[𝑛]
0, 𝑛<0
• Rectangle function
1, 𝑛 ≤ 𝑁𝑤
• 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑁𝑤 [𝑛] = ቊ
0, 𝑛 > 𝑁𝑤
Signal Operations on Discrete-Time Signals
Time-Shifting
• Consider the two signals 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑛 , 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝[𝑛 − 5]
Amplitude-Scaling
• Consider the two signals 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡3 𝑛 , 5𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡3 [𝑛]
Time-Scaling
• Consider the two signals 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑛 , 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝[2𝑛]
Differencing and Accumulation
• Differencing is analogous to differentiation in continuous time
functions
• Accumulation is analogous to integration in continuous time functions
Forward and Backward Difference
• First forward difference of 𝑔[𝑛]: 𝑔 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑔[𝑛]
• First backward difference of 𝑔[𝑛]: 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑔[𝑛 − 1]
Examples of Forward and Backward
Differences
Accumulation
• Accumulation of 𝑔[𝑛]: σ𝑛𝑚=−∞ 𝑔[𝑚]
• Let ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑔 𝑛 − 𝑔 𝑛 − 1 = First backward difference of 𝑔[𝑛]
σ𝑛𝑚=−∞ ℎ 𝑚 =?
𝐴) 𝑔 𝑛
𝐵) 𝑔 𝑛 − 1
𝐶) 𝑔 𝑛 + 1
𝐷) none of the above.
Example of Accumulation
Even and Odd Functions
• An even function is one for which 𝑔[𝑛] = 𝑔[−𝑛]
• An odd function is one for which 𝑔[𝑛] = −𝑔[−𝑛]
Odd and Even Parts of a Function
𝑔[𝑛]+𝑔[−𝑛]
• Even part of a function 𝑔[𝑛] is given as 𝑔𝑒 [𝑛] =
2
𝑔 𝑛 −𝑔[−𝑛]
• Odd part of a function 𝑔[𝑛] is given as 𝑔𝑜 [𝑛] =
2
Sum, Products, Differences and Quotients of
Even and Odd Functions

Function Types Sum Difference Product Quotient

Both even Even Even Even Even
Both odd Odd Odd Even Even
One even, one odd Neither Neither Odd Odd
Accumulation of Even and Odd Functions
• If 𝑔 𝑛 is even:
• σ𝑁
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑔 0 + 2 σ 𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑔[𝑛]
• If 𝑔 𝑛 is odd:
• σ𝑁
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑔 𝑛 = 0
Fundamental period of a Function
• Find the fundamental period of the function
9 3
𝑔 𝑛 = 2 cos 2𝜋 𝑛 − 3sin 2𝜋 𝑛
8 5
Signal Energy and Power
• Signal energy: 𝐸𝑥 = σ∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 𝑛
2
1
• Average signal power: 𝑃𝑥 = lim σ𝑁
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑥𝑛 2
𝑁→ ∞ 2𝑁
Continuous Time Systems
System Modeling
• System Modeling: The process of describing and analyzing a system
without actually building it.
• Modeling involves describing a system mathematically, logically or
graphically.
Block Diagram and Graphical Representation
of Systems
• Graphical representations of common operations:
• Amplification:
𝐾
𝑥 𝐾𝑥

• Sum and Difference

+ +
𝑥 ෍ 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 ෍ 𝑥−𝑦
+ −

𝑦 𝑦
Block Diagram and Graphical Representation
of Systems
• Graphical representations of common operations

• Integration :

+ 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡) න න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
Example of System Modeling
+ 𝑎
a) Find 𝑦 𝑡 , given 𝑦 0 = 1, 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 |𝑡=0 = 0, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 4
𝑥(𝑡) ෍
b) Let 𝑏 = 5, find the response for the initial conditions of a)
− c) For a system initially at rest, if 𝑥(𝑡) is unit step function,
find the response for 𝑎 = 1, 𝑐 = 4, 𝑏 = −1

න
𝑏
+
෍

+
න
𝑐
𝑦(𝑡)
Zero-Input Response and Zero-State Response
• Zero-input response: Zero-input response is the response of a system
with no signal input.
• Zero-state response: The zero-state response of the system is the
response of the system, initially in its zero state, to an input signal.
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Homogeneity: Homogeneity is that property of a system which is
identified from the fact that by multiplying the input by a constant
(complex or real) factor, the zero-state response of a system is also
multiplied by the same constant factor. A system following
homogeneity is called a homogeneous system.
𝐻 𝐻
• Representation: 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 ⇒ 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 → 𝐾𝑦(𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) 𝐻 𝑦(𝑡)

𝐾𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡) × 𝐻 𝐾𝑦(𝑡)

𝐾
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Time-Invariance: Time-Invariance is that property of a system which
is identified from the fact that by time-shifting the input by a constant
factor, the response of a system is also time-shifted by the same
constant factor. A system following time-invariance is called a time-
invariant system.
𝐻 𝐻
• Representation: 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑦 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 → 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

𝑥(𝑡) 𝐻 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑥(𝑡) delay 𝐻 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Additivity: If a system when excited by an arbitrary signal 𝑥1 (𝑡)
produces a zero-state response of 𝑦1 (𝑡) and when excited by 𝑥2 (𝑡)
produces a zero-state response of 𝑦2 (𝑡) and 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 produces
a zero-state response of 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 , the system is said to follow
additivity property. A system following additive property is called a
additive system. 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
• Representation: 𝑥1 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 , 𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦2 𝑡 , ⇒ 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑦1 𝑡 +
𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝐻 𝑦1 (𝑡)

𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝐻 𝑦2 (𝑡)

𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝐻 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)

𝑥2 (𝑡)
Linear System
• Linear System: A system that obeys both homogeneity and additive
properties is called a linear system. Thus,
If a linear system when excited by an arbitrary signal 𝑥1 (𝑡) produces a zero-
state response of 𝑦1 (𝑡) and when excited by 𝑥2 (𝑡) produces a zero-state
response of 𝑦2 (𝑡), it shall produce a zero-state response of y t = 𝛼𝑦1 𝑡 +
𝛽𝑦2 𝑡 when excited by an input 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽𝑥2 𝑡 , for some constants
𝛼 and 𝛽. This property is referred to as the superposition property of linear
systems
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System
• Linear Time-Invariant System: A system that obeys both
superposition and time-invariance properties is called a linear time-
invariant system.
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Stability: Any system for which the zero-state response to any
bounded input signal is also bounded is called a bounded-input-
bounded output (BIBO) stable system.
• The above statement implies if the input 𝑥(𝑡) is bounded by 𝐵 i.e. 𝑥 𝑡 <𝐵
for all 𝑡, the response 𝑦(𝑡), is also bounded.
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Causality: Causality is the property of a system by virtue of which its
zero-state response is observable only during or after the time an
excitation is applied to it.
• All real physical systems are causal.
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Memory: If the zero-state response of a system depends on its
excitation at any other time, the system is said to possess memory,
and the system is called a dynamic system.
• A system with no memory is said to be a static system.
Properties of Continuous-Time Systems
• Invertibility: A system is said to posses the property of invertibility if
unique excitations produce unique zero-state responses.

𝑥(𝑡) 𝐻 𝑦(𝑡) 𝐻−1 𝑥(𝑡)

Problems on System Properties
Discrete-Time Systems
System Modeling
• Discrete-time systems are usually modelled by difference equations.
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Homogeneity: Homogeneity is that property of a system which is
identified from the fact that by multiplying the input by a constant
(complex or real) factor, the zero-state response of a system is also
multiplied by the same constant factor. A system following
homogeneity is called a homogeneous system.
𝐻 𝐻
• Representation: 𝑥[𝑛] → 𝑦[𝑛] ⇒ 𝐾𝑥[𝑛] → 𝐾𝑦[𝑛]

𝑥[𝑛] 𝐻 𝑦[𝑛]

𝐾𝑥[𝑛]
𝑥[𝑛] × 𝐻 𝐾𝑦[𝑛]

𝐾
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Shift-Invariance: Shift-Invariance is that property of a system which is
identified from the fact that by shifting the input by a constant factor,
the response of a system is also shifted by the same constant factor. A
system following shift-invariance is called a shift-invariant system.
• Representation: 𝑥[𝑛] → 𝑦[𝑛] ⇒ 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] → 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
𝐻 𝐻

𝑥[𝑛] 𝐻 𝑦[𝑛]

𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
𝑥[𝑛] delay 𝐻 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Additivity: If a system when excited by an arbitrary signal 𝑥1 [𝑛]
produces a zero-state response of 𝑦1 [𝑛] and when excited by 𝑥2 [𝑛]
produces a zero-state response of 𝑦2 [𝑛] and 𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝑥2 [𝑛]produces a
zero-state response of 𝑦1 [𝑛] + 𝑦2 [𝑛], the system is said to follow
additivity property. A system following additive property is called a
additive system. 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
• Representation: 𝑥1 [𝑛] → 𝑦1 [𝑛], 𝑥2 [𝑛] → 𝑦2 [𝑛], ⇒ 𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝑥2 [𝑛] → 𝑦1 [𝑛] +
𝑦2 [𝑛]
𝑥1 [𝑛] 𝐻 𝑦1 [𝑛]

𝑥2 [𝑛] 𝐻 𝑦2 [𝑛]

𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝑥2 [𝑛]
𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝐻 𝑦1 [𝑛] + 𝑦2 [𝑛]

𝑥2 [𝑛]
Linear System
• Linear System: A system that obeys both homogeneity and additive
properties is called a linear system. Thus,
If a linear system when excited by an arbitrary signal 𝑥1 [𝑛]produces a zero-state
response of 𝑦1 [𝑛]and when excited by 𝑥2 [𝑛] produces a zero-state response of
𝑦2 [𝑛], it shall produce a zero-state response of y[𝑛] = 𝛼𝑦1 [𝑛] + 𝛽𝑦2 [𝑛] when
excited by an input 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝛼𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝛽𝑥2 [𝑛], for some constants 𝛼 and 𝛽. This
property is referred to as the superposition property of linear systems
Linear Shift-Invariant (LSI) System
• Linear Shift-Invariant System: A system that obeys both
superposition and shift-invariance properties is called a linear shift-
invariant system.
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Stability: Any system for which the zero-state response to any
bounded input signal is also bounded is called a bounded-input-
bounded output (BIBO) stable system.
• The above statement implies if the input 𝑥[𝑛] is bounded by 𝐵 i.e. 𝑥[𝑛] < 𝐵
for all 𝑛, the response 𝑦[𝑛], is also bounded.
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Causality: Causality is the property of a system by virtue of which its
zero-state response is observable only during or after the time an
excitation is applied to it.
• All real physical systems are causal.
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Memory: If the zero-state response of a system depends on its
excitation at any other time, the system is said to possess memory,
and the system is called a dynamic system.
• A system with no memory is said to be a static system.
Properties of Discrete-Time Systems
• Invertibility: A system is said to posses the property of invertibility if
unique excitations produce unique zero-state responses.

𝑥[𝑛] 𝐻 𝑦[𝑛] 𝐻−1 𝑥[𝑛]

Problems on System Properties
Time-Domain Analysis of CT Signals
Impulse Response
• Impulse response is the response of a signal when the input to the
system is a unit impulse signal.
• Let 𝐻 represent an LTI system, then the unit impulse response of h(t)
is given as:
ℎ 𝑡 = 𝐻(𝛿 𝑡 )
• Since 𝐻 is an LTI system,
𝛼ℎ 𝑡 − 𝜏 = 𝐻(𝛼𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 )
for some shift 𝜏
Convolution Integral
∞
•𝑦 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 → convolution integral
• Significance of convolution in terms of LTI system.
• Take any signal 𝑥 𝑡
∞
𝑥 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
Now,
∞
𝑦 𝑡 =𝐻 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐻 න 𝑥 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞

∞
⇒ 𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝐻(𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 )𝑑𝜏
−∞

∞
𝑦(𝑡) = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 → convolution integral
Properties of Convolution
• Commutative Property: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥 𝑡
• Associative Property: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗
ℎ 𝑡 ∗𝑔 𝑡
• Distributive Property: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 + 𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 +
𝑥 𝑡 ∗ 𝑔(𝑡))
• Differentiation Property: if, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 ∗
ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ′ 𝑡
• Area Property: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 ⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑡 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 ℎ(𝑡)
• Scaling property: 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∗ ℎ 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑦 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 ∗ ℎ(𝑎𝑡)