UNIT 1: Introduction .

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

Learning Outcomes: Challenge yourself to -
1. Explain the 14 principles in your own words.
2. Advocate for the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning process.
3. Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in teaching as a future teacher

Cognitive and Motivational

Metacognitive and Affective
Factor (6 Factors (3
principles) principles)

14
Learning
Principles

Individual
Developmental Difference
and Social Factors (3
Factors (2 principles)
principles)

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

These pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to recognize external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations. No
principle should be viewed in isolation as they are an organized set of principles.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and
affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.
 The principles are intended to apply to all learners—from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents and to
community members involved in the educational process.

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning
from information and experience
 There are different types of earning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning; and learning
that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that studens can use to .construct meaning
from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for
contributing to their own learning.
 2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of knowledge.
 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-oriented/directed.
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals.
Initially, students’ short term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be
refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that
they can reach longer-term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and
experience and their existing knowledge base.
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have
been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic
organization or categorizing.
 4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem-solving, and
concept learning.
 They can understand and use a variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals,
and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see
which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting
with appropriate model.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing
their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their
progress toward these goals.
 Successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or
timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or
reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive)
strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning, beliefs, goals, and expectations
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner
and the learning environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables such as
motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have
significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and affective factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of
thinking.
 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
 Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation.
 Positive emotions such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning by focusing the learner’s attention on a
particular task.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation
to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking and creativity are major indicators of the learner’s
intrinsic motivation to learn.
  Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and
on which they can succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real world situations and
meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn in by
attending to individual differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevance, and personal choice control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
 Effort is another indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort along with
persistence over time.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner
effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities guided by practices that enhance
positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn and methods that increase learners’
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Societal Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is
most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experience and heredity.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriate high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the
learning process.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
 3. Motivation and affect
4. Development and individual differences
5. Situation and context

Unit 1

Periods of Human Development

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Describe the basic periods of human development

Think about the lifespan and make a list of what you would consider the basic periods of
development. How many periods or stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: childhood,
adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages:
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood
In addition, the topic of “Death and Dying” is usually addressed after late adulthood since overall, the
likelihood of dying increases in later life (though individual and group variations exist). Death and
dying will be the topic of our last module, though it is not necessarily a stage of development that
occurs at a particular age.

The list of the periods of development reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and
adulthood that will be explored in this book, including physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
changes. So while both an 8-month-old and an 8-year-old are considered children, they have very
different motor abilities, cognitive skills, and social relationships. Their nutritional needs are different,
and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18-year-old and
an 80-year-old, both considered adults. We will discover the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as
well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.
Prenatal Development
Figure 1. An embryo at 8 weeks of development.
Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development:
germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the
health of the mother is of primary concern. There are various approaches to labor, delivery, and
childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as risks and complications
with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine. The influences of nature (e.g.,
genetics) and nurture (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during
pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident. Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of
twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature
and nurture on human development.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Figure 2. Major development happens during the first two years of life, as evidenced by this newborn baby and his toddler
brother.
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn,
with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their
roles from those who manage feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety
inspectors for mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does
physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to
play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible
separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center
around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training,
and whether or not to get vaccinations.
Early Childhood

Figure 3. Early childhood, or the preschool years, around ages 2-6, is filled with incredible amounts of growth and change.
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow
toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler,
the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self
and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This
knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting
conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take
by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do
something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the
disapproval of others.

Middle Childhood

Figure 4. Middle childhood spans most of what is traditionally primary school, or the ages between 6-11.
The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is
connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning
and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making
comparisons between self and others. Schools participate in this process by comparing students and
making these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of
recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth
rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. Children also
begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow
students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient during this period.

Adolescence
Figure 5. Adolescence, or the age roughly between 12-18, is marked by puberty and sexual maturation, accompanied by major
socioemotional changes.
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and
sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time
of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract
concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that
puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that
can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk-
taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing
one’s own identity. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers
become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer
groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve
dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.

Early Adulthood

Figure 6. Early adulthood, roughly ages 20-40, may be split into yet another category of “emerging adulthood,” as there are
often profound differences between younger adults and those in their late 30s.
Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood (students who are in their
mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young adults!). It is a time when we are at our
physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a
time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn
the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of
life. In recent decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and other developed countries) that young
adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting longer to move out of their parents’ homes,
finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children. One psychologist,
Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed that there is a new stage of development after adolescence and before
early adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still
exploring their identities and don’t quite feel like adults yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the
economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles.

Middle Adulthood

Figure 7. Middle adulthood spans the years between ages 40-65.

The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period
in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many
people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in
certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than
before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the
difference between what is possible and what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich generation,
middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their
aging parents. While caring about others and the future, middle-aged adults may also be questioning
their own mortality, goals, and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”

Figure 8. Late adulthood is generally viewed as age 65 and older, but there are incredible variations in health and lifestyle
between the “young old” and the “oldest old,” who may be well into their 100s.
This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a wide age
range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “young old” (65-74
years old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years old). The young old are similar
to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active. The old old have
some health problems and challenges with daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in
need of long term care. However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the
diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is
experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured in Figure 8 who is in very good health for his
age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar
to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical
challenge and disease than others of the same age).

Death and Dying

Figure 9. How people think about death, approach death, and cope with death vary depending on many factors. Photo Courtesy
Robert Paul Young
The study of death and dying is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course, there is
a certain discomfort in thinking about death, but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance
that can come from studying death and dying. Factors such as age, religion, and culture play
important roles in attitudes and approaches to death and dying. There are different types of death:
physiological, psychological, and social. The most common causes of death vary with age, gender,
race, culture, and time in history. Dying and grieving are processes and may share certain stages of
reactions to loss. There are interesting examples of cultural variations in death rituals, mourning, and
grief. The concept of a “good death” is described as including personal choices and the involvement
of loved ones throughout the process. Palliative care is an approach to maintain dying individuals’
comfort level, and hospice is a movement and practice that involves professional and volunteer care
and loved ones. Controversy surrounds euthanasia (helping a person fulfill their wish to die)—active
and passive types, as well as physician-assisted suicide, and legality varies within the United States. 

Major Theories in the Field of Child

Development
A child goes through many changes as they grow up. Being able to hold up their head,
talking, and playing with others are just some of the milestones that show whether or not
your child is developing at the right pace. These milestones are one of the main concerns
of child psychology. These help doctors, parents, and psychologists understand certain
stages of human development psychology, most notably in children.
Researchers in the field of child psychology divide a child’s development into different
categories and phases. Through these, researchers can make sense of why these changes
take place. These also shed light on how a child’s environment and culture influence their
development.
What are some major theories in the field of child
development?
There are many studies about children’s developmental stages. However, only a few
significant theories have withstood the test of time. Below are a few of the most
recognized in child development.
Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental Theory
Sigmund Freud is famous in the field of psychology because of his notable works on
psychoanalysis. His theory dealt with how children’s “sexual” and aggressive desires
determine whether or not they will become well-adjusted adults.
In his theory, “desires” refer to instincts or appetites, which are considered motivators of
human behavior. His approach also revolves around the erogenous zones like the mouth,
bowel, bladder, and genitalia. According to this theory, a child’s development goes
through five stages:
Oral phase (0-2 years of age) Desires at this age are all derived from sucking or biting
things.
Anal phase (2-4 years of age) Children at this age are potty-trained. Here, they learn to
control their bladder and bowel movements.

Phallic stage (4-7 years of age) Children at this age are concerned about their penis or
clitoris.
Period of latency (7-12 years of age) At this stage, sexual developments are on hold.
Genital phase (13 years of age and older) The individual begins developing an attraction
to another.
Freud’s psychosexual theory proposed that early experiences had the most significant
power to mold a child’s development.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its
mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.  Which at this stage in life are oral, or
mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. 
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.  We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. 
Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the anus,
and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.  The child is now fully aware that they
are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the
demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed). 
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which
adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.  The nature of this first
conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of
authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who
hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority.  They can be stubborn
and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their
mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-
training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you.  They like
giving things away.  In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!'  An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to
six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous
zone.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called
the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). 
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex.  This is one of Freud's
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and
becomes blind.  This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra
complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.  He wants to possess his mother
exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would
take away what he loves the most.  During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his
penis.  Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in
masculine dad-type behaviors.  This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five
year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another
person.  The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an
ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory.  Briefly, the girl desires the
father, but realizes that she does not have a penis.  This leads to the development of penis
envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a
penis with the wish for a baby.  The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this
creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to
take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

The latency stage is the forth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six
years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden). 
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. 
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development,
and begins in puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in
our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage. 
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse.  Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop. 
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next.  One reason
for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not
have been adequately met in which case there is frustration. 
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave
the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been
permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development on Freud’s. However, Erikson’s
theory involved crisis or conflict between a person’s psychological and societal needs. The
outcome of these conflicts affected a person’s personality development.
This theory has eight stages, namely:
1. Mistrust vs. trust
2. Doubt/ Shame vs. Autonomy
3. Guilt vs. Initiative
 4. Inferiority vs. Industry
5. Role confusion vs. Identity
6. Isolation vs. Intimacy
7. Stagnation vs. Generativity
8. Despair vs. Ego Integrity

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial

Development
By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2018

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which
could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of
the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition
of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a
more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later
time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½

2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5

4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18

 Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins
at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the
world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will
carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
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If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust,
suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their
abilities to influence events.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that
as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.
Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense
of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling
of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined
how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to
Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills
and a sense of independence.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and
feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills
and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's
growing sense of independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother,
picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child
to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the
child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child
fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet
training).
The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other
social interaction.
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of
vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school.
Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills
through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity,
children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.
The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish
the child and restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents
treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening
then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of
course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during
childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own.
Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the
child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that
are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or
teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her
potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may
develop a sense of Inferiority.
Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between
competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it
occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self
and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and
adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson,
1963, p. 245)
This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is
during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.
Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what
one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent
changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and
“grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may
be ideological differences.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of
their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I
grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or
their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles
(e.g., work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity,
and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This
stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this
stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading
toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and
care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes
depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).
Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things
that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that
will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the
world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel
disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness
and despair.
Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be”
(1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).
As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore
life as a retired person.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with
a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity
and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be
balanced.

Erikson’s theory also went into detail about what stimulation a child needed in each
respective stage to become a well-adjusted adult.
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Many highly regard Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory in the study of stages of
human development psychology. According to Piaget, intelligence develops over time
through a child’s interaction with their environment.
Piaget’s theory identified four stages in a child’s cognitive development. These are:
 1. Sensorimotor stage (infancy) In this stage of cognitive development, an infant
gains knowledge and acquires intelligence through movement. A child also learns
about “object permanence,” which is the ability to distinguish that an object exists
even if it is not seen.
2. Pre-operational stage (toddler age to early childhood) At this stage, a child is
unable to think about others and can only focus on themselves. Memory and
imagination develop during this age as children learn how to think of things
symbolically.
3. Concrete operational stage (school age to early adolescence) This stage is a
milestone in cognitive development because this is when a child learns how to think
logically through symbols. At this stage, a child learns how to think about others.
4. Formal operational stage (adolescence to adulthood) During this stage, a person
learns how to think about abstract concepts.
Piaget’s theory offers insight into how a child slowly creates a model of the world in their
minds. The theory also provides insight into how parents and adults should communicate
with a child depending on their stage of cognitive development.
Santrock’s Developmental Stages
Recent development theories in the field of psychology include John Santrock’s stages of
development, which chart out the entirety of a person’s life. Santrock’s theory divides the
human lifespan into eight periods, namely:
1. Prenatal period (infancy to birth)
2. Infancy (birth to 18-24 months)
3. Early childhood (2-5 years)
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years)
5. Adolescence
6. Early adulthood
7. Middle adulthood
8. Late adulthood
Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory
Santrock and Havighurst’s developmental stages are similar because both consider
development as a continuous process that spans a person’s life. Both theories also
propose that these developments occur in stages.
Havighurst’s theory proposes that individuals need to achieve developmental tasks before
proceeding to the next stage of their lives. Developmental tasks win the approval of the
people around them and also spark satisfaction and pride in the person doing them. The
stages of Havighurst’s theory, together with their corresponding developmental tasks, are
the following:
1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 years old) Children learn to walk, talk, and
interact with others.
2. Middle Childhood (6-12 years old) Kids learn to read, write, and become more
independent.
 3. Adolescence (13-17 years old). Children learn about gender-based roles.
4. Early Adulthood (18-35 years old) At this stage, they learn to establish a career
and a family.
5. Middle Age (36-60 years old). As adults, they learn to adjust to physiological
changes.
6. Later Maturity (over 60 years old). Individuals learn to adjust to old age and
retirement.
Conclusion
Understanding the different theories about stages of human development psychology can
offer a more in-depth insight into how the human body and mind changes over the years.
These theories also provide insight into how parents, guardians, and teachers can
communicate with young children in a way that they can truly learn

Unit 2

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 
How can we help children to advance their cognitive development?
Helping children advance their cognitive development has lately been a challenging mission for both professional in the
education field, and those parenting children. It is obvious that effective results are not present in every child, through the
established methodologies, but it is in the majority of the cases. However, the earlier these methodologies are put into
practice, by both educators and caregivers, the more probabilities there are that children will effectively develop their
cognitive abilities. Based on “Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development”, I will provide several strategic models with
outcomes, resulting in the different stages of cognitive development that the child can progress from.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years of Age)

According to Piaget, in the Sensorimotor Stage, “the infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating
sensory experiences with physical actions (Santrock, 2011)

·      Infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the
stage” (2011)

·      Children in the sensorimotor stage are exploring the environment through sensory contact with objects, and the use
of evolving motor skills (Webb, 1980)
·      Children at this stage are constructing the concept of object permanency

·      It is important that educators and parents let children handle objects as they please (grasping objects, putting them in
his/her mouth, dropping and picking them, shaking them, and even make sounds while handling them, so on and so forth)
(1980)

·      By doing so, they will progressively construct their space and time (Kami, 1970)

Teaching Strategies
·      A teaching strategy that helps children to develop the concept of object permanency is to (Webb, 1980):

o   Hide a toy under a pillow, and then show it to the child (1980)

o   Repeating this same operation, 4 or 5 times, until the child understands that the object is present (or it exists), even
though the child is not actually able to see it (1980)

·      Giving the child objects of different textures and shapes is another effective strategy:

o   Children can develop the use of his senses, by the discovery of new textures and shapes (1980)

·      A third strategy, based on Patricia K. Webb, would be a cause and effect strategy together with the concept of object
permanency:

o   The child would be placing and removing an object from a box (1980)

o   Verbal interaction with this activity must be reinforced, in order for the child to use the rest of his senses (tact, visual,
vocal and hearing), excluding the sense of smell (1980)

Pre-operational Stage (Approximately from 2 to 7 years old)

According to Piaget, the Pre-Operational Stage, “is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought but does not involve
operational thought (Santrock, 2011):

·      The Pre-Operational Stage is divided into two sub-stages:

o   The symbolic function sub-stage

o   The intuitive thought sub-stage

·      It is egocentric and intuitive rather than logical” (2011)

·      Children develop some reasoning but only about objects, which are physically present (2011)
·      Children are not able to have abstract reasoning (2011)

·      Children are always viewing things from his/her point of view (which is understood as egocentrism) and without a
logical thought (intuitive) (2011)

Teaching Strategies
·      Teachers and parents may stimulate activities using objects that are common to those found at home; by doing so, a
relationship between the home and the school environments are strengthened, which enables the child to not feel
intimidated by new educational materials (Mayfield, 1980).

o   Children need to feel free to manipulate the objects used, and the teacher must help them classify the objects by color,
size, shape, etc. (1980)

o   Children are able to copy patterns and separate objects into classes (1980)

·      The strategy of the use of picture books to stimulate the development of concepts, and vocabulary using interactive
activities between teachers and students, by questioning children about events presented in the respective books
(Hansen & Zambo, 2005), motivates the children’s reasoning.

o   Piaget argues that children at this stage have not developed the concept of conservation, and the skill to solve
operations (mental operations that are reversible) (2005)

o   They focus in one characteristic of any object (centration) (2005)

·      Teachers can advance pre-operational thinkers by implementing the following:

o   Repetitious activities that show the conservation of an object (for example, pouring water in containers with different
shapes and then showing them that the liquid water amount is the same regardless of the containers’ shapes) (2005)

o   The skills to solve mathematical operations such as, adding and subtracting numbers form the beginning of the
operation, and then from the end, in order to show them reversibility, and the ability of considering more than one
characteristic of an object (i.e., using 3D images or games).

Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years of Age)

Piaget claims that in the Concrete Operational Stage, “the child can now reason logically about concrete events and
classify objects into different sets” (Santrock, 2011):

·      Children have more logical thinking and abstract reasoning abilities (2011)

·      Teachers can use physical experiences, and logical-mathematical activities to help children in their transition from the
pre-operational stage, to the concrete operational stage (2011)
·      Physical experiences involve the development of mental structures about objects; for example, activities related to
discrimination and classifications help the children to construct the concept of conservation (2011)

Teaching Strategies
·      In addition, activities that include seriating and counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing help the
children to develop a logical behavior (Henry, 1978)

·      It is also important to continue asking students to justify their answers when they solve problems, and reason with
them about the validity, and accuracy of their conclusions (Santrock, 2011)

Formal Operational Stage (11 Years of Age through Adulthood)

Piaget argues that in “Formal Operational Stage”, “the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways”
(Santrock, 2011):

·      Adolescents solve problems using logic and hypothetical reasoning

·      Mitchell and Lawson (1988) reported, “the major source of difficulty for college students in solving genetics problems
was found to lie in their lack of appropriate hypothetic-deductive reasoning skill”, thus, not all students who reach the
adolescence or young adulthood have developed their formal thinking

·      In fact, studies have established that a considerable percentage of students at the high school and college level, even
then, they are at the concrete operational stage (2011)

Teaching Strategies
·      Teachers need to implement classroom activities that help them develop their critical thinking (Paul & Elder, 2008):

o   Teacher can form work groups with the intention of exchanging ideas regarding a particular issue, or problem—using
the same group-work technique (2008)

o   Teachers can administer the students with many new concepts, so students can provide explanations regarding the
respective concept meanings to the rest of the group (2008)

·      Teachers must foster activities containing reading, discussions, debates, that can stimulate students in analyzing,
and evaluating the information provided in the classrooms (Garside, 1996)

·      It is imperative to remember that students are an active part of the classroom—thus; teachers have to provide them
the opportunity to ask questions, and be able to freely express their opinions (1996)
The Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky
Piaget and Vygotsky compared:
                  PIAGET                                                             VYGOTSKY
More individual in focus                              More social in focus
Believed that there are universal              Did not propose stages but                        stages of
cognitive development             emphasized on cultural factors in                                                   
cognitive  development                              
The indiividual's cognitive develop-         Gave more weight on the social
ment became evident through the          interactions that contributed to the 
individual's own processing of tasks.       cognitive development of individuals.
                                                                          
Social Interaction.  Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities
Cultural factors. Vygotsky looked into the wide range of experiences that a
culture would give to a child ( culture's view about education, how children
are trained early in life).

Language.. Language serves a social function and opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge
that others already have.
Types of speech: 1) talking- to- oneself,  2)private speech

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Terms to remember:
         Zone of actual development - perform a certain task at a certain level alone.
         MKO - More Knowledgeable Other - guidance enables the child to perform at a higher
level of competency
        ZPD the difference between what the individual can accomplish alone and what s/he can
do with the guidance of another. He calls it as a learning opportunity.
         Scaffolding - involves the judicious assistance given by an MKO so that the individual
can move away from the zone of actual to the ZPD
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Learning outcomes:
 Deacribe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model
 Identify factors in one’s life that exerted influence on one’s development
 Use the biological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a
child’s and adolescent’s development.

Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

The microsystem. This is the layer nearest the child . It covers the most basic relationships and
interactions which the child in her/his immediate environment.

The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s
microsystem

The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function
directly. It includes the circumstances of the parent’s work like the location, schedules which may
have a positive or negative impact on the child.
The macrosystem. This layer is the outermost layer of the child’s environment.It includes the the
cultural values, customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all
the interactions in the other layers and reaches the individual.

The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s
environment. This involves the “patterns of stability and change” in the child’s life

The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child’ environment.

What is the role of the school, then?

PART II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES.

 Physical Development – Growth is slow but steady
1. Have good muscle control and coordination
2. Developing eye-hand coordination
3. Having good personal hygiene
4. Being aware of good safety habits
5. Middle childhood – children have started their elementary grades – Grades I – 3

Height and weight

Most children will have slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in
accumulation and location of their body fat,; girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle
cells. Legs are longer.
A number of factors affect how much a child grows: genes, food, climate, exercise, medical conditions,
diseases/illnesses

Bones and Muscles

 Childhood years are the peak bone – producing years – bones grow longer and broader.
 Replacement of primary teeth (baby teeth) with permanent teeth around ages 6 to 7 and up
until age 12.
 Large muscle control is at bigger play over fine motor

Motor Development
 Gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies
 They like to move a lot – running, skipping, hopping, jumping, tumbling, rolling and dancing
 Performing unimanual (use of one hand) and bi-manual (two hands0 activities become easier
 Graphic activites (writing and drawing) are now more controlled
Motor development include:
Coordination – a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring
about a particular result
 Balance – the child’s ability to maintain equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different
positions
Speed – the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time
Agility – one’s ability to change or shift the direction of the body
Power – the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible time

Some issues affecting physical development

1. Obesity
2. Childhood nutrition
3. Sleep

Cognitive development of Primary Schoolers

COGNITIVE MILESTONES
1. DECENTRATION – they start to develop a more mature way of looking at things.
The skills they learn are in a sequential manner ( they need to understand numbers before they
can perform a mathematical equation
Their attention span is longer
They practice using words and language learned in school during play

Socio-emotional Development
Understanding the self
Self concept
Building self-confidence
Building friendships
Antisocial Behavior
Self control

The Intermediate years

Physical Development
- Girls are generally two years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity

 Early puberty
Unit 6 Adolescence (The High School Learner)
A The High School Learner
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes. The
period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty. The specific ages for this
period mat vary from person to person but (i) early adolescence characterized by puberty may
come at the ages of 11 and 12; (ii) middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages
of 14 and 16, and (iii) late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.

Puberty changes
 Hormone flooding – during adolescence causes an acceleration known as growth spurts which
includes change in body dimensions (leg length, shoulder width, trunk length.
 In girls, the growth spurts generally begin at age 10 reaching its peak at 11 and a-half. Also, 98%
of adult height is generally reached at age 16 while boys do so at age 17. Growth in height is
 conditioned by stages in bone maturation. Growth spurts occur for weight, muscle size, head
and face maturation and the reproductive organs.
Factors affecting Development
 The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones are powerful and highly
specialized chemical substances that interact with body cells
 Hormonal changes in the hypothalamus and pituitary glands signal the entire process of sexual
maturation . The process entails (i) secretion of gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary at the
base of the brain , (ii)
 Gonads which are the ovaries of the female and the testis for the male are then stimulated by the
gonadotropic hormones, in turn stimulating their own hormones (iii) this stimulation causes the
secretion of testosterone in the male sex organ and of estrogen in the female ovary.
Testosterone stimulates male characteristics comprised by (i) spermache enlargement of the testis
gland that produces sperm in the scrotum, growth of the penis (ii) capacity for ejaculation of male sperm
(iii) voice change (iv) facial hair development or beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair.
masturbation
In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, appearance of pubic hair,
widening of the hips, and menarche or first menstruation.
The elevation of the breast is the first external sign of puberty in girls. Accompanied by the growth of the
uterus and vagina.

Overachievement
UTOPIA – perfect (society, education, family) very very ideal ------