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Asymptotes
Asymptotes
All functions need not have asymptotes. Most of the rational functions, exponential functions
and hyperbolic functions have asymptotes.
Types of Asymptote
There are three types of asymptotes, they are explained as follows,
If the asymptote is linear and parallel to y - axis then it is called vertical
asymptote. A rational function p(x)/q(x) may have a vertical asymptote
at x=a, for any ‘a’ where q (a) is 0.
If the asymptote is linear and parallel to x - axis then it is called as
horizontal asymptote. Horizontal asymptotes occur in rational functions
when one of the following conditions is met.
• When the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator, then y=0 is the horizontal asymptote.
• When the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the
denominator then y=a/b where a is leading coefficient of the
numerator and b is the leading coefficient of the denominator, is a
horizontal asymptote.
When the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the
denominator, there is no horizontal asymptote. The linear asymptote
which is neither horizontal nor vertical is called slant or oblique
asymptote.
When the numerator is of exactly one degree more than the denominator
slant asymptote occurs. Using long division method, divide the numerator
by the denominator and equate the quotient so obtained to y.
Whenever there is a common factor in the numerator and the
denominator of a rational function we should cancel the common factor
before finding the vertical asymptote. At the point obtained by equating
this common factor to zero you will have a hole in the graph of the
function.
Simple Asymptote Example
Question : Find all possible asymptotes and holes if any.
x2 + 2x - 15
1. f(x) = --------------
x2 + 7x + 10
(x+5)(x-3)
= ------------
(x+5)(x+2)
Vertical asymptotes; x = - 2
Horizontal asymptotes; y = 1/1 = 1
Slant asymptotes is none
Hole ; x = - 5
x2 - 5x + 8
2. g(x) = -------------
x - 3
x - 2
---------------
x - 3) x2 - 5x + 8
-x2 - 3x
----------------
-2x + 8
-2x + 6
----------------
- 2
= x - 2 . - 2
x - 3
Definition of
Rectangular
Hyperbola
If in a hyperbola the length of the
transverse axis 2a is equal to the
length of the conjugate axis 2b the
hyperbola is called a
RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.
It's equation is x2 - y2 =a2 ( a =b
)
In this case e2 = a2 +b2 ⁄ a2 =2a2
⁄ a2 =2 ( e =√2 )
Therefore, the eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is √2.
Rectangular Hyperbola
Introduction for Rectangular Hyperbola:
A conic which meets the line IJ in two points which are harmonic
conjugates of one another in regard to I and J is called a rectangular
hyperbola in regard to I and J. In particular, a degenerate rectangular
hyperbola consists of two lines which are at right angles. A conic which
touches the line IJ, at one of the points I, J, is both a parabola and a
rectangular hyperbola.
• Any pair lines CP, CD, down through the center, C of a rectangular
hyperbola,
• Which are conjugate lines in regard to the curve are harmonic in
regard to the tangents of the curve, CL and CM, at the points, L and
M,
• Where the curve meets the line IJ. In particular CI, CJ are such a pair
of conjugate lines. If CP meet the curve in P, and the tangent at P
meet CL, CM in L’ and M’,
• Then P is the middle point of L’M’ in regard to IJ. Also the angle
which CD makes with CL is equal to the angle which CL makes with
CP.
Steps to derive:
1) xy = 21
[Equation of the hyperbola.]
A) Graph A
B) Graph B
Steps to derive:
1) xy = - 6
2) y = - 6x
[Solve for y.]
4)
f(x) = xn
Taylor series:
Taylor series of the function f(x) can be differentiated for n times. It
can be defined for the function f(x). The degree of Taylor series is
centered at a is given as
f(x) = (x – a)n
f(x) = (x – a)n
f(x) = xn
(or)
sin x = 0 + 1 x + 0 x2 - x3 + 0 + x5 + 0 – x7
=x- x3 + x5 – x7
=x– + –
sin x = x – + –
Answer:
sin x = x – + –
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In mathematics, Taylor series and Maclaurin series is one
of the most important topics. Taylor series function can be expanded when
a = 0 then it is called as Maclaurin series. It is one of the types of series
expansion. In the series, every term has a nonnegative integer powers for
the variables.
f(x) = xn
In this article, we shall discuss about learn to solve the
given function to Taylor series and maclaurin series. The following are the
example problems in learn Taylor series and maclaurin series.
f(x) = (x – a)n
f(x) = (x – a)n
f(x) = xn
(or)
(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4x + x2 + x3+ x4
= 1 + 4x + x2 + x3 + x4
= 1 + 4x + x2+ x3 + x4
= 1 + 4x + x2 + x3 + x4
(1 + x)4 = 1+ 4x + 6x2 + 4x3+ x4
Answer:
(1 + x)4 = 1+ 4x + 6x2 + 4x3+ x4
Lagrange's Remainder
The generalized mean value theorem states,
f(x)=f(a)+(x-a)f'(a)+(x–a)2f''(a)+...+(x - a)nfn(a+x–a.θ)
2! n!
In this equation, let us assume the sum of first n terms as Sn (x) and the last term as Rn (x).
Hence f(x) = Sn (x) + Rn (x)
Rn(x)=(x-a)n fn(a+x-aθ)
n!
is called Lagrange’s form of remainder.
Deriving at Taylor series
Back to Top
f(x) - Sn = Rn(x).
Lt |f(x) - Sn| = Lt Rn(x)
n->∞ n->∞
Expansions
Expand Sin x as an infinite series.
• f(x) = sin x f(0) = sin 0 = 0
• f '(x) = cos x f '(0) = cos 0 = 1
• f ''(x) = - sin x f ''(0) = - sin (0) = 0
• f '''(x) = - cos x f '''(0) = - cos (0) = - 1
n n
f (x) = f (x + nπ/2)
plugging these values in Maclaurin’s series.
f(x) = f(0) + xf(0) + x 2f(0) +...
2!
sin x = 0 + x(1) + x 2(0) + x 3(- 1)...
2! 3!
= x – x 3 - x 5 - ....
3! 5!
Similarly
cos x = 1 - x 2 + x 4 - ....
2! 4!
• f''(x) = - 1 f''(1) = -1
(1+x)2
This is an initial value problem using initial condition y0 = y(x0) and y'' = + y', then
find y0’’ = y’’(x0,y0) and y0’’’… then the Taylor series is
= 1 + 0.1 + 2+ 8
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 +
= 1 + 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.0013
= 1 + 0.1113
= 1.1113
y1 = 1.1113
Answer:
y1 = 1.1113
Problem 5:-
f(x) = ; f(0) =
=1
f’(x) = ; f’(0) = 1
f’’(x) = ; f’’(0) = 1
…
f(x) =
=…
Problem 6:-
f’(x) = ; f’(0) = 1
f’’(x) = ; f’’(0) = -1
f’’’(x) = ; f’’’(0) = 2!
= …+… +….-1<x 1
Problem 7:-
f(x) = x ; f(0) = 0
f’(x) =
= ……:
f’(0) = 1
= 1!
f’(x) =
= …:
f’(0) = 1
= 1!
f’’(x) = ….:
f’’(0) = 0
f’’’(x) = ….:
f’’’(0) = -2
= -(2!)
(0) = 0
= 4!
x=…
= ….
Holds in |x|,< 1.
For even n this can be summed in terms of Bernoulli numbers.
This identity can also be written using tensor notation and the Einstein
summation convention as follows:
using the notation for the triple product:
where the
last two
forms are
determinants
with
denoting unit vectors along three mutually orthogonal directions.
Equivalent forms can be obtained using the identity.