2020 Sazali

international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Review Article
Emerging technologies by hydrogen: A review
Norazlianie Sazali a,b

a
Faculty of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering Technology, University Malaysia Pahang, 26600, Pekan Pahang
Darul Makmur, Malaysia
b
Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun
Razak, 26300, Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
highlights graphical abstract
Alternative energy resources and

sustainable energy systems.
Hydrogen demand market and its
transmission and distribution
briefly discussed.
Hydrogen production methods are
reviewed and recent advances
were mentioned.
The future directions on hydrogen
production were stressed in the
conclusions.
article info abstract
Article history: The majority of energy being used is obtained from fossil fuels, which are not renewable
Received 3 March 2020 resources and require a longer time to recharge or return to its original capacity. Energy
Received in revised form from fossil fuels is cheaper but it faces some challenges compared to renewable energy
30 April 2020 resources. Thus, one of the most potential candidates to fulfil the energy requirements are
Accepted 3 May 2020 renewable resources and the most environmentally friendly fuel is Hydrogen. Hydrogen is
Available online xxx a clean and efficient energy carrier and a hydrogen-based economy is now widely regarded
as a potential solution for the future of energy security and sustainability. Hydrogen energy
Keywords: became the most significant energy as the current demand gradually starts to increase. It is
Hydrogen sustainability an important key solution to tackle the global temperature rise. The key important factor of
Environmental impact hydrogen production is the hydrogen economy. Hydrogen production technologies are
Renewable technologies commercially available, while some of these technologies are still under development.
Green energy Therefore, the global interest in minimising the effects of greenhouse gases as well as other
And hydrogen applications pollutant gases also increases. In order to investigate hydrogen implementation as a fuel or
energy carrier, easily obtained broad-spectrum knowledge on a variety of processes is
involved as well as their advantages, disadvantages, and potential adjustments in making
a process that is fit for future development. Aside from directly using the hydrogen pro-
duced from these processes in fuel cells, streams rich with hydrogen can also be utilised in
producing ethanol, methanol, gasoline as well as various chemicals of high value. This
E-mail address: azlianie@ump.edu.my.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.05.021
0360-3199/© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Sazali N, Emerging technologies by hydrogen: A review, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.05.021
2 international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx
paper provided a brief summary on the current and developing technologies of hydrogen
that are noteworthy.
© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen energy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen production technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Water-gas shift (WGS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Chemical looping technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Steam methane reforming (SMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Thermochemical water splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Technology for hydrogen separation and recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Application of hydrogen production in related industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Fuel cell-based electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Upcoming technologies by hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
in the transportation industries as well as finding cleaner fuels

Introduction are conducted. However, the application of alternative fuels
might not be suitable in every area as one area might prefer
Modernization is in energy consumption debt and the ma- biodiesel while another might prefer methane, ethanol, or
jority of the world’s energy demand is supplied by fossil fuel gasoline. A majority of the mentioned fuels need different
resources. The continued uses of finite fossil fuel resources technologies for the engine to have effective operation. Due to
have shifted thinking towards the future energy scenario of these challenges, hydrogen-based energy systems began to
the world in the scarcity of fossil fuels. In the interim, the draw obvious attention for the duration of energy crisis of
extensive exhaustion of fossil fuels has caused humanity to 1970s and slowly have undertaken improvable development
face a significant energy crisis and environmental disruptions thereafter.
in recent periods. Principally, the excessive emissions of gas Economic and environmental concerns are generating a
and other combustion pollutants have triggered noteworthy growing interest in alternative fuels. Hydrogen is one of the
consequences, like global warming and air pollution, intimi- most promising alternative energy carriers, which does not
dating the long run development of human society. In keeping exist freely in nature. Same as electricity, hydrogen is not a
with the International Energy Agent statistics, in 2013, the source of energy and it is assumed as a secondary form of
overall CO2 emissions from fuel combustion boosted to 32.3 energy, which is generated from natural and bioresources. It
billion metric tons. In this regard, the alarm of accelerated has been projected that hydrogen plays a great role in the
global warming shifts the energy focus of the world to clean future scenario of energy sectors. Hydrogen has high potential
and renewable energies. Today, various weather related ca- as an energy carrier in fulfilling the global energy requirement
lamities such as drought, heat waves on the Earth, deluge and while lowering the emissions of CO2 as well as its impacts on
hurricanes are obvious warning signs from nature that exac- global warming at the same time. Hydrogen is a clean fuel
erbate mankind’s concerns about climate change. Based on without toxic emissions and can easily be applied in fuel cells
the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations for electricity generation. Indeed, the energy yield of hydrogen
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), since the is about 122 kJg1, which is 2.75 times greater than hydro-
mid-20th century, anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) con- carbon fuels. Application of hydrogen in transportation sys-
centration is responsible for augmentation of global. tem whether as a fuel in combustion engines or fuel cell in
At present, discovering alternative energy resources and electric has received much favourable attention as an energy
sustainable energy systems has become global urgent policy issue. Hydrogen utilisation is free of toxic gas formation
mission. In order to find the solution for these concerns, as well as CO2 emission and the only product is water vapour.
various works on examining the sources of energy especially Vehicles fuelled by hydrogen drastically decrease dependence
international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx 3
on fossil fuel and conspicuously mitigate tailpipe emissions.

The Hydrogen Council was launched in January 2017 during
the Davos Economic Forum with the chief executives from
thirteen worldwide companies as the inaugural members. The
aims of the Hydrogen Council are to focus on the significance
of hydrogen energy as well as speed up the funding for
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies research and commerci-
alisation [1,2].
With a view to accomplish an effective clean hydrogen
energy society, generating hydrogen from a carbon limited
technology, like biomass, is merely the primary a part of the
entire hydrogen energy system. The separation and purifica-
tion, the storage and delivery and therefore the effectual
usage of the hydrogen gas produced are crucial steps in rec-
ognising the advantages of using the hydrogen energy pro-
duced from maintainable supply. The objective of this review
is to highlight the technology of producing hydrogen, tech-
nologies for hydrogen separation as well as the applications of
hydrogen production in certain industries.
Fig. 1 e The global energy consumption from 1980 to 2030.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [9].
Hydrogen demand
The development of alternative fuels as an energy source
The global demand for hydrogen is anticipated to extend by to the society attracts various interests since the 1970s pri-
4e5% per year during the following five years. This is often mary oil embargo [11e14]. The attention in alternative fuels
thanks to the demand for fossil fuel refining, and methanol decreased as the price of oil reduced due to the decrease in
and ammonia synthesis. Asia is anticipated to guide the de- embargo. Nevertheless, the current considerable un-
mand growth thanks to its domestic economies growth. By certainties, especially in the Middle East, had resulted in
2030 and under business-as-usual scenario assumptions, it’s increasing oil demand from the developing countries, which
anticipated that the hydrogen consumption within the caused the oil cost to substantially rise in the previous year’s
refining sector will increase by quite twice of that in 2005. [15e19]. Besides cost, environmental issues with the use of
Thereby, a considerable reduction of the CO2 footprint of petroleum also contributed to the decreasing attention
conventional fuels and biofuels during the upgrading and received. Current research in the US assumed that the con-
refining processes are achieved if the hydrogen is deca- taminants might be alarmingly high, which could affect public
rbonised. The hydrogen generation market price is antici- health and the environment in the regions where 50% of
pated to be $154.74 billion in 2022 compared to $115.25 billion Americans reside [20,21]. Small vehicles emit substantial
in 2017 [3]. volatile organic compound (VOC) and carbon dioxide, apart
More than 225 million small vehicles in the United States from increasing most of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and carbon
(US) move across at least 7 billion miles per day, utilising 8 monoxide in the US [22].
million drums of oil daily [4,5]. A rise of up to 60% is expected Hydrogen is globally applied due to its production that can
by 2025 due to the additional demand received by the US as be performed using feedstock [23,24]. As presented in Fig. 2,
the third largest global oil producer [6e8]. As reported by Sa- hydrogen is a main chain between hydrogen consuming in-
fari and Dincer, 80% of the main energy sources in all over the dustries for examples ammonia and ethanol production
worlds come from the fossil fuels and 32% from it goes to oil plants with other central industries such as electricity grid,
that is being recorded as the biggest contribution fuel’s sour- transportation, agricultural, energy storage and etc. [3].
ces for transportation [3]. In 2005, International energy agency Consequently, this numerous production choices and appli-
(IEA) testified that the emission of the CO2 should be reduced cations, hydrogen could be valued in condition that flexibility
up to 60% in order to restrict 2 C rising of global temperature. and sector-coupling to energy systems.
Undoubtedly, there are many approaches that have been done However, such works in the literature are hard to find as
to reduce environmental footprint suchlike carbon capture there are not many works that address this subject. The IEA
and storage (CCS), chemical looping carbon capture, heat states that currently, more than 89 million drums of fossil
decarbonisation and etc. Regardless of how CCS can minimal fuels are utilised. The popularity of fossil fuels is drawn by
the environmental cost, but still it cannot be continuously broad and super improved political, social, and scientific in-
implemented for sustainable technologies in terms of energy frastructures. A huge consumption of fossil fuels also comes
saving. In addition, by referring Fig. 1, the consumption of with various concerns; for example, emission of harmful
energy globally will keep increasing for the next ten year [9]. substances, greenhouse gases, and global warming issues
Thus, a new, clean and carbon-free fuels technology is [25,26]. Fossil fuels are an exhaustive resource and can only be
addressed as long-standing resolution to maintain energy found in certain areas [27]. Moreover, its high volatile price is
sustainability as well as able to minimise the climate change one of the causes of political conflict that threatens human life
[10]. [28,29]. These conventional fuels are also oil derivatives that
Fig. 2 e Utilisation of hydrogen in many different energy fields. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [3].
come with a broad range of formulations in which each can be production of green hydrogen can also be done through bio-
inserted in some consumer machinery groups. The burning of logical techniques. The primary concern is the amount pro-
these fuels releases energy content, leading to the release of a duced by these techniques. According to the techniques
large portion of waste heat to the atmosphere [30]. Meanwhile, mentioned previously, three crucial commodities are needed
hydrogen possesses a long viability term [31]. Hydrogen in conducting the production processes of hydrogen, which
availability is perceived to be continuous. Hydrogen can be are light, electricity, and thermal heat aside from the biolog-
synthesised via various techniques anywhere around the ical techniques. The crucial inquiry here is in making the
globe [32e34]. This material can be used for a broad variety of processes to be green and environmentally benign, which can
appliances from small electrical equipment such as heater only be attained by supplying green resources to the key
and oven to industrial unit operations such as fuel cell, com- drivers. Therefore, renewable sources are excellent in pro-
bustion engine, and turbine [35]. The necessary conversion ducing the commodities mentioned. It is necessary to pair the
rate from mass to energy can be obtained as some of the production processes of hydrogen with renewables [39]. To
systems mentioned possess zero movable parts, indicating answer the question on the possibility of hydrogen economy
higher life span and efficiency as compared to conventional realisation, it can now be seen that there is a higher possibility
equipment with similar functions. Micro, macro, and mega of a zero-carbon society by utilising hydrogen to lower the
scales hydrogen production and consumption are convinc- ratio of carbon-hydrogen to zero. This indicates the impor-
ingly achievable. Its usage comes with minimum emissions of tance of hydrogen economy. This answer will assist in
harmful substances, with water as the by-product irrespective resolving concerns on global warming as well as providing
of the technique used. Additionally, hydrogen can be added to green initiatives.
other fuels, forming a mixture that is enriched with energy Hydrogen is an extremely flammable and non-toxic sub-
[36]. stance [40e43]. Its propagation, buoyancy, and laminar
burning velocities are higher as compared to other fuels, while
it has similar flame temperature to others under ambient
Hydrogen energy system oxygen presence [44]. Additionally, it has higher vapour-from-
liquid-generation-speed than any other fossil-based liquid or
The production of hydrogen from fossil fuel can be done liquefied fuels. These properties have the ability to cause
through thermochemical water decomposition, coal gasifica- hydrogen fire that will last 0.1e0.2 time of hydrocarbon-
tion, water electrolysis, and steam reforming technologies. consuming fire using the same fuel volume [24]. Inhalation
Nowadays, the production of hydrogen is mainly conducted of smoke from hydrogen fire is completely harmless as
from natural gas due to its low cost with efficient infrastruc- compared to smoke from other fires. Therefore, hydrogen fires
ture of distribution and delivery. Therefore, natural gas is are expected to have minimal rates of choking hazard as
expected to persist as a hydrogen source in the coming future, smoke asphyxiation possesses the largest share of damage
even though it is linked to various greenhouse emissions; for among fire hazards. Hydrogen is highly sensitive to detona-
example, carbon dioxide and NOx [37,38]. The production of tion [45e47], whereby its broad range of oxygen mixture
green hydrogen needs to be conducted using energy from detonation and ignition is evident of its delicate storage. The
sustainable resources and water. Examples of sustainable temperature of auto-ignition is indicated as one of the most
energy sources are nuclear and renewable energy. Therefore, crucial safety concerns in terms of fuel handling. A material
hydrogen enables the practice of sustainable energy sources, will automatically ignite without the help of any peripheral
namely biomass, hydro, geothermal, solar, and wind. The ignition sources at its auto-ignition temperature. The auto-
ignition temperature is negatively associated to the oxygen liquids using land transportation or transported as new solid
concentration or pressure in the surrounding environment. hydrides.
Nevertheless, based on hydrogen’s range of flammability, it is Certain alternatives are more suitable for central produc-
expected for the auto-ignition temperature of hydrogen to be tion, while other options are more suitable for local and semi-
unchanged at elevated oxygen concentrations or pressure. distributed manufacturing. The energy and cost required for
Energy crisis as well as global warming is threatening hydrogen delivery and distribution are the primary contrib-
humans’ peaceful life. Both have become major concerns uting factors due to its relatively low energy density. More
since the past century with no reliable solution introduced to R&D are required in order to obtain competitive prices for
prevent their impacts on Earth. Various approaches are hydrogen as opposed to the price of conventional energy
currently being experimented or used for this purpose. The systems utilised in the current market; nevertheless, certain
implementation of an energy cycle that is emission-free and alternatives have eyes on the cost goals. Comparatively to the
clean is recognised as a great breakthrough. Usage of supply of feedstock, fossil fuels are seen as an apparent option
hydrogen as an energy carrier became more popular after the as the source of energy in producing huge amounts of
1974 global energy crisis [48e50]. hydrogen that are required to start the shift to a sustainable
Hydrogen-operated vehicles have the ability to highly hydrogen economy [61,62]. Substantial reduction in cost as
minimise the dependency on fossil fuel as well as reduce well as technical advancements, namely application, con-
tailpipe emissions. This indicates the capability of hydrogen version, production, storage, and delivery of hydrogen
to store and deliver energy from resources available domes- throughout the hydrogen systems, are required in the tran-
tically, which are in abundant amount, while at the same time sition phase. To achieve this goal, attention is currently given
reduce carbon footprints [51,52]. The application of hydrogen to coal and natural gas.
in the automotive industry as a fuel source for cars is deemed
to be smooth as it offers three times efficiency in terms of
energy without pollutant emissions [53]. The transitions of Hydrogen production technologies
solid fuel to liquid fuel and to gaseous fuel as the primary
sources of energy were observed. Concerns in the environ- Clearly, it is impossible to achieve the environmental as well
mental issues increase the requirement for energy sources as energetic goals without the manufacturing and usage of
decarbonisation [54]. Large funding is offered for hydrogen hydrogen. Therefore, hydrogen manufacturing techniques
usage, storage, distribution, and production, particularly in that are sustainable have to be the main inspiration in
Japan, Europe, and the United States [55]. executing the international capabilities. Maggio et al. stated
The rising energy requirement worldwide fastens fossil that it is possible for industrial intermediate commodities,
fuel depletion, which adds to the motivation in finding alter- such as chemical synthesis, to be the first green hydrogen
native resources. Hydrogen is also highly sought after for market, followed by stationary power generation, and play a
utilisation in refineries as a substance in gas synthesis in crucial role in the mobility sector [63]. The duty of hydrogen in
ammonia and methanol manufacturing [56]. Furthermore, it decarbonising the energy system of Europe was presented by
is expected that renewed interest in the FischereTropsch Sgobbi et al. by emphasising on hydrogen potential, particu-
technology (GTL (gas-to-liquid)/CTL (coal-to-liquid)/BTL larly in the transport sector and the industry [64].
(biomass-to-liquid)) will further increase the hydrogen de- Besides, the production of hydrogen is beneficial in offering
mand. Therefore, expansion of the current capacity of flexibility and variable electricity as hydrogen is a conspicuous
hydrogen production is required in order to fulfil its rising selection in the implementations of renewable energy storage.
demand [57]. Private companies as well as the government Samsatli and Samsatli constructed a model to witness the
have to cooperate in order to accelerate the improvements of consequence of hydrogen utilisation as inter-seasonal storage
hydrogen production economics as well as efficiencies [58]. as an attempt to decarbonise the United Kingdom’s (UK)
This review article presents a survey on the available indus- heating industry [65]. According to their research findings, the
trial and new processes utilised in producing hydrogen. ideal choice to produce heat is by using 80% electricity with
Various options of feedstock can be processed using 20% hydrogen. This work further clarified that a robust supply
numerous processes of hydrogen production. Hydrogen can chain of hydrogen is required in order for the technologies of
either be manufactured in huge facilities as integrated gasifi- carbon capture and utilisation to work. Meanwhile, Colber-
cation combined cycle (IGCC) coal plant (offering chemicals, taldo et al. evaluated the contribution of hydrogen (through
power, liquid fuels, and hydrogen e all in one location), or in the approach of power-to-gas) in 100% renewable electricity
biorefineries through biomass feedstock gasification process, utilisation in California [66]. This work concentrated on
prior to distribution to the area of demand [59,60] It can also be hydrogen for power decarbonisation in order to reduce the
manufactured in semi-distributed means close to large mar- emission of greenhouse gases. Early findings showed that
kets; for example, urban corridors and urban centres or power-to-power storage system that is based on hydrogen is
directly transported to demand areas such as refuelling sta- more feasible than a system that is based on battery.
tions or commercial and residential buildings. Lastly, it can be Numerous materials found in nature have hydrogen; for
manufactured from fuels that are hydrogen-rich in the on- example, it is mostly found in water such as brine (sea water),
board reformers. Concerning the semi-distributed or central river, rain or well. The extraction of hydrogen can also be done
cases, the delivery of hydrogen can be done via various from biomass, fossil hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide or other
methods; for example, hydrogen pipelines transported as materials. The process of separating or sequestrating carbon
dioxide is conducted after the extraction of hydrogen from There are numerous methods that have been proposed and
fossil hydrocarbon, in order to eliminate the greenhouse gases applied to purify the hydrogen. Recently, Osman and co-
or other gases from polluting the atmosphere so that a green workers reported the photocatalytic production of H2 from
process can be conducted. There are four energy forms glycerol which is a by-product from the manufacture of bio-
required in the extraction of hydrogen from the listed natural diesel [75]. Interestingly, the studied catalyst contains TiO2
resources above, namely biochemical, photonic, electrical, doped with Al2O3 that was derived from aluminium foil waste.
and thermal, which can be attained from sources of green In the same report, it is worth to be mentioned that glycerol is
energy [67,68]. This work indicates green energy in terms of highlighted as the excellent candidate since the glycerol can
nuclear energy, renewable energy, and recovered energy; for produce high percentage of H2 with 4.2 mmol H2 gTiO1 1
2 hr .
instance, incinerated waste, landfill gas, and heat recovered In addition, the purified H2 from glycerol mentioned to be four
from industrial processes. times better over PdeTiO2 compared to AueTiO2. In another
Globally, researchers are currently developing new tech- approaches, a conventional hydrogen production-based
nologies of hydrogen in order to solve existing concerns as well plants which is IGCC that is stand for Integrated Gasification
as for economic and energy security. As an example, the US Combined Cycle functioned to convert coal into syngas con-
Department of Energy constructed a multi-year strategy for taining CO, H2, and CO2 together with minimal percentage of
hydrogen infrastructure development, technologies of storage CH4 and contaminants [76]. As illustrated in Fig. 3, the con-
as well as fuel cells with aggressive targets and milestones version of received fuels is done in high pressure reformer
[69,70]. The cost of hydrogen delivered is targeted at 2 to 4 USD following a few stages before being able to fully utilize for
per kilogramme with the energy equal to one gallon of gasoline different sectors. Generally, the routes for the hydrogen pu-
[71,72]. In addition, the hydrogen production in Australia is rification can be categorized into few techniques which are
progressively favoured especially for exportation purpose [73]. thermochemical, electrochemical, photobiological and photo-
They have implemented the production of hydrogen by the chemical process. In the midst of the mentioned methods,
surplus wind and solar energy via the splitting of water mol- thermochemical method is stated as popular technique in
ecules and coal gasification process. Truthfully, in real lives, marketable hydrogen production. In this section, the author
the production of the hydrogen is facing many challenges. briefly discussed a few different types of technologies that are
Many factors need to be considered specifically in terms of recently for the hydrogen production.
energy costs in order to convert the syngas to yield hydrogen
from natural gas or coal feedstock. Worth to be mentioned
that, the microwave plasma source (MPS) is one of the auspi- Water-gas shift (WGS)
cious technologies that has been done to produce hydrogen
[74]. The hydrogen production via MPS had been used by NASA Water gas shift reaction mentioned as WGS is a redox reaction
as their foremost source of fuel for their rocket propellant. process that involved the reversible reaction of carbon
Fig. 3 e The schematic of the stage for the conversion of received fuels to obtain purified hydrogen. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [76].
monoxide, CO and water molecules, H2O to form CO2 and H2 and Cobalt (Co) has been found to be a suitable candidate to
[77]. The exothermic reaction is expressed as follow: replace the existing FeeCr-based catalyst [76,77]. This recent
material shows good oxygen storage, having excellent chem-
CO þ H2O4CO2 þ H2 DH 298K ¼ 41.1 kJmol1 (1) ical and physical properties which are highly applicable to
obtain purified hydrogen. Meanwhile, non-catalytic reaction
The exothermic reaction indicates that the decreasing will take place in selected conditions, for examples in plasma
temperature will boost the conversion of CO and steam to systems and supercritical water.
form CO2 and H2. As presented in Fig. 4, the reaction of WGS
can be divided into two types of reaction which are catalytic
and non-catalytic reaction. Catalytic reaction normally Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) technology
occurred in two conditions which are high or low tempera-
ture. According to Noor and colleagues [78], catalytic reaction Nowadays, the accomplishment of this separation is done via
at high temperature will take place at 300e500 C in the mature pressure swing adsorption (PSA) technology operating
presence of iron-chromium oxide catalyst. Meanwhile, low close to its hypothetical boundary [81,82]. The remaining
temperature catalytic reaction will happen with the existence gases from this extraction can be either combusted or recy-
of copper zinc oxide catalyst in the range of 210e250 C [78]. cled. The conversion of synthesis gas into oxygenates and
However, both of these traditional WGS reaction catalyst are hydrocarbons can also be conducted to upgrade them into
non-environmental reaction and possess low stability for reformable or liquid transformation fuels in order to manu-
continuous operation. Due to this limitation, many new WGS- facture hydrogen for fuel cell implementation. The removal of
catalytic based reactions are introduced such as cerium-based carbon dioxide formed in the hydrogen manufacturing pro-
oxide materials (Au, Ru, Pt, etc.) catalyst [79]. However, in cess is done via the technology of sequestration and capture.
another approaches as detailed by Osman and groups, the Cost reduction can be achieved via the development of
catalyst consists of Pt and Cu was supported on molybdenum advanced and novel technologies targeting all phases of
carbide, Mo2C/h-Al2O3, Mo2C/g-Al2O3 and Mo2C for low tem- hydrogen manufacturing and separation process, which are
perature WGS reaction [80]. From the findings, it was found currently being constructed in an associated platform. As
that the fabricated catalyst of Pt/Mo2C/h-Al2O3 is a promising environmental concerns and energy requirement rise,
catalyst with 44% conversion at 180 C owing to the close research focused on the development of alternative technol-
interaction between Pt and Mo2C phases on the surface of the ogies for energy carriers increases. Particularly, hydrogen is
catalyst. The authors also mentioned that an active site den- recognised as a fuel that is environmentally friendly with
sity in Mo2C catalysts is 25% greater than that in a commercial possibilities as an alternative to the currently used fossil fuels
Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst. Therefore, the Mo2C catalysts have a as well as an important substance in solving environmental
potential to replace the latter in a number of small-scale re- issues [83].
actors for WGS reaction [80].
Iron-chromium-based catalyst is highly preferred in GWS
reaction, but the toxicity of the chromium towards the envi- Chemical looping technology
ronment has limited the utilisation of these coupled catalysts
in hydrogen production process. Alternatively, Cerium (Ce) A well-known process of chemical looping technology (CLT) is
named as chemical loping combustion (CLC) [84,85]. Differ-
ently, CLC is non-common combustion process in which the
process involved the utilisation of two types of reactors and
having a circulating metal oxide. The system of CLC can be
viewed as being published in Fig. 5. The different carriers
having two different function in this system. The first systems
named as FR which refer to fuel reactor act as reduction place
where the particles will be reduced by the fuels to form CO2
and H2O. The chemical oxidation process of the particles by
the fuels is shown in Eqn. (2) as follows:
(2n þ m)MxOy þ CnH2m ¼ (2n þ m)MxOy-1 þ mH2O þ nCO2 (2)
Meanwhile, the second reactor labelled as air reactor (AR)

will receive the oxidized products from FR to react with O2.
The reaction in AR is happened as follows:
MxOy-1 þ 1/2O2 ¼ MxOy (3)
Both of the carriers received an equal amount of O2 as the

O2 carrier is continuously mingled between them. Generally,
Fig. 4 e The process of conversion of CO2 and H2O to CO2 CLC is widely applied in heat and power generation. H2 pro-
and H2 via WGS approaches [78]. duction via CLT is practised the same common theory as CLC.
Fig. 5 e The schematic of the reformer in (a) FR and (b) AR. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [85].
However, there is a slight difference between both of them also production of H2 via reforming technique. Meanwhile, in
where the final product of CLT in H2 production is H2 or CO, CLH process that is presented in Fig. 6(c) consists of three
but in CLC in general industries produced heat as the final types of reactors which are FR, steam reactor (SR) and AR. The
wanted product. CLT can be divided into two main groups CLG is a developed technology that comes together with CO2
which are chemical looping reforming (CLR) and chemical inherent. The gaseous fuels will occupy in FR and having re-
looping hydrogen (CLH) [86]. action with metal oxide (OC). The steaming occurred in SR will
The systems for both of the technologies are visualized in yield pure CO2 and the reduced OC is the directly flow into SR.
Fig. 6. In CLR system, the ration of the air to fuels is main- Here, the steam will decompose into pure H2. The OC kept
tained to be low in order to prevent the maximum oxidation of circulating in FR to start a new cycle for H2 production.
the fuels to CO2 and H2O. As mentioned by previous study, the
CLR having more benefits because the process of the conver-
sion of methane to H2 and CO can be done in the presence of Steam methane reforming (SMR)
heat without costly oxygen production and absence of mix of
air with carbon containing fuel gases [86]. This model is Hydrogen production covered on the reformation of carbon
believed able to bring benefits for CO2 capture technology and dioxide or steam, auto-thermal reforming (ATR) as well as
Fig. 6 e The system of (a) CLR steam reforming, (b) CLR partial oxidation of methane and (c) CLH. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [86].
partial oxidation reforming (POX) are among other methods of consequences formation. The environmental analysis prop-
converting hydrocarbon fossil fuel [87,88]. Nowadays, 80%e erly combines life cycle assessment (LCA) (ISO 2006) with
85% of the global total hydrogen produced is achieved through exergy analysis [95]. Exergy analysis is a great instrument in
the use of natural gas steam methane reforming (SMR). The assessing resource quality as well as magnitude, location, and
process of the H2 production via SMR is simplified in Fig. 7. The thermodynamic inefficiency causes. Meanwhile, LCA provides
SMR system consists of reformer, reactors and heat exchanger information on the environmental impacts linked to an
that functioned for different purposes to yield purified H2. The overall system or a component for its whole life [96]. At any
process of SMR is firstly started with desulfurizing process of phase of technological advancement, economic and physical
methane. The desulfurized methane is then catalytically constraints might cause unavoidable thermodynamic in-
restructured to form syngas under the certain temperature efficiencies or also known as exergy destruction inside a part
range of 970e1100 K. The initial process of the SMR is endo- of an energy-conversion system. The cutting-edge exer-
thermic that is required high temperature to maintain the goenvironmental analysis described here aims to estimate the
whole process. To retain the continuous supply of heat in the preventable exergy damage section inside a steam methane
reactor, natural gas is burned from the pressure swing reformer as well as the preventable environmental effects
adsorption (PSA) in a furnace. Consequently, there will be the related to the operation and construction of the reformer. The
presence of the carbon monoxide, CO and carbon dioxide, CO2 preventable section is attained as the difference in prevent-
throughout the process. able and actual exergy damage or environmental conse-
quence values. The preventable section demonstrates a high
CH4 þ H2O ¼ CO þ 3H2 DH ¼ 206.3 kJmol1 (4) promise in the improvement of every component as well as
the overall system.
The produced syngas is then being cooled and directly Hydrogen is broadly deliberated as the most feasible future
transferred to WGS in order to increase the percentage of the energy carrier that is carbon-free and has a wider imple-
H2 production and simultaneously reduced the CO2 produc- mentation range in chemical industries (methanol, ammonia,
tion (Eqn. (5)). The mixture of the gases containing CO2, H2O, food processing, metallurgy and so on) without environ-
CH4 and CO must be eliminated at the final stage of the SMR mental pollution [97]. Moreover, hydrogen requirement
process. The process of the SMR that use nickel as catalyst has constantly increases due to the swift improvements in the
created some problems in the reformer as it increase the technology of hydrogen fuel cell [98]. Nevertheless, hydrogen
chances for the carbon formation with Ni particles that is needs to be produced as it is not readily available in gas form.
directly may lead to the catalyst degradation. Lately, nearly 90% of hydrogen manufacturing utilises fossil
fuels through the reforming process of light oil or natural gas
CO þ H2O ¼ CO2 þ H2 DH ¼ þ41.0 kJmol1 (5) with steam at elevated temperatures [99]. Natural gas
reforming is indicated as an equilibrium-limited endothermic
The SMR process is deemed as the most commercial pro- process, which is normally operated in a multi-tubular fixed
cess for the manufacturing of hydrogen. Exceptional attempts bed reactor packed with nickel catalyst pellets, needing
were taken in the past 20 years for sustainability compre- external furnaces to deliver the heat of reaction [100]. Never-
hension and evaluation in terms of hydrogen production ef- theless, this technology is accountable for the abundant
ficiency, safety, and environmental consequences through the amount of greenhouse gas emissions and local pollutants due
SMR process. The abundant amount of works related to the to fuel burning (as well as off-gas from the separation unit) for
single factor of the problems confirms this fact through the reaction supply heat. More than 60 million tonnes of hydrogen
analysis of thermodynamic, economic factors, and operating are manufactured in a year for refinery and chemical in-
aspects; for example, the advancement of new catalysts or dustries’ usage [101,102]. In the energy market, hydrogen’s
reactors [89,90]. Nevertheless, a gap is identified in the studies share is rising with the fuel cell systems application as well as
related to the combination of various factors in achieving the increasing demand for fuels that emit zero emission.
optimised or improved processes. Therefore, the imple-
mentation of a successful technology is promising in reducing
the environmental consequences of hydrogen as the future Thermochemical water splitting
energy carrier [91e94].
The latest development of environmental analysis Water splitting reaction refers to the continuous cycles of
demonstrated a complicated analysis with the ability to assist water molecules decomposition that is occurred through
humans in further comprehending the environmental several series phase of chemical reaction via transitional
Fig. 7 e SMR process for hydrogen production. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [85].
reaction in order to yield pure H2 and O2 [3,103,104]. Ideally, Advanced technology of membrane is attractive due to its
this process only required electrical supply which means that low capital cost, low energy usage as well as easy operation
highly dependent towards thermal energy. This technology even for the case of low gas volume. Glassy polymers are
for H2 production possesses a few benefits such as the sepa- normally used to make polymeric membranes, namely poly-
ration of H2 and O2 does not required of the utilisation of sulfone and cellulose acetate, in developing their selectivity
membrane and only consume low voltage of electricity. The through discriminations in penetrants’ substance with small
cycle for the process of water splitting can be grouped into two size differences. Polymeric membranes are usually utilised to
main cycles either by singularly using thermal energy (pure obtain hydrogen from hydrocarbon streams in the industry;
thermochemical cycles), or hybrid thermochemical cycles for example, in off-gas refinery. However, polymeric mem-
which involved the employment of the combining between branes are incapable of enduring violent chemical environ-
thermal energy with another form of energy suchlike pho- ments as well as elevated temperature and pressure. Elevated
tonic and electrical. The water can be directly heated from pressures cause polymer compaction that lowers perme-
high temperature heat of solar or nuclear reactors and the ability and allows the hollow fibres to deteriorate. Generally,
decomposition process of the water molecules into H2 and O2 membranes of inorganic structure possess higher flux per-
can be done by single step. However, due to the too high formance than membranes of polymeric structure, confirm-
consumption of heat required in hybrid thermochemical cy- ing their potential usage in hydrogen separation under high
cles, the steps turn to being cycled up to more than one cycle temperature, aside from their superior stability in terms of
which is recorded to be done at the temperature below than thermal and chemical. Membranes of inorganic structure for
2000 C. The differences for both of the cycles are schemati- hydrogen purification and separation can be grouped into two;
cally presented in Fig. 8. i.e., (1) porous membrane, such as carbon, zeolites, and silicas;
and (2) dense membrane including both composite and dense
metals as well as ceramic membrane.
Technology for hydrogen separation and Ceramic membrane that is porous in structure has mod-
recovery erate to high selectivity, high permeability, as well as ther-
mally and chemically stable. These features are beneficial in
The pressure swing adsorption (PSA) as well as cryogenic the application of hydrogen separation. Porous membranes
distillation are presently utilised in the recovery and separa- normally depend on the effect of molecular sieving of small
tion of hydrogen [105e107]. The PSA process depends on the pores (3e4 A) for hydrogen separation from other gases (for
adsorption capacity of the adsorbents in taking more con- example, CO2, N2, and so on). Hydrogen fluxes across these
taminations at elevated gas partial pressure. It also provides membranes are encouraging under the operating conditions
the ability to yield hydrogen with high purity of up to 99.999%. of 200 Ce600 C. A suitable mixture of hydrogen selectivity
However, the PSA is suitable only for industries of large and and permeability is achieved by amorphous silica membranes
medium scales. A separation process that operates at a sub- [111]. However, various concerns still need to be solved in
zero temperature is known as the cryogenic distillation pro- order for silica membranes to be fully implemented; for
cess. This process is based on the boiling temperature differ- example, the restricted stability of the structure in the atmo-
ences of the feed substances. The cryogenic distillation has sphere containing the steam. Better stability in terms of
high capital cost, making it only suitable for operations that thermal is possessed by the zeolite membranes in the com-
are continuous as well as in large scale. Hydrogen’s purity is pany of steam as compared to the non-doped amorphous
restricted to 90%e98% [108e110]. Advanced technology of silica membrane due to its crystalline structure. However,
membrane permits recovery of hydrogen from stream with these membranes have moderate selectivity to hydrogen even
low pressure or low purity of hydrogen that is uneconomical if with the huge porous channels providing no molecular sieving
other technologies of cryogenic or PSA are utilised. effect [112]. Gas separation using zeolite membrane is pri-
marily obtained by various gas adsorption affinities on its
Fig. 8 e (a) Pure thermochemical and (b) hybrid thermochemical cycles in thermochemical water splitting technologies.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [3].
surface. Carbon membranes can be utilised in a non-oxidising As mentioned by Chehade and co-workers, compared to
environment with temperatures of 500 Ce900 C. They are lightweight, the high density of liquid hydrogen is more
not only brittle, but also need exceptional control [113,114]. preferable, and low density of hydrogen gas not affected by
Aside from their expensive price, the optimum production the reactivity of the liquids, nonetheless owing to its capa-
conditions of carbon membranes are still undetermined. bility to be compressed in smaller reservoir to upsurge the
A membrane that is dense and metallic, particularly storage capacity [74]. Nevertheless, in terms of the storage
palladium alloys as well as palladium, is a good substitute if capability, the hydrogen gas is more favoured rather than
hydrogen with high purity is ever needed [115e117]. The liquid nitrogen due to space saving of gas molecules when
transportation of hydrogen across the membrane takes place stockpiled in high pressure reservoirs, as contrasting for the
through the mechanism of solution-diffusion. As an example, liquid state that demanding for refrigeration units.
the membrane adsorbs hydrogen on one of its side, splits it The burning of a fuel can only be done in either vaporised
into two atoms, diffuses it across the metal matrix before or gaseous states and hydrogen achieves its gaseous state at a
recombining and desorbing at the permeate side. Asymmetric temperature that is very low. Flashpoint is the temperature at
thin film configuration, e.g. layers of thin dense metal placed which a fuel produces sufficient vapour to form a flame in the
on porous metallic or ceramic supports, is normally taken to air, with the presence of an ignition source [42,121]. The
increase the fluxes of hydrogen and lower the price of the flashpoint value for a fuel is lower than its boiling point value.
membrane. Palladium membranes’ operating temperature is Low temperature may reduce vaporisation, indicating a fuel
identified to be from 300 C to 500 C. The exposure of flame will not last if there is no ignition source. Therefore, it is
hydrogen to lower temperature is capable of damaging these anticipated that hydrogen-based engines need less sophisti-
membranes as hydrogen has a high possibility to be engaged cated ignition and starting equipment than engines running
(frozen) inside the palladium lattice, which is able to be on other types of fuel [122]. This energy source can also run
avoided through palladium doping with other metals, such as normally in “harsh” conditions. For instance, a hydrogen-
copper or silver [118,119]. Shortcomings of palladium mem- powered vehicle was known to be able to work even after
brane can be in terms of its elevated sensitivity towards being kept in low temperature without the need for ignition
chemicals; for example, carbon monoxide, chlorine, and sul- for several days [123,124]. Additionally, hydrogen possesses a
fur poisoning the surface of the membrane. The effect of this distinctive range of flammability. The broad gap between the
poisoning reduces the effectiveness of hydrogen fluxes by lower flammability level (LFL) of hydrogen as well as its higher
20%e100%. Its availability commercially is still restricted even flammability level (HFL) results in various possibilities for it to
with rigorous efforts in R&D. be used in turbine or combustion engine [71]. As reported by
In the case of dense ceramic membrane, the transportation Piqueras and co-workers LFL at high pressures based on the
of hydrogen occurs through the coupled transport of protons calculation of adiabatic flame temperatures for the mixtures
as well as (charge compensating) electrons or electron holes; H2 þ O2 in CO2 and N2, between 1.0 and 300 bar and 288e348 K.
for instance, the permeability of hydrogen depends on proton HFL and LFL refer to the maximum and minimum levels of
conductivity and species of the electronic. Dissimilar to the fuel concentration in the air for the mixture to be flammable.
cases of metals and porous membranes, diffusion of hydrogen The mixture of fuel and air will not be ignitable if the level of
occurs through molecular or atomic hydrogen. With the fuel content arrives at values lower than its LFL or higher than
assumption of defect-free dense ceramic membranes, they its HFL, due to the absence of oxygen or fuel in the mixture.
offer 100% of hydrogen selectivity (i.e., an infinite separation The latter mentioned feature indicates its significance by
factor), mechanical and chemical stability under elevated recognising that various producers of industrial, trans-
temperature, as well as minimising the manufacturing cost portation, and automotive parts are required to do improve-
with the operating temperature of 500 Ce900 C. The ments, including in the additional systems; for example,
encouraging choice for hydrogen separation membrane has turbochargers or custom-designed engines to perform in low
been selected, which is the mixed protonic-electronic con- pressure situations, such as high altitudes. Nevertheless, the
ducting ceramic materials of perovskite type. Iwahara et al. consumption of hydrogen contributes towards simpler
were the earliest researchers who discovered the mixed structural engine design in order to perform with the same
protonic-electronic conduction in perovskite type ceramics efficiency under different conditions.
under elevated temperature (>500 C) in an atmosphere that
contained hydrogen [120]. If similar high electronic conduc-
tivity could be known at the same time within these perov- Fuel cell-based electric vehicles
skites, their hydrogen permeability might be similar to the
permeability shown by membranes of palladium and palla- The capability of the hydrogen as energy-cut alternative
dium-alloy. sources has increased the interests among the researcher to
explore the ability of the hydrogen to different fields of in-
dustries. Hydrogen that possess low pollutant structure and
Application of hydrogen production in related had been chosen to be one of the alternatives as the main
industries sources in automotive industries regards with the introduc-
tion of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCV). Undoubtedly,
Hydrogen has the potential to be utilised as a substitute fuel numerous energy systems have been implemented in electric
for engines that are intended for other fuels, where its broad vehicles suchlike high energy density Lithium-selenium and
range of flammability offers well-regulated engine power [97]. eco-friendly rechargeable metal batteries [125]. However,
hydrogen-based energy system having the top place among functioned to provide energy to charge vehicle’s batteries. In a
the consumer as it offers many advantages especially in terms different way, none combustion engine occurred in FCV which
of energy saving, excellent efficiency and environmental means that the vehicle is move only powered by the hydrogen
friendly approaches. Amid many kinds of FCVs, polymer through fuel cells that create electricity for the battery of the
electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) that is electrically vehicles. The volatile organic compounds (VOC) for ICEV, HEV
produced via electrochemical reaction has been known as the and FCV are reported to be differing among each. In order to
great conceivable system in the FCVs sectors. The complex maintain the cleanliness air quality, low emission of VOC is
nonlinear PEMFC systems consists of hydrogen tank, highly preferable. Based on three types of the vehicles-based
hydrogen circulating pump, flow control valve, supply mani- hydrogen engine, FCV possess the lowest emission of VOC,
fold, anode channel, return manifold and purge valve is pre- followed by HEV and ICEV [128]. The emission of VOC is shown
sented in Fig. 9. in Fig. 11.
Based on the presented system in Fig. 6, the most crucial Schleswig-Holstein, a northern German state, announced
components are return manifold and hydrogen circulating strategies to electrify its entire rail network system by 2025
pump. There is no flow of water in the system. Thus, it is through the implementation of fuel cell technology to power
crucial to maintain the flow of the hydrogen in the system. trains as well as grids [129,130]. The realisation of hydrogen
Although the hydrogen does not emit any hazardous by- potentials in stationary implementation are currently in
product during the combustion, but still there is some points progress. The city of Leeds in the United Kingdom unveiled its
of view that need to be considered since its production and strategy to become a ‘hydrogen city’ through the utilisation of
storage highly reactive towards the presence of oxygen that hydrogen in its pipes instead of natural gas [131]. Japan also
may lead to the explosive action In order to ensure the storage declared a plan amounting to 40 billion yen in the imple-
of hydrogen to be only circulated in the system, the hydrogen mentation of hydrogen technologies for Tokyo 2020 Olympics
sensor is introduced to sense any leakage of the hydrogen that [132]. In this plan, pipelines that run through the athletes’
may be happened unconsciously [126,127]. Other than FCV, village transporting hydrogen to the fuel cells of industrial
internal combustion engines (ICEV) accompanied with scale to power buildings will be constructed. Even though
hydrogen also can be seen in the automotive related markets. technologies for hydrogen production utilising renewable re-
The storage of the hydrogen in vehicles can be stored in two sources have already been constructed in order to attain
forms which are in gaseous and liquid hydrogen fuels. The sustainable energy cycle, hydrogen is still primarily manu-
vehicles that engineered by gaseous and liquid-based fuels factured using unrenewable sources such as fossil fuel due to
hydrogen are Ford Zetec 2.0 L, Toyota Mirac FCV, FM FCV economic and technical restrictions of the current technolo-
Electro Van, GM HydrogenGen3, BMW 750 hl and BMW Mini gies. Increase in hydrogen production in the near future would
Hydrogen (gerd 2005, Thomas 2008). Next, other types of possibly be achieved using natural gas reforming [133]. How-
hydrogen-based vehicles are hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). ever, carbon dioxide is emitted in an abundant amount as
These three types of vehicle hydrogen based-system are pre- hydrogen is manufactured from fossil fuel, indicating its
sented in Fig. 10. needs in the carbon dioxide sequestration and capture tech-
There are significant different for those three systems as in nologies. In this context, hydrogen separation technologies
ICEV, the produced pressure which comes from the com- advancement is still one of the primary attractions that allow
busted hydrogen will pushed down the pistons in the cylin- simultaneous carbon dioxide capture along with high-purity
ders thus, creating the power to produce the circular motion hydrogen production.
for the systems. Contrarily, in HEV, the powered-hydrogen Hydrogen has the advantages of lavish availability, usage
based engine responsible for the wheel rotation and of numerous feedstocks as well as involving numerous tech-
nologies of production [134]. Nevertheless, certain critics have
suspicion on the applicability of hydrogen as the solution for
energy, security, environmental, and sustainability issues.
These critics debated that the current hydrogen production
technology is expensive as well as wasteful in terms of energy.
A previous study stated that two significant factors exist in the
hydrogen economy, which are generation of hydrogen with
pollution-free sources and efficient fuel cells for hydrogen
conversion into the desired energy [135].
Upcoming technologies by hydrogen
Hydrogen is recognised as one of the most significant carriers

of energy in this era. Nevertheless, hydrogen production from
unrenewable sources comes with various environmental
consequences with fewer solutions for their substitutes.
Principally, the production of hydrogen via renewable sources
Fig. 9 e PEMFC systems in automotive sectors. Reproduced is the finest way out in providing the energy required by a
with permission from Refs. [125]. hydrogen community. Sustainable development encourages
Fig. 10 e Different systems in ICEV, HEV and FCV. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128].
Fig. 11 e The data for the emission of VOC for ICEV, HEV and FCV. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128].
energy resources as their availability is sustainable for a wastewater or seawater through the usage of renewable
sensible price with minimal or no negative impact, among sources with minimal impact on the environment [136].
which solar energy has the most potential. Therefore, the The production of hydrogen is possible using numerous
broad usage of a hydrogen energy system that is light-based is feedstocks with fossil resources (for example, natural gas,
crucial in obtaining worldwide sustainability. Programmes, coal, char, or uranium in thermochemical cycles) [137,138],
policies, and strategies of hydrogen energy are necessary to and renewable resources (for example, solar, wind, biomass,
assure worldwide sustainability in reducing the damaging and many more) [139,140]. Presently, various routes exist in
effects of unrenewable energy usage. The noted benefits of the production of hydrogen, which are divided into
hydrogen energy usage are as follows: High efficiency of en- unrenewable and renewable sources. Certain biochemical
ergy conversion; zero emission of carbon dioxide if combusted substrate types that are stored in sucrose, glucose, cellulose,
or used in fuel cells; lavish sources of water in nature; acces- glucose, carbohydrates, and proteins are able to be used in the
sibility of numerous storage substitutes; transportation production of biochemical hydrogen. Nevertheless, these
accessibility for vast distances (e.g., via hydrocarbon processes have low effectiveness. Reactions of biochemical
blending); numerous fuel selections conversion (for example, hydrogen generation are possible in both dark and light con-
ammonia, methanol, dimethyl ether, and ethanol); high value ditions via anaerobic bacteria and photosynthetic microor-
of heating than various conventional fuels (HHV: 141.80 MJ/kg ganisms, respectively. Earth energy or also known as
and LHV:119.96 MJ/kg); and can be produced from water, geothermal energy can be utilised to produce hydrogen in the
forms of thermal energy (thermochemical water splitting) or research addressed specific aspects such as the materials for
electrical (electrolysis) energy. Arellano-Garcia explored the degradation, cost reduction, and optimum energy manage-
production of hydrogen through the use of aqueous methanol ment [44,155]. Mekhilef et al. compared the features of
electrolysis as compared to the electrolysis of pure water in a numerous fuel cell technologies and confirmed that both solid
straight paired system of solar-PEM electrolysis [141]. This oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and PEM are the frontrunners in the
previous study aimed to witness the economic viability of the micro CHP units field, especially in South Korea and Japan
large-scale production of hydrogen. A review on the choices of [156]. SOFCs were also a subject for various reviews related to
hydrogen production from algal biomass was conducted by large scale power generation [157,158]. Lastly, major interest
Show and co-workers [142]. This earlier work observed that can also be seen on deliberating the social and economic ef-
the analysis of techno-economic as well as obstacles that exist fects of hydrogen economy, with reviews normally consisting
as biohydrogen has high potential due to its renewable and of aspects such as policy, economic, environmental, and
clean characteristics. Hydrogen technology along with its technical.
broad advancement and implementation insinuations is also
known as the hydrogen economy, and attracts various at-
tentions ever since its first introduction in the early 1970s. Conclusion
From that moment on, hydrogen technologies and hydrogen
economy are vigorously explored along with several reviews Hydrogen could be a universal energy carrier with technically
focusing on the crucial progress made at numerous phases. various production, storage, distribution and ultimate trails.
Meanwhile, some roadmaps were launched in Japan, the Eu- The utilisation of hydrogen is widely practice in power gen-
ropean Union as well as the United States, highlighting the eration, transportation, industry and district energy systems.
significance of hydrogen in the energy sector [143]. Nonetheless, the increases within the price of gas as well as
Hydrogen cycle, which consists of production, storage, and CO2 emissions make growth of sustainable and benign pro-
utilisation, is broadly investigated. In spite of the presence of duction routes unavoidable. Though it is only several decades
various manufacturing techniques (for instance, biological since the concept of “hydrogen economy” was perceived, only
production, steam reforming, and so on), electrolysis of water in recent years that hydrogen value chain shows commercial
is the focus of numerous works related to energy imple- justification for applications beyond industry, for general en-
mentations, particularly renewable energy technologies [144]. ergy purposes. The most important factors driving this
The progress of both alkaline electrolysis that is indicated as include the dramatic fall within the cost of solar and wind
the most mature technology, and polymer electrolyte mem- technology and also the steady improvement within the eco-
brane (PEM) electrolysis that is more appropriate for dynamic nomic status of hydrogen technologies and supporting infra-
response related to the technologies of renewable energy, structure. Additionally, the active interest in developing a
have been widely testified in terms of applications, materials world demand and a supply chain as demonstrated by Japan,
development, and cost trends [145]. Solar electrolysis is also South Korea and China (even Germany) helps to drop the
common in the communities of the off-grid [146], while wind- value of the hydrogen value chain. Hydrogen production from
hydrogen energy systems are recognised for their capability to water splitting is probably going to be an economically modest
be applied in the grid-scale and/or microgrid; for instance, selection within the near future, mainly when the energy is
frequency control and power [147]. Overall, reviews on the sourced from renewables and supported by governments’
technologies of low carbon for the production of hydrogen as policies on the carbon tax and renewable subsidies. The issues
well as several case studies can be found in the research by that need to be conquered are highly dependent on the qual-
Dincer [148,149] as well as Hosseini and Wahid [150]. ities of the storage material, specifically the weight of the
In terms of hydrogen tanks, widespread reviews exist on storage facility, the degeneration with cycles, as well as the
metal hydrides as both volumetric and gravimetric aim for on- costs.
board transportation issued by various bodies, namely the US
Department of Energy, which were not achieved by liquid as
well as compressed hydrogen storage [11]. Nevertheless, liq-
Acknowledgments
uefied and compressed hydrogen storage demonstrated better
results on the targets mentioned, specifically for the gravi-
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Edu-
metric density. Although there are shortcomings identified in
cation and Universiti Malaysia Pahang for the financial sup-
the compressed hydrogen storage at elevated pressure (for
port provided under the Collaborative Research Grant Scheme
instance, requirement of more electricity by an external
(CRG Scheme: Project Number: RDU 192315) in completing this
compressor), the implementation of this technology con-
work.
tinues in various stationary pilot plants as well as projects
across the globe [151]. This consists of hydrogen refuelling
locations for transport uses as well as PtG systems, with PtG references
systems utilising the natural gas network as its storage [152].
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2020 Sazali

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international journal of hydrogen energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Emerging technologies by hydrogen: A review

Norazlianie Sazali a,b

highlights graphical abstract

Alternative energy resources and

article info abstract

E-mail address: azlianie@ump.edu.my.

in the transportation industries as well as finding cleaner fuels

on fossil fuel and conspicuously mitigate tailpipe emissions.

(2n þ m)MxOy þ CnH2m ¼ (2n þ m)MxOy-1 þ mH2O þ nCO2 (2)

Meanwhile, the second reactor labelled as air reactor (AR)

MxOy-1 þ 1/2O2 ¼ MxOy (3)

Both of the carriers received an equal amount of O2 as the

Upcoming technologies by hydrogen

Hydrogen is recognised as one of the most significant carriers

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