Issr Vol1 2020

International
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International
Social Science
Review
Volume 1
2020
International
Social Science
Review
Manuscript Submission
Research and Publication Unit (RPU)

University Research and Development Center
Universidad de Zamboanga
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Region of Southeast Asia
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Bi-Annual Publication
ISSN 2704-4203
ISSN National Center of the Philippines
National Library of the Philippines
Manila, Philippines
Copyright by Universidad de Zamboanga

2020
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contents
articles
The Implementation of RA 9147 among the Coastal 1
Communities of the Municipality of Manay
Jan Michael L. Belena
Patient Turnover, Nursing Workloads and Outcomes 21

of Care: Its Impact on Quality of Care
John Mark Lingcon
Cherryl L. Alinsub
Impact Assessment on the Effectiveness of the Magsasaka 36

Siyentista (MS)-Led Community-Based Banana Farming
System in the Province of Davao Oriental
Anna Mae F. Teoxon
Edito B. Sumile
Nurses’ Attitudes toward Nursing Research 59

John Mark Lingcon
Jean Claude S. David
Impact of the Zamboanga Siege on Women 77

Survivors: A Post-Conflict Analysis
Roel F. Marcial
Functional Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities 90

of an HEI vis-à-vis Industry Requirements Satisfaction
Arnold B. Galve
Behind What the Eyes Can See: Understanding the Problems 107
and Concerns of Junior High School Counselees towards
an Accountable School Counseling Program
Remy Rose Poblete
Dimensions of Learning Organization and the 129
Predictors to Organizational Performance among
Universities in Zamboanga City
Grace Ann Lagura
An Exploratory Analysis of the Development of 142

Philippine Regions
Starr Clyde L. Sebial
Collective Efforts and Interdisciplinary Approach to 154

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Conservation and Use in the
Philippines
Xavier Greg I. Caguiat Mary Leigh B. Palma
Marilyn Ferrer Nerissa D. Santiago
Malvin D. Duldulao Henry Jimenez
Jonathan M. Niones Pernelyn S. Torrenas
Juliet P. Rillon Maria Corazon J. Cabaral
Giley DC Santiago Roel R. Suralta
Learning by Doing: Challenges and Opportunities in 175

Capacity Building of Undergraduate Students
in Agriculture at PhilRice
Leonilo Gramaje
Joanne D. Caguiat
OE Manangkil
EC Arocena
NL Manigbas
JC Berto
Xavier I. Caguiat
The Enduring Silence in Violence in the Nursing Workforce: 192

An Emerging Phenomenon
Ma. Nelia P. Silloriquez
Social Networking and Second Language Acquisition: 214

Exploring Facebook as a Tool for
Teaching and Learning English
Mona Froida M. Langoh
Barayti ng Wikang Filipino sa Balita o Lathalaing 227
Panshowbiz sa mga Pangunahing Peryodiko
Arche R. Tudtod
An Analysis on Error Production among Chavacano 244

Spanish Learners
Joseline S. Alvarez
Analyzing War Experiences of Combat Soldiers in the 260

Marawi Siege Using Field Theory
Christoper F. Sasot
Pagsusuring Panleksikograpiya sa mga Salitang Bakla 283

ng mga Piling Freelance Cross Dresser Gay Prostitute
Arche R. Tudtod
Influence of Anti-Smoking Campaigns among 333

Students in Northern Iloilo, Philippines: A Case Study
Fernan P. Tupas
Paying School Fees through Wastes: Experiences and 345

Health-Related Challenges of an Eco Scholar
Mauro Allan P. Amparado
Environmental Awareness and Practices of Science 353

Students: Input for Ecological Management Plan
Danilo V. Rogayan Jr.
Eveyen Elyonna D. Nebrida
The Mindanao Death March: Establishing a Historical 371

Fact through Online Research
Robert John I. Donesa
Lived Experiences of Pupils Living Far from School 385

Elmo P. Ador
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF RA 9147 AMONG THE
COASTAL COMMUNITIES OF THE MUNICIPALITY
OF MANAY
Jan Michael L. Belena
Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines
ABSTRACT
Republic Act 9147 or the Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act became
one of the protections for the wildlife in the municipality against illegal
poachers. Thus, evaluating this law would be helpful especially to the
Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO). Marine
species provide important ecosystem services such as the provision of
food, medicines, and livelihoods. It focused on three (3) aspects, namely;
Advocacy, Activities, and Penalties. The research was conducted on the
Office of the MENRO in the Municipality of Manay. The researcher did
additional research and focus group discussion on the different activities
being made by the agency for the implementation of the law specifically
the Article 3 Sec. 27 of the RA 9147 along the coastal community namely;
Central, San Ignacio, Holy Cross, and Zaragoza all in the Municipality of
Manay, Davao Oriental. For triangulation purposes, separate survey
questionnaires were answered by the community. The result showed that
the community had knowledge of those endangered marine lives;
however, they were not equipped with the right information about the
prohibited acts under Article 3, Section 27 of the Republic Act 9147.
Handfuls of chokepoints were also identified by the implementers and
community such as the lack of IEC and insufficient budget for the
implementation of the law. As a recommendation, there should be an
intensified information education campaign, safeguarding of the marine
protected areas, sufficient budget, strengthening the Bantay Dagat and
the checkpoints for wildlife here in Manay.
Keywords: Manay, wildlife, Bantay Dagat, IEC, MENRO
1
International Social Science Review
Introduction
The seas and oceans are the significant storehouse of carbon
dioxide and are instrumental in its capture. Food, medicines, and
livelihood are some of the important ecosystem services that marine
species can provide. However, there is no specific law that covers the
protection of all marine wildlife before not until the creation of RA
9147 or the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act. This
act covers the protection of all the wildlife resources in our country,
especially the threatened and exotic species, as specified in Articles 2
and 3.
The law was enacted to protect our country's fauna from

illicit trade, abuse, and destruction. The law was sponsored by then
Rep. J.R. Nereus O. Acosta and was approved by former President
Gloria Macapagal – Arroyo in the year 2001. After RA 9147 was
enactment, all line agencies were directed to implement the law. It is
Executive Order No. 192 that mandates the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) to be the primary
agency tasked for the conservation, management, development, and
other proper use of the country’s environment and natural resources,
specifically forest and grazing lands, mineral resources, which
includes those in reservation and watershed areas, and public domain
lands, the licensing and regulation of all natural resources as may be
provided for by law in order to ensure equitable sharing of the
benefits derived therefrom for the welfare of the Filipino now and in
the forthcoming generations. The LGU was mandated under the
State Ownership of Natural Resources (Regalian Doctrine) that: All
lands of the public domain, waters xxx wildlife, flora, and fauna, and
other natural resources are owned by the State. (Const. Art. XII, Sec.
2, par. 1) and; Under the State responsibility that: The State shall
protect the nation's marine wealth in its archipelagic waters,
territorial sea, and exclusive economic zone, and reserve its use and
enjoyment to Filipino citizens. (Const. Art. XII, Sec. 2, par 2) in which
the Municipal Environment and Natural Resource Officer (MENRO)
shall take charge of the office and shall perform the function under
Section 17 of the Republic Act 7160 otherwise known as the Local
Government Code of 1991 to manage, conserve, preserve and protect
the environment and natural resources of the municipality.
2
As one of the LGU's in the Southeastern part of the Davao

region with a total coastal area of 15,000 has. with the presence of
two Marine Protected Areas, Manay takes its part in implementing
RA 9147. With its long coastline of an approximate of 38 kilometers,
the municipality had coastal wildlife such as the corals and seagrasses
which form a big part of the protected areas. Also, the sightings of
the endangered Pawikan, Dugong, Dolphins and Thresher Sharks
were common in the area. In 2010, there were reports of
apprehension of violators of this law. Violations of illegal collection
of the unique bonsai-like mangrove which was locally known as
Bantigue as well as the hunting for Pawikan or Green sea turtle for a
meal and its carapace were apprehended. In 2014, another case was
filed which includes the illegal hunt of Pawikan at Purok Cabodte,
Barangay Zaragoza.
Disturbing coastal wildlife may have a great effect on the

socio-economic status of the municipality. In some LGU in the
province of Davao Oriental, wildlife nesting sites of the Pawikan
became a tourism magnet thus could be one of the activities for the
community. After 16 years of implementing RA 9147, it was of great
interest to study the implementation of the law in the municipality by
the agency concerned.
Framework of the Study
Marine wildlife such as coral reefs, dugong, dolphins, and

pawikan are some of the wildlife that can be seen in the municipality.
Coral reefs are habitat to a diversity of marine life. They are known to
be famous for their natural products that supplies fishery resources
into local communities. However, recent apprehensions of wildlife
violators were present that can be a threat to the wildlife status in
the municipality.
A concept of knowing the implementation by the

Implementing Agencies or "Implementers" which is composed of the
different line agencies in the government, in particular, the Municipal
Environment and Natural Resources (MENRO) which oversee the
law. The participation of the "Community" which was those coastal
communities who lived in harmony with the marine environment will
validate well if the line agencies such as the MENRO have
3
implemented the law in the place. With the validation, the researcher
would tell if the MENRO have enough implementation of the law.
The study also looked into three (3) aspects, namely;

Advocacy, Activities, and Penalties. According to Haddad, (2017)
Environmental Advocacies in East Asia takes place in a context that
the environmental organizations in East Asia would employ similar
advocacy strategies even they operate in different political
conditions. It was a challenge to the line agencies to juggle the
implementation of the law vis-à-vis with the political will of the
executive.
There were different activities that can be related to the

protection and conservation of the wildlife in our country such as
what the people of Liguasan Marsh who felt the need to protect and
conserve the marsh as it was threatened by deforestation and other
unsustainable practices which are resulting in the decline of the
species of fish in the area (WFP, 2012).
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR),

the country’s environment arm, had penalties embedded in the RA
9147 specifically Chapter 3 sec. 27 in which the researcher would like
to know if the penalties were imposed. The study also seeks to find
out the chokepoints encountered along the way on its
implementation especially on the Implementers and its
recommended solutions.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
4
Objectives of the Study
This research aimed to evaluate the implementation of RA

9147 (Article 2, Sec. 27) specifically;
a. How does the Municipal Environment and Natural

Resources Office of the Municipality of Manay implement RA
9147 specifically the Article 3 Section 27 of the Republic Act
9147 in the coastal communities of the Municipality of
Manay?
b. What were the choke points in the implementation of RA
9147?
c. What possible actions could be done to strengthen the
implementation?
Methodology
This section describes the overall aspect of the research

used in the study and explains how data were selected.
Research Design
The study design was of a Quali-Quanti Research. The
Quantitative part of the study was that of the questionnaires made
for the community and the fishermen of the identified coastal puroks
which were used for the triangulation purposes. The Qualitative part,
on the other hand, was in the form of a question that was answered
simultaneously with that of the respondents and especially with the
MENRO staff.
Sampling Techniques
The researcher used questionnaires to be answered by the
respondents which were made separate from that of the community
and the implementing agencies. There were also guided questions
for the Focus Group Discussion to be made.
5
Data Collection Method
The researcher got permission from Hon. Antero L.

Dayanghirang Jr., ME, Mayor, Municipality of Manay. After the
permission to the Local Chief Executive, the researcher went to the
Office of the Punong Barangay of Barangay Central, Zaragoza, Holy
Cross and San Ignacio which were the areas for research. The
researcher also coordinated with the Municipal Environment and
Natural Resources Office (MENRO) and the office of the Municipal
Planning and Development Coordinator (MPDC).
Data Analysis
The results of the collected data were analyzed by the
method of percentage weight per question. The data presented with
the use of pie and table charts so that it is clear to the readers.
Results and Discussion

The research was conducted at the Office of the Municipal
Environment and Natural Resources in the Municipality of Manay.
The researcher did research and FGD on the different activities being
made by the agency for the implementation of the law specifically
Article 3, sec. 27 of the RA 9147 along the coastal community, namely;
Central, San Ignacio, Holy Cross, and Zaragoza all in the Municipality
of Manay, Province of Davao Oriental, Philippines. For triangulation
purposes, separate survey questionnaires were answered by the
community. The table below shows the respective purok populations
for the included subjects as well as the computed number of possible
respondents. There is a total of 12 puroks included in the research,
and the research used the Slovin’s formula with 10% margin of error
and cluster and stratified sampling to get the total number of
respondents for triangulation. There was a total of 85 respondents
from the four coastal barangays who were selected purposively to
answer the questionnaire. Seven people from the four coastal
barangays were invited for the Focus Group Discussion.
6
Table 1
Barangay Population and Respondents
Total Number of
Puroks
Barangay Purok Population Respondents
Included
per Barangay*
Central Proper 390
Bagsak
Kapugtukan 161 6 43
Jabongan 383
Libtong 380
Baybay 434
San Francisco 752
Zaragoza Cabodte 166 1 7
Holy Cross Centro 547 1 7
San Ignacio Montenegro 65
Molina 211 4 28
Magbojos 675
Pagandahan 152
Total 4,316 12 85
Source: MPDO Manay

*Solved using the Slovin’s Formula and a 10% margin of error
Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Demographic profile for the study of the Community (Triangulation).
Figure 2
Distribution of Respondents According to Age (Community)
Age Bracket for the Community Respondents
15-30 = 32
31-40 = 20
41-50 = 19
50-60 = 12
7
The researcher grouped the respondents according to the

following age ranges: 15-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60 and 61-70. The first
bracket of 15-30 years old represented the “Youth” age group,
wherein most of the respondents in this age brackets were schooling
or those who were waiting for job hiring. Hence, Stewart (2016)
states that the youth were actively engaged in their own
development and the youth were considered participants rather than
recipients in the learning process.
The bracket 31-40, who represented the “Working Age

Group”, confirmed that task characteristics and secondarily,
knowledge characteristics were the most relevant factors in the
perception of psychological work ability among aged workers,
Alcover C-M and Topa G (2018).
The age beacket 41-50 years of age bracket were generally

the least satisfied of all, with unhappiness most pronounced among
those aged between the next age bracket, Gayle (2016).
For 51-60 years age bracket, these people in the “Early

Midlife Group” reported more experiences of unfair treatment than
the older age groups but were less likely to attribute their
experiences to age discrimination, Giasson (2017).
The last bracket of 61-70 years of age was for the "Old Age",
that the dimensions of loving and being, took on a different meaning
and the material things in the having dimension became less
important. The differences point to another meaning of the quality
of life in old age. The emphasis is on health and independence,
contentment and peaceful life, personal integrity in terms of a moral
and a caring attitude, Nillson et. al (1996).
The figure above represents the number of respondents for

the community according to their age brackets. Majority of the
respondents were of 15-30 years old with 32 respondents. It is
followed by 31-40 with 20 respondents followed by 41-50 with 19
respondents then 51-60 with 12 and the smallest is the 61-70 bracket
with 2 respondents.
8
Scoring Procedure
Each of the answers was tabulated by the researcher and
had a comparative analysis to both sides of the Community
Respondents and the Implementing Agency. Each of the questions
was answerable by Yes (1) and a No (2). The table 3 shows the number
of community respondent who answered the questionnaire as well
as the following implementations done by the Implementing Agency.
Implementation of the MENRO Manay

The MENRO of Manay was keen on the observation of the
RA 9147. With these, a handful of different activities, advocacies and
penalties were observed. Meanwhile, just like the Municipality of
Tubigon in Bohol province, it encompasses a variety of ecosystems
that were vital to its social and economic development. Despite being
a ‘first class’ municipality, the local economy remains highly
dependent on agriculture, fishery and the tourism industry. The
continued strength of each of these is directly linked to the health of
the municipality’s natural resources. Tubigon’s citizens, especially the
poorer people, are reliant on ecosystem services for sustenance,
livelihoods, and recreation. Yet these services were never
systematically valued, and maintenance of the health of the
ecosystems was never budgeted for Tubigon. Therefore, it required
a tool for simple and effective monitoring and evaluation of the
conditions of its ecosystems, to inform its development directions
and strategies (Antonio et al. 2012).
The solution – as Tubigon municipality saw it – was to adopt

the ecoBudget process. It has been hailed internationally for its
successful implementation and has become a role model for
numerous municipalities in many parts of the world. The sustained
information and education campaign, regular dialogues, partnerships
and alliances with stakeholders have addressed erroneous
perceptions and prejudices. These also helped a lot in the evaluation
process and in adjusting targets and readjusting initiatives.
9
The table below shows the activities done by the office from
the year 2015-2017.
Table 2
Implementation of the MENRO (Coastal)
ACTIVITIES FREQUENCY
Coastal Clean Up Twice a year
Information Education Campaign Quarterly
The apprehension of the violators Once a year (as the need arises / with
(PNP) reports)
Source: Annual Investment Plan 2016-2017 / MPDO / MENRO 2017.
It shows that there were limited activities of the

implementation of the RA 9147 especially the Article 3, Sec. 27
provision of the law. The limited activities can greatly affect the
current status of wildlife in the municipality. However, based on the
inquiry done by the researcher to the Community Environment and
Natural Resources Office (CENRO), a handful of activities were done
by their office to the municipality especially to its coastal areas.
Among these are: Coastal IEC which was done per barangay in a
quarterly basis. Checkpoint by the PNP Manay was done once a year
or if there were a report and Coastal Resource Assessment which
were done once every two years or if there’s a budget for the matter.
The coverage of the CENRO Manay was from the municipalities of
Tarragona, Manay, and Caraga.
Advocacy
Implementation of Advocacy
Transportation of wildlife may be dangerous to the wildlife

itself as others may die regardless of whether travel is between or
within countries, Adams (1994). However, wildlife can be transported
under suitable conditions. Table 4 shows the Implementation of the
Advocacy projects as known by the community.
10
Table 3
Implementation of Advocacy
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ART. 3, SEC. 4 OF RA 9147 IN YOUR AREA

ADVOCACY
Naka attend/hibalo ba ka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad?
1 2
1. Information Education Campaign per purok 43 42
2. Radio Campaign gamit ang Radio Natin 4 81
3. Nakadawat ug Pamphlet 39 46
4. Naay checkpoint nga nahitabo para sa mga halas 22 63
On the research done, there were 43 or 50.42% of the

community who attended the IEC per purok and the remaining 42 or
49.42% of the respondents didn't attend the IEC.
On the Radio Campaign Matters, only 4 or 4.70% have heard

any Radio Campaigns for the law through the Radio Natin while the
remaining 81 or 95.3% did not hear any of the radio campaigns.
There are 39 or 45.88% of the respondents who responded

that they received pamphlets from the implementing agency. The
remaining 46 or 54.12% of the respondents said that they did not
receive any pamphlets given.
Only 22 or 25.88% responded that they have observed

checkpoints in the municipality, in particular in Purok Pag-asa in
Barangay San Ignacio. The remaining 63 or 74.12% of the respondents
said that they have no observations of checkpoints of such.
Findings of the Study
Based on the result, the following are the findings of the

researcher.
1. The Information Education Campaign was not enough as it

was done only on a quarterly basis. Thus, there are 4 coastal
barangays in Manay and with 25 coastal puroks. The
community's awareness of such laws can contribute to the
conservation and protection of marine wildlife.
11
2. With a very low response of 4, there was really a need for

having a radio campaign as one of the strategies on how to
spread awareness to the law.
3. Pamphlets were printed materials that served as

information campaign material that can spread awareness.
Thus, creating such can be a great help to spread awareness
to the community in the municipality.
4. Transportation of wildlife may be dangerous to the wildlife

itself as others may die regardless of whether travel is
between or within countries (DB Adams, 1994). However,
wildlife can be transported under suitable conditions. The
low observation of the checkpoint done in the municipality
can be alarming in that violators can escape the municipality
discreetly with the wildlife with them. Thus, increasing the
checkpoints in the area can help in safeguarding the wildlife
in the area of the municipality.
Activities
Implementation of the Activities
Community perceptions of coastal resource management

may differ from community to community (Wagner, 2012). The
presence of acceptance to the Marine Protected Areas can provide
community benefits for increased fish production and eventually
income to the fisherfolk communities. The table below shows the
Implementation of the activities as known by the community.
Table 4
Implementation of the Activities
ACTIVITIES (sa mga Implementing Agency)

Naka attend/hibalo ba ka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad?
1 2
5. Coastal Clean-Up 66 19
6. Information Dissemination sa mga Threatened Species 22 63
7. Pag-bantay sa mga Marine Protected Area 15 70
8. Pag-bantay sa mga pagpanunog/pag squat sa mga lugar sa baybay 10 75
12
There were 66 or 77.64% of the respondents responded that

they have attended the coastal cleanup done by the MENRO while 19
or 22.36% didn't attend such cleanup drives.
Marine life is diverse in the Philippines (Philippine Aquatic

Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series, 2012) especially that the
country’s coastline is long and can provide habitat to different marine
life.
There were 22 or 25.88% of the responders who have not

heard of the IEC on threatened species while 63 or 74.12% said that
they have attended the IEC done especially on the threatened
species.
The 82.35% of the respondents responded that there no

observance of those guarding mechanisms in the municipality while
the remaining 17.65% of the respondents said that they have
observed bantaydagat activities in the Marine Protected Areas.
Coastal land squatting was not known as there were only 10

or 11.76% of the respondents who said that there were squatting in
the municipality while 88.24% said that there was no squatting in the
municipality.

researcher.
1. The result showed that coastal cleanup, as one of the

MENRO’s activities, was effective as it was attended by
many of the respondents.
2. The low attendees of the IEC per purok can greatly affect the
implementation, it can be attributed to very low awareness
of many wildlives that were present in the area. Thus,
strengthening the IEC was very essential.
3. Marine Protected Areas should be areas of safeguards, MPA

served as a nursery to the schools of fish as well as a feeding
ground to larger marine mammals. The low observance of
13
the safeguarding was a concern not only to the mammals

affected but also to the coastal communities themselves.
Bantaydagat activities should also be strengthened.
4. Squatting was not known in the municipality. It can be

attributed by the close monitoring of those landowners of
the coastal lands. However, coastal areas with no
developments were enjoyed by the community for a beach
and for picnic purposes.
Penalties
Implementation of the Penalties
Marine life is diverse in the Philippines (Philippine Aquatic

Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual Series, 2012) especially that the
country's coastline was long and can provide habitat to different
marine lives. Illegal Wildlife Trade is considered to be one of the
threats especially with the wildlife (Phelps, 2016) which includes and
not limited to fishes, fungi, charismatic mammals and others. The
table below shows the Implementation of the Activities (MENRO and
PNP) as known by the community.
Table 5
Implementation of the Penalties
PENALTIES
Naka attend/hibalo baka sa mga sumusunod na mga aktibidad?
1 2
9. Ginadakop ang mga nagabaligya ug mga halas. 79 6
10. Gina-turn over sa MENRO ang mga halas nga nakit-an 39 46
11. Ginadakop ang tigpatay ug mga halas 72 13
12. Naga pandakop ug mga violators pinaagi sa usa ka 36 49
operasyon
On the table above, there are 79 or 92.94% of the community

who responded that violators of wildlife traders were apprehended
by PNP MANAY.
There were only 39 or 45.88% of the respondents who would

turn-over the wildlife to the MENRO while those who would not turn
over the wildlife were 39 or 54.12% of the respondents.
14
Most of the community or 84.70% of the respondents said

that wildlife killers were apprehended. However, though some of
them knew that it’s illegal to catch and to kill wildlife yet they don’t
know the law that governed them.
There were only 36 or 42.35% of the respondents who have

known of any apprehensions done by an actual operation in the
municipality.

researcher.
1. Illegal wildlife trade was a concern not only locally but also
with the international wildlife conservation organizations,
thus, the high percentage of the community who have
known about the apprehensions of those illegal wildlife
traders can validate that there is a strict implementation of
the law in the area.
2. Taking good care of the law can be made possible to those

who would love to do so but according to the law, a
gratuitous permit should be secured. Most of those who
responded that they would not turn over wildlife did not
know about this thing and that should have campaigned to
them.
3. The killing of wildlife was a concern not only locally but also
with the international wildlife conservation organizations, as
the Philippine Aquatic Wildlife Rescue and Response Manual
Series of 2012 included hunting as one of the threats of the
marine mammals by which over-fishing is also a contributor
for their decrease of population in the wild. Thus, the high
percentage of the community who has known about the
apprehensions of those killing of wildlife can validate that
there is a strict implementation of the law in the area.
4. Operations by the PNP can be of confidentiality; however,

the PNP in coordination with the MENRO should increase
the number of operations in the area.
15
Focus Group Discussion (FGD Results)

Awareness to the Law by the Community
The community FGD was done in the Purok Centro of
Barangay Holy Cross. This place is located near the coast such a good
location when it comes to its location and the importance of marine
life to their everyday living.
It was started by asking the community of the current state

of the coastline area in the municipality, both of them answered that
the coast was in a very good state. They also added that some of the
wildlife such as dolphins and whales were seen in the area. However,
some of them did not know that these mammals and sea creatures
were considered wildlife; all they knew was that the fishermen were
prohibited to catch these animals. The status of the wildlives was
known to the community as endangered but only for that wildlife
that were shown on Television such as dugongs and dolphins.
The decreasing number of the population according to the

community was brought by the vastness of the Pacific Ocean. Other
wildlife made Manay as their feeding area. The community also noted
that the waters off the coast of Manay were the feeding grounds of
the wildlife.
There were government agencies that the community knew

when wildlife was found, these were; the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Community
Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO), Provincial
Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO), Municipal
Environment and Natural Resources Office (MENRO) and the Bureau
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). However, only DENR and
the BFAR had made efforts such as campaigns made in different
communities.
Though the community has knowledge of those endangered

marine lives, they were not equipped with the right knowledge about
the prohibited acts under the Article 3, Section 27 of the Republic Act
9147 or the Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act. What the
community had observed about the found wildlife in their areas was
they set that wildlife free as found. It would be beneficial to both
16
marine wildlife and the coastal communities as they also benefit in

each other's existence.
The Chokepoints of the Implementation

The Chokepoints Identified by the Implementer and Community
In the identification of the chokepoints in the

implementation of the law, the researcher interviewed both the
implementers and the community.
Implementing a law can somehow have loopholes or

chokepoints along its way of implementation, as it can have many
challenges and could rise from the soft part of the implementation
up to the hard part of the implementation. Problems in the
implementation can be classified into Education, Engineering and the
law enforcement itself (Oliva, 2007). The researcher intends to get
the response of both sides, especially in this matter.
Most of the communities stressed the lack of information

about the different wildlives off the coast of the municipality. They
were stressing the thought that if a person has a bigger knowledge
about the wildlife, then they can help in the implementation of the
law in their area. However, the story of the implementing agency
spells a different word. Budget is one of the main problems in the
implementation of the law. With the lack of budget, the IEC's efforts
of the department can also be affected as it can also affect the
presence of a physical office that can be put into consideration by the
chief executives. The presence of a wildlife rescue office can secure
found wildlife for security purposes.
The Solutions for the Chokepoints

Possible Solutions to the Problems in Implementing the Law
The community, during the FGD, stressed that the need to

have an intensive information education campaign can be a great
help. Creating and the formation of the hotline and pamphlets was
also an effective way of information dissemination. The community
also wanted to make the implementation of the law stricter and
imposed the law anytime.
17
Meanwhile, the implementers suggested that there should

be a presence of stable programs, project, and activities that relate
to coastal wildlife. In addition, there should be enough budget not
only in the level of the municipality but also with the coastal
barangays that they could give a pie in their budget that could be
allotted to environment-related activities along the coastal areas.
Conclusions
This study of the implementation of the law Republic Act

9147 or Wildlife Conservation and Protection Act by both the
Community and the Implementers is very significant nowadays. It
seeks to conserve and protect wildlife in their respective habitats
wherein some of them are of endangered and near to extinction.
However, through its passage and became a law, dozens of
perpetrators were caught for not following this law.
The method of the research was a mixed method, wherein

the researcher gathered Secondary data from the line agencies, an
FGD (Community and Implementer) and a triangulation using a
survey method. The technique in selecting respondents was random
sampling using the Slovin’s formula (with Stratified) on a specific area
in the Municipality of Manay; namely Barangay Holy Cross, Zaragoza,
San Ignacio, and Central.
As per result, both of the parties observe proper

implementation to the law RA 9147. It is evident, especially they have
parallel answers by the implementers. The community also validated
some of the provisions of the law of its equal importance such as the
illegal use of dynamite fishing, coastal squatting, and wildlife trading
that can be of great effect to the wildlife. Slow moving
implementation is also observed as one of the chokepoints for its
implementation.
A couple of gaps, issues, and concerns are also presented by

the respondents who attended the Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
especially those who are living in the community which is of great
effect in the laws' implementation.
18
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20
PATIENT TURNOVER, NURSING WORKLOADS
AND OUTCOMES OF CARE: ITS IMPACT ON
QUALITY OF CARE
John Mark Lingcon
Cherryl L. Alinsub
Calamba Doctors’Hospital; Calamba Doctors’ College,
Global Medical Center of Laguna, Philippines
ABSTRACT
A descriptive non-experimental type of research was used to determine the
patient turnover to nursing workloads through outcomes of care. The study
was conducted from a selected hospital in Laguna and was composed of (66)
registered nurses as respondents selected through purposive sampling. Data
were gathered through a survey questionnaire created from a round table
discussion. Researchers used frequency count and weighted mean to describe
the occurrence of patient turnover, to determine nurse respondents’
compliance to nursing workloads, and to define outcomes of care. Meanwhile,
Pearson’s r test of correlation was used to answer how patient turnover
impacts nursing workloads and the effect of nursing workloads to outcomes
of care. Also, a regression test was performed to solve for the p-value noting
whether to accept or reject the stated null hypothesis. The results of variables
patient turnover and nursing workloads had a computed Pearson’s r
coefficient of (r = 0.94) and a regression p-value of (p = 0.01) less than the level
of significance (α = 0.05) suggesting that there is a strong relationship
between patient turnover and nursing workloads; a faulty patient turnover
results in performance of nursing workloads to fail. Also, the study noted a
computed Pearson’s r coefficient of (r = 0.88) and a regression p-value of (p =
0.05) equal to the level of significance (α = 0.05) for variables nursing
workloads and outcomes of care proposing that there is a significant impact
of nursing workloads in outcomes of care to patients; inconsistent nursing
workloads result to poor outcomes of care. The findings of the study lead to
recommend that processes in patient turnover should be tailored in a manner
that it will not greatly affect nurses’ performance of nursing workloads.
Processes should not take much of nurses’ working time and increase working
demands. Furthermore, nurse managers may assign charge nurses to facilitate
processes (completing the charts, securing consent) to admissions, transfers,
HAMA, and discharges, and once done they may endorse it to staff nurses. In
this way, staff nurses will get to focus on their respective patients only.
Keywords: Patient turnover, nursing workloads, outcomes of care, quality care
21
Introduction
Life is full of surprises, unknown with what may be thrown at

us; there are good days with a fair share of bad days. Then there are
moments that we hope could last forever, and then there are
moments that we wish could end sooner. Sometimes, life takes us
back with surprises that we are not equipped to deal with, whether
good or bad.
The nursing profession is a life filled with uncertainties,

dealing with diverse patients with the same diagnosis but with
different presentations is no joke. Admission, discharge, transfer of
patients added with a pile of doctors’ orders to be carried out make
nursing world a chaotic profession for many. Still, many Filipino
nurses embrace this profession, passion or calling is the reason we
see, and that is why the world views Filipinos as great nurses.
Filipino nurses, despite being the most sought after

healthcare professionals abroad, tend to provide poor quality of care
here in our country. Many may agree that this is due to the limited
working environment; however, Filipino nurses are known to be
adaptive and resourceful, and thus, scarcity is not an issue in
delivering quality care to patients. In professional experience, lowly
delivery of care seems to be associated with nurses’ failure to manage
time wisely. Time management in nursing is the dictum to deliver
quality care; however, it is not practiced most of the time since there
are tons of nursing workloads to consider which are greatly affected
by fast-paced patient turnover.
Hospital managements, mostly if not all, are more concerned

with what task is done and not with how it is done, and the reason
why the delivery of quality care is taken for granted. Hospital
management does not have an eye on the ground as to what are the
nursing workloads, how it is affected by the influx of patient
admissions, transfers and discharges, and more so if quality care is
achieved. These result in nurse job disappointment and patient
dissatisfaction.
Preceded, are few heavy-weighted reasons for hospital

management, through the nurse managers to further their
understanding to patient turnover and how it affects nursing
22
workloads that may alter delivery of quality care. Understanding

patient turnover is not limited in knowing patient census, but more
so, in learning what a patient goes through before and after
admission/transfer/discharge for the management to track where in
specific processes does a patient experience disappointment and to
create a plan in addressing it. Glitches in patient turnover increase
nursing workloads thereby adding the demands and resources for
care to patients putting quality of care at the losing end. High patient
turnover makes the nursing work environment more crowded and
chaotic because nurses must provide concentrated nursing care to an
increased number of patients and families within shorter time frames.
[22]
Thus, patient turnover should be considered an important factor in
the allocation of nursing personnel and in-patient outcomes.
While many researches were conducted to understand

phenomena affecting delivery of quality care, little attention has been
placed to patient turnover, its relationship to nursing workloads and
how it impacts outcomes of care to patients. Previous studies focused
on nurse staffing as the predictor of the outcomes of care to patients.
A study focused on the effect of nursing staffing to patient outcomes
based on patient turnover levels. Meanwhile, this study did not assert
nurse staffing as a concept to affect outcomes of care to patients,
instead, it determined whether outcomes of care is affected by the
patient turnover, nursing workloads as the bridging concept between
the two. While other studies utilized patients’ satisfaction to assess
outcomes of care, this study gathered nurses respondents’
perception on how the outcomes of care are with the nursing
workloads they perform. It is to check nurse respondents’ insight in
which areas of care delivery they believe patients are disappointed
with. Previous researches focused their study of patient turnover in
admissions, transfers, and discharges. However, this study included
HAMA as one of the sub-concepts of patient turnover as researchers
believe that patients who go for HAMA are both a concern and a
challenge to the healthcare field. Instead of gathering the ratio of the
number of admissions, discharges, HAMAs and transfers to the total
number of treated patients to assess patient turnover, this study
gathered nurse respondents’ perception on what
processes/procedures of patient turnover patients experience poor
service.
23

Researchers, nurses by profession working in private
hospitals, are motivated in conducting this study to gain knowledge
of the effect of nursing workloads on outcomes of care of patients
based on patient turnover levels. Results of this study aim to help
hospital management, through the nurse managers, to encourage
them to devise a plan to address the matter.
Methodology
The study was a descriptive research. The purpose of a
descriptive research is to observe, to describe, and to document
aspects of situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a
starting point on theory development. Thus, descriptive correlation
design was used to study the impacts of patient turnover on nursing
workloads affecting outcomes of care. The main purpose of
correlation research was to clarify the understanding of important
phenomena through the identification of relationships among
variables.
Participants of the study were chosen using purposive

sampling technique and initially targeted to consist seventy (70)
registered nurses employed in selected hospital in Laguna. However,
due to attrition, only sixty-six (66) nurses participated, 59.09% (39)
were females and 40.91% (27) were males. Nurse respondents were
mostly millennials/generation Y with 78.79% (52) counts; others were
generation X and baby boom generation with 16.67% (11) and 4.55% (3)
counts, respectively. In terms of position profile, chief nurse and
assistant chief nurse posts were both 1.52% (1) count to each, 6.06%
(4) nurse supervisors, 13.64% (9) head nurses, and lastly 77.27% (51)
were staff nurses. In terms of their educational attainment, only 6.06%
(4) nurse respondents declared to have a master’s degree while
10.61% (7) were master’s undergraduates and the rest 83.33% (55)
were baccalaureate degree holders. Also, with 60.61% (40) counts,
most of the nurse respondents have only a year to two years of
hospital experience, 13.64% (9) with less than one year of experience,
3.03% (2) to each with seven to eight years and eleven to twelve years
of experience, 15.15% (10) with three to four years, and only 4.55% (3)
have thirteen and above years of experience.
24
The main tool of the study was a self-devised 75-item survey

questionnaire; 20 items for the patient turnover, 30 items for the
nursing workloads, 15 items for the outcomes of care, 5 items for the
demographic profile, 5 items for the hospital profile. Questions were
brainstormed by nurse managers in a round-table discussion (RTD).
The devised survey questionnaire was tested for its reliability and
revealed Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of 0.92 for patient turnover,
0.87 for nursing workloads, and 0.78 for outcomes of care. The survey
questionnaire was answerable by a five-point Likert scale from “1”
indicating never (N) to “5” always (A). Attached to the questionnaire
is a cover letter discussing the purpose of the study and assuring the
anonymity of the nurse respondent.
Prior to fielding the survey questionnaire, researchers

requested permission from the authorities of Global Medical Center
of Laguna. Upon approval, information, mechanics and purpose of
the survey questionnaire were conferred to the nurse respondents
through a meeting. Nurse respondents answered the survey
questionnaire after their regular duty hour. Researchers personally
administered the survey questionnaire to promptly answer any
questions regarding the study.
Subsequently, questionnaires were retrieved. Data collected

were summarized and analyzed using various statistical treatments:
frequency count and weighted mean were used to describe
occurrence of patient turnover, to determine nurse respondents’
compliance to nursing workloads, and define outcomes of care,
respectively; and Pearson’s r test of correlation was used to calculate
the linear relationship among variables (patient turnover – nursing
workloads and nursing workloads – outcomes of care) and whether
the relationship, if any, is significant or not. Also, a regression test was
performed to solve for the p-value noting whether to accept or reject
the stated null hypothesis.
25
Tables under present the analysis and interpretation to data

gathered in this study. Since indicators were stated positively, the
higher weighted mean agrees that there is less concern in the processes
each sub-concept entails. The legend in the table is a guide for the
interpretation of computed weighted means.
Table 1 summarizes the computed weighted means for

patient turnover. As presented, sub-concept discharge got a general
weighted mean of 2.92 ranking first, sub-concept admission came
second with a general weighted mean of 2.82, next was sub-concept
HAMA with a general weighted mean of 2.64, and last was a sub-
concept transfer with a general weighted mean of 2.55.
Results imply that sub-concept discharge being the first

among the sub concepts bring less demands in its processes. While sub-
concept transfer occuring as the last, contributes to increase workloads
to nurses. Also, while sub-concept HAMA was just added as part of the
patient turnover in this study, results show that it stands as a greater
impact than admission and discharge.
Despite the ranking, sub-concepts got weighted means with

a narrow difference from each other, an average difference of 0.12 and
all were interpreted as sometimes, this means that all sub concepts may
not be always frantic, yet needed to be understood to improve patient
turnover and avoid possible negative impacts to nursing workloads that
may result to poor outcomes of care.
26
Table 1
Weighted Means of Patient Turnover
Item Weighted
Indicator Interpretation Rank
No. Mean
Admission 2.82 Sometimes 2
Triage is immediate, accurate and effective.
1 Prioritizes patients according to immediate 2.71 Sometimes 3
health needs.
Orders for admission and initial treatment
2 are quick to be communicated to the 2.44 Rarely 4
attending physician.
Completion of patient’s admission database
3 is easy and simple, this includes consent for 3.03 Sometimes 2
admission.
Medical history is systematically taken;
4 laboratory results and diagnostic findings 2.35 Rarely 5
are speedy to release.
Initial medical orders are all noted and
5 3.55 Very Often 1
carried out promptly prior to endorsement.
Transfer 2.55 Sometimes 4
Order/request for transfer is properly
coordinated to the attending physician,
1 2.42 Rarely 3
relative and agency/institution/area where
patient is to be transferred.
Transfer summary (e.g. medical abstract)
2 and other documents are complete prior to 2.08 Rarely 4
transfer.
Orders of medical treatments and
3 medications are fully carried out prior to 3.41 Sometimes 1
transfer.
Personnel responsible for patient’s
4 1.94 Rarely 5
transport are prepared anytime.
Medical condition of the patient is
5 completely and accurately endorsed to the 2.92 Sometimes 2
receiving agency/institution/area.
Home Against Medical Advice 2.64 Sometimes 3
Risks of HAMA are well translated to the
1 2.95 Sometimes 2
patient and/or relatives.
Attending physician is properly informed of
2 3.20 Sometimes 1
the patient’s request for HAMA.
Consent for HAMA is detailed and easily
3 2.61 Sometimes 3
understood.
Few hospital staffs are involved in the
4 2.52 Sometimes 4
HAMA process.
5 Processing request for HAMA is simple. 1.92 Rarely 5
Discharge 2.92 Sometimes 1
Discharge orders (e.g. home medications,
1 3.59 Very Often 1
follow up consultation) are complete.
Final diagnosis is complete prior to billing
2 2.36 Rarely 4
out.
3 Auditing and billing out are correct and fast. 2.86 Sometimes 3
Discounts/deductions, if any, are easily
4 3.47 Sometimes 2
conversed to concern party.
Vacated rooms are immediately cleaned to
5 2.32 Rarely 5
prepare for next admission.
1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often
Legend: 1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 4.50 – 5.00 Always
2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes
27
Table 2 recaps the computed weighted means for nursing

workloads. As shown, sub-concept documentation was ranked first
with a general weighted mean of 3.25; second was sub-concept
medication administration with a general weighted mean of 3.06; third
was sub-concept assessment with a general weighted mean of 2.90;
next was sub-concept discharge planning with a general weighted
mean of 2.67; followed by sub-concept health education with a general
weighted mean of 2.66; and lastly sub-concept activities of daily living
with a general weighted mean of 1.92.
All the sub-concepts under nursing workloads were

interpreted as sometimes except for sub-concept activities of daily
living which was interpreted as rarely. With the computed general
weighted means and interpretation, it may draw out that nursing
workloads are affected by the existence of poor patient turnover. Sub-
concept activities of daily living is the sub-concept that was greatly
compromised while documentation was the sub-concept nurse
respondents noted they were more precise to perform. Although
other sub-concepts have higher computed weighted means, it is still
unacceptable to have sometimes as interpretation for all. For a care to
be of quality it should be consistent in all aspects, not just for a certain
task, as patients must be dealt with holistically.
28
Table 2
Weighted Means of Nursing Workloads
Item No. Indicator Weighted Interpretation Rank
Mean
Assessment 2.90 Sometimes 3
1 Gathers baseline assessments of 3.26 Sometimes 2
patient to include VS, medical
history, and level of understanding.
2 Assesses patient thoroughly prior 2.67 Sometimes 3
to any medication to be
administered and treatment to be
rendered.
3 Evaluates response of patient to 2.47 Rarely 5
medications administered and
treatment rendered.
4 Assesses patient carefully before 3.56 Very Often 1
making any referrals.
5 Correlates subjective data with 2.56 Sometimes 4
objective data (e.g. laboratory
results, diagnostic findings).
Documentation 3.25 Sometimes 1

1 Charts initial and transitory 3.24 Sometimes 3
assessment of patient’s condition
throughout hospitalization.
2 Notes any untoward medical 3.35 Sometimes 1
presentations of the patient.
3 Records patient’s responses to 3.30 Sometimes 2
medications administered and/or
treatments rendered.
4 Documents consent/waiver signed 3.18 Sometimes 4
by the patient and/or relative.
5 Writes and verifies verbal and 3.17 Sometimes 5
telephone orders. Have said orders
signed.
Medication Administration 3.06 Sometimes 2
1 Verifies doctor’s order of 2.92 Sometimes 3
medication.
2 Checks label, expiration, 2.55 Sometimes 4
consistency, route of medication to
be administered.
3 Prepares, personally, medication to 4.41 Very Often 1
be administered.
4 Adheres to the seven rights of 3.03 Sometimes 2
medication administration.
5 Acquires knowledge about the 2.39 Rarely 5
effects, side effects and
interactions of medications to be
administered.
Activities of Daily Living 1.92 Rarely 6
1 Assists patient in movement in bed. 1.91 Rarely 3.5
2 Assists patient in transfers and 1.97 Rarely 2
locomotion.
3 Assists patient in dressing. 1.70 Rarely 5
29
4 Assists patient in personal hygiene. 1.91 Rarely 3.5

5 Assists patient in feeding. 2.11 Rarely 1
Health Education 2.66 Sometimes 5
1 Informs patient of hospital policies 2.55 Sometimes 4
and safety evacuation plan.
2 Provides brief discussion of 2.65 Sometimes 3
patient’s health status, nature of
health condition, and medical
options to adhere.
3 Discusses to patient importance of 2.76 Sometimes 2
medications and/or treatments
ordered.
4 Educates patient of what to expect 2.83 Sometimes 1
after a medication is administered
and/or a treatment is rendered.
5 Teaches patient of efforts to take in 2.53 Sometimes 5
achieving optimal condition (e.g.
diet, activities/exercises).
Discharge Planning 2.67 Sometimes 4
1 Identifies health care needs to be 2.64 Sometimes 4
continued at home.
2 Teaches about self-care at home. 2.80 Sometimes 3
3 Completes discharge instructions of 2.85 Sometimes 2
patient to include
medications/treatments to be
continued at home and follow up
consultation.
4 Assists in referral to health 2.02 Rarely 5
agencies/institutions for out-patient
rehabilitation and support.
5 Ensures complete medical 3.05 Sometimes 1
documents needed by the patient
prior to discharge.
1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often

3.49 Sometimes
Table 3 outlines the computed weighted means for

outcomes of care. Ranked first was the sub-concept patient
complication with a general weighted mean of 2.74. Next was sub-
concept length of stay with a general weighted mean of 2.61, and last
in the rank was sub-concept patient safety which garnered a general
weighted mean of 2.57. All the sub-concepts were interpreted as
sometimes, and these suggest that all sub-concepts share fair
chances of being a concern as gauge for having good outcomes of
care. In this concept, the higher computed weighted mean suggests
higher risk it may pose an affect on the outcomes of care in as much
as indicators were stated negatively. Sub-concept patient
complication was seen to be of great concern by the nurse
30
respondents while sub-concept patient safety was the least.

However, nurse respondents reported that patient identification is an
issue and this may put the patients in danger. But despite the ranking,
it was obvious that all three sub concepts share narrow a mean
difference which entails that all three are concern factors to
outcomes of care in the existence of increased nursing workloads due
to poor patient turnover.
Table 3
Weighted Means of Outcomes of Care
Item No. Indicator Weighted Interpretation Rank

Mean
Length of Stay 2.61 Sometimes 2
1 Patient stays in the hospital in short 3.97 Very Often 1
period of time. Usually 1-2 days of
hospitalization.
2 Short hospitalization time is just 2.36 Rarely 3
enough to manage patient’s medical
condition by the attending physician.
3 Hospitalization depends on the 2.83 Sometimes 2
severity of the patient’s medical
condition.
4 Nursing plan of care is well executed 2.23 Rarely 4
in short hospitalization time.
5 Short hospitalization time ensures 1.64 Rarely 5
delivery of quality of care to
patients.
Patient Complication 2.74 Sometimes 1
1 Patients develop other medical 2.70 Sometimes 3
condition while in the hospital.
2 Patients are readmitted after few 2.76 Sometimes 2
days.
3 Patients failed to adapt to the course 2.56 Sometimes 5
of treatment.
4 Patients mistrust health care 2.64 Sometimes 4
provider.
5 Patients transfer service after 3.03 Sometimes 1
hospitalization.
Patient Safety 2.57 Sometimes 3
1 Medication errors are common. 2.42 Rarely 3
2 Patient identification is an issue. 3.53 Very Often 1
3 Injuries secondary to fall are 3.00 Sometimes 2
common incidents.
4 Medical equipment are substandard. 2.08 Rarely 4
5 Practices emergency evacuation 1.83 Rarely 5
plan.
1.00 – 1.49 Never 2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes 4.50 – 5.00 Always

Legend:
1.50 – 2.49 Rarely 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often
31
Shown in Table 4 are the computed Pearson’s r and p value

for patient turnover – nursing workloads and nursing workloads –
outcomes of care.
For patient turnover – nursing workloads, computed r = 0.94

indicates that there is a strong relationship between patient turnover
and nursing workloads. Since the computed coefficient has a positive
sign this suggests that as the patient turnover improves so as the
nursing workloads, however, when patient turnover declines nursing
workloads are compromised.
Researchers reject the null hypothesis (Ho) there is no

significant relationship between patient turnover and nursing
workloads as the p-value (0.01) is less than the set level of significance
(α = 0.05).
Table 4
Computed Pearson’s r and p-value for Patient Turnover – Nursing
Workloads and Nursing Workloads – Outcomes of Care
Pearson’s r p value
Patient Turnover – 0.94 0.01
Nursing Workloads
Nursing Workloads – 0.88 0.05
Outcomes of Care
Legend: α = 0.05
For nursing workloads – outcomes of care, computed r = 0.88

directs that there is a strong relationship between nursing workloads
and outcomes of care. Since the computed coefficient has a positive
sign this suggests that as nursing workloads advance so as the
outcomes of care, however, when nursing workloads falloff
outcomes of care degrade. Researchers reject the null hypothesis
(Ho) there is no significant impact of nursing workloads to outcomes
of care as the p value (0.05) is equal to the set level of significance (α
= 0.05).
32
Conclusions
In this study, researchers wanted to examine the

interrelationship of patient turnover to nursing workloads to
outcomes of care. Researchers strongly believe that quality of care is
dictated by the consistency and coherence of the preceded concepts.
As a whole, results show that patient turnover to nursing workloads
to outcomes of care share strong interrelationship.
Nurse respondents agreed that faulty patient turnover

results in for nursing workloads to fail, and alternatively, nursing
workloads are effectively performed when patient turnover is well
organized. Results of the study affirm that patient turnover, policies
and protocols behind its processes, affects nursing workloads by
increasing working demands and time to process admission, transfer,
HAMA, and discharge. A study to explicitly examine the effect of
nurse staffing on patient outcomes based on patient turnover levels
and found out that high patient turnover contributes to increased
demands and resources for care, likewise, The Labor Management
Institute found that nursing care units with higher patient turnover
had a higher rate of overtime for nursing staff and more adverse
events. Nursing workload is an aspect of nursing that must not be
taken for granted as this may be the determinant of nurse resignation.
Some of the reasons why nurses resign are work schedules and stress.
Nurses get stressed due to work environment and this includes
increased nursing workloads along with poor compensation, long-
hour duty, shift changes, not being and involved in the decision-
making process. Researchers assert that policies and protocols
behind the processes of patient turnover should be reviewed for any
inconsistencies in the actual procedures of admission, transfer,
HAMA, and discharge. Processes in patient turnover should be
concise and simple; also only few people should be involved in the
said processes.
33
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35
IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF THE MAGSASAKA SIYENTISTA (MS)-LED
COMMUNITY-BASED BANANA FARMING
SYSTEM IN THE PROVINCE OF
DAVAO ORIENTAL
Anna Mae F. Teoxon
Edito B. Sumile
Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines
ABSTRACT
One intervention for major concerns in the banana industry is the Magsasaka
Siyentista (MS) – Led Community-based Banana Farming in the province of
Davao Oriental. The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural
Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) funded this project to
rehabilitate and rebuild the province’s banana production destroyed by
typhoon Pablo last December 2012. This study was conducted to determine the
impacts of the effectiveness in terms of physical, economic, and behavioral
aspects. The study was a qualitative-quantitative research study which utilized
questionnaires, key informant interview and focus group discussions (FGDs) in
gathering data. Twenty-six farmer cooperators from the three municipalities
namely Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston served as respondents. Results showed
that the project has an impact on farmer cooperators in terms of physical,
economic, and behavioral aspects as evidenced by the overall means of 4.14,
3.58, and 4.73, respectively. Physical impacts are evidenced by the changes in
farms such as land preparation, farm management, and observance of good
agricultural practices. Economic impacts are manifested on the farmers’ net
profit per month. Behavioral impacts are assessed in terms of the change in the
attitude of the farmer cooperators and on how the project had been beneficial
to them. Also, results of the FGDs show that active monitoring and inspection
cause changes in farmers’ behaviors leading to physical and economic changes
in the farmers’ areas. Major problems encountered in the project
implementation included the pests and disease infestation in farms, the
weather condition in the area when the tissue-cultured banana seedlings were
distributed, and the marketing of the harvested bananas. Lastly, in view of its
positive impact, this kind of modality is recommended to be replicated in to
other areas.
Keywords: Public administration, Magsasaka Siyentista, community-based

farming, descriptive design, Davao Oriental, Tarragona, Cateel, Boston,
Philippines, Asia
36
Introduction
Banana is considered one of the essential crops (Marion &
Skwiat, N.D.) cultivated by many Filipino farmers (Calderon & Rola,
2003). The Davao region is known to be one of the top contributors
to total banana production with 38.2 percent (Philippine Statistics
Authority, 2018). In recent years, different agencies have developed
many technologies to resolve major concerns encountered in the
banana industry (Dolojan, 2016). One intervention funded by the
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources
Research and Development (PCAARRD) is the Magsasaka Siyentista
(MS) – Led Community-based Banana Farming System in the
Province of Davao Oriental. This project is in partnership with the
Davao Oriental State College of Science and Technology (DOSCST),
the Provincial Agriculture Office (PAGRI) Davao Oriental, the
Southern Mindanao Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources
Research and Development Consortium (SMARRDEC), and the
LGUs of Boston, Tarragona, and Cateel. Its general objective is to
rehabilitate the banana-cardaba production areas in the Typhoon
Pablo affected municipalities in Davao Oriental. It had a total
approved budget of Php 2,790,192.00 and its implementation
started last June 1, 2013, and ended on December 31, 2015.
The three municipalities were the most hit by Typhoon

Pablo. PCAARRD transferred science and technology (S&T)
programs to eleven (11) farmer cooperators from each municipality.
Moreover, these farmer cooperators were considered
Magsasakang Siyentista or farmer scientists. Their roles involved
assisting the communities stricken by Typhoon Pablo and address
issues and concerns concerning the province’s rehabilitation
actions on banana production.
Banana production yield in 2011 reached 9,165,046 metric

tons which is 0.70% greater than the previous year’s production
volume. Davao Region was the top producer of bananas in the
country which contributed 42% to the total saba production. Of its
five provinces, Davao Oriental is ranked third in terms of production
area planted in hectares and number of bearing hills from 2006 to
2010 (BAS 2012).
37
In the year 2012, Typhoon Pablo or Bopha (international

name) devastated the Philippines (Santos, 2013). It affected the
agricultural sector of the province of Davao Oriental. The damages
caused by typhoon Pablo almost amounted to Php 37 billion, of
which 26.53 billion came from the agricultural sector”. (Romero,
2012).
The Office of the Provincial Agriculture (PAGRI) reported

the production for 2012 to decrease after the occurrence of
Typhoon Pablo in the province. In this regard, the MS-led
Community-Based Banana Farming project intended to apply the
Science and Technology (S&T) interventions in the rehabilitation of
the banana plantation in the province of Davao Oriental. This study
was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the Magsasaka
Siyentista (MS) – Led Community Based Banana Farming System in
Davao Oriental.
In this study, the Logic Model was used to conceptualize

the success or failure of the project depended on the project’s
inputs and process. The inputs included trainee qualifications such
as age, sex, civil status, occupation, and monthly salary. It also
included a series of training conducted by the training staff. Lastly,
inputs included the project’s budget. The process included the
different pieces of training and activities devised to transfer Science
and Technology (S&T) intervention techniques to the farmers. The
outputs consisted of the results produced through those activities.
Lastly, the outcomes consisted of the benefits or changes that
resulted from the project such as the different impacts of the
project to the farmers in terms of the physical, economic, and
behavioral aspects. Included also in the outputs are the knowledge
and skills developed after the series of trainings. The Logic Model
was used to determine if the desired outcomes of the projects were
achieved or not. An analysis of the inputs, outputs, and outcomes
was done to the project ready to be evaluated. It helped in showing
relationships between the project’s objectives, its activities,
indicator, and resources used in the project (Dwyer and Makin,
1997)
38
At the end of this study, the researcher aims to determine

the resources required to achieve the desired outcomes of the
projects, know what knowledge or skills farmers need to achieve
the outcomes of the project, and determine what activities need to
be performed to cause the necessary learning and skills of the
farmers. Moreover, it intends to know the different problems
encountered by the farmers during and after the implementation
of the project. Lastly, it aims to know the impacts on the farmers in
terms of physical changes, economic changes, and behavioral
changes.
Methodology
The study was quantitative and qualitative research. It

used complete enumeration which involved 26 farmer cooperators
from the municipalities of Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston. The
researcher used the five farmer cooperators for the pilot testing of
the questionnaire. One farmer cooperator changed residence and
is presently in Iloilo City. The other one was unwilling to participate
in the study.
The survey questionnaire was prepared to identify the

knowledge and skills farmer cooperators deemed necessary to
achieve the project’s objectives and the activities needed to acquire
such knowledge and skills. Moreover, it assessed the impacts of
the project in the farmer cooperators in terms of the physical,
economic, and behavioral aspects. The frequency and mean ratings
were used to describe the findings of the survey. Key informant
interview with the project leader and Focus Group Discussions
(FGDs) among the respondents were also used to support the
findings. A 5-point Likert Scale was used as a basis in describing the
extent of the impact of the project on the farmer cooperators. The
scale below was used in evaluating the impacts of the project to the
farmers in term of physical, economic, and behavioral impacts.
39
Table 1
Likert Scale Used in the Study
Rating Qualitative Description
4.21-5.00 Strongly Agree
3.41-4.20 Agree
2.61-3.40 Neither Agree/Disagree
1.81-2.60 Disagree
1.00-1.80 Strong Disagree

Socio-Demographic Profile of the Farmer Cooperators
Table 2
Sex of the Respondents
Sex Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
Male 18 69.23
Female 8 30.77
TOTAL 26 100.00
The study had a total of 26 respondents. Of these, 18,

representing 69.23%, are males. On the other hand, 8, representing
30.77%, are females. These figures supported the gender roles
common to many Asian countries, including the Philippines. It is
mostly the men or the husbands who served as family providers
while the women or the mothers are considered the nurturer of the
children (Angeles, 2001).
Table 3
Age of the Respondents
Age Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
20-30 years old 1 3.85
31-40 years old 2 7.69
41-50 years old 11 42.31
51 years old and above 12 46.15
TOTAL 26 100.00
40
The respondents of the study were mostly 40 years old and

above. These individuals are approaching their late adulthood
stage. People in this age bracket showed little interest in growth in
terms of their growth orientation as compared to those belonging
in the lower age brackets (Ebner et al., 2006).
Moreover, younger adults to middle-aged adults are

mostly concerned with their growth and maintenance or
prevention of loss of wealth. Young adults are more expected to
focus on maximizing their growth given their younger age and
access to resources. However, as individuals get older, their
personal goals shift to maintain and prevent losses in the future
(Baltes, 1987).
Table 4
Marital Status of the Respondents
Marital Status Frequency (f) Percentage (%)

Single 1 3.85
Married 24 92.31
Widowed 1 3.85
TOTAL 26 100.00
Of the 26 respondents, 24 or 92.31% were married. One was

single, and another one was widowed. Majority of the farmer
cooperators have their own families.
Table 5
Monthly Income of the Respondents
Monthly Income Frequency (f) Percentage (%)

Below Php 5,000.00 7 26.92
Php 5,000 - Php 10,000 8 30.77
Php 10,001 - Php 15,000 7 26.92
Php 15,001 - Php 20,000 2 7.69
Php 20,001 - Php 50,000 2 7.69
Php 50,000 above 0 0.00
TOTAL 26 100.00
Most respondents representing 30.77% had a monthly

income of Php 5,000 to Php 10,000.
41
Resources Needed to Achieve the Project’s Outcomes

The identified inputs of the project included the farm
supplies and materials for the establishment of the banana farms.
The farmer cooperators received these in the first year of
implementation. These farm inputs included the tissue-cultured
banana plantlets, bags of limestones, bags of vermicast fertilizer,
bags of urea, weighing scales, farmers’ boots, gloves, masks,
logbooks, shovels, slashing bolos (lagaraw), polytwine, tie box,
desuckering shovel, pruning knife (sanggot), grab hoe (sarol),
knapsack sprayers, and impregnated polybag sheets. Included also
in the distributed supplies and materials are the plastic pails,
sharpening stones (bairan), Daconil, Mykovam, ammonium
phosphates, Muriate of Potash, hoesticks, Karate, Crop Giant, and
Parapest.
Training and seminars were also conducted in order to

achieve the goals of the project. Experts from the Provincial
Agricultural Office, the Bureau of Plant Industry, Municipal
Agriculture Office, LGU representatives, provincial agriculture
technicians, and the project leaders and their team from DOSCST
conducted these pieces of training.
Monitoring and inspection were also done. DOSCST staff

together with the Provincial and Municipal Agriculture Office
visited the farms and assessed how well the farmer cooperators
incorporated the S&T intervention techniques in their farms. During
the second year of implementation, farmer cooperators had
already given suckers to neighbor farmers in their communities to
promote the application of banana production techniques. With
the series of monitoring done, farmer cooperators admitted that
their behaviors toward banana production had changed. They now
follow the proper way of planting banana seedlings, and with the
S&T interventions, their harvests yielded better results.
42
Assessed Needs of the Farmer Cooperators

Assessing the Needs of the Farmer Cooperators (in terms of
knowledge and skills)
Table 6
List of Knowledge and Skills Deemed Necessary by Farmers
Knowledge and Skills Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
Good Agricultural Practices 25 16.03
Pest/Disease Control 23 14.74
Farm Management 23 14.74
Land Preparation 21 13.46
Field Design 20 12.82
Soil Enrichment 18 11.54
Spacing Fertilization 8 5.13
Others 4 2.56
Crop Rotation 3 1.92
Leadership Development 3 1.92
Marketing 3 1.92
Cover Crops 2 1.28
Irrigation 2 1.28
Bio-intensive integrated pest
management 1 0.64
TOTAL 156 100.00
Based on the conducted survey, the knowledge and skills

deemed to be needed the most by the farmers were to know the
good agricultural practices. It is followed by knowing how to
control pests and diseases affecting bananas and proper farm
management. They also identified the importance of land
preparation and the field design of their lands.
A series of training and workshops on banana production

and management were given to the 33 farmer cooperators.
Included in the training were soil requirements and land
preparation, field design, pests and diseases controls, and farm
management – which were all perceived to be necessary
knowledge and skills needed by the farmers to achieve the project’s
outcomes. Other training conducted involved climate and water
control, windbreaks, plantlet propagation, safety uses and
classification of pesticides and insecticides, fertilizer utilization, and
planting and spacing fertilization. (Terminal Report, 2015)
43
The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) results also supported

farmers’ believef that the most critical knowledge and skill they
should acquire are the good agricultural practices which included
proper farm management and maintenance. Most of them also
ranked next to pests and diseases and how to control them. They
admitted that all of them never wanted to have any pests or disease
in their farms. On the side of the implementing team, they believed
that incorporation not only of technology but of the science in
farming is essential as it sets these farmer cooperators apart from
other ordinary farmers.
Science and Technology (S&T) Interventions
Several technologies had already been developed to

resolve the significant issues farmers often encountered in the
banana industry. Some of these included “production of quality
fruits,” “availability of disease-free planting materials,” “tissue
culture as planting material,” “fertilizer and water management,”
“pests and diseases control,” “post-harvest handling,” and
“reduction of post-harvest losses” (Dolojan, 2016).
For this project, the following table shows the list of S&T
interventions done.
Table 7
List of S&T Interventions
Tissue-cultured banana
Liming (Soil sampling and analysis)
Field design and planting distance (including sticking and digging of
planting holes)
Fertilizer Application
Sucker management
Deleafing/pruning
Deflowering and debudding
Bagging
Proper harvesting procedure
Water and water management
Weeding and cultivation
Pest and diseases control
44
Assessing the Needs of the Farmer Cooperators (in terms of

necessary activities)
Table 8
List of Activities Needed to Achieve the Knowledge and Skill
Activities Frequency (f) Percentage (%)

Technology Training 26 18.71
Farm Cross-Visits 26 18.71
Using farm for Demo plots/field 25 17.99
Technology Clinics 24 17.27
Technology Advisory 22 15.83
Field Days 14 10.07
Others 2 1.44
TOTAL 139 100.00
Most respondents answered that technology training and

farm cross-visits are the most necessary activities in order to gain
the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve the project’s
objectives. Both are followed by using the farm for Demo
plots/field.
Grossman and Salas (2011) emphasized that training

concentrates on initiating the permanent cognitive and behavioral
changes on the trainee. Furthermore, it helps develop essential
competencies essential to do the tasks well. Farm cross visits, on
the other hand, allow farmers to observe the best practices each
farmer had on their farms. It is also the best way to expose farmers
to new technology. They can interact with other farmers and gain
additional knowledge on the improvement of their farms.
(Roothaert, et al., 2003) Shared problems can also be consulted by
other farmers.
Impacts of the Project to the Farmers
A 4.14 overall mean below shows that farmer cooperators

agree to the physical impacts of the projects to them. They affirmed
that the number of bananas planted per cropping season increased
in number because they were able to plant additional bananas from
the banana sprouts or suckers they had harvested from the mother
tissue-cultured bananas. However, just as what Quaim (1999) said,
45
having a tissue-cultured banana is not sufficient. An additional

effort from the farmer cooperators is expected. Additional inputs
and services are also needed to ensure that they will have a good
harvest. (Quaim, 1999).
Physical Impacts of the Project to the Farmers
Table 9
Assessment of the Physical Impacts of the Project to the Farmer
Cooperators
Physical Impacts Frequency Qualitative

Mean
Description
As a farmer-cooperator, I 1 2 3 4 5
Observed that bananas
planted per cropping
1. 1 1 0 17 7 4.08 Agree
season increased in
number
Learnt how to use
2. limestone in treating farm 1 2 0 12 11 4.15 Agree
soil
Planted disease-free
banana tissue-cultured
Strongly
3. seedlings following the 0 0 0 12 14 4.54
Agree
recommended planting
distance.
Observed proper 1 Strongly
4. 1 0 0 9 4.23
watering management 6 Agree
Learnt proper fertilizer Strongly
5. 0 0 0 15 11 4.42
application Agree
Observed farm
6. maintenance and weed 0 3 3 9 11 4.08 Agree
management
Strongly
7. Did regular leaf pruning 1 0 2 13 10 4.19
Agree
Observed sucker control Strongly
8. 0 1 1 15 9 4.23
and management Agree
Applied preventive Neither
9. control measures against 1 8 4 8 5 3.31 Agree nor
pests and diseases Disagree
Overall 4.14 Agree
The introduction of Science and Technology (S&T) farming

interventions through different pieces of training equipped the
farmer cooperators with the right knowledge in maintaining and
managing a banana farm. Applying S&T interventions enhanced
46
banana productions and its productivity is expected to go up during

cropping seasons (Anonymous, 2005). The case of the cardaba
production infused with S&T intervention in Tiniwisan, Butuan City
also support this. After their LGU’s Agricultural Office evaluated the
performance of the demo farms created for the tissue-cultured
banana, results showed that vegetative and yield performance of
bananas had improved. (Varela and Gonzales, 2016) Such results
were attributed to proper farm maintenance, proper application of
the S&T techniques transferred to farmers, and observance of the
proper agricultural practices taught during training. However, Item
no. 9 had a mean of only 3.31 which meant that the farmer
cooperators neither agree nor disagree if there was a physical
impact in terms of applying preventive measures to control pests
and diseases of their banana produce. One of the significant
problems encountered by the farmer cooperators after
implementation was the pests and diseases control.
Economic Impacts of the Project to the Farmers

An overall mean of 3.53 shows that farmer cooperators
agree that the project had an economic impact.
Table 10
Assessment of the Economic Impacts of the Project to the Farmer
Cooperators
Economic Impacts Frequency Qualitative
Mean
As a farmer-cooperator, I observed that 1 2 3 4 5 Description
Harvesting schedule for the bananas
1 1 3 0 10 12 4.12 Agree
became more frequent
Average weight of bananas per bunch
2 0 3 8 12 3 3.58 Agree
increased
Average number of hands per bunch
3 0 4 9 11 2 3.42 Agree
increased
Neither
Average number of fingers per hand
4 1 4 7 12 2 3.38 Agree nor
increased
Disagree
The number of kilograms of harvested
5 0 3 5 13 5 3.77 Agree
banana per cropping season had increased
6 Gross sales per harvest increased 0 4 7 9 6 3.65 Agree
7 Profit per harvest increased 0 3 8 11 4 3.61 Agree
Neither
8 Expenses per harvest increased 0 12 1 12 1 3.08 Agree nor
Disagree
Overall 3.58 Agree
47
According to Quaim (1999), planting tissue-cultured

bananas resulted in increases yields and income. However, total
production costs of the farms also increased due to increased
amounts of inputs provided to the farms. Also, in the case of Kenya,
it was observed that tissue-cultured (TC) banana seedling had
shorter maturity periods compared to nonTC bananas. This means
that the time from planting the bananas to its harvesting became
shorter enabling farmers to plant more. Bigger bunch weights were
also observed. (Mbogoh, et al., 2003)
In India, the same observation is noted. The feedback

received from planting TC bananas increased total yield and bunch
sizes. Overall productivity was also recorded to have increased by
35-40% as compared to previous years’ production. (Singh et al.,
2011). In the Philippines, specifically in Tiniwisan, Butuan City
recorded cardaba bananas with S&T intervention are relatively
taller and bigger than those with no intervention at all. (Varela and
Gonzales, 2016)
Moreover, bananas in plots with intervention have a higher

yield than those belonging to plots following the usual farmer’
practices in terms of some hands per bunch, the weight of the
bunch, the weight of the banana hands and the number of fingers
per bunch. It was reported that activities like correct fertilization,
irrigation, drainage facility, sucker control, farm sanitation, pruning,
and proper bagging had caused this increase. Also, these activities
lead to additional costs incurred by the farmers.
In Region XI, results of the project adopting S&T

interventions in saba/cardaba and lakatan production also showed
that there is a significant difference in terms of fruit yield between
the S&T-infused banana production and the normal banana
production. (Region XI Narrative Report, 2011) This was again
attributed to the number of inputs applied.
Tissue-cultured banana production is a high-input, high-

output type of activity (Quaim, 1999). This meant that higher capital
is needed in order to gain more profit in the TC banana production.
These TC bananas are considered very delicate planting materials,
and in order to produce higher yields, right growing conditions like
proper farm sanitation, weed management, fertilizer application,
48
regular nutrient application, and farm maintenance are required.

These activities all involved additional capital. Hence, it can result in
increases in farm expenses.
However, the results showed that expenses incurred per

harvest did not increase as opposed to the supposedly increase in
expense expected from planting TC bananas. Sixteen farmers or
62% of them disagreed with the increase in expense. Interviews
conducted with the farmer cooperators revealed that after using all
the inputs provided to them, most of them did not spend or spent
only a minimal amount for additional fertilizers. On the other hand,
there were 8 or 31% of them who bought and spent additional
expenses for farm inputs.
The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) results revealed that the

MS-led project had an impact economically on the farmer
cooperators. They admitted that there was an increase in gross
income. Additional income from banana production was also
utilized to send their children to school. They also shared that with
the current bills they were paying like for electricity, water, and the
like, now, they can set aside a part of their income for the family’s
savings which was an improvement to their status before.
49
Behavioral Impacts of the Project to the Farmers
An overall mean of 4.73 says that farmer cooperators

agree that the project had a behavioral impact.
Table 11
Assessment of the Behavioral Impacts of the Project to the Farmer
Cooperators
Behavioral Impacts Frequency
Qualitative
Mean
As a farmer-cooperator, I believed Description
1 2 3 4 5
that
The program contributed
Strongly
1 additio-nal knowledge to the 0 0 0 5 21 4.81
Agree
farmers
The program developed our
Strongly
2 management and leadership 0 0 0 5 21 4.81
Agree
skills
The program was able to help Strongly
3 0 0 0 6 20 4.77
us improve their means of living Agree
The knowledge and skills or
Strongly
4 techniques acquired were 0 0 1 4 21 4.77
Agree
appropriate and needed
The farming techniques were Strongly
5 0 0 0 5 21 4.81
not difficult Agree
The farming techniques learned
Strongly
6 were applied and used until this 0 0 2 6 18 4.62
Agree
day
The farming best practices
Strongly
7 learned were shared with other 0 0 0 4 22 4.85
Agree
farmers
If the same program is offered
Strongly
8 in the future, participation can 0 2 0 3 21 4.65
Agree
be expected
In a forum, seminar, or training,
I can share the knowledge Strongly
9 0 2 1 10 13 4.31
acquired and the skills Agree
developed through the project
The program can be
Strongly
10 recommended to other farmers 0 0 0 3 23 4.88
Agree
in other provinces
Strongly
Overall 4.73
Agree
Usually, farmers do not adopt any technologies in

managing their farms (Valera and Gonzales, 2016). They rely on the
knowledge their fathers or grandfathers had taught them. This
knowledge then is handed down to generations until it becomes a
norm. According to Mores (2012), it is noted that their attitudes
50
were similar to the “Kundiman” variety. PCAARRD defines

“kundiman” as a practice in banana production wherein farmers
just plant the bananas and leave them to grow on their own until
harvest without applying any proper production process.
However, PCAARRD also observes that when

interventions were introduced to farmers, they started quitting the
“kundiman” practice. (Mores, 2012) Interviews with farmers
revealed that after the training conducted, slowly their attitude
towards work also changed. Simple changes like waking up early
and going to their farms were observed. Furthermore, training
inculcated in their minds the values of industry and perseverance.
They also express their gratitude towards the agencies behind the
MS-led banana farming project in the province because, through
this project, their means of living was augmented. Some confessed
that they were able to send their children to school because of this
project. Others also stated that the additional cash inflow the
banana farming gave them was a big help to make ends meet. They
confirmed that many new learnings were acquired during the
training that they participated in. These included new farming
techniques which were not difficult to apply. Also, they believed
that this project had developed their management and leadership
skills applied to farm. One farmer cooperator was even recognized
as the best farmer in the province.
Furthermore, since only 11 farmer cooperators per

municipality were chosen, they felt that they needed to share what
they have learned to other farmers. One farmer strongly believed
that it is essential to teach co-farmers how to combat pests and
diseases. He emphasized that it would be useless if he was the only
one practicing good agricultural practices because if his
neighboring farms did not, his banana farms would also be
destroyed by pests.
FGD results showed that because of continuous

monitoring and inspections, they were trained to maintain their
farms and observe the S&T techniques transferred to them. They
expressed their willingness to participate again if the same program
is offered in the future. They felt that with the knowledge and skills
they had acquired through training and consultation with the
municipal/provincial agriculturists, they could also share what they
51
know to others through seminars or training or forums. Finally, they

strongly agree that this same program can be recommended to
other banana farmers in other provinces of the country.
Davao Oriental after the Implementation of the Project
Even before the inception of the MS-led project, several

Farmers’ Information Technology Services (FITS) Centers were
already established in the province of Davao Oriental. The center
supported farmers and tried to provide answers and solutions to
their problems. These provide the direct link of the Agricultural
Training Institute, the extension arm of the Department of
Agriculture, to the farmers. It served as a one-stop facility nearest
to most of the farmers, entrepreneurs, and other clients in a given
area.
Moreover, it offers both information and technology

services. Also, in the same way in Kenya, TC laboratories and local
farms are linked to enable farmers to start their banana nursery.
These laboratories are like the FITS Center; they provide and
transfer knowledge about improved management practices of
growing tissue-cultured bananas. Having them also makes it easier
to reach many other farmers (Quaim, 1999).
The project was a big help in empowering the community

in promoting the application of improved banana production
technologies. The 33 farmer cooperators were ready to become the
future magsasakang siyentista of Davao Oriental. One of their roles
as such is to share their knowledge with other farmers which they
had started doing.
Another success of the project was the development and

dissemination of Information, Education, and Communication (IEC)
materials. The project was able to create 400 copies of the
“Cardaba Banana Production Guide” which were distributed to the
farmer cooperators, FITS Centers, other farmers present during the
province-wide Farmer’s Field Day organized by DOSCST last
December 1, 2015. Also, 200 copies each of two other IEC materials
namely, “Pest and Diseases of Banana and their Control
Management” and “Cost and Return Analysis of ¼ Ha Cardaba
Production” were also created and distributed during the event.
52
Even though the project was terminated, farmer

cooperators were still followed up and monitored by the M&E
department of the college’s Extension Division. Majority of them
had religiously followed and applied the S&T recommended
technologies like proper planting distance, right kind and type of
fertilizer for their soil type, proper land preparation, good
agricultural practices, and proper farm management and
maintenance. They still kept pushing forward despite the setbacks
they have experienced from Typhoon Pablo, and now they are
slowly improving their livelihood from banana production.
Problems Encountered
Both the implementing team (DOSCST) and the farmer

cooperators admitted that there were problems. Presented below
are the problems encountered during and after the implementation
of the project.
Procurement of Inputs. The first problem encountered

was the procurement of plantlets. The project team leader stated
that the government procurement took so long that their initial
schedule for delivery and release of plantlets was pushed back for
a couple of months. It resulted in the schedule for the delivery to
fall on dry season. Stress on the plantlets became evident as its
mortality rates during delivery reached up to 40-60 plantlets
(Activity Report, 2014). Each farmer cooperator received 157 tissue-
cultured seedlings. Damaged seedlings were later on replaced.
Irrigation. The hot weather condition affected water

management in the farms as most were situated in the hilltops or
hillsides. Watering and water management became a challenge for
most farmers. Although there were some whose farms were
situated in the lowlands (kapatagan), problems regarding water
still existed. Accordingly, two drums of water were needed to
water the plantlets; however, some farmers opt to fetch water
using gallons which made the task very tedious and laborious.
Despite the difficulties, it was later overcome as bananas do not
need as much water growing as when they were planted.
Money. Another problem the farmers had shared was

financial problems. They admitted that at the start, they expected
53
to incur additional costs or expenses to prepare their lands for it to

be able to grow bananas-with that, they needed to hire additional
farm employees to help maintain their farms.
The Incidence of Pests and Diseases. After the project’s

implementation, farms in Tarragona, Cateel, and Boston were
mostly affected by the bugtok disease. This was caused by a
bacterium called Pseudomonas solanacearum, which is transmitted
to the plant by sucking insects (Fresco, 2002). Accordingly, the
spread of the disease is attributed to poor farm management.
Some control measures employed by farmers to control the disease
was desuckering, farm sanitation, leaf pruning, and bagging and
debudding. Another disease that plagued Tarragona and Boston
farms was the moko disease. The disease is caused by bacterium
Ralstonia solanacearum (Gil et al., 2015). It invades the vascular
tissues of the host bananas. The fruit rots and presence of
discoloration on the banana stalks and wilting of suckers are the
symptoms of moko disease. Other pests and diseases that infected
the area are banana stem weevil, black cross, and bunchy top.
It is believed that the rainy season was also one of the

factors of the spread of diseases. The same was the problem
experienced in Butuan City. The establishment of canals was the
answer to the problem. However, the construction would also lead
to additional costs.
Instability of Price and Marketing System. Another

problem common to the municipalities was the marketing aspect
of their product. After harvesting, they only rely on buyers passing
by. They never had a regular customer buying their products. The
buyers are usually wholesalers, middlemen, or kompradors who
buy their bananas for Php 4.00 to Php 7.00 pesos per kilogram. They
wanted to control the price of their products. However, due to lack
of competition in the area, the buyers exert a great deal of control
over the sellers which drive down prices of bananas.
Moreover, eliminating the middlemen reduces the number

of logistics and the time for the transport of goods from the
farmers to the consumers. This results in the increase of efficiency
as the farmers can directly replenish consumers’ stocks with their
harvested bananas (Kokemuller, 2018). Also, by selling directly to
54
the consumers, the freshness of the products are guaranteed, and

waste from delays in moving perishable goods is avoided.
Conclusions
The findings of this study entitled Impact Assessment of

the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS)-Led Banana Farming System in the
province of Davao Oriental are, first, Typhoon Pablo had indeed
affected the lives of the people of Davao Oriental. The typhoon
destroyed not only their houses but their means of living as well.
The province ranked first as the top producer of bananas in the
country before Pablo hit. As a result of devastation, many
programs and projects were prepared by the government, and one
of those is the Magsasaka Siyentista (MS) – Led Banana Farming
System in the province of Davao Oriental. The project aimed to help
farmers rehabilitate their farms and promote the banana
production industry in the province with the help of S&T
interventions and the use of tissue-cultured disease-free banana
seedlings again.
Also, different knowledge and skills were identified by the

farmer cooperators which they deemed necessary for the success
of the project. Their priority was knowing the good agricultural
practices which encompass many aspects of banana production.
They were also very interested in pest and disease control, farm
management, land preparation, and field designs.
Activities needed to be performed in order to achieve the

knowledge and skills identified. At the top of their list was the
conduct of technology training, farm cross-visits, observing demo
farms, technology clinics, technology advisory, and field days.
The farmer cooperators and the implementing team

encountered several problems during and after the
implementation. First was the procurement of the plantlets which
affected the schedule of delivery of the tissue-cultured banana
seedlings which fell during the dry spell of the province causing to
increase the seedlings mortality rate to 40-60 plantlets. Another
problem was the scarcity of water and water management. Since,
the distribution and release happened during the province’s dry
55
spell periods, water sources had dried up and water for irrigation
became a challenge. However, farmer cooperators were still able
to overcome this by using gallons and fetching water from the
source to the farms.
Financial problems were also present as their financial

resources were very limited. With expenses and bills, they admit
that it was difficult to make both ends meet. However, after the
project, the cooperators observed an increase in income which
enabled their families to set up savings which they could use for the
future. Pests and diseases were some of their most significant
problems after the implementation of the project. Different
diseases like bugtok/tibagnol, moko, the bunchy top infested their
farms.
Lastly, in assessing the impacts of the project to the farmer

cooperators in terms of physical, economic, and behavioral aspects,
the researcher concludes that there is an impact on the farmer
cooperators on all aspects as evidenced by the overall means of
4.14, 3.58, and 4.73, respectively. Furthermore, the researcher
concludes that active monitoring and inspection can lead to
changes in behaviors of project beneficiaries which then lead to
changes in physical and economic changes.
56
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58
NURSES’ ATTITUDES TOWARD
NURSING RESEARCH
John Mark Lingcon
Jean Claude S. David
Calamba Doctors’ College
Calamba Doctors’ Hospital, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The main problem of this study was to examine the nurses’ attitudes
towards nursing research in selected hospitals in Laguna. The study
was anchored on Donabedian’s structure-process-outcome
framework. A convenience sampling of (93) staff nurses and a
purposive sample of (7) expert nurses answered Boothe’s Attitudes
on Nursing Research Scale. The study made use of a mixed-method
design. The results showed that the most positive attitudes of the
nurses are related to payoffs and benefits described as “Strongly
Agree” which entails that nurses are to engross in research if time
permits and if there are monetary and promotion benefits.
Meanwhile, subscale interest and environmental support were
described as “Agree”, ans subscale barriers to conducting research
was described as “Uncertain”. The thematic analysis uncovered three
emerging themes namely, time, financial support, and reward. Staff
nurses agreed that their work should provide them time, financial
support, and reward with their research endeavor. The findings of
this study recommend that hospital management should provide
ample time, such as sabbatical leave or any leave of equivalence, to
staff nurses wish to participate in research activities. Also, hospital
management should plan/support programs leading nurses to
participate in research activities, such as the utilization of evidence-
based practice. Also, if possible, PRC-BON should outline policies that
will strengthen the structure and process of the research
infrastructure supporting staff nurses in doing research. Specifically,
policies should focus on time, continuing education programs,
opportunities to conduct research, and comprehensive assistance for
nurses engaging in research.
Keywords: Nursing research, nurses’ attitudes, Boothe’s attitudes, mixed

method, Laguna
59
Introduction
The nursing profession has long recognized the importance

of research as an indispensable foundation for its development.
More recently, the movement supporting evidence-based practice
has brought this aim into focal point. Nurse involvement in research
is essential to the expansion of nursing science and improved care for
patients. Nurses must provide care and intervention based on up-to-
date knowledge and research that supports the delivery of the
highest standards of care possible.
Preceded, are few heavy-weighted reasons for nurses to

appreciate research. However, as policies and professional
developments over the last fifteen years placed increasing pressure
on nurses to be more accountable for their actions. Nursing has seen
a shift away from the heavily theoretical work of nursing academics
to stronger emphasis on practice. Nurses, nowadays, are more
concerned on what is than how it is to be done.
Research is an essential part of fast-paced health

environment; it is a must to deliver effective and efficient quality
health care services to patients. Furthermore, research is significant
in today’s nurses’ professional role and responsibility intertwined
with concepts of efficiency, effectiveness and quality improvement
in delivering care to patients. Nurses develop their own professional
knowledge out from strong foundations built on research.
Consequently, nurses have a responsibility in some way to contribute
to the development of the profession’s knowledge through research.
The on-going change in the field of nursing strengthened the

standpoint of research as a milestone in nursing profession. Various
nursing organizations/agencies, both local and international, are
focused in uplifting nurses’ desire to indulge in research activities.
There is a felt need to understand the grounds of dissension between
research as fundamental to the nursing profession and the narrow
application and utilization of nursing research in the hospital setting,
an appreciation of the staff nurses’ attitudes in nursing research is
warranted.
The studies performed over the last two decades cannot be

generalized on their own but when combined several themes
60
emerge. An article compiled the common barriers to research as

reported by researchers using the BARRIERS scale, these include: (a)
lack of time; (b) lack of confidence in critical appraisal skills; (c) lack
of authority; (d) organizational infrastructure; (e) lack of support; (f)
lack of access; and (g) lack of evidence.

The researcher, a nurse by profession working in a private
hospital, was motivated to conduct this study to determine nurses’
attitudes towards nursing research and to exude and initiate
discussions on nurses’ attitude in nursing research, as there is dearth
of studies on this matter in the Philippines. Results of this study are
aimed at encouraging fellow nurses to indulge in the world of nursing
research.
Methodology
This study made use of the mixed method. The Mixed
method approach is one in which the researcher tends to base
knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds. It employs strategies of
inquiry that involve collecting data either simultaneously or
sequentially to best understand research problems. The data
collection also involves gathering both numeric information as well
as text information so that the final database represents both
quantitative and qualitative information.
Participants of the study consisted of (93) staff nurses,

chosen using a convenience sampling technique, employed in
selected hospitals in Laguna from any nursing setting and (7) expert
nurses, selected using purposive sampling technique and were
limited to those who have a masters and/or doctorate degree and
with experience in nursing administration, to categorize nurses’
attitudes into research infrastructure (structure, process, and
outcome). Staff nurses when characterized by gender: 83.87% (78)
were females and 16.13% (15) were males. Also, when grouped by age:
32.26% (30) were 21-25 years old, 21.51% (20) were 31-35 years old,
19.35% (18) were 26-30 years old, 13.98% (13) were 36-40 years old,
7.53% (7) were 41-45 years old, and 5.38% (5) were 46-50 years old.
Furthermore, staff nurses were distributed according to professional
61
levels: 80.65% (75) were RNs, 11.83% (11) were RNs with specialization
and 7.53% (7) were RNs with masters units.
The main tool of the study was a questionnaire lifted from

Dr. Patricia Boothe (Boothe’s Attitude on Nursing Research Scale).
The scale was developed by Boothe in 1981 as part of her dissertation
and used by Dr. Bostrom and colleagues in 1989, later by Dr.
Hofmeister in 2007. The original survey consisted of 46 items
designed to determine attitudes related to nursing research. All
items in the questionnaire have been subjected to a reliability test
with its Cronbach’s alpha, 0.84 for subscale interest and
environmental support, 0.80 for subscale payoff and benefits, and
0.64 for subscale barriers to research. The survey questionnaire was
answerable by a five-point Likert scale from “1” which indicates
strongly disagree (SD) to “5” which specifies strongly agree (SA).
Added to the lifted questionnaire is an open-ended question and a
comment aimed to yield emerging themes to support quantitative
findings. Attached to the questionnaire is a cover letter discussing
the purpose of the study and assuring the anonymity of the nurse
respondent.
The researcher secured a permit to conduct a study through

the Hospital Administrator/Medical Director of selected hospitals.
Upon approval, the researcher personally administered the survey
questionnaire to the participants. The researcher handed the
questionnaire in person to promptly answer any questions regarding
the study. Data were collected by a self-reporting method. The study
started on the last week of August 2016 and ended on second week
of October 2016.
Subsequently, questionnaires were retrieved. Data collected

were summarized and analyzed using various statistical treatments:
frequency count and weighted mean to assess degree of nurses’
attitudes towards nursing research; frequency count and percentage
agreement at 85% were used to categorize nurses’ attitudes into
research infrastructure (structure, process, and outcome), it was
done to better understand which procedure in research do staff
nurses needs reinforcements; ANOVA was used to note significant
deifference among the ratings of the staff nurses; and thematic
analysis was employed to identify areas that will increase nurss
engagement to nursing research.
62
Tables under present the analysis and interpretation to data

gathered in this study. Note that the higher weighted mean signifies
more positive nurse’s attitudes towards nursing research; legend in
the table is a guide for interpretation of computed weighted means.
Table 1 recaps computed mean ratings of nurses’ attitudes

towards nursing research. As shown, subscale payoffs and benefits
ranked first with general weighted mean of 4.51 followed by subscale
interest and environmental support with general weighted mean of
3.58, and last is the subscale barriers to conducting research with 3.27
as general weighted mean.
Results express that staff nurses strongly agree that they are
likely to engage in nursing research when there is positive
enticement. Enticement were not limited to promotion and salary
increase only, rather, results suggest that staff nurses will be entice
to join in nursing research if they are rewarded with time to
participate, evident as item numbers 38 and 39 – under subscale
payoffs and benefits – both got a weighted mean of 5 and interpreted
as strongly agree. Also, staff nurses conveyed that they have a strong
desire to indulge in nursing research, manifested by a mean rating of
4.97 interpreted as strongly agree for item number 1 under subscale
interest and environmental support, if chance will permit them.
However, staff nurses voiced that they get little to no support from
their workplace in conducting or participating in research, shown in
1.26 mean rating of item number 16 under subscale interest and
environmental support. Meanwhile, subscale barriers to conducting
research was seen uncertain as a factor for staff nurses to be
reluctant in participating research.
63
Table 1
Mean Ratings of Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing Research
Item Indicator Weighted Description Rank
No. Mean
Interest and Environmental 3.58 Agree 2
Support
4.97 Strongly Agree 1
1 I would like to conduct research.
2 I would like to put research high 4.88 Strongly Agree 5
on my list of priorities.
4 I believe my place of 1.99 Disagree 17
employment would provide me
ample assistance during the
research process.
ample consultative assistance
during the research process.
6 My supervisor would allow time 1.92 Disagree 19
in my daily assignment to
conduct research.
8 I know what is expected of me 4.78 Strongly Agree 6
when submitting my research
proposal to the hospital nursing
research committee.
11 I am familiar with selected 1.80 Disagree 20
statistical procedure for the
analysis of research findings.
12 I believe my job provides the 3.62 Agree 12
time necessary to conduct
research.
13 My colleagues (other 4.44 Agree 10
professionals) would encourage
me to conduct research.
14 My peers in nursing would 4.51 Strongly Agree 9
encourage conducting research.
15 I believe my peers in nursing 4.59 Strongly Agree 8
would assist in conducting
research.
16 My job provides ongoing 1.26 Strongly 21
professional programs in order Disagree
to conduct research.
18 I believe my working 2.98 Uncertain 13
environment provides ample
opportunity to conduct
research.
19 I believe my place of 2.92 Uncertain 14.5
employment has ample
secretarial assistance for anyone
wishing to conduct research.
20 I believe my place of 2.92 Uncertain 14.5
statistical assistance for anyone
wishing to conduct research.
64

assistance for anyone for the
analysis of results and findings
of the research that is
conducted.
27 Nursing research requires more 4.20 Agree 11
from me than I am willing to give
to my job.
31 Nursing research is more 4.95 Strongly Agree 2
essential in the medical setting
than in the psychiatric setting.
35 Time spent giving patient care is 4.63 Strongly Agree 7
more important than time spent
conducting research.
36 I am interested in conducting 4.90 Strongly Agree 3.5
research.
45 Nursing research should be 4.90 Strongly Agree 3.5
initiated by nurse researchers.
Payoffs and Benefits 4.51 Strongly Agree 1
3 Nursing research is conducted 4.74 Strongly Agree 8.5
because it allows nurses to be
promoted.
9 The informed consent necessary 2.84 Uncertain 17
for employee participation in
research prevents me from
conducting research in my work
areas.
22 I would conduct research if I had 4.92 Strongly Agree 5
the time.
23 I would conduct research if I knew 4.71 Strongly Agree 10
how to write the proposal,
conduct and analyze the results
and findings.
24 Research findings that are 4.94 Strongly Agree 4
advantageous to good patient
care can be implemented in my
working environment.
25 Nursing research is the means 4.89 Strongly Agree 6
whereby the theoretical basis for
nursing practice is derived.
26 Members of the treatment team 4.43 Agree 12
other than nurses should conduct
research relative to patient.
29 I would like to conduct a study of a 4.49 Agree 11
problem in patient care.
30 I would conduct research if patient 4.81 Strongly Agree 7
assignments were lightened.
32 Nursing research should be 4.96 Strongly Agree 3
initiated by nurses in the clinical
area.
34 Nurses would conduct more 4.00 Agree 15
research if more funds were
65
available for them to use for this

purpose.
37 Nurses receive praise from their 4.32 Agree 14
peers and colleagues when they
conduct research.
38 Nurses would conduct research if 5.00 Strongly Agree 1.5
they were provided time for
research.
39 Nurses would conduct research if 5.00 Strongly Agree 1.5
relief time were given to conduct
research.
41 I would do research if I knew more 4.40 Agree 13
about it.
42 Nurses criticized too much by their 3.74 Agree 16
peers when they conduct
research.
44 I believe that I would conduct 4.74 Strongly Agree 8.5
research if someone more
knowledgeable would help me in
the process.
Barriers to Conducting Research 3.27 Uncertain 3
7 The process of submission of the 4.27 Agree 3
research proposal to the hospital
nursing research committee is too
detailed.
10 The informed consent necessary 1.98 Disagree 8
for patient participation in
research prevents me from
conducting research in my work
areas.
17 I have the skills and knowledge 3.55 Agree 5
necessary for me to conduct
research.
28 Nursing research should be 4.72 Strongly Agree 1
conducted by nurses with
baccalaureate degree.
33 Nursing research should be 2.20 Disagree 7
initiated by nurses in education.
40 Nursing research should be 2.71 Uncertain 6
conducted by nurses with a
doctorate.
43 Nursing research should be 4.28 Agree 2
conducted by nurses with a
master’s degree.
46 Patient participation in nursing 4.01 Agree 4
research is difficult to obtain.
1.00 – 1.49 Never 3.50 – 4.49 Very Often
2.50 – 3.49 Sometimes
To better examine which nurses’ attitudes plays positive

motivation for staff nurses to indulge in nursing research, the
66
researcher noted top and bottom quartile of nurses’ attitudes

towards nursing research compared across the identified
professional levels.
Shown in Table 2 are the top and bottom quartile of nurses’

attitudes towards nursing research. The Top quartile suggests staff
nurses are willing and motivated to participate in nursing research
activities as they understand its importance in the evolution of quality
care to patients, thus, agree that research should be initiated by
those in the clinical area. However, time and nursing assignments are
factors that halt them from doing so. Staff nurses pointed out that if
hospital management will give them time and lessen their nursing
assignments, they will put research high on their list of priorities.
Meanwhile, bottom quartile express that staff nurses see

their workplace press them no support to participate in nursing
research acivities. They believe that their workplace lacks technical
assistance to back them. Also, statistical comprehension is a concern.
Table 2
Top and Bottom Quartile of Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing
Research Compared Across the Identified Professional Levels
RN with
RN RN with Masters
Item
Indicator (Subscale) Overall Specialization units
No.
Mean Mean Mean
(Rank) (Rank) (Rank)
Top Quartile
Nurses would conduct research
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
38 if they were provided time for
(1.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5)
research. (Payoffs and benefits)
Nurses would conduct research
if relief time were given to 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
39
conduct research. (Payoffs and (1.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5)
benefits)
I would like to conduct research.
4.97 4.97 4.91 5.00
1 (Interest and Environmental
(3) (7) (6) (2.5)
Support)
Nursing research should be
4.96 5.00 5.00 4.43
32 initiated by nurses in the clinical
(4) (2.5) (2.5) (16)
area. (Payoffs and benefits)
Nursing research is more
essential in the medical setting
4.95 5.00 4.91 4.43
31 than in the psychiatric setting.
(5) (2.5) (6) (16)
(Interest and Environmental
Support)
67
Research findings that are

advantageous to good patient
4.94 4.99 4.73 4.71
24 care can be implemented in my
(6) (5.5) (11) (8.5)
working environment. (Payoffs
and benefits)
I would conduct research if I
4.92 4.93 4.91 4.86
22 had the time. (Payoffs and
(7) (9.5) (6) (5.5)
benefits)
I am interested in conducting
4.90 4.92 4.73 5.00
36 research. (Interest and
(8.5) (11) (11) (2.5)
Environmental Support)
initiated by nurse researchers. 4.90 4.96 4.64 4.71
45
(Interest and Environmental (8.5) (8) (13.5) (8.5)
Support)
Nursing research is the means
whereby the theoretical basis 4.89 4.89 5.00 4.71
25
for nursing practice is derived. (10) (12.5) (2.5) (8.5)
(Payoffs and benefits)
I would like to put research high
4.88 4.93 4.73 4.57
2 on my list of priorities. (Interest
(11) (9.5) (11) (12)
and Environmental Support)
I would conduct research if
4.81 4.99 4.00 4.14
30 patient assignments were
(12) (5.5) (24.5) (22)
lightened. (Payoffs and benefits)
Bottom Quartile
I believe my place of
secretarial assistance for 2.92 3.00 2.64 2.57
19
anyone wishing to conduct (35.5) (34) (37.5) (39)
research. (Interest and
statistical assistance for anyone 2.92 2.97 2.55 3.00
20
wishing to conduct research. (35.5) (36) (39) (34.5)
Support)
The informed consent
necessary for employee
participation in research
2.84 2.81 2.91 3.00
9 prevents me from conducting
(37) (37) (36) (34.5)
research in my work areas.
Support)
conducted by nurses with a 2.71 2.67 2.64 3.29
40
doctorate. (Barriers to (38) (38) (37.5) (31)
conducting Research)
initiated by nurses in education. 2.20 1.89 3.64 3.29
33
(Barriers to conducting (39) (44) (29) (31)
Research)
2.01 2.01 2.00 2.00
21 assistance for anyone for the
(40) (39) (41.5) (40.5)
analysis of results and findings
of the research that is
68
conducted. (Interest and

1.99 2.00 2.00 1.86
4 ample assistance during the
(41) (40) (41.5) (42.5)
research process. (Interest and
ample consultative assistance 1.98 1.99 1.91 2.00
5
during the research process. (42.5) (41.5) (43) (40.5)
Support)
The informed consent
necessary for patient
participation in research
1.98 1.97 2.09 1.86
10 prevents me from conducting
(42.5) (43) (40) (42.5)
research in my work areas.
(Barriers to conducting
Research)
My supervisor would allow time
in my daily assignment to 1.92 1.99 1.64 1.71
6
conduct research. (Interest and (44) (41.5) (46) (44.5)
I am familiar with selected
statistical procedure for the
1.80 1.83 1.73 1.57
11 analysis of research findings.
(45) (45) (44.5) (46)
Support)
My job provides ongoing
professional programs in order 1.26 1.15 1.73 1.71
16
to conduct research. (Interest (46) (46) (44.5) (44.5)
and Environmental Support)
Nurses’ attitudes were categorizaed according to

Donabedian’s structure-process-outcome framework, it was done to
assess areas of research infrastructure which need intervention or
plan to increase satff nurses engagement to nursing resrearch.
Table 3 outlines how nurses’ attitudes were identified, by

expert nurses, in terms of the research infrastructure (structure,
process, and outcome). Nurses’ attitudes which focused on the
support of the the management/workplace were seen as areas to
review in improving structure of research engagement of staff
nurses. Meanwhile, nurses’ attitudes concerning support from
colleagues were perceived vital in the process of doing research.
69
Table 3
Nurses’ Attitudes Identified as Research Infrastructure by Expert
Nurses
Item Percentage of
Indicator Scale Frequency
No. Agreement
Structure
I believe my place of employment
Interest and
would provide me ample assistance
4 Environmental 7 100 %
during the research process.
Support
would provide me ample Interest and
5 consultative assistance during the Environmental 7 100 %
research process. Support
My supervisor would allow time in

Interest and
my daily assignment to conduct
research.
Support
My job provides ongoing
Interest and
professional programs in order to
conduct research.
Support
I believe my working environment
Interest and
provides ample opportunity to
conduct research.
Support
has ample secretarial assistance for Interest and
19 anyone wishing to conduct Environmental 7 100 %
research. Support

has ample statistical assistance for Interest and
20 anyone wishing to conduct Environmental 7 100 %
research. Support

has ample assistance for anyone for Interest and
21 the analysis of results and findings Environmental 7 100 %
of the research that is conducted. Support

Barriers to
conducted by nurses with
28 Conducting 6 86 %
baccalaureate degree.
Research
Nurses would conduct more
research if more funds were
Payoffs and
34 available for them to use for this 7 100 %
Benefits
purpose.
Process
My colleagues (other professionals) Interest and
13 would encourage me to conduct Environmental 6 86 %
research. Support
70
Interest and
My peers in nursing would
encourage conducting research.
Support
Interest and
I believe my peers in nursing would
assist in conducting research.
Support
Outcome
Nursing research is conducted
Payoffs and
3 because it allows nurses to be 6 86 %
Benefits
promoted.
Research findings that are
advantageous to good patient care Payoffs and
24 6 86 %
can be implemented in my working Benefits
environment.
Table 4 outlines the computed ANOVA for nurses’ attitudes

towards nursing research. As presented, computed p-values of
subscales are greater than the set level of significance (α = 0.05).
Thus, the researcher accepted the null hypothesis (Ho) there is no
significant difference among the mean ratings of nurses’ attitudes
towards nursing research. Accepting the null hypothesis was
reinforced by computed F-crits of subscales greater than F-statistics.
Results prove that staff nurses were unanimous in their

attitudes towards nursing research. Regardless of professional
levels, staff nurses share same sentiments and hopes when it comes
to research engagement.
Table 4
ANOVA for Nurses’ Attitudes towards Nursing Research
p-value F F crit
Interest and Environmental Support 0.87 0.14 3.15
Payoffs and Benefits 0.14 2.07 3.19
Barriers to Conducting Research 0.97 0.03 3.47
Legend: α = 0.05
Thematic analysis was employed to identify any emerging

themes from the open-ended question and comment of the
questionnaire.
71
Thirty-seven (37) comments were about time, staff nurses

need administrative time in the outset of their tasks to fulfill desire
for professional growth. A study was conducted that aimed to
determine clinical nurses' interest in and motivation for research and
foud out that clinical nurses emphasized that lack of designated time
as one of the reasons why they fail to engage in research activities.
Time constraints were previously identified as a barrier to conducting
research. Consequently, increasing available time will help increase
research participation.
Fourteen (14) comments focused on expanding financial

support hoped to be given by the state and employers, to the nurses
when they conduct research studies. Funding mechanisms are
needed to support coherent programs of research. Financial support
and a strong value for generating as well as disseminating knowledge
must be present within departments and schools, in the larger
academic institution, and at the national level. This study and that of
Dr. Hofmeister’s both found time and support as emerging themes.
However, in this study a specific type of support was identified, which
is financial support.
Also, fourteen (14) comments desire to have enticing reward

in exchange of nurses’ effort on professional growth and
development. This result supports the finding that most of the
nurses’ positive attitudes are related to the subscale payoffs and
benefits. Positive reinforcements (rewards) increase nusrses
participation and utilization of research.
Conclusions
This study was not set to find significant differences in the

attitudes of nurses related to research compared to other studies.
Instead, this study was initiated to describe and explore the
relationship among nurses’ attitudes towards research and the
supporting infrastructure. In general, the study shows no significant
difference among nurses’ attitudes towards nursing research. This
suggests that staff nurses share consistent attitudes towards nursing
research.
72
Nurses’ attitudes are generally positive and interested to

engage in research activities. The most positive attitudes of the staff
nurses were related to the subscale payoffs and benefits. Goals for
conducting research include the improvement of nursing care,
credibility of the nursing profession, accountability for nursing
practice and documentation of the cost effectiveness of nursing care.
Research engagement has several benefits: knowledge generation,
occasional cost savings (e.g. healthier workforce), better decision-
making and the development of research skills of individuals and
others. Investment in research is important in preparing the next
generation of nurse leaders which should start at the baccalaureate
level and continue to the doctoral or postdoctoral levels. Staff
nurses’ positive attitudes signify that the nursing profession
understands and appreciates the implication of nursing research.
These significant contributions over recent years include, but are not
limited to: (a) health services research that demonstrated the
importance of nursing services and how such services are
designed/organized to ensure safety and quality of care; (b) clinical
research that has demonstrated the value of specific nursing
interventions to improve health outcomes, including enhanced
survival, reduced morbidity, and improved quality of life and
consumer engagement; (c) basic science research that has advanced
discoveries in terms of understanding the biological mechanisms
underpinning nursing interventions; (d) epidemiological research
that has advanced understanding about how individuals and
populations respond to health problems; and (e) qualitative research
that has advanced understanding about experiences of and
responses to health and illness and the processes of care that are
important to optimal outcomes. However, staff nurses feel that they
get little to no support from their job. Studies suggest that there is
an urgent need for nurse administrators/hospital management to
implement in-service educational programs for nurses in conducting
and utilizing nursing research. Nurses’ Working environment should
provide ample time, such as sabbatical leave or any leave of
equivalence, to nurses who wish to participate in research activities.
Also, working environments should plan/support programs leading
nurses to participate in research activities, such as utilization of
evidence-based practice. Organizations need not only create,
disseminate and enculturate the practice environment, but evidence-
based practice should be included in the framework for nursing
administrative decision-making.
73
Staff nurses’ attitudes were categorized into research

infrastructures and it was noted that subscale interest and
environmental support dominated the structure and process aspect
of research enagement. This means that structure (materials,
facilities, and resources to do research) and the process (day-to-day
activities in doing research) need to be reviewed and initiate plan of
intervention to enhance staff nurses motivation to indulge in
research activities. A good supporting structure and process of
research infrastructure has the ability to achieve several outcomes
related to nursing research. These include: (a) increasing nursing
research knowledge; (b) increasing support for nursing research
through mentoring; and (c) development of a nursing research
education program. Meanwhile, subscale payoffs and benefits
dictated the outcome research infrastructure and suggests that
providing enticement or incentive to staff nurses will help them be
drawn to research activities. Hospital managements should facilitate
conditions of career advancement through indulgence in research
activities on the basis of changing technology and knowledge, staff
expectations, the necessity of decreasing cost and increasing
productivity. In addition to providing high quality services, these
career advancements attempt to provide opportunities for staff
nurses development.
Furthermore, the study identified three emeging themes:

time, financial support, and reward. Staff nurses expressed that time,
financial support, and rewards are concepts that would increase their
desire to engage in research activities. Lack of time was seen a barrier
for nurses to engage in research activities. Funding mechanisms are
needed to support coherent programs of research. Financial support
and a strong value for generating as well as disseminating knowledge
must be present within departments and schools, in the larger
academic institution, and at the national level. Positive
reinforcements (rewards) increase nusrses participation and
utilization of research. Previous studies identified several actions that
may contribute to overcoming barriers of nursing research
participation and utilization, such as providing resources, increasing
release time for participation in research, continuing education on
the research process and creating positions for nurse researchers in
clinical settings.
74
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76
IMPACT OF THE ZAMBOANGA SIEGE ON
WOMEN SURVIVORS: A POST-CONFLICT
ANALYSIS
Roel F. Marcial
Western Mindanao State University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Double enactment of roles, divorce, and separation were the dramatic
findings in the study, Impact of the Siege on Women Survivors in
Zamboanga City. It aimed to determine the reproductive roles and
socioeconomic effects utilizing descriptive quantitative and qualitative-
phenomenological design via FGDs among twenty (20) women
survivors, in-depth interviews for five (5) key informants and
community observation analysis on the two transitory sites. The study
revealed that poverty situation has increased recently due to loss of
homes and socio-economic opportunities continuous increase of
dropouts in elementary and secondary levels; and problems on public
transport, expensive fare, and financial and economic setbacks.
However, free water and electricity government supply obtained
satisfactory impressions. Hence, the study recommends: First, massive
and longitudinal livelihood programs and training may be conducted
strengthening women’s expansive and extensive development of skills,
crafts, and sustainability in financial and socioeconomic demands;
Second, periodic monitoring-recording of students’ drop-out be
conducted, localized or redirected on nearest affected schools; Third,
women should serve as neutralizers-negotiators in any conflicts or
peace deliberations; Fourth, educate everyone on the symbiotic
spouses roles of equity and equality to avoid “double enactment of
roles” among women; Lastly, an immense need for marital counseling
services from psychologists or counselors, lawyers, social workers,
community developers, religious sectors, and NGOs deemed for holistic
healing and reconciliation process.
Keywords: social science, double enactment of roles, women survivors,

reproductive roles, socioeconomic impact, descriptive quantitative
and qualitative -phenomenology, Philippines
77
Introduction
According to Ocampo & Judd (2005), armed conflict always

destroys much more than the physical plants and infrastructure. The
core of the damage is done to the fabric of society, to the stock of
social capital. Tigno (2006) also expressed that violence has the
potential to lead to conditions that produce significant collateral
damage particularly involving civilians and non-combatants. He
further explained that armed conflict can be the prevalence of
poverty flare-ups and will eventually result to involuntary and forced
evacuation of the people plus the economic marginalization and
social minoritization combined with political neglect.
The September 9, 2013 Zamboanga crisis that lasted for a

month has led to thousands and thousands of women and others
displaced. The sporadic fight between the MNLF insurgents and
military forces were accordingly heated from the MNLF elements
insistence to hold a peaceful rally in support of the independence for
Muslim-dominated areas in Southern Philippines. However, the local
government of Zamboanga refused to give the permit on the account
that the MNLF Rogue was heavily armed and failed to negotiate
which was resulted to an outbreak in the city. The almost one-month
crisis has led to economic degeneration of the city’s income, urban
warfare, displacement and fatalities on the government, MNLF
elements and civilians particularly the women and children. The
economic productivity including the livelihood of the people was
largely affected by the standoff.
Records of the Asian Institute of Journalism and

Communication showed that an estimated 4,000 pregnant and
lactating women were victims of the Zamboanga crisis delivered and
attended by traditional birth attendants housed in Joaquin F.
Enriquez Memorial Sports Complex known as the “Zamboanga
Grandstand”. The local government has recorded the rapid increase
of health cases such as diarrhea and other health and sanitation
problems. The number of health cases and sanitation problems were
due to lack of bathing facilities, gender-sensitive latrines, and
insufficient health and sanitation supplies. Most of the victims were
notably women and children. There were also cases of prostitution
and women trafficking recorded.
78
Three years after the Zamboanga crisis, the women

survivors and those displaced remained in the transitory sites. They
have not recovered yet from the damage or return to their homes
Thus, this study was made to assess the status of women survivors
and determine the impact of the Zamboanga Siege on the socio-
economic and reproductive roles of women. Further, the study
determined the level of political participation and decision-making,
cohesion and collective action, level of trust of women survivors and
women’s perception on poverty situation.
This study becomes significant as it seeks to contribute to

the growing number of works and researches on women in armed-
conflict in the Philippines by exploring how women themselves make
sense of their conflict experiences. The study will be helpful to the
women, advocacy groups, the local and national government, and
the academic institutions as this provides reliable information for
analysis and reference for future policy-making realted to peace
negotiation processes, women’s empowerment, and equity
productivity to pursue a peaceful and sustainable development in a
very meaningful way.
Methodology
Descriptive quantitative-qualitative phenomenological

research design was used as means for gathering, analyzing and
interpreting the data. There were two (2) types of respondents for
this particular study: (1) the women survivors (women who have
experienced displacement, victims of crossfires, trapped or hostaged
during the siege) who were subjected to focus group discussions;
and (2) key informants from the City Social Welfare and
Development, Barangay Chairpersons, Camp Managers and
Internally displaced person (IDP) coordinators who were interviewed
to validate women’s responses during the Focus Group Discussion.
Twenty (20) women survivors were selected and subjected

to FGDs in two separate sessions. The women participants were
purposively chosen through the help of the City Social Welfare and
Development Office, Camp Managers and IDP Coordinators. Ten (10)
79
women participants were taken from Masepla 1 & 2 (first study site)
while the other ten (10) women participants came from the second
transitory site (Tulungatong). Also, an in-depth interview was
conducted to the City Social Welfare and Development Officer, Camp
Managers and IDP Coordinators to elicit ideas and opinions on the
problems being studied.
Further, the study employed community observation (CO)

which is another tool used to record actual behavior of the people
particularly the women after siege. Community observations
involved interactions, conversations and descriptions of the locale
and the women being observed. Community observation is non-
participant observation where data were were by observing
structures, behaviors and events in the community setting.
There were three (3) research tools designed for the study:
first, the FGD participatory tool which is a module type of instrument
that contains eight (8) activities bearing the objective per activity.
The module includes the materials, procedures, sets of activities and
questions undertaken. Each of the activities was timed to determine
the number of hours consumed. Among the topics presented in the
activity were: socio-economic impact, women reproductive role,
poverty situation, access to basic social services, political
participation and decision-making, social cohesion and collective
action (bayanihan), and the level of women’s trusts. Second, the
study utilized semi-structured interview schedule for the key
informant interviews designed to obtain in-depth responses from the
identified key informants. The interview guide consists of eight (8)
related questions/topics: socio-economic impact, leaderships and
organizations, livelihood of women, access to basic social services,
poverty situation, degree of political participation and decision-
making, social cohesion and collective action and women’s trust.
Lastly, the study utilized a community observation tool to collect data
through or by observing structures, behaviors, and events in the
community setting. For this particular tool, the assigned field
assistant made a careful and objective note about what they saw and
heard.
All research tools were pilot tested and were translated to

Filipino and Tausug (local language) to make it understandable to the
participants of the study.
80
The study used descriptive discourse analysis to describe

FGD responses of women survivors of the Zamboanga Siege
particularly on the socio-economic impact, women’s reproductive
roles, degree of political participation and decision–making, cohesion
and collective action (bayanihan), and women’s level of trust
between and among community members and the government as
well as the women’s perception on poverty situation.
A. Socio-Economic Impact
Livelihood and Economy
The Zamboanga Siege gave a negative impact on the socio-

economic status of women survivors. The study found out that those
families living below the poverty line or low-income earners
experienced severe poverty after the siege, as there was a low
turnout in the income of women and other IDPs especially those
street vendors and laborers.
Added to the financial difficulties of the participants was the

‘distance’ of the resettlement area to their livelihood and economic
activities. Since most of the families have lost their jobs and
livelihood, women and other IDPs were dependent to government
support and international donors, which may have led to increase the
possibility and the development of support seeking behavior among
the participants.
The study found out that ‘weaving’, ‘dressmaking’ and ‘bag

making’ were amongst the livelihood programs retained and learned
by the women survivors and IDPs despite of the numerous livelihood
projects presented to them. This implies however, that learning the
skills and crafts on such livelihood programs sustain the daring needs
for survival and normalcy in financial stability.
Socio-Economic Infrastructure
Access to socio-economic infrastructure is high as the
women participants revealed that the presence of complete primary
and secondary schools (except for Masepla 1 and 2), churches,
81
mosques, sari-sari stores, plaza, water station, health facilities,

government offices, and market place were accessible near the
resettlement area. The barangay hall was made available which
catered to the needs and concerns of the IDPs. Updates and progress
of the barangay were provided in the barangay bulletin, citizen’s
charter and other informative charts.
The amenities were promising, to note. However, in terms of

security and assurance, health and convenience, the market place,
where most of the eking for living occurs was not as promising as the
former situation. The shopping and buying capacities of the local
consumers were low.
Access to Basic Social Services

This section presents the access of women survivors on the
basic social services before and after the siege.
Education and Social Welfare

The study revealed high access to education before the siege
compared to moderately low access after the siege. Women
participants held that children’s education before the siege was
promising. The study found out that children’s performance in the
school had dramatically decreased due to various reasons. Among
these reasons were the ‘distance’ of the previous school the students
were attending. Second, the students were in the state of adjustment
to the new schools environment such as new circle of friends, new
teachers, new peers, and new teaching styles.
Moreover, social and psychological adjustments and even

post-conflict healing and recovery for self-reconciliation or trauma
healing were sought undeniably by learners to gauge and to scaffold
the widening gap and barriers in relating with others.
Health Services
A very high accessibility to health services was recorded
before the siege compared to a moderately low after the siege.
Responses would indicate that access to health services had
decreased after the siege.
82
The diminishing response of women participants to health

services from a very high accessibility before the siege to a
moderately low after the siege was caused again by the ‘distance’ of
the transitory sites to the health facilities such as hospitals and health
centers/office. Though barangays have installed health centers, it is
not favorable as the former. The ‘distance’ of the former residence
of the women survivors to the Zamboanga City Medical Center (one
of the biggest public hospital in Zamboanga City) and the Zamboanga
City Health Office (a public health facility for the poor) is just about a
minute and practicable, the women revealed.
Access to health services therefore had a negative impact on

the women survivors.
Public Transport
Masepla 1 and 2 is part of barangay Mampang located in the
East part of the city and belongs to the second legislative district of
Zamboanga. It is approximately 5-6 kilometers away from the city
proper where most of the eking for living is found. On the other hand,
barangay Tulungatong is roughly 7-8 kilometers away from the town
proper and is situated in the West part of the city and belongs to the
first legislative district of Zamboanga.
The ‘distance’ of the transitory sites to city proper where

most of the economic and livelihood activities and education of the
children are conducted was another disappointment to the women
survivors plus the expensive and extra fare for baggage added to
their financial difficulties.
From a very high access to public transport before the siege,

it had decreased to a very low accessibility after the siege. Public
transport had obtained a negative impact on women survivors.
Clean Water and Electricity

From moderately accessible before the siege, clean water
and electricity supply had increased to highly accessible as the local
government of Zamboanga had provided free water and electricity
supply in two transitory sites. The free provision of clean water
source and electricity had a positive impact on the women survivors.
83
However, despite the free clean water and electricity supply

from the local government of Zamboanga, women survivors held
that they were willing to pay their water bills and electricity if had the
chance to return to their previous homes, where they had access to
all forms of economic and livelihood activities, education, health and
others.
The provisions of electricity and water had added to the

comforts and convenience in living of the women survivors, but were
only part and parcels of the basic needs of the victim for survival.
Water is a universal solvent that helps dissolves the essential
nutrients needed by the human body but the staple food or the
square meals like rice and viands are more equally. Thus, food with
water is a priority.
Women’s Reproductive and Community Roles

Reproductive Role
The study found out that there were no changes in the roles
of the women before and after the siege. Also, the study found out
that women did almost all of the household chores such as cooking,
sweeping, fetching water, washing cloths and caring for children.
Although women revealed that there were no changes in the role of
the women in their respective homes, the findings of the study
revealed that women had doubled their activities to meet the
demands of being a mother and an active member of the community.
The study also found out that despite the reproductive

health programs for family planning, couples opted to have the
natural birth control.
Political Participation
The participation of the women in the power structure and

decision-making is essential to the development of the community in
particular and in the society as a whole. The study found out that the
participation of the women in the political issues and decision-making
extensive after the siege. Women’s involvement in community
organizations, activities and programs were also notably serious.
Women were also active in various undertakings such leadership
seminars, trainings, and other relevant activities for women.
84
Leadership potentials and confidence of women has

increased from ‘high’ to a ‘very high’ level which is a manifestation
that women were empowered enough.
On the other hand, participation of the women in the

barangay assemblies before and after siege did not change.
Significance of the women’s participation slightly changed from high
to very high as well as the women’s influence on the decisions
reached in the barangay assemblies and meetings.
Decision-Making
Decision-making is important to maintain good relationship
among husband and wife. The study found out that both the husband
and the wife decide on the place of residence and education for
children, while the husband decides to work and the women makes
the budget. The study further found out that the setting of the
women’s relationship and her husband is the typical Filipino family.
Social Cohesion and Collective Action

The study revealed that women have become more active
after the siege. The level of social cohesion and collective action
before and after siege have increased from moderately high to very
high. Women’s social life commenced after the siege when they
began organizing women’s groups and empower others.
Also, the bayanihan spirit has become alive after the siege.
Women began to participate in the community action works and
gather to support on women’s advocacy.
Women’s Trust
One of the important features of this study was to
determine the level of trust of women. There were four categories
where women’s trust was evaluated namely: trust towards stranger,
trust towards other women in the community, trust on the barangay
officials, and trust to the local government officials.
For the purpose of comparison, women’s low level of trust

towards strangers did not change before and after the siege. Women
asserted that they cannot trust strangers especially after the siege.
85
On to their trust towards other women in the community, which has

been recorded as moderately low, did not change after the siege.
Women reported incidences of gossip which eventually led to conflict
between them. Women believed that they would rather not trust
other women in the community.
On to their trust towards barangay officials, this has slightly

decreased from high to moderately low. Women reported that
barangays officials may only come and know them during election
time. Their trust towards the local government officials has
decreased from moderately high to moderately low. Women also
reported that local government officials were fond of making
promises but never fulfill even a single promise they made.
Poverty Situation
The crisis in Zamboanga City happened sometime in
September 9, 2013, which have led to many Zamboangueños to suffer
from severe poverty situation due to the loss of their homes, job
opportunities, livelihood income, and other properties. Findings of
the study revealed that poverty situation after the siege had
increased.
The numbers of drop-out students and lack of socio-

economic opportunities plus the continuing demands of the women
to return to their previous residences were manifestations of women
suffering from severe poverty. Given the limited resources of the
local government and international supports, the women were
alarmed and threatened about the announcement of the local
government to end or discontinue the free provision of water and
electricity.
The situation and daring needs of the women survivors

became more serious especially that local government provision and
international support were about to end. The presence of the local
government units, NGOs, Civil Society Organizations and
international donors will never guarantee to uplift social status of the
women survivors. Women held that even if the government will
continue to provide support to the victims of the siege, they would
still prefer to return home especially that most of their livelihood and
economic activities were found in the town proper.
86
Conclusions
The Zamboanga Siege incident, based from the findings
obtained in this study yielded the following conclusions:
1. The women situation became worst after the siege.
2. Conflict was selective in terms of its impact. The findings

showed that women suffered socially and economically-
livelihood, education and the women’s reproductive
and community roles.
3. The separation or divorce experienced among women

developed emotional and psychological effect among
them and their children.
4. The double enactment of roles among women

increased their multiple burden to equally participate in
the power structure and decision-making (i.e., family or
community decisions).
5. Besides suffering from increasing poverty, women,

often were the most vulnerable to emotional and
psychological effect including the divestment and
destruction of their properties. The findings were
corroborated by various studies: (cf: Tigno (2006),
Ocampo and Judd (2005), Fabian (2004) and others)
which concluded that it is true that conflict and violence
have direct effect and the core damages not only limited
to the physical infrastructure, but to the social capital.
87
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89
FUNCTIONAL ADEQUACY OF COMPUTER
LABORATORY FACILITIES OF AN HEI VIS-À-VIS
INDUSTRY REQUIREMENTS SATISFACTION
Arnold B. Galve
University of Perpetual Help-Molino, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The study evaluated the existing computer laboratory facilities of an
HEI in Molino, Bacoor Cavite and its adherence with the industry
standards in terms of the following metrics: computer hardware,
computer software, safety, size of the laboratory, ventilation and
security as assessed by students, employees and industry experts. A
comprehensive examination of related books, online journals and
articles, unpublished materials and internet resources was done for the
technical requirements and operations of computer laboratories. The
questionnaire was used as the main tool in gathering the needed
information. It was pre-tested by faculty members of the College of
Computer Studies of the HEI and Industry Experts and went several
revisions based on the inputs and suggestions before the final form was
given to the respondents. The statistical tools used were: frequency
count, weighted mean, t-test and relative rank. Results were tabulated,
interpreted and analyzed and revealed that the computer laboratory
facilities of the HEI are “Fairly Adequate” in terms of computer
hardware, computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and
security. The overall grand mean showed that the computer laboratory
facilities of HEI are “Adequate” as assessed by students, employees and
industry experts. Moreover, findings of the research revealed that
there is no significant difference between the assessments of the
students and industry experts / employee respondents on the adequacy
of computer laboratory facilities.
Keywords: Adequacy, Computer Lab, Industry Comlab, Comlab adequacy
90
Introduction
Computers have been used in higher education for over

forty years both as a subject of study and as tools to assist in the
learning process within other disciplines. In that time, computer
laboratory classes have played a major role in the teaching of
computing subjects. Despite the perceived importance of laboratory
classes little research has been done on computer laboratory
environments and their effect upon learning as well as their
adherence to the existing industry requirements (Newbie and Fisher,
2014).
A computer lab is a space which provides computer services

to a defined community. Computer labs are typically provided by
libraries to the public, by academic institutions to students who
attend in the institution, or by other institutions to the public or to
people affiliated with that institution. While computer labs are
generally multipurpose, some labs may contain computers with
hardware or software optimized for certain tasks or processes,
depending on the needs of the institution operating the lab. These
specialized purposes include but may not be limited to video editing,
stock trading, 3-D design, and programming (Mc Campbell, 2015).
Aside from these, academic institutions mostly want to give each
student the opportunity to enhance their understanding of how to
use a computer and software programs that are appropriate for their
ability level. These institutions also want to assist and enhance
classroom curriculum through the integration of technology, and
allow students to acquire basic to advanced technology skills that will
be vital to all fields of study and understand how it will contribute to
their daily lives. (Van den Blink, 2015).
The University of Perpetual Help System – Molino Campus

has two computer laboratories for college students located at rooms
209 and 210 which house 40 computers each. The lab was installed
with CCTV cameras and a fully air-conditioned environment. The
computers on these labs are using licensed software with Windows
8 as its operating system, MS Office suite and various programming
languages based on the needs of the faculty or as requested by the
dean or the chair of the College of Computer Studies (CCS) for
programming purposes, latest and in demand programming
software such as Unity, and Eclipse, among others 3D Studio Max and
91
the like for games programming were not available, while Maya,
Python, C#, Android and IOS studio for mobile applications
development were also not available on these labs. The system units
were branded, newly acquired and the internal components that go
with it such as RAM, hard disk, motherboard, built in sound and video
adapters could somehow support basic systems and software
development. These laboratories are LAN connected and access to
the internet is possible as per request of the faculty in charge and
approved by the ITS.
The College of Computer Studies (CCS) has its office located

on the second floor, with the office of the dean, chair, student
council, and faculty room. It has three computers one for the sole use
of the dean, the other for faculty members and another one for the
secretary, all of which have printers and installed with Windows 8
operating system and MS Office. These computers were connected
to the Internet with restricted / controlled access. The Wi-Fi access
for faculty, staff and students are available only upon the approval of
the ITS.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework of the Study
The research made use of the combined industry standards

and CHED requirements for building computer laboratories, which
served as input for the study. Through survey, interviews, internet
research and questionnaire method, data were gathered to assess
92
the adherence of the existing computer labs of an HEI, the result of

which can be used to further improve the services and functionalities
of the computer laboratories.
The study aimed to find out the adequacy of the computer

laboratory facilities as perceived by industry experts, employees, and
students of an HEI.
Specifically, the study was conducted to:
1. Find out the level of adequacy of an HEI’s computer laboratory

facilities as perceived by the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Computer Hardware;
1.2 Computer Software;
1.3 Safety;
1.4 Size of the laboratory;
1.5 Ventilation; and
1.6 Security?
2. Find out if there is a significant difference in the
employees/industry experts’ and students' perceptions of
adequacy of the computer laboratory facilities?
3. Solicit the recommendations given by the respondents to
further improve the computer laboratory facilities of an HEI?
Methodology
Research Design
The descriptive method of research was used in the study. It
aimed to gather data on the overall adequacy of the computer
laboratory facilities based on industry requirements such as:
computer hardware, computer software, safety, size of the
laboratory, ventilation and security as assessed by twenty (20)
employees/industry experts and thirty-five (35) students from
different colleges of an HEI.
93
Respondents of the Study

The respondents of this study were thirty five (35) students
from various colleges of the school, currently enrolled for first
semester, academic year 2017 – 2018 and had classes on either of the
three (3) laboratories and twenty (20) employees / industry experts,
seven (7) of which were faculty members of the College of Computer
Studies and two (2) were from the Registrar’s office who were
Computer Science graduates and eleven (11) were industry
practitioners who were CS/IT alumni of the HEI.
Data Gathering Tools

Data were initially collected using focus group discussion
with some of the faculty members of CCS and students using the
laboratories to identify the problems they encountered and created
the initial content of the questionnaire. The researcher prepared the
questionnaire using the industry standards on computer laboratories
and the CHED laboratory selection criteria on COD for IT and
underwent pretesting. Three (3) CS/IT professors from CCS and other
schools looked into the format and items of the questionnaire and
rendered their intelligent judgment and suggestions as to its
adequacy and appropriateness and then the edited questionnaire
was emailed to four (4) industry experts for their comments and
suggestions. The questionnaire's final form was printed and
distributed to the intended respondents of the study, a survey
application on Facebook was also used to solicit the answers of the
industry experts / alumni and it was posted at the CCS-UPHSD Molino
group of the College of Computer Studies.
Data Analysis Procedure

The data gathered were tallied, computed, analyzed and
interpreted according to the needs of the study. The following
statistical tools were used in analyzing and evaluating the data
gathered from the questionnaire:
1. Frequency count: This was used to tally the scores of

the respondents on the items they answered on the
questionnaire.
94
2. Weighted mean: This was used to measure the central

tendency of the data in describing the adequacy of the
existing computer lab facilities. The obtained mean
values were interpreted using the 5-point scale below:
Range Description
a. 4.50 – 5.00 → Very Adequate
b. 3.50 – 4.49 → Adequate
c. 2.50 – 3.49 → Fairly adequate
d. 1.50 – 2.49 → Slightly adequate
e. 1.0 – 1.49 → Not adequate
3. t-test: This was used to assess whether the means of

two groups are statistically different from each other.
This analysis is appropriate whenever one wants to
compare the means of two groups, in this case, those of
the student and employee / industry expert
respondents' assessment of adequacy of HEI's
computer lab facilities.
4. Relative rank: This was used to tally and rank the

recommendations given by the respondents.
This section presents the analysis and interpretation of data

gathered from the respondents: twenty (20) employees / industry
experts and thirty-five (35) students of various colleges of the HEI.
1. Profile of the Respondents
The profile of the respondents covered sex, type and unit /

college where the respondent belongs.
A. Sex. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents by gender.

Fifty five (55) respondents participated in the survey. A total
of twenty nine (29) or 53% of them are male, which constitutes
the majority and twenty six (26) or 47% are female. This is due
95
to the fact that students and alumni of the college of computer

studies are predominantly males.
Table 1
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
Sex Frequency Percentage

Male 29 53%
Female 26 47%
Total 55 100%
B. Type. Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents according

to type. Student respondents numbered to thirty-five (35)
constituting 64%, employees were only eleven (11) or 20% and
industry experts / alumni were nine (9) or 16%. This means that
majority of the respondents were students who had classes on
the laboratories twice a week.
Table 2
Distribution of Respondents According to Type
Type Frequency Percentage
Students 35 64%
Employees / Industry 20 36%
Experts
Total 55 100%
C. Unit/College. Table 3 shows the Unit / College where the

respondents belong. The figure reveals that twenty-four
(24) or 44% were under the College of Computer Studies,
these include the students and faculty, eleven (11) or 20%
are Industry Experts, twelve (12) or 22% are from the
College of International Hospitality Management and
eight (8) or 15% are from College of Business
Administration and Accountancy. This means that a
greater number of the respondents have familiarity with
the details of the computer laboratory facilities.
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Table 3
Distribution of Respondents According to College/Department
College/Department Frequency Percentage
Computer Studies 24 43.64%
Engineering 0 0%
Business Administration 8 14.54%
Accountancy
Arts and Sciences 0 0%
International Hospitality 12 21.82%
Management
Non-Teaching Personnel 0 0%
Others (Industry Experts 11 20.00%
Total 55 100.00%
2. Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities of the HEI.
A. Computer Hardware. Table 4 shows the adequacy of computer

laboratory facilities in terms of computer hardware.
Table 4
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Computer
Hardware
Item Hardware WM WM
No. Specification (Student) VI (Employees VI
/Industry
Experts)
1 Internal memory 1.90 Slightly Adequate 2.40 Slightly

(RAM) Adequate
2 Secondary storage 2.40 Slightly Adequate 2.90 Slightly
(HD) Adequate
3 Video card. 1.70 Slightly Adequate 2.70 Slightly
Adequate
4 Sound card & 1.90 Slightly Adequate 2.70 Slightly
sound peripherals. Adequate
5 LED Monitors 3.80 Adequate 3.80 Adequate
6 Printer ratio 2.50 Fairly Adequate 3.40 Fairly Adequate
7 Network devices 2.30 Slightly Adequate 2.90 Slightly
Adequate
8 Projection 3.90 Very Adequate 4.00 Very Adequate
equipment
Overall Weighted 2.55 Fairly Adequate 3.10 Fairly Adequate
Mean
Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49
– Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.
97
Findings in table 4 showed that item number eight

“Projection equipment” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90 from
the student respondents and 4.00 from industry experts/ employees
both verbally interpreted as “Very Adequate”. The overall weighted
mean of 2.55 from students and 3.10 from industry experts are both
interpreted as “Fairly Adequate”. This means that the HEI has
sufficient hardware on the computer laboratories.
B. Computer Software. Table 5 shows the adequacy of

computer laboratory facilities in terms of computer
software.
Table 5
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Computer
Software
WM
Item Software WM VI (Employees VI
No. Installed (Student) / Industry
Experts)
1 Operating 2.70 Fairly 3.20 Fairly
System Adequate Adequate
2 OOP Languages 3.10 Fairly 3.70 Adequate
Adequate
3 Web 3.60 Adequate 3.80 Adequate
Development
Languages
4 Games and 2.20 Slightly 2.70 Fairly
Apps Languages Adequate Adequate
5 Wi-Fi and 1.80 Slightly 2.60 Fairly
Internet access Adequate Adequate
to PC.
Overall 2.68 Fairly 3.20 Fairly
Weighted Mean Adequate Adequate
Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 –Fairly Adequate; 1.50 – 2.49
– Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.
As shown in table 5, item number three “Web Development

Languages” got the highest weighted mean of 3.60 for student
respondents and 3.80 for employees / industry experts both verbally
interpreted as “Adequate”. The overall weighted mean of 2.68 from
students and 3.20 from industry experts were both interpreted as
fairly adequate. This means that the computer laboratory facilities of
98
the HEI had sufficient web development programming languages

installed.
C. Safety. Table 6 shows the adequacy of computer laboratory

facilities in terms of safety.
Table 6
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Safety
WM
Item Safety Criteria WM VI (Employees VI
No. (Student) / Industry
Experts)
1 System units: 3.90 Adequate 4.50 Very
AVR ratio. Adequate
2 Structured 3.60 Adequate 3.90 Adequate
wiring/network
cables.
3 Fire 3.20 Fairly 4.40 Adequate
extinguishers Adequate
on the lab.
4 Sensor-enabled 3.80 Adequate 4.40 Adequate
sprinklers.
Overall 3.63 Adequate 4.30 Adequate
Weighted
Mean
Legend: 4.50 – 5.00 – Very Adequate; 3.50 – 4.49 – Adequate; 2.50 – 3.49 – Fairly Adequate; 1.50 –
2.49 – Slightly Adequate; 1.00 – 1.49 – Not Adequate.
Results shown in table 6 reveals that item number one

“System units: AVR ratio” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90
verbally interpreted as “Adequate” for student respondents and 4.50
for employees / industry experts interpreted verbally as “Very
Adequate”. The overall weighted mean of 3.63 from students and
4.30 from industry experts are both interpreted verbally as
“Adequate”. This means that the computer laboratories of the HEI
were safe to use.
99
D. Size of the Lab. Table 7 shows the adequacy of computer

laboratory facilities in terms of size of the lab.
Table 7
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Size of the Lab
WM
Item Size of the Lab WM VI (Employees VI
No. (Student) / Industry
Experts)
1 Floor area. 4.20 Adequate 4.30 Adequate
2 Computer tables 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate
and chairs.
3 Movement space. 4.20 Adequate 4.10 Adequate
Overall Weighted 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate
Mean
Table 7 reveals that all items got a weighted mean of 4.20

from student respondents which is verbally interpreted as
“Adequate” and item number one for employee / industry experts
got the highest weighted mean of 4.30 which is interpreted verbally
as “Adequate”. The overall weighted mean for both respondents is
4.20 interpreted as “Adequate”. This means that in terms of the
computer laboratory size, the HEI has sufficient floor area and
movement space for users.
E. Ventilation. Table 8 shows the adequacy of computer

laboratory facilities in terms of ventilation.
Table 8
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Ventilation
WM
Item Ventilation/Indoor air WM VI (Employees VI
No. quality (Student) / Industry
Experts)
1 Air conditioner(s)/ 4.40 Adequate 4.60 Very Adequate
cooling system.
2 Ventilation and 4.40 Adequate 4.70 Very Adequate
windows.
Overall Weighted 4.40 Adequate 4.65 Very Adequate
Mean
100
Findings in table 8 showed that all items got a weighted

mean of 4.40 from the student respondents with a verbal
interpretation of “Adequate” and item number two “Ventilation and
windows” got the highest weighted mean of 4.70 from industry
experts. The overall weighted mean of 4.40 from students was
verbally interpreted as “Adequate” and 4.65 from
employees/industry experts was verbally interpreted as “Very
Adequate”. This means that the computer labs of the HEI have
sufficient indoor air quality and proper ventilation.
F. Security. Table 9 shows the adequacy of computer

laboratory facilities in terms of security.
Table 9
Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities in Terms of Security
WM
Item Security WM VI (Employees VI
No. Criteria (Student) /Industry
Experts)
1 Antivirus & 2.10 Slightly Adequate Fairly
virus 2.60 Adequate
definition
update.
2 Threat 2.90 Fairly Adequate Adequate
blockers 3.50
(Firewalls /
filters)
3 Access rights 3.90 Adequate 3.90 Adequate
to users.
4 CCTVs for user 2.90 Fairly Adequate 4.20 Adequate
monitoring.
5 Computer 3.50 Adequate 4.10 Adequate
status
monitoring.
Overall Weighted 3.06 Fairly Adequate 3.66 Adequate
Mean
Results shown in Table 9 reveals that item number three

“Access rights to users” got the highest weighted mean of 3.90
interpreted verbally as “Adequate” from students while item number
four “CCTV for user monitoring” got the highest weighted mean of
4.20 from employees/industry experts verbally interpreted as
“Adequate”. The overall weighted mean for students is 3.06 which
is “Fairly Adequate” and 3.66 for industry experts which is
101
“Adequate”. This means that the computer laboratories of the HEI

were properly secured and monitored
G. Overall Performance. Table 10 shows the overall adequacy

of computer laboratory facilities as assessed by students,
employees of the HEI and industry experts.
Table 10
Overall Adequacy of the Computer Laboratory Facilities as Evaluated by
the Students and Employees/Industry Experts
WM
Item INDUSTRY WM VI (Employees VI
No. REQUIREMENTS (Student) /Industry
Experts)
1 Computer 2.65 Fairly Adequate 3.10 Fairly Adequate
Hardware
2 Computer 2.68 Fairly Adequate 3.20 Fairly Adequate
Software
3 Safety 3.63 Adequate 4.30 Adequate
4 Size of the Lab 4.20 Adequate 4.20 Adequate
5 Ventilation 4.40 Adequate 4.65 Very Adequate
6 Security 3.06 Fairly Adequate 3.66 Adequate
Grand Mean 3.44 Fairly Adequate 3.85 Adequate
Table 10 reveals that the overall adequacy of computer

laboratories of the HEI is 3.44 for student respondents, verbally
interpreted as “Fairly Adequate” and 3.85 for employee/industry
experts which was verbally interpreted as “Adequate”.
3. Difference among the Evaluation of the Respondents in Terms of

Computer Hardware, Computer Software, Safety, Size of the Lab,
Ventilation and Security.
Table 11 shows the difference among the assessments of the

respondents regarding computer hardware, computer software,
safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.
The assessments of the respondents have been analyzed

using t-test at 5% level of significance. The values on the table above
were obtained using online calculation software on percentage
distribution, weighted mean and standard deviations via
102
www.calculator.net/, while t-test was computed via online t-test

calculator at www.socscistatistics.com/tests.
Table 11
Difference among the Evaluation of the Respondents in Terms of
Computer Hardware, Computer Software, Safety, Size of the Lab,
Ventilation and Security
t-
STANDARD t- value
VARIABLES RESPONDENT TYPE MEAN DECISION
DEVIATION computed at
0.05
1.Computer Student 2.65 0.849 -1.520 2.021 Accept Ho
Hardware Employee/Industry 3.10 0.571
Expert
2.Computer Student 2.68 0.712 -1.290 Accept Ho
Software Employee/Industry 3.20 0.552
Expert
3. Safety Student 3.63 0.309 -3.280 Accept Ho
Employee/Industry 4.30 0.271
Expert
4. Size of the Student 4.20 0.000 0.000 Accept Ho
Lab Employee/Industry 4.20 0.100
Expert
5.Ventilation Student 4.40 0.000 -5.000 Accept Ho
Expert
6. Security Student 3.06 0.684 -1.420 Accept Ho
Expert
Table 11 reveals the result of the t-test on the assessment of

the two groups of respondents on the adequacy computer
laboratory facilities of the HEI in terms of computer hardware,
computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.
In terms of computer hardware, the computed t-value of -

1.520 is lower than the tabular t-value of 2.021 at 5% level of
significance. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no
significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in
terms of computer hardware is accepted.
The computed t-value of -1.290 is lower than the tabular t-

value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of computer
103
software. The null hypothesis, which states that there is no

significant difference among the assessments of the respondents in
terms of computer software is accepted.

value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of safety. The null
hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among
the assessments of the respondents in terms of safety is accepted.
The computed t-value of 0.000 is lower than the tabular t-

value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of the size of the lab.
The null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant
difference among the assessments of the respondents in terms of
the size of the lab is accepted.

value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of ventilation. The
null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference
among the assessments of the respondents in terms of ventilation is
accepted.

value of 2.021 at 5% level of significance in terms of security. The null
hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference among
the assessments of the respondents in terms of security is accepted.
The results simply show that there is no significant

difference among the assessments of student and industry experts /
employee respondents of the HEI in terms of computer hardware,
computer software, safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security.
4. Recommendations Given by the Respondents
Table 12 shows the recommendations of the respondents to

further improve the adequacy of facilities in the computer
laboratories. A portion on the questionnaire was allotted for the
respondents to indicate their recommendations not listed as items
on the survey questionnaire.
104
Table 12
Suggestions/Recommendations Given by the Respondents
Suggestions/Recommendations Frequency Rank

Upgrade computers 8 1
Faster internet and free Wi-Fi access for 6 2
students
Install additional programming languages for 4 3
game development
Install video cards 2 4.5
Install antivirus and update virus definitions 2 4.5
Conclusions
The computer laboratory facilities of the HEI is “Fairly

Adequate” in terms of computer hardware, computer software,
safety, size of the lab, ventilation and security as assessed by
students, employees and industry experts. The overall adequacy of
computer laboratory facilities of the HEI was “Adequate” as assessed
by students, employees and industry experts. There is no significant
difference between the assessments of the student and industry
experts/employee respondents on the adequacy of computer
laboratory facilities of the HEI as regards with computer hardware,
computer software, and safety, size of the lab, ventilation and
security.
105
References
Fisher, D. & Newby M. (2014). An instrument for assessing the learning environment
of a computer laboratory. Unpublished Research. USA.
Hawkins, B., & Oblinger, D. (2015). The myth about the need for public computer labs.
Educause Review. pp. 19-21.
https://www.owassops.org/webpages/BDishman/news.cfm?subpage=179203
https://www.rdmag.com/article/2006/05/lab-criteria-and-specifications
http://www.ched.gov.ph/central/page/orientation-meeting-on-the-set-guidelines-
procedures-and-proper-accomplishment-of-application-forms-for-coe-cod-in-
information-technology-education
https://www.calculator.net/
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests
McCampbell, A., & Liedlich, F. Ethics and the student computer lab. Journal of Business
Ethics. JSTOR 25072815.
MacPhee, L. (2015). Learning spaces: a tutorial. Educause Review. Page 8.
Pagala, R. (2014). Statistics revised edition. Intramuros, Manila; Mindshapers Co. Inc.
Van den Blink, C. (2015). Uses of labs and learning spaces. Educause Review. Page 12.
https://www.owassops.org/webpages/BDishman/news.cfm?subpage=179203
https://www.rdmag.com/article/2006/05/lab-criteria-and-specifications
http://www.ched.gov.ph/central/page/orientation-meeting-on-the-set-guidelines-
procedures-and-proper-accomplishment-of-application-forms-for-coe-cod-
in-information-technology-education
https://www.calculator.net/
https://www.socscistatistics.com/tests
106
BEHIND WHAT THE EYES CAN SEE:
UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEMS AND
CONCERNS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COUNSELEES TOWARDS AN ACCOUNTABLE
SCHOOL COUNSELING PROGRAM
Remy Rose Poblete
University of Perpetual Help-Molino, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Factors like personal issues, relationship with family members or other
people, differences in the community, and adjustments to the
environment often affect student conduct. These factors are usually
unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene. This study
investigated the problems and concerns that often beset the Junior
Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred by the
Discipline Office to the Guidance Office. Descriptive research analysis
was employed to determine what affects the behavior and
performance of 23 student counselees. Guidance counsellors conducted
an Intake Interview Assessment to see through the issues of the
students. Frequency distribution and percentage were used to present
the data. The most reported variables under this study were family
problems (19.93%), academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues
(13.73%). Typical concerns include being scolded by their mothers,
urgent feeling of improving low grades and easily getting nervous when
faced with difficulty. The range of problem was previously not
identified by the Discipline Office but was uncovered by the Counsellors.
Thus, the study resulted to a program that required the collaboration
of counselors, parents, teachers, school administrators and fellow
students through peer facilitators for the students to be assisted in
dealing with life's challenges and to be helped and nurtured in their
character.
Keywords: Guidance and counseling, student problems and concerns,

descriptive research analysis, Philippines
107
Introduction
Various collaborative approaches are used for school

guidance counseling around the world. Often, these approaches are
based on the cultural understanding of the challenges that students
face in their lives. In China, counselors work in the education system
of the country, where counseling includes political and thought
education as directed by the Ministry of Education (Lim, 2013).
Mexico takes into account the role played by religiousness and
spirituality in counseling. Integrating the spiritual aspect in guiding
students is essential in counseling (Hickle, 2013). India, on the other
hand, has a long history of help-seeking behaviors through healing
traditions. Professional counseling of students is still in the infancy
stage (Sandhu, 2013).
In the Philippines, guidance, and counseling consider

religiousness and spirituality, the intense drive for survival, human
interaction or “pakikipagkapwa-tao”, and the engagement of family
members and friends in helping students. Guidance and counseling,
and the role of counselors depend on the school culture and how the
school takes the responsibility in the student learning. In meeting this
role, schools are expected to use all of its resources to provide the
best for all students.
Schools strive for academic competency and excellence of

their students. It also aims to equip students the character that
embodies the school's values and vision, significant in their future
success. In light of this promising goal, any institution has to set forth
a disciplinary standard wherein students are expected to carry out by
all means for as long as they are under the care and supervision of the
school. Strict implementation of the school policies is expected in
order to instill appropriate behavior, enhance prosocial behavior,
promote a conducive learning environment and increase academic
engagement. These can only be achieved through the collaborative
partnership between the student, parents, and the school. However,
barriers exist that may clog this partnership and impede them to
cooperate with the school fully.
It is a prime responsibility of the school to make the students

learn. Students are entrusted to the school by their parents to be
equipped with lifelong learning and to become good citizens in the
108
future. It is a definite promise of the school to teach and keep

students safe while learning. In this regard, the bulk of the tasks rest
on the people in school. As the school aims to balance discipline and
guidance among its students, it tries its best to never incorporate the
functions of the Discipline's Office from the functions and
responsibilities of the Guidance and Counseling Office. However, the
Discipline's Office has to work in collaboration with the Guidance and
Counseling Office and vice versa for the betterment of the students.
Both offices share each other's thoughts and problems, and then use
them as a powerful tool to strengthen up the morale and boost the
spirit of the students who are in need of peace and solidarity from
themselves and others that surround them. The Guidance and
Counseling Office and Discipline's Office signify their way of
sympathy, understanding and leadership roles for the students and
their parents.
There are times when something goes wrong with a student

–it can be about his or her issues, the relationship among his or her
family members, differences in their community or adjustments in
school. Circumstances vary from student to student. These factors
affect how they behave. They may act out misbehaviors that are
contrary to the school's ideals. Due to different factors that affect
the students' behaviors, what a student needs at that certain time is
someone who can tell him or her where and how he or she went
wrong. It could be the teachers, parents or even their peers who
would be able to find out what was bothering them. One thing is for
sure, there must always be somebody in school who wants to help
the student to see for themselves why they have reacted or behaved
in such a way toward something, somebody else or toward
themselves. At this point, it is the Guidance and Counseling Office's
desire to assist the students with the problem that they carry. How
students would solve their problem and eventually relate well with
their environment is a call for counseling.
In one school at South of Luzon, it is a practice that the

Discipline Office assesses the intensity and nature of the student's
mistake, and then refers students to the Guidance Office for
counseling intervention especially if it is behavioral. From the
accounted misbehaviors of the students, tardiness and absences or
other reasons for discipline referral were not the sole issues of the
109
students. There are more to what can be seen from the students'
misbehaviors.
“What is essential is invisible to the naked eye”, is a

statement from the book of Antoine de Saint-Exupery, The Little
Prince. The counselees referred by the Discipline Office were the
same as the character of the Little Prince in the book. They have their
perceptions in viewing things which adults cannot completely
comprehend. They want something to happen in their lives which are
different from how the adults around them would have wanted to be
done. This study explored the reasons behind the counselees'
behaviors. Factors like personal issues, relationship with family
members or other people, differences in the community, and
adjustments to the environment often affect student conduct. These
factors are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene.
This study investigated the problems and concerns that often beset
the Junior Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred
by the Discipline Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office.
This study was designed and conducted to determine the

usual reasons why counselees referred by the Discipline Office fail to
comply with the school's policies and regulations. It came up with an
intervention that addressed the underlying concerns and problems
of the students. This study served as a guide to benefit the students
through a plan of action that the Guidance and Counseling Office
prepared in their program for the students who have troubles in
school. It is the Guidance and Counseling Office's way to serve the
students best especially those who are in distress. Moreover,
guidance helps the students discover their desirable traits, best
habits to acquire as young as they are and keep their values wherever
they go. Guidance starts as early as the learner stepped into the
school - preschool. Guidance will still exist for them even until they
graduate. Therefore, guidance should have a positive impact. The
role of guidance is to prevent any misbehavior from happening. If it
were not prevented due to different factors, guidance would be
there for the aftercare of the student. Guidance nurtures (Mendoza,
2005).
110
The problems and concerns of the referred students from

the Discipline Office were one by one introspected. The referred
student is a Junior Business High School student who was decided
upon to be given a guidance and counseling intervention after
investigation made by the Discipline Office that he or she has
committed a serious offense and after his or her parents or guardian
having agreed with the procedure.
Eleven factors were looked upon as part of guidance and

counseling intervention: family related problems, boy-girl
relationship, peer-related concerns, health problems, physical
appearance, personal concerns, adjustment problems, behavioral
concerns, emotional concerns, academic problems and career
related problems. Family problems include circumstances at home
which may affect the student in school. It includes conflicts with
parents, rivalry with siblings, the death of a family member, being
adopted, issues with family set-up and other related matters. Boy-
girl relationship problems encompass all issues and conflicts about
the relationship with the same or opposite gender. Peer related
concern includes issues related to building and handling friendships
and also peer pressure. Health problems refer to the inability to
function properly due to various ailments, disabilities, and other
diagnosed diseases. Issues with physical appearance refer to issues
about dissatisfaction in one's physical appearance – height, weight,
skin complexion, among others. Personal concerns refer to issues
governing identity crisis, addiction, clarification of values and other
personal matters. Adjustment problems refer to problems such as,
but not limited to, time management and poor decision making.
Behavioral concerns pertain to issues concerning one's action such as
tardiness, absences, bullying, immaturity, and others. Emotional
concerns refer to issues and conflicts about one's feelings, temper,
mood, and states. It includes getting worried, getting nervous, a
feeling of jealousy, thoughts of suicide and others. Academic
problems refer to the students' difficulties in achieving their
academic goals, acquiring the skills necessary for their advancement,
coping strategies and other related matters. Career-related problems
include possible problems in choosing one's career path.
111
Figure 1
Based on the identified problems and concerns of the Junior

Business High School students, data were derived. These data were
the reasons for the school to create ways and means in building a
respectful, safe, and supportive school atmosphere. The data
gathered opens a part of the school culture and environment where
these Junior High School Students revolve and participate. Thus, the
accountable school counseling program has its basis from the data
gathered these referred students. The school counseling program
was done to support the students in collaboration with the school
community which comprises of the parents, faculty, staff, and school
administrators.
Discipline Office is the department which comprises of the

Prefect of Discipline and Grade Level Chairpersons who monitor the
academic, attendance and behavior of the Junior Business High
school Students. While the Guidance and Counseling Office is
responsible for the implementation of a comprehensive guidance
and counseling services and programs to address the students' needs
and concerns. These two offices partner and work hand in hand with
the parents, teachers and school administrators.
The accountable school counseling program was anchored

on the unconditional positive regard from Person-Centered Theory of
Carl Rogers. It bridges the Guidance and Counseling Office and
Discipline's Office to the teachers, staff, school administrators and
112
parents. From the person-centered theory, the concept of making

the student the center of an accountable school counseling program
was conceptualized. The Guidance and Counseling Office adheres to
the belief that students are innately good and are accepted for who
and what they are.
In an accountable counseling program, the students will

have the confidence to solve their problems and regulate themselves
without any direct manipulation. Its goal is to implement activities
and services that can produce students who are fully functioning,
well adjusted, matured and open to experience.

Factors like personal issues, relationship with family
members or other people, differences in the community, and
adjustments to the environment often affect student conduct. These
factors are usually unseen but uncovered when counselors intervene.
This study investigated the problems and concerns that often beset
the Junior Business High School (JBHS) students who were referred
by the Discipline Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office. The
objectives of the study were specifically:
1. To investigate and analyze the problems affecting the

referred students' behavior and performance in school;
2. For the school administrators and the parents to become
more understanding of the needs and shortcomings of the
referred students. The findings of this study would be able
to shed light on the school administrators, faculty and
parents about the real concerns and problems of the
students. The Guidance and Counseling Office
continuously collaborates with the Discipline's Office,
school administrators and parents to attain this purpose.
3. For the Guidance and Counseling Office to device a
program or strategy on how to help the referred students.
Through the identified concerns and problems of the
Junior Business High School Students, the Guidance and
Counseling Office based its programs of activities and
services.
113
4. For the referred students to be assisted on how they are

going to deal with the challenges in their life. The students
must benefit from the guidance and counseling services.
The guidance and counseling program focused on the
life's problems, issues and concerns of the students as
identified in this study. The Junior Business High School
Ssudents would be guided more in becoming responsible
citizens with the skills they need as they face life's
obstacles with their well-grounded core values and
morals.
Methodology
Descriptive Research Analysis was employed in this study to

deliberately describe and analyze the characteristics of the problems
faced by the students in all aspects of their lives. This research design,
however, does not directly imply that the following variables causes
or predicts the misbehavior or misconduct of the students in this
study.
Junior Business High School Guidance and Counseling Office

has prepared the Intake Interview Assessment Form. It was a list of
problems that Junior Business High School Students were often
beset. The referred students read through the list slowly, and put a
check mark before the problem(s) that they feel were troubling them
at that given time.
A referral form was distributed by the Guidance and

Counseling Office to the Discipline's Office and the Faculty Room at
the beginning of the school year. Every time the Discipline's Office or
teachers had a referral, they have to fill out the form and submit them
to the Guidance and Counseling Office. The guidance personnel read
through the referral form and make a call-slip for the referred
student. A counseling session was then scheduled once the call-slip
has reached the student and the subject teacher allowed the
students to be excused from the class. If the student cannot miss his
or her class, another schedule will be given, or it will be better to ask
the student to come during his or her free time.
114
After saying the greeting, purpose, an explanation of the

statement of confidentiality, a form used by the Guidance and
Counseling Office synonymous to Informed Consent, the referred
student can be already be called a counselee once the student and
his or her parents agreed to the terms and conditions stipulated in
the statement of confidentiality. The statement of confidentiality has
to be signed by the parent or guardian and the student or else no
counseling session should take place. The first step of a counseling
session would be the filling out of the Intake Interview Assessment
Form. In this way, the student could go over the list of concerns and
problems people his or her age is going through and check or write
down everything that troubles him or her. Identification of the
student problem/s would be more comfortable in the first counseling
session through the use of the Intake Interview Assessment Form.
The referred students who were given the Intake Interview

Assessment Form automatically would be recorded in the Counseling
Inventory of the Counselor. Problems and concerns were charted
down at once for tabulation purposes. These gathered data now
become a critical data element of the Guidance and Counseling
Office.
Closely examining critical data elements that identify the

needs of the students and the school-wide issues that cloud success
is the first step to inform and guide the development and
construction of an accountable school counseling program. With
data, school counselors can paint a picture of the current situation in
the school for students and can begin to document their successes
and failures (Dahir and Stone, 2012).
The data used in this study came from the 23 students from
Grades 7, 8, 9, and 10. These students were referred by the Discipline
Office to the Guidance and Counseling Office for counseling. The
students have exhibited improper behaviors or have violated the
school policies and regulations which subjected them to counseling
as an intervention.
115
The identified specific problems and concerns affecting the

students ranged from family-related problems, boy-girl relationship,
peer-related concerns, health problems, physical appearance,
personal concerns, adjustment problems, behavioral concerns,
emotional concerns, academic problems, to career-related problems.
The most reported variables under this study were family problems
(19.93%), academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues (13.73%).
The typical family problems that the Junior Business High

School students dealt with included having been scolded by their
mother, which in this study, garnered the most number of responses
across grade levels with 12 out of 61 responses (19. 67%),
misunderstanding with father, 8 out of 61 responses (13.11%),
misunderstanding with mother 7 out of 61 responses (11.48%) and
having parents who are separated/not living together with 7 out of
61 responses (11.48%). The result shows that relationship with parents
has a significant impact on their child's behavior and performance in
school. Among all categories, this got the most number of responses.
The common boy-girl relationship problems that the

students dealt with included having been engaged in a relationship
with the opposite gender, which garnered the most number of
responses across all grade levels, with 5 out of 19 (26.32%) responses,
followed by having feelings towards one's best friend, 3 responses
(15.79%), physical attraction towards the opposite gender, 3
responses (15.79%), and others which includes "pinaasa" (meaning
hope; nowadays it refers to a person who seems to be offering
romantic hope to another but the truth is that he or she is not really
interested) and having a crush with a student from other section, 3
responses (15.79%). The result shows that there were students who
were engaged in relationships and encountered problems along with
it.
Peer-related concerns of the students across all levels

involved difficulty in handling misunderstanding with friends (7 out
of 13 respondents or 53.85%). Meanwhile, four students (30.77%)
responded that they are too easily led by their friends. One student
responded that he/she has a fear of making friends with the opposite
gender (7.69%) and only one student responded being pressured by
his/her friends (7.69). The Junior Business High School students
considered peers as the vital source of emotional support. This is the
116
reason why most of the students are so problematic every time they
have misunderstandings with their friends. Aside from being the
emotional support, the peers are also the source of pressure for
behavior. Since peers are very influential to the growing up teenager,
there were instances wherein the parents may deplore their child's
peer group, mainly when the values taught at home jeopardizes the
influences from the peer group. This causes now the big trouble for
the high school student.
Health problem has always been a factor that limits the

student to excel more in school. That is why this study did not
disregard its possible effect on the student's behavior in school. The
most prevalent health problem reported by the students is poor
eyesight, garnering 12 out of 16 responses (75%). Other reported
problems not mentioned in the questionnaire were asthma and
urinary tract infection garnering two responses (12.5%). Moreover,
one student reported being sickly (6.25%) and one with a skin
problem (6.25%). These findings must be referred to the school clinic
for proper intervention.
Junior Business High School students who suffer from

health-related risks may be attributed to modern lifestyle. Health
may be influenced by genes such as poor eyesight which garnered
the most number of responses. However, there are behavioral
factors that have to be considered too. Adolescents no longer watch
what they eat, they are prone to eating at fast food restaurants and
more processed food that can contribute to urinary tract infection.
The amount of sleep they have every day is questionable too; they
often mention that they have a hard time sleeping that caused their
tardiness.
Concerns on physical appearance were also studied since

the respondents are in the period of their development wherein they
become more concerned about how they look. Across all levels, the
most evident concern of the students was the dissatisfaction in their
height. There were 9 out of 16 (56.25%) students who claimed about
this issue. Top answers also included dissatisfaction with weight (4
out of 16 responses or 25%) and poor posture with three responses
(18.75%). Dissatisfaction with one's complexion may not have been of
great concern for the students.
117
Other students’ concerns also comprised of their addiction

to the internet as their primary personal concern (10 out of 26
responses or 38.46%), insufficient allowance with 6 out of 26
responses (23.08%), addiction to vices with 3 responses (11.54%),
other addiction, one responded explicitly to computer and one to
basketball (7.69%), 2 out of 26 responded that they are in need to
clarify values pertaining to insecurities (7.69%), pertaining to pride (2
responses or 7.69%) and one responded pertaining to envy (3.85%).
The most common adjustment problem that they faced was poor
time management with 8 out of 22 responses (36.36%). Other areas
of concerns are as follows: inability to concentrate on studies with six
responses or 27.27%), decision-making problems (with five responses
or 22.73%), difficult to understand (with two responses or 9.09%), and
one student reported to have had a traumatic experience (4.55%).
The key to healthy adjustment is the goodness of fit. This means that
there must be a match between the Junior Business High School
students' character and their environmental demands. When
imbalance happens, there are constraints that they must deal. In this
case, the character of the students does not fit the demands of the
time that their school work requires. This then leads to
maladjustment like poor time management which is a significant
source of other adjustment problems. They must be helped on how
to deal with the problems so that they could cope with the current
environment.
The most common behavioral concerns were tardiness with

10 out of 31 responses (32.26%) and being moody with 7 out of 31
responses (22.58%). Others include 2 responses for not
interested/lack of motivation (6.45%), 2 responses for cannot express
feelings (6.45%), 2 responses for acting childish or immature (6.45%),
2 responses for concentration difficulties and one response each for
teasing classmates (3.23%), being bullied (3.23%) and others- being
noisy (3.23%).
Junior Business High School students have to be goal-

oriented and adaptive. These are the demands they got from their
environment. Ideal as it is, they are still on their way on how to learn
to have this kind of personality. These high school students have to
be directed at adjusting to the circumstances and conditions of their
life. Being goal oriented and adaptive enables them to acquire
motivation to go to school on time; remember their role as a good
118
student and child to their parents; use the knowledge they have
learned at home and in school to understand others; be more
cautious in their relationships and solve their everyday problems.
Students at their age have these concerns because they are still in the
process of dealing with their mishaps and learning from the outcome
of their behaviors. These referred students were struggling more
compared to the others in their batch on how to go about the
behavioral concerns they face.
Emotional concerns included getting easily nervous with 9

out of 42 responses (21.43%) , 7 out of 42 (16.67%) claimed to get
lonely/sad, 6 out of 42 (14.29%) gets jealous easily , 4 responses
(9.52%) easily gets worried, 4 responses (9.52%) have thoughts of
suicide, 3 responses (7.14%) wants to be alone, another 3 responses
get scared, 2 responses (4.76%) gets easily discouraged, another 2
responses easily loses temper, 1 response (2.38%) easily gets
disturbed and 1 response (2.38%) claimed to be ditched by others
("pinaasa ako"). These results were indeed alarming. Four students
reported having suicidal thoughts. Proper guidance and support
were given to these students. It can be concluded that emotional
problems are prevalent in the lives of the students and this should
not be taken for granted for it may lead to many severe outcomes
such as but not limited to suicide. If the physical health of a high
school student is essential, their mental health has the same
importance. Mental health usually refers to emotional health. If they
are not reasonably adjusted, mental disturbance can cause them
some impairment.
Diagnosis of mental health disorders in children is essential

because these disorders can lead to psychiatric disorders in
adulthood (Kim-Cohen et al., 2003 cited by Papalia and Feldman,
2012). Half of all mental health disorders begin by age 14 (Kessler et
al. 2005 cited by Papalia and Feldman, 2012), the same age as the
Junior Business High School students.
Regarding the academic problems of the students, fourteen

out of 43 students (32.56%) said that they needed to improve their
academic grade. Eight out of 43 (18.60%) said that they have difficulty
doing subject requirements. Seven out of 43 (16.28%) had fear during
recitation, and six out of 43 (13.95%) felt pressured in meeting
academic goals. Five out of 43 (11.63%) of the students had poor
119
writing skills and 3 out of 43 students (6.99%) had poor oral

communication skills. Among all the categories presented in this
study, academic problems got the most number of responses next to
family problems.
Concerning career-related problems, the study revealed that

most of them are facing two major dilemmas. Twelve out of 17
responses (70.59%) said that they are not yet decided on what career
to pursue while 5 out of 17 responses (29.41%) claimed that they need
to explore career options based on their interests and potentials.
It is the function of guidance to help the individual

understand why the behavior is unacceptable which resulted in
consequences. The counselor has to be involved to establish rapport
with the students. This will enable the counselor to find out why such
unacceptable behavior was committed and to discover the motives
behind the undesirable behavior.
Conclusions
The factors that affect a student's performance and social

interaction in school are usually unseen but uncovered when
counselors intervene. In this study, it was found out that the most
reported factors that affect students were family problems (19.93%),
academic issues (14.05%) and emotional issues (13.73%). Typical
concerns include being scolded by their mothers, urgent feeling of
improving low grades and easily getting nervous when faced with
difficulty. The range of problem was previously not identified by the
Discipline Office but was uncovered by the Counsellors.
Thus, the findings would lead to conclusions on how best to

maintain discipline through Guidance and Counseling Services and
shed light to the school administrators about the significance of the
guidance and counseling program. It is the guidance and counseling
program that can help uphold positive discipline among the Junior
Business High School students. The guidance and counseling office
will collaborate with the Discipline Office, school administrators,
faculty, and parents to attain this purpose.
120
THE ACCOUNTABLE COUNSELLING PROGRAM
Guidance and Objectives Activities Performance

Counseling Indicators
Service
Information To provide information to Teachers, parents 100% dissemination
Service the teachers, parents, and and students of the information
students about the Guidance orientation of the through various
and Counseling Office and its Guidance Services organized
services. and Programs. programs.
To encourage teachers, Prepare a Career A very satisfactory

parents and students on Week Activity that to excellent
what to do and where to go has the theme that evaluation rating of
to if they have problems or centers on the the activities will be
concerns. students’ needs. reported and
documented to
Solicit the help of parents, Conduct a know the strengths,
teachers and administrators Parenting Seminar weaknesses and
in assisting the students in or activity in school areas for
their needs. that involves the improvement.
parents with the
theme that tackles
understanding the
millennials and
positive parenting
skills.
Organize a
Guidance
Consciousness
Week that has the
theme that centers
on the students’
needs.
Brainstorm for the

topic for the
brochures.
Create interactive
bulletin boards.
Conduct
seminars/workshop
s that can promote
and enhance the
needed skills and
information for the
teachers, parents
and students.
121
Individual To take into account Information data 100 % of information

Inventory Service pertinent information about about each student, about the students
students’ – data on his/her needs, are kept up-to date.
education, personal abilities, interests
information, and a summary (shown in the Confidentiality of
of interviews conducted standardized and certain data about
from part of the students’ psychological the student are
file. tests), routine maintained and
interviews, as well respected.
To make good use of such as his educational
information in guiding and family
students. background, are
compiled and filed
To enable the Guidance in a cumulative
Associate and Counselor to envelope.
follow-up the student as he /
she progresses in school. Students’
information are
utilized in coming
up with profiles /
characteristics of
the present student
population
necessary for
program planning.
Classroom To develop RHGP modules Seek the help of the 90 – 100% of the
Guidance/ RHGP that address the pressing class advisers in advisers can meet
Classes needs of the students. facilitating tailor-fit the students on the
modules through given class schedule
To facilitate self- regular classroom of RHGP.
development and meeting with the
camaraderie among the students. Evaluation survey
students through various should have the
topics that addresses their Visit the class every average of 4 or 5
present needs. quarter to facilitate which rates indicate
the RHGP module. very satisfactory to
excellent.
Routine To make individual and Ask permission Reach out all

Interviews/Pull- group interviews available to from the Principal students 100%.
out Sessions all students. and Subject
teachers for the Aimed at increasing
To identify possible source pull-out of the student awareness
of difficulty or trouble that students through a of the different
the student may have. letter. services and
functions offered by
To be used as a strategy for Arrange the Guidance and
prevention of future or schedule of pull- Counseling Office
ongoing maladjustments outs. especially the
counseling service
Make call slips which not all
before the pull-outs students are familiar
and admission slips with.
to be given to the
subject teacher This is to help and
after the pull-out. assist students who
122
are having trouble

Take down notes in or at risk.
each interview form
of the students to
indicate if they
need special
attention or further
intervention.
Psychological To guide the students about List the 100% or all students
Testing for their abilities, achievement, Psychological Tests must be able to take
students interests, study skills and that are currently the required
habits, personality and being used by the Psychological Tests
career choices. school for the for their level.
students.
To utilize the results for the 90 – 100% of the
students’ self-awareness; for Get the total results are available
parents to guide their number of the test for interpretation to
children and for the faculty materials and the student to help
and school administrators to update the him/her gain self-
help in meeting students’ Psychological Test understanding.
needs. Inventory.
100% of the
To be able to identify the Prepare the Test collected data are
students’ differing needs, materials and utilized for profiling.
personality, interests and schedule for the
abilities. administration of Provide information
the Psychological to 90 – 100% of the
To assess students’ needs, Tests to the students for better
concerns and problems if students. self-understanding
there are any that may arise and to monitor
in the psychological test Evaluate the test progress in school.
results. results.
Help 100% of the
Discuss the test completing
results individually students (grade 10)
to each student and become more
if necessary to their aware of their
parents too. attitudes and their
personal goals and
Report group career plans.
results of the level
to the teachers.
123
Counseling To let the parents and Orient the 100% of the

Service & Special students know the Discipline Officer, guidance associates
Case counseling process and the school and counselors
Management rights of the counselees. administrators and participate in
faculty about the trainings to keep
To help the individual counseling services abreast on current
achieve optimum growth so as to facilitate trends and
and development. coordination and researches on
referrals. counseling
To enable the student techniques and
achieve self-direction, self- Give referral forms similar topics.
understanding, and to have to the Discipline
sound decision-making skills. Officer’s Office and Address 90 - 100% of
Faculty Room. the students’
concerns and issues
Assist walk-in of those who walk-
students whose in and referrals.
concern may vary
from personal,
social, educational
or academic, or
choosing a career
difficulties.
Routine interviews
or test
interpretations
conducted proceed
to counseling if
there are deeper
concerns needed to
be addressed.
Academic & To develop students Monthly or Work hand in hand

Behavior towards a holistic process of quarterly with the faculty
Monitoring growth. consultation members, school
through advisers’ administrators and
To abreast with what is meeting and parents in achieving
going on in the student’s professional the goal in
academic as well as personal learning community developing the
life. meetings with the students all the
faculty members time.
for a working
partnership for the
student.
Discuss facilitation
skills for the
teachers to
encourage them to
be “Teacher
Counselors” for
their students.
Interviews with the

teachers and
parents are
conducted to
124
determine whether
students are
developing well in
school and at
home.
Referral Service To create an atmosphere of Encourage 100% of the
Internal Referral trust and professionalism to openness so as to Guidance and
by the parents, students, enable the student Counseling
Teachers/Admin teachers, and school to be provided the Personnel are
to Guidance and administrators which enable necessary committed to serve.
Counseling respect and confidence. assistance
Office whenever possible Encourage
or needed. professional help
when needed.
Ensure the smooth
and orderly delivery
of the Guidance and
Counseling services.
External Referral To have professional It is deemed 100% respect and
to other Helping relationships outside the important that cooperation are
Professionals/Un school campus that will help linkages between encouraged within
its/Institutions address the students’ and among an atmosphere of
Inside/Outside concerns and problems. professionals professionalism.
the University (Psychologists,
Psychiatrists,
Therapists,
Doctors) are
established or
maintained.
Referring party is
enjoined to discuss
the nature of the
problem with the
Guidance
Associate/counselor
.
Research & To be able to continue a Make evaluation 4-5 average
Program systematic evaluation of the forms for all the evaluation results
Evaluation effectiveness of the activities. (very satisfactory to
Guidance and Counseling excellent) guide
programs and services. Distribute and changes in the
collect them right programs and
To be able to utilize research after each activity. services of Guidance
findings by administrators, and Counseling
faculty and the Guidance and Tally results and Office.
Counselling Personnel. make report to give
recommendation Provide measure of
Serves as link between the about the activity. the effectiveness of
Guidance and Counseling the existing
Office and Administrators Provide information programs and
through the provision of that can be utilized services.
information based on by Guidance and
empirical data as bases for Counseling Enable the Guidance
decisions or actions. Personnel and and Counseling
School Personnel to have a
Administrators in 100% sense of
improving skills and accountability to
125
in upgrading or the school in the

strengthening delivery of
school programs. programs and
services.
Provide 100%
information on the
extent of
implementation and
evaluation of
services.
Other Services & To be aware of the need to Involve the Parents of students
Programs interact and maintain students’ family no play a vital role in
Parent-Guidance contact with parents, matter how indirect the education of
Associate/ teachers and other or how little it may their children.
Counselor significant people to the be.
Conferences student. 100% collaborative
Parenting Important efforts are exerted
Seminar information is to ensure the
relayed to the attainment of the
parents when school’s Philosophy,
needed to Vision and Mission.
encourage their
cooperation in
promoting the
welfare of their
children.
Other Programs Be able to coordinate with Guidance and 100% collaborative
for Teachers the teachers and school Counseling efforts are exerted
Teachers/Adviser administrators with the goal Personnel serve as to ensure the
s-Guidance of developing the totality of partners of attainment of the
Associates/Couns the student. allies/consultants in school’s Philosophy,
elor Conferences facilitating better Vision and Mission.
understanding of
students’ problems
or needs.
126
Peer Facilitators Peer Facilitator’s Program is The New Peer 100% of the Peer
Program created so that a Peer Facilitators will give Facilitators know
Facilitator can offer their pledges once how they differ
assistance to someone they have been from a parent,
within his or her own social accepted and they professor or doctor,
circle. will undergo the who guides and
initial stages or advises much like a
The students who will training of mentor because
become Peer Facilitators act becoming a Peer they have an
like soldiers who can offer Facilitator. intimate knowledge
special help to their of a situation or
associates, colleagues or A Peer Facilitator struggle that his or
friends in times of need or can be paired with her fellow peer or
trouble and they model other members student is facing.
good example of who are familiar
camaraderie in their groups. with the difficulties 90 – 100% of the
that his or her Peer Facilitators can
For students to have friendly fellow student is gain shared
persons to talk with who can coping with and experiences and
also be an ally for teachers, often they assist better
guidance and counseling them about their understanding of
personnel and parents. relationships, social one another
life, studies and therefore creating a
family problems. harmonious
relationship with
their peers and
other people in the
school community.
References
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Diagnostic Publishing.
Cinco, L.A. (2008). Guidance and counseling in schools. National Bookstore. National
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Dahir, C., & Stone, C. (2016) The transformed school counselor. Brooks/Cole Cengage
Learning, 2012.
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Gravetter, F. & Forzano L. (2016). Understanding research methods for the behavioral
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Hinkle, S. (2013). Counseling in Mexico, NBBC International.

https://c.ymcdn.com/.../Counseling _Around_the_World-.pdf
Horner, R., & Todd, A. (2006). Documentation project, defining a coherent office
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Ababa. School of Graduate Studies Institute of Educational Planning and
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students’ discipline in public secondary schools in Kandara District,
Murang’A County, Kenya. School of Education, In Partial Kenyatta
University. May, 2014. Retrieved April 1, 2018. From http://ir-library.ku.ac.ke
Letargo, M. (2008). Applicability of the “constructed model of counseling Filipinos

briefly” to High School Students. National Bookstore. National Library of
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2018. http://koha.nlp.gov.ph
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Mendoza, E. (2003). Guidance and counseling today. Rex Bookstore. National

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McGraw-Hill International Edition. https://trove.nla.gov.au
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128
DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION AND THE
PREDICTORS TO ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
AMONG UNIVERSITIES IN ZAMBOANGA CITY
Grace Ann L. Lagura

Ateneo de Zamboanga University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Universities as learning organizations work to embed learning into its
culture to adapt to changes and gain the competitive advantage over
others. This descriptive study described the extent to which the seven
dimensions of a learning organization by Watkins and Marsick is practiced
among the Universities. This study also established the statistically
significant difference among the Universities of Zamboanga City,
Philippines based on the dimensions of a learning organization. Data were
obtained through a survey among 194 faculty, interview of key informants
such as Deans and Middle Managers and focus group discussions among
faculty and student leaders of the three Universities. Results of the study
showed that the Universities in Zamboanga City are Very Satisfactory
Learning Organizations and there is a statistically significant difference
among the Universities in all dimensions except Team Learning and
Collaboration as established by Kruskal Wallis Test. Likewise, the
organizational performance of each University is described to be Very
Satisfactory. This study further determined through regression analysis
and stepwise method that the dimensions “systems to capture and share
learning” as well as team learning and collaborations are predictors of
organizational performance. This study proposes a Learning Organization
Framework as a guide for the Universities to help improve organizational
performance. Through qualitative data, three elements were identified to
contribute to the practice of the dimensions of learning organization: (1)
Organizational Characteristics which covers the type of University,
leadership and leadership structures, financial resources, population and
size; (b) Organizational Thrusts which include vision and mission, quality
education, community service and values; and (c) the Organizational
Learning Process which takes into account accreditation, research and
faculty expertise. The three elements along with the practice of the
dimensions and maximizing the predictors are recommended to improve
organizational performance.
Keywords: Dimensions of learning organization, learning organization,

organizational performance, universities, universities in Zamboanga City,
Philippines
129
Introduction
Education plays a major role in the ability of every

organization to adapt to change. The Higher Education Institutions
(HEIs) are required to enhance learning and make it scalable. They
need to develop new mechanisms for continuous learning and for
keeping abreast with the fast changing world. Consequently, these
institutions strive to practice learning organization and embed it in
their culture. The concept of learning organization is purported to be
the catalyst that will push forward the ideas and values of an
organization (Ellinger, 2000).
For HEIs to intensify learning, they have to embed in their

culture the principles of a “learning organization.” A learning
organization is a term coined by Peter Senge (2003) and his
colleagues to describe an organization that facilitates the learning of
its members and continuously transform itself to meet the goals of
the organization. Thus, higher education institutions endeavor to
become learning organizations to remain competitive in the face of
pressures from within and outside of their respective organization
(Mason, 2016).
It should be noted, however, that current literature on

learning organizations focused mainly on the organization’s financial
performance and very limited studies focused on HEIs. More
specifically, in the Philippines, studies on universities as learning
organizations using Watkins and Marsick (2000) is scant. Thus, this
study is an attempt to provide an understanding of learning
organization in universities in the country, more particularly the three
universities in Zamboanga City. Aside from examining the concept of
learning organization in local contexts, this study differs from
existing ones in terms of how organizational performance was
established, that is, the indicators were based on the areas of
concerns of the different accrediting agencies. Nevertheless, this
study is also based on the seven dimensions of learning organizations
in predicting the organizational performance. It identified the
different organizational elements contributing to the practice of the
dimensions of learning organization based on the rich discussions
among the administrators, faculty, and students.
130
Watkins and Marsick’s (2003) Integrative Perspective is a

combination of the Systems Perspective, Learning Perspective,
Strategic Perspective, and Learning Organization Building Blocks.
Watkins and Marsick assimilated the constructs found in the four
other perspectives to come up with the seven dimensions of learning
organization: creating continuous learning opportunities, promoting
dialogue and inquiry, team learning and collaboration, using systems
to capture and share learning, connecting the organization to the
environment, developing empowerment, and establishing strategic
leadership for learning.
Watkins and Marsick (2003) argued that the learning process

in the universities take place on four levels. It begins with the
individual learning level and progresses to team learning level as the
individual integrates within the organization and engages in the
development process. Eventually, as the individual becomes willing
to get involved, he moves to organizational learning level, which is
reflected in the culture and operating policies of the universities.
When the individual exceeds the organizational learning level, he
then reaches the global thinking level.
Moreover, the Integrative Perspective has the capacity to

integrate people and organizational structures to facilitate
continuous learning and encourage change in the organization. The
underpinnings of the model are the seven dimensions or action
imperatives of learning organization occurring at the individual,
team, and organizational levels. These seven imperatives
characterize organizations aimed at becoming a learning
organization.
Create continuous learning opportunities. Creating

continuous learning is making sure that the entire organization is
geared towards the learning of new skills. The reflective attitude that
comes with taking every action develops a deeper learning.
Continuous learning opportunities calls for organizations to create
work and working conditions that are conducive for people to learn
on the job and opportunities are provided to allow for professional
growth and development (Mbassana, 2014).
131
Promoting inquiry and dialogue. By promoting an

environment where inquiry and dialogue are highly encouraged,
barriers to communication within the organization is minimized.
Encourage collaboration and team learning. In a learning

organization, work is customized to make use of groups of individuals
to access different modes of thinking. Employees are grouped and
are expected to learn and work cohesively and collectively.
Establish systems to capture and share learning. Whether the

technology systems for sharing information within the organization
is high or low, these systems are created and integrated in the work.
Access to these systems must be provided to all employees. How the
organization manages its systems must support learning (Mbassana,
2014).
Empowered people toward a collective vision. In a learning

organization, the employees are involved in setting, owning, and
implementing a joint vision. The work responsibility is distributed
among the employees and decision making skills are honed. A
learning organization encourages participation of employees with a
collective vision and working towards the attainment of the vision
(Mbassana, 2014).
Connect the organization to its community and environment.

A learning organization maintains a harmonious relationship with its
community and environment. The organization acknowledges its
dependence on its environment. The information obtained from its
environment is used to adjust and improve work practices.
Providing strategic leadership for learning. In a learning

organization, leaders immensely impact the entire organization.
Leaders are expected to model learning and exhaust resources to
support learning of all employees. The organization must provide
strategic leadership for learning. Leaders must model and support
learning. Learning must be used strategically to meet the goals of the
organization (Kirwan, 2013).
132
This study sought to extensively describe the three

Universities in Zamboanga City as learning organizations on the basis
of Watkins and Marsick’s seven dimensions of learning organization.
Specifically, this study answered the following research questions:
1. To what extent do the three Universities in Zamboanga City

practice the seven dimensions of learning organization:
a. Creating continuous learning opportunities

b. Promoting dialogue and inquiry
c. Team Learning and Collaboration
d. Systems to capture and share learning
e. Empowering people toward a collective vision
f. Connecting the organization to its environment
g. Providing strategic leadership for learning
2. Is there a significant difference among the learning

organizations in terms of the seven dimensions?
3. What is the performance of the universities as learning

organizations in terms of the following?
a. Purpose/objectives/mission/goals/philosophy
b. Faculty
c. Curriculum and Instruction
d. Research
e. Student Services
f. Laboratory
g. Library
h. Physical Plant
i. Social Involvement
j. Administration
4. Which of the seven dimensions of learning organization are

predictors of organizational performance?
5. What are the best practices and challenges of the universities

as a learning organization?
6. What learning organization framework can be proposed to the
Universities?
133
Methodology
This study used descriptive research design in gathering

both quantitative and qualitative data to comprehensively describe
the universities as learning organizations guided by Watkins and
Marsick’s (2003) model. The study was conducted in three
universities in Zamboanga City. The respondents for the survey and
the focus group discussions include the faculty of the three
universities. The Academic Vice Presidents were interviewed as key
informants.
Instruments. Primarily, the study used the Dimensions of

Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) developed by Watkins
and Marsick for the survey among the faculty. A self-developed
questionnaire was used to determine the organizational
performance of the three Universities.
How are the three universities of Zamboanga City as learning

organizations in terms of the seven dimensions of learning
organization?
University A, as a higher education institution for 70 years, is

perceived to be a Very Satisfactory learning organization based on
the seven dimensions. All seven dimensions are frequently evident
or frequently practiced in the university as perceived by the
participants. Likewise, the interviews with key informants and
discussions among faculty and students revealed the reasons for
University A to be perceived as a learning organization.
It is clearly evident that all dimensions are practiced, which

parallel the statement of the VPAF, that the seven dimensions are
part of the university’s operational values and are mandated to be
practiced, although the dimensions are not specifically identified as
the seven dimensions of learning organization. The VPAF further
explained that there is no single dimension over the other but all are
practiced.
134
Team Learning and Collaboration is identified as the

dimension with the highest average mean score; however, it cannot
be strictly considered the most dominant dimension. Similarly,
Creating Continuous Learning Opportunities with the lowest mean
score cannot be said as the least dominant, because the difference in
the mean scores among the seven dimensions is minimally small and
all the dimensions are generally described equally. All dimensions are
described to be frequently evident or frequently practiced.
University B, as an autonomous and a sectarian private

university, is perceived to be a Satisfactory learning organization on
the basis of the seven dimensions. The participants described all the
dimensions as evident, yet need emphasis. Similarly, interviews with
key informants and the discussions among faculty and students
generated related responses. Participants do not discount the fact
that all dimensions are evident and practiced, yet participants
verbalized the need to maximize the manifestations of the
dimensions.
For University B, Team Learning and Collaboration is

identified as the dimension with the highest mean score and
Empowerment as the dimension with the lowest mean score.
However, both cannot be firmly identified as the dominant and least
dominant dimensions respectively, because the difference of the
mean scores among the seven dimensions is slightly insignificant. All
dimensions are thereby described as frequently evident or frequently
practiced within the university.
It is striking to note that University B, as a high standard

higher education institution and acknowledged as a high performing
university, is described by the participants as a Satisfactory learning
organization, significantly lower than the other two universities.
Furthermore, University C, the only government or state

university in this study, is a non-sectarian university. University C is
perceived to be a Very Satisfactory learning organization. All seven
dimensions of learning organization are described to be frequently
evident or frequently practiced. The result is greatly reflected in the
statements of the VPAF that the governance of the university is
holistic in its approach that it demonstrates all the dimensions of a
learning organization to achieve the goals of the university.
135
For University C, the dimension with the highest average

mean score is Strategic Leadership for Learning and the dimension
with the lowest mean score is Systems to Capture and Share
Learning. However, it is far from considering the former as the
dominant dimension and the latter as the least dominant because the
difference of the mean scores is slim and is slightly insignificant. All
dimensions have the same descriptions as perceived by the
participants.
Is there a significant difference among the 3 universities as learning

organizations?
Kruskal Wallis H test was employed to determine the

significant difference among the Universities as learning
organizations. Six of the seven dimensions showed no significant
difference among the three universities: Creating continuous
learning opportunities, promoting dialogue and inquiry,
empowerment, connecting the organization to the environment,
strategic leadership for learning and systems to capture and share
learning. Only in Team learning and collaboration did the three
universities show significant difference.
What is the organizational performance of the three universities as

learning organizations?
University A’s organizational performance is perceived to be

Very Satisfactory with all the ten indicators described as frequently
evident or frequently practiced. Likewise, result indicates that
University B’s organizational performance as Very Satisfactory on the
basis of the ten indicators. Looking at each indicator, it is noteworthy
to mention that Library as an indicator is perceived to be almost
always evident or practiced. Among the ten indicators though, only
Physical Plant as an indicator is perceived to be evident yet needs
emphasis, which is low as compared to the other indicators.
Moreover, it is evident that University C’s organizational

performance is perceived to be Very Satisfactory. Remarkably for
University C, Purpose/Vision and Mission as an indicator is the
highest, which ought to be because the vision and the mission of the
university serve as the guiding light of the university. Very much alike
with University B, Physical Plant as an indicator is also the lowest for
136
University C. As a whole, the organizational performance of the three

universities on the basis of the ten indicators used in this study is Very
Satisfactory. A Very Satisfactory learning organization means that
the indicators are frequently evident or frequently practiced in the
university as perceived by the participants.
Which of the seven dimensions of learning organization are predictors

to organizational performance?
For University A, there is a significant correlation between

the dimensions of learning organization and organizational
performance. Specifically, the dimension Systems for Capturing and
Sharing Learning as an independent variable contributes the most
important information on the dependent variable; hence, it is the
predictor to organizational performance. For University B, the
dimensions of learning organization are significantly correlated to
organizational performance of the university. Through statistical
treatment, the dimension identified as predictor to organizational
performance is Team Learning and Collaboration. Moreover, taking
the dimensions collectively show a high correlation between the
dimensions and organizational performance. The dimension Systems
to Capture and Share Learning has the most important information
for the dependent variable, organizational performance of University
C; therefore, it is the predictor to organizational performance.
Each university is unique in its own way. The three

universities are not the same and equal in what they stand for and
how they operate as an education institution. It has varied programs
offered for the students. Hence, the predictors are best identified for
each university.
Learning organization can be achieved in the long run as it

takes time for an organization to become a learning organization.
137
Conclusions
This study therefore concludes that overall, the universities

in Zamboanga City are Very Satisfactory learning organizations based
on the perceptions of the participants. This is clearly evident in the
perception of the participants as shown in the results of the survey.
A Very Satisfactory learning organization illustrates the dimensions
are frequently evident or frequently practiced.
In general, there is no single dimension superbly dominant

than the others. Nor a single dimension extremely least than the
others. Although there are differences in the mean scores of the 7
dimensions, yet, all dimensions are equally described per university.
The Universities in Zamboanga City proved to be Very

Satisfactory learning organizations. And this is due to the fact that
the Universities have adapted to the changes that occur within, the
changes in the nature of work, the workforce and in the attitude of
its people toward learning. Correspondingly, the increasing
competition among higher education institutions has compelled
these Universities to devise strategies to maximize the practice of the
dimensions to gain the competitive advantage in the market.
It is for this purpose that the universities are promoting the

learning environment. This helps the universities to adapt to the ever
changing environment. The university’s ability to learn, to acquire
knowledge and innovate has emerged as an important factor in
influencing organizational survival. Learning is significant in almost
all fields but is doubly important in the education sector (Akhtar,
2011).
On the other hand, in terms of organizational performance

on the basis of the 10 indicators or areas of concerns as evaluated by
the 3 accrediting agencies, namely, PAASCU, PACUCOA and AACCUP,
the universities are generally Very Satisfactory as perceived by the
participants. A Very Satisfactory organizational performance shows
the indicators of performance are frequently evident or frequently
practiced.
138
Furthermore, among the 7 dimensions of learning

organization, the dimensions that strongly predict organizational
performance of the Universities are, Systems to Capture and Share
Learning, and Team Learning and Collaboration. The practice of these
two dimensions must be maximized to improve organizational
performance.
Systems to Capture and Share Learning need to be

strategically enhanced to improve organizational performance.
Universities need to improve previously acquired knowledge and
need to learn in order to overcome the chaotic and changing
conditions. In order to keep in the organizational memory, all the
learnings, it needs to be acquired and stored by systems. Universities
as learning organizations essentially seek to find ways to capture the
learned concepts and to continuously function even if a highly mobile
workforce temporarily fails to function.
Similarly, Universities as learning organizations need to

defuse all that is learned. Learning organizations comprise
embedded systems to capture and share knowledge so that the
organization continue to progress and develop competitively. In
learning organizations, people continuously expand the capacity to
create desired results, where new and expansive patterns of thinking
are nurtured and all members of the organization continually learn
how to learn.
As a predictor to organizational performance, Team Learning

and Collaboration should be strengthened. Team learning and team
work in organizations have shown to be unstoppable as there is a
scientific evidence that team learning can help organizations deal
with more complex tasks and learn from changing environment. For
teams to work effectively, one of the key conditions is that team
members must engage in team processes and learn how to work
efficiently. Team learning and collaboration is seen as sharing of
ideas, knowledge, competencies and information to accomplish a
task or goal.
Globalization raises competitive environment and the

education sector have to effectively respond towards these changes.
Universities have to be more learning oriented in their structures.
While becoming a learning organization influences overall
139
organizational performance, there are still other variables not found

in this study which may influence performance. Future studies may
explore more on other indicators of organizational performance.
A University as a learning organization has the capacity to

change and adjust to the needs of the people within the organization
and the needs of the environment. Much effort is placed to become
a learning organization. Universities need support, time, money and
other resources, engagements, collaborations across boundaries are
important to make the transformation.
The analysis of this study supports the theoretical

justification for the practice of the 7 dimensions of learning
organization and the proposed framework for the Universities.
However, the principal investigator acknowledges the scope for
further refinement of this analysis.
140
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141
AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE REGIONS
Starr Clyde L. Sebial
JH Cerilles State College, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The Philippines is one of the fast-growing economies in South-East Asia
and the Pacific. In this study, eight factors were considered: HEI PRC
rate, crime rate, education, employment, health, poverty, income, and
basic family amenities of the 17 regions of the country all taken from
the year 2012 databases of Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA),
Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) and Open Data
Philippines. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to generate
the indexes of the six factors and Cluster Analysis (CA) to group the
similarities of the regions. The clustering process revealed that ARMM
and MIMAROPA regions have clustered independently in two individual
clusters, while the rest of the 15 regions have clustered in two groups of
5 and 10. The study revealed that crime, poverty and health mortality
rates have generally inverse relationships with HEI PRC percentage
performance, employment, education, income and basic housing
amenities.
Keywords: Data mining, social structures, economic, Philippine regions,

cluster analysis
142
Introduction
The Philippines has been labeled as one of the countries with

fast-growing economies in South-East Asia and the Pacific. Several
measures of economic development such as gross national product
(GNP), social structures, labor force and others have shown that the
Philippine economy had posted a solid growth. However, sustaining
the country’s strong economy growth will require policy continuity in
all local government units (LGUs), from municipality, provincial to
regional levels, supporting the development of infrastructure and
human capital, improvements to the investment climate, and
governance reforms.
Various researches, local and international, have been using

a number of indicators and measurement methodologies to quantify
the fiscal and social status of states, countries and local
governments. One factor is good governance. As mentioned by
Virola, et al. (2004), the National Statistical Coordination Board
(NSCB) has defined governance as the manner in which power is
exercised in the management of the country’s economic and social
resources for development. This refers to the carrying out of
economic, political and administrative authority to administer the
constituents’ affairs at all levels. These include income and
expenditures, labor and employment, prices, finance, agriculture,
health, education, communications, tourism, transportation and
public order, safety and justice.
The Human Development Report Office (HDRO) at the

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been using the
Human Development Index (HDI) in assessing the inequality and
disparity across regions in the country and the slow pace of
development. As defined by the UNDP, the human development is a
process of enlarging people’s choices. For people to lead better lives,
they must be able to enjoy a healthy and long-lasting existence
measured by access to knowledge in its different expressions
measured by basic enrollment ratios and literacy rate; have the
material resources for a decent standard of living measured by
income; and freely participate in community life and collective affairs
(2015 Human Development Report).
143
Since 1990, the UNDP has been publishing a series of Human

Development Reports (HDRs) providing us analytically and
empirically grounded discussions of major development issues,
trends and policies. The HDI is said to be the summary total
development, an average achievement in three basic dimensions
namely: long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of
living. The 2012/2013 PHDR has revealed rankings of provinces in
terms of HDI. It was shown that the highest HDI levels were all in
Luzon and 9 out of 10 provinces with the lowest HDI levels are in
Mindanao.
Alipour (2014) mentioned that the United Nations have

defined new four groups of development indicators:
a) social indicators (such as employment, health, education,

housing, poverty, welfare and social justice, ethical values,
the role of women, access to land and other natural
resources, and social structure);
b) economic indicators (such as independence or economic
dependence, energy, production and consumption patterns,
transportation, management, infrastructure, trade and
productivity);
c) environmental indicators (such as groundwater,
freshwater, agriculture and food, urbanization, natural
resources, air pollution and ozone depletion and global
climate change); and
d) institutional factors (such as integrated decision making,
capacity building, science and technology, public awareness,
government and the role of civil society and legal
framework)
Moreover, problems like unemployment, poverty and crime

threaten highly urbanized areas as well as the rural ones throughout
a developing country like the Philippines. To give room for growth
and improvement of social and economic life, it is important to
analyze the rates and attend to these economic development
indicators.
Leones (2006) studied the crimes associated with

urbanization in the Philippines. A comprehensive study which
focused on several crime indexes of the 17 regions of the Philippines
144
from January to November 2004. Among regions, the NCR has

registered the highest index crime volume. She further claimed that
developing and maintaining safe communities, be they urban or rural,
is central to the issue of good governance. She conjectured that a
holistic approach with emphasis on an active citizenry empowerment
where society gives importance to its capacity to create justice and
human growth should be implemented out vigorously to reduce the
crime rate.
Krishnamurthy, et al. (2012) used data mining on crime

survey analysis using clustering techniques. He focused on crime
reporting systems and classifications of crime. He processed the data
into partition clustering methods which primarily classified into K-
means, AK-mode and Expectation-Maximization algorithms. The
study revealed that in a sensitive domain of crime data, the efficient
clustering techniques play vital role for crime analysts and law-
enforcers to precede the case in the investigation and help solve
unsolved crimes faster. The similarity measures in his study are
important factors which help to find unresolved crimes in crime
pattern.
In examining Canada’s 139 health regions, Shields, et.al.,

(2002) used cluster and discriminant analyses in formulating peer
groups with similar health characteristics and socio-demographic
profiles. The focus of the study was on life expectancy, disability-free
life expectancy and risk factor estimates that were based on the data
of 1996 Census of Canada, the Canadian Vital Statistics Database and
Canadian Community Health Survey 2000. It revealed that socio-
demographic factors and risk factors such as smoking and obesity
play a critical role in accounting the differences between
communities in health outcomes such as the life expectancies.
The mentioned studies were evidence that the evolution of

exploratory data analysis (EDA) has provided us outlook on what the
data can tell us beyond formal modeling and hypothesis testing
process. The Cluster Data Analysis (CDA), which is one of the EDA
tools in statistics, was formulated to cluster a set of individuals or
objects in a way that objects within the same cluster are more similar
to each other than those in other clusters. In this analysis, we do not
formulate any assumptions about the underlying data set and its
distribution, it does not identify a particular statistical model as the
145
other EDA tools do but the results of this analysis could help us in
targeting appropriate programs and treatment to resolve certain
social, economic, environmental factors and indicators of community
development. The researcher believes that the competitive clusters
of the 17 regions of the Philippines could provide opportunities from
researchers to policy makers to meet the socio-economic challenges
of globalization.
Data mining is the computer-assisted process of digging

through and analyzing enormous sets of data and then extracting the
meaning of the data and it is the process of analyzing data from
different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information
(Bharathi, 2014). In this research, it plays an important role regarding
prediction and analysis of performance indicators of the 17 regions of
the Philippine archipelago.
Cortright (2006) cited that different regions have distinct

sets of economic development opportunities and clustering them
can help diagnose a region’s economic strengths and challenges and
identify realistic ways to shape the region’s economic future.
Grouping of regions into clusters according to identified various
factors could provide a wide range of analysis, from researchers to
policy-makers in targeting appropriate programs and treatment to
resolve certain social, economic, environmental factors and
indicators of community development.
The general objective of this study is to provide an analysis

of clusters with respect on identified economic and social factors of
the 17 regions in the Philippines for the academic year 2012 taken
from the databases of Philippine Statistics Office and Philippine
Institute for Development Studies (PIDS). The analysis focused on the
Higher Education Institution’s (HEI) PRC board exam performance,
employment, crime rate, education, health, income and expenditure
and basic family amenities.
146
All factors and variables were classified by region: the

employment factor contains indexes in labor force, employment rate
in the year 2012; the education index comprised completion rate and
functional literacy rate that was obtained from 2008 census; health
index contains infant mortality rate and prevalence of underweight
children, both obtained from Census 2011; income and expenditure
includes average income and expenditure of families in 2012; and the
basic family amenities comprises access to electricity, access to
potable water, access to sanitary toilet facility, proportion of families
living in makeshift housing and proportion of families living in
informal settlements.
Methodology
This research is descriptive, exploratory and analytical in

nature which used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster
Analysis (CA). The databases of Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA)
have provided the researcher a 2012 statistic dataset of the average
family income and expenditures and the employment factors. The
percentages of crime, education, health, poverty, and housing basic
amenities were all taken from the 2012 Economic and Social Database
of Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) while the
percentage performance of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
were from the database of Open Data Philippines. All of these factors
and variables was categorized into by regions.
Before the conduct of cluster analysis, the indexes of each

factor were generated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA).
Given several variables for each factor, the index scores of each
region were individually computed using the MINITAB and EXCEL
software: education factor index from completion rate and functional
literacy rate; employment factor index from employment rate and
labor force rate; health factor index from infant mortality rate and
prevalence of underweight children; poverty factor index from per
capita poverty threshold and poverty incidence among families;
income and expenditure factor index from average family income and
average family expenditure; and housing and basic amenities factor
index from access to electricity, access to potable water, access to
147
sanitary toilet facility, proportion of families living in makeshift

housing and proportion of families living in informal settlement.
Together with the crime index and HEI performance index,

the generated indexes from the principal component analysis were
used in the cluster analysis to group the Philippine regions into
competitive clusters which generated insights on how the
performing regions are similar to each member of the group and how
they differ from the members of the other clusters.
This section reports the interpretations and analysis of

results of the study. The 17 variables excluding crime rate and HEI PRC
percentage performance were treated with Principal Componenta
Analysis (PCA) and the resulting 6 indexes, together with crime and
HEI rate, were analyzed using Cluster Analysis (CA). Quantitative
measures of the analysis: the MINITAB results of the Principal
Component Analysis (PCA) together with the bar graphs of each
factor; and the Cluster analysis of the Philippine Regions were
attached in the appendices.
The Appendix 3 Chart 1 showed that the NCR, CAR, Western

Visayas and Central Visayas regions have high percentage
performance in the PRC board examinations in the year 2012 while
the ARMM has the least percentage performance. The statistics also
showed that the crime rate in the region SOCCSKSARGEN has the
lowest rate while the CARAGA and ARMM have the highest crime
rate in the academic year 2012.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
The indexes of education, employment, poverty, health,

income and expenditure and basic housing amenities were
generated using the MINITAB and EXCEL software. The components
of the PCA index equation were generated by MINITAB and the
indexes of the regions on each factor were computed using the
EXCEL software. Appendix 4 Chart 2 showed that the regions
containing low employment index were NCR, Cagayan Valley, Central
148
Luzon and ARMM. It also showed that Bicol, Zamboanga Peninsula,

and Northern Mindanao regions have the highest employment index
in the year 2012. Appendix 4 Chart 3 illustrates that the ARMM region
has the lowest education index followed by Zamboanga Peninsula.
All the rest of the 15 regions were above 80 of the education index
chart.
In Appendix 4 Chart 4, it clearly showed that the NCR and

Central Luzon regions got the lowest rank in the health index while
MMAROPA and Eastern Visayas regions got the highest health index.
Among the regions with the lowest poverty indexes were the ARMM,
NCR, Central Luzon and Davao. This has been clearly illustrated in
Appendix 4 Chart 5. The chart also showed that the MMAROPA
region got the highest poverty index in the year 2012. The NCR region
ranked first both in the income index and basic housing amenities
index while the ARMM ranked last also both in the income index and
basic housing amenities index. Appendix 4 Chart 6 also showed that
CALABARZON and Central Luzon regions have high-income index.
Appendix 4 Chart 7 showed that the 16 regions have enough access
to basic housing amenities like access to potable water, electricity
and sanitary toilet facilities while the ARMMs has an extremely low
index compared to the other regions.
Cluster Analysis (CA)
In grouping the regions into a cluster in which they are

similar to each other but different from the other regions in another
cluster, the researcher used standard cluster analysis. The regions
were clustered based on eight factors: HEI PRC rate, crime rate,
employment index, education index, health index, poverty index,
income index, and basic family amenities index. Multivariate statistics
tool particularly the Cluster Analysis (CA) was used to analyze the
dataset using the MINITAB software.
149
Table 1
Clustering of Regions of the Philippines
Regions Region Name Cluster
1 NCR - National Capital Region 1

2 CAR - Cordillera Administrative Region 1
3 Region I - Ilocos 2
4 Region II - Cagayan Valley 1
5 Region III - Central Luzon 1
6 Region IVA - CALABARZON 1
7 Region IVB - MIMAROPA 3
8 Region V - Bicol 2
9 Region VI - Western Visayas 2
10 Region VII - Central Visayas 1
11 Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 2
12 Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 2
13 Region X - Northern Mindanao 1
14 Region XI - Davao 1
15 Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 1
16 Region XIII - CARAGA 1
17 ARMM - Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao 4
The Dendrogram in the Appendix 5 showed that there were

four competitive clusters formulated in the standard cluster analysis
regarding the 8 factors. The table 1 shows the clustering of the
Philippines Regions. The cluster 1, which is the biggest group
containing 10 regions, is composed of NCR, CAR, Cagayan Valley,
Central Luzon, CALABARZON, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao,
Davao, Davao, SOCCSKSARGEN and CARAGA regions. The cluster 2 is
composed of 5 regions, namely, Ilocos, Bicol, Western Visayas,
Eastern Visayas and Zamboanga Peninsula regions. The MIMAROPA
and ARMM regions were clustered independently as cluster 3 and 4
respectively.
Based on the indexes computed in the Principal Component

Analysis of the factors and the percentages of crime and HEI PRC,
most of the regions in the Cluster 1 have similarly low indexes in
health mortality, poverty and in crime, whereas they have high
indexes in the HEI PRC performance, employment, education,
income and in the basic housing amenities. This can be shown from
the charts presented in the PCA results in Appendix 4. Cluster 1
150
generally exhibited an indirect relationship of the factors in this

study. This simply suggests that when a community has established a
good governance monitoring education, employment, income and
basic household needs, eventually this will lower the crime rates,
mortality rates as well as the poverty settings of the constituents.
The regions in the Cluster 2 revealed a similarly low rates in

the HEI PRC performance, employment, income and basic housing
indexes. However, this cluster displayed a high index in the crime and
poverty. The Cluster 2 Regions have demonstrated the same indirect
relationship of the factors only in the different manner. Their
performances in board exams, employment status, income and
housing amenities were deteriorating due to high rates in crime and
poverty. The government officials and policy makers of Eastern and
Western Visayas, Bicol, Ilocos and Zamboanga Peninsula regions have
to provide a well-planned deterrent programs to lessen their crime
rates and poverty index so as to improve the income, basic housing
amenities, as well as their performances in the board exams in the
PRC.
MIMAROPA and ARMM regions were clustered

independently and displayed different characteristics from the first
two clusters. The lone region in the third cluster MIMAROPA had
relatively high indexes in the HEI PRC performance and employment
and a very low crime rate. However, the region had a very high
poverty index and high mortality rate in health. It also showed a very
low indexes in education, income and basic housing amenities. It
clearly shows that the income, housing amenities and education have
indirect relationship with mortality health index and poverty. As the
mortality and poverty rates goes high, the rates in the education,
income and housing will probably go lower. However, the crime rate
of MIMAROPA inversely affected the HEI PRC performance and
employment which had already been displayed by the clusters 1 and
2.
The ARMM region was also grouped solely as the Cluster 4

in the cluster analysis process. The region performed poorly in all of
the factors. ARMM had ranked lowest both in the HEI PRC
performance, employment, education, poverty, income and housing
amenities. The region also ranked 1st in the health mortality rate and
2nd in the crime rate. Its constituents have performed the lowest in
151
the entire country regarding education and PRC board exams. Their
families also have the least access to basic housing amenities like
potable water, electricity and sanitary toilet facilities. These ratings
basically explain why ARMM had a very high crime rate and poverty
index. Intensive study, planning and supervision must be done
appropriately by the local officials of ARMM to resolve certain status
of the region.
The analysis of this paper is certainly not of sufficient

standards to evaluate the performances, economic status and social
factors of the 17 regions of the country. Conversely, the results of the
research may serve a purpose, provide the government officials and
policy makers an objective to create programs, and notions to
researchers to open new perceptions on conducting analysis on
related concerns.
Conclusions
Crime, poverty and health mortality rates have generally

inverse relationships with HEI PRC percentage performance,
employment, education, income and basic housing amenities.
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153
COLLECTIVE EFFORTS AND INTERDISCIPLINARY
APPROACH TO RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.)
CONSERVATION AND USE IN THE PHILIPPINES
Xavier Greg I. Caguiat
Marilyn Ferrer Nerissa D. Santiago
Malvin D. Duldulao Henry Jimenez
Jonathan M. Niones Pernelyn S. Torrenas
Juliet P. Rillon Maria Corazon J. Cabaral and
Giley DC Santiago Roel R. Suralta
Mary Leigh B. Palma
Philippine Rice Research Institute, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Rice is a critical staple eaten in almost half of the world but problems
leoniloarise due to climate change. An interdisciplinary approach to tap
the potential of 16,000 rice collection have led towards revealing
potential parent lines that could help in increasing rice production. This
paper aims to present the results of the evaluation of rice germplasm
conserved in the genebank. Seven hundred ninety-four accessions were
resistant and 883 as intermediate to rice blast, 317 intermediate to
bacterial leaf blight, 27 intermediate to sheath blight, two accessions
were resistant and six accessions were intermediate against tungro. On
one hand, 27 had potential drought tolerance while 5 accessions were
tolerant to zinc deficiency, 11 tolerant and 5 moderately tolerance to
salinity stress, four tolerant and 14 moderately tolerant to
submergence stress. The result of the evaluation can serve as guide for
breeders in choosing the parent materials for breeding of new rice
lines/varieties that could accommodate the need of farmers for
resistant/tolerant varieties against major rice diseases.
Keywords: Abiotic stress, biotic stress, evaluation, genebank, traits
154
Introduction
Rice is one of the most important food staples in most

continents in the world. It is cultivated in 113 countries and 90% of
these countries are found in Asia (FAO, 2018). Climate change,
ascending demand, and depletion of resources require us to increase
resilience and sustainability and genetic adaptation of rice to meet
our needs. Rice is among the most conserve plant genetic resources
worldwide with over 100,000 accessions are stored in ex situ
Genebank These accessions could be explored to meet future
challenges regarding the rice production (FAO, 2018; IRRI 2018). In
particular, biotic and abiotic stresses cause significant constraint in
crop production causing both economic loss and food as well (Banito
et al., 2012). Genetic diversity stored in genebanks offers vast
potential for sources of traits that could combat one or more stresses
in one country or in multiple countries. The amount of available data
in genebank allows breeders from all over the world to access
germplasm in their own breeding program catering to their
challenges in their rice production. Global challenges for sustainable,
environmentally sound and efficient breeding program called for the
use of locally available sources of traits in landraces or wild relatives
(Wambugu et al., 2018).
The Philippines is a rice-dependent nation with over 110

kg/person/year consumption, sixth highest per capita in the world
and also a major source of income approximately 6 billion US dollars
in 2015. The Philippines produces approximately 3% of rice in the
world (Stuecher et al., 2018). The diversity of agro-climatic zones and
highly variable micro-climate has put more pressure in the breeding
for superior varieties with multi-stress resistance or tolerance.
Exploration and discovery of new sources of resistance to biotic
stresses and tolerance to abiotic stresses ensures greater chances of
producing more resilient variety and at the same time safeguarding
the genetic diversity in the genepool (Stuecker et al., 2018).
Biotic stresses such as rice blast, bacterial leaf blight (BLB),

sheath blight (ShB), rice tungro disease (RTD) cause major damage
to rice production as much as 100%. Rice blast caused by the fungal
pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, is a serious threat to rice production
worldwide (Faivre-Rampant et al., 2013). It is considered the principal
disease of rice because of its wide distribution and high incidence
155
under favorable conditions. The disease can cause yield losses of 10-
20% if the rice cultivars are susceptible but in severe cases yield losses
may reach up to 80% (Pasha et al., 2013).
Bacterial leaf blight, on the other hand, caused by

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is another most widespread
and destructive diseases of rice including several countries in tropical
rice-growing areas of Asia. It occurs at all the growth stages of rice
and is manifested by either leaf blight or “kresek” symptoms. The
causal organism invades plants through water pores and wounds.
Bacterial ooze, which consists of small, yellowish, spherical masses,
may sometimes be seen on the margins or veins of the freshly
infected leaf under moist conditions (Litsinger et al., 2011; Banito et
al., 2012).
Sheath blight in rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn is a

serious threat in rice growing areas (Bhuvaneswari and Raju, 2012).
Various estimates of crop losses due to this disease have been made,
losses generally vary from negligible to 50% depending on the
severity of the disease and the stage at which the crop is infected and
environmental conditions. The pathogen produces elliptical or oval
to irregular, 1-3 cm long, greenish, grey spots on leave sheath and
leaves. The center of the spot becomes greyish white with brown
margin. Lesions on the upper parts of the plant extend rapidly,
coalescing with each other to cover entire tiller from the water level
to flag leaf. On the leaf blades, the lesions are larger and somewhat
irregular in shape, greenish gray to garish white with brown margin,
ultimately causing death of leaf, tiller and the plant (Singh et al.,
2015).
Rice tungro disease (RTD) is a significant yield constraint in

rice growing areas of South and Southeast Asia. Disease symptoms
are caused largely by infection by the rice tungro bacilliform virus.
The onset of the disease depends on the presence of a susceptible
host, a virus source, and the vector (Dey, 2016), the typical symptoms
of rice infected with tungro are stunting, yellow or yellow to orange
discoloration of infected leaves, reduced tillering, sterile panicles and
often irregular-shaped dark brown specks are visible on the leaves.
The young infected leaves may have a mottled appearance and
interveinal chlorosis, whilst old leaves will show rust-colored specks
of varying sizes (Bunawan et al., 2014).
156
Accordingly, abiotic stresses emerging from the changing

climate such as drought, salinity, submergence and soil nutrient
deficiency such as zinc stress at various extents may significant
reduction in rice production especially in rainfed ecosystems and in
irrigated lowlands with inefficient irrigation system. With looming
trend of water scarcity brought about by phenomenon, researches
aimed at breeding rice cultivars with increased yields due to
improved drought stress tolerance are gaining importance.
Moreover, several studies demonstrated the significant role of root
in rice growth and development under water-deficit and fluctuating
soil moisture (Kano-Nakata et al., 2011; Suralta et al., 2010, Niones et
al., 2012).
Zinc deficiency was first diagnosed in rice on calcareous soils

of northern India. Zinc deficiency can be corrected by adding Zn
compounds to the soil or plant, but the high cost associated with
applying Zn fertilizers in sufficient quantities to overcome Zinc
deficiency places considerable burden on resource-poor farmers and
it has therefore been suggested that breeding efforts should be
intensified to improve the tolerance to Zinc deficiency in rice cultivars
(Mori et al., 2015).
Salinity stress also contributes as one of the major abiotic

stresses in rice (Ahmadizadeh et al., 2016) especially in coastal areas
of South and Southeast Asia where the main rice growing and
consuming areas are. Rice plants are moderately sensitive to salt
stress, but rice germplasm express substantial variability for salt
tolerance and its related traits. Therefore, breeding of rice varieties
tolerant to salinity with high yielding is the best option to improve
the production of rice in saline prone areas (Gregorio et al., 2013).
Submergence is a problem frequent in rice-producing

rainfed lowlands of South and Southeast Asia. Rice requires water for
growth but excess water that occurs during submergence or
waterlogging is harmful or even lethal (Nakazono et al., 2012). In
Bangladesh, two varieties have been released for submergence
tolerant rice which are BRRI dhan51 and BRRI dhan52 in 2010.
Similarly, India released only one variety particularly Swarna-Sub1 in
2009, Indonesia released three varieties: INPARA-3, INPARA-4, and
INPARA-5 in 2008, Philippines released Submarino in 2009 and Nepal
157
released Swarna-Sub1 and S. Mahsuri- Sub1 in 2011 (Gregorio et al.,

2013).
Philippine Rice Research Institute Genebank was considered

as one of the international repository of rice genetic resources, which
currently holds about 16,000 rice germplasm. It conserves a diverse
pool collected from different parts of the country, breeding lines,
wild rice relatives and foreign introductions. These germplasm
possess desirable genes and traits that serve as building blocks for
the development of improved and new rice varieties
(www.philrice.gov). These germplasm could have inherent genes for
key traits such as high yield, good eating quality, resistance to biotic
and tolerance to abiotic stresses. Rice germplasm therefore, must be
efficiently harnessed and properly evaluated in order to identify
potential genetic donors for use as parents in breeding program. This
could be done with the help of experts from the agronomy, crop
physiology, crop protection and breeding groups.

The variables used in the study is limited to the responses of
the rice germplasm from the genebank against major biotic and
abiotic stresses in rice using standard evaluation protocol established
by IRRI, PhilRice and the Bureau of Plant Industry-National Seed
Industry Council. The basic hypothesis of the study is that since the
rice germplasm were collected from diverse environment across the
country, they have different reactions to biotic and abiotic stresses.
Most of the evaluation were done in either unreplicated or partially
replicated group block design.

The study aimed to evaluate PhilRice rice germplasm stored
in the genebank against major biotic and abiotic stresses. This will
help in providing researchers and breeders with germplasm that
could be sources of resistance towards improved rice varieties. The
study will also generate information that could be attached to the
germplasm phenotype in the database.
158
Materials and Methods

Rice germplasm used in the project were from the PhilRice
Genebank and most of the evaluation was done either in the
screenhouse or in the field at Philippine Rice Research Institute,
Maligaya, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija at N 15.067 ˚, 120.8903, except for Zinc
stress screening which was conducted in the field at RT. Romualdez,
Agusan Del Norte at N 9.03˚,125.35. Disease evaluation of rice
germplasm accession was done following the protocol and
evaluation scale under the National Cooperative Test Manual and
Standard Evaluation System (IRRI, 2015). Screenhouse set-up was
conducted for evaluation against: leaf blast, tungro, salinty and
submergence screening while field set-up was conducted to evaluate
against bacterial leaf blight, sheath blight, modified tungro, drought
stress and zinc deficient soil stress.
Biotic Stresses
Leaf Blast (Pyricularia grisea)
Blast infected susceptible check IR50 was maintained in

screenhouse before planting the test plants. Three spreader rows of
local susceptible check IR50 were planted around the test plot. Ten
grams of seed per entry were planted in a 50-cm row with 10-cm
spacing. Every ten rows of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible
check IR72, 1 row of resistant check PSB Rc10 and 1 row of the local
susceptible check IR50 were planted. Test plants were evaluated at
30-35 days after sowing. Disease rating: Scale 1 = none to few small
brown spots of pinhead size, 2 = larger brown spots, 3 = small, round,
necrotic gray spots about 1-2 mm in diameter with brown margin, 4
= elliptical lesion 1-2 cm long usually confined to the area of the two
main veins, average of one to five lesions on a leaf, 5 = average of six
to ten lesions on a leaf or less than 10% of leaf area infected, 6 =
average of 11-25% leaf area infected, 7 = average of 26-50% leaf area
infected, 8 = average of 51-75% leaf area infected, and 9 = average of
above 75% leaf area infected. These rating could be catergorized as
resistant (R) for scale 1, 2 and 3, intermediate (I) for scales 4, 5, and
6 and susceptible (S) for scales 7, 8 and 9.
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Bacterial Leaf Blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)
Twenty-five day old seedlings at ten hills per entry were

transplanted in the field at 20 x 20 cm between rows. Every ten rows
of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible check IR24, and 1 row
of the local susceptible check TN1 were planted. After 45-60 days of
transplanting, inoculation was done using clipping method. For each
entry, 6 cm from tip of the leaves was cut using inoculation clipper.
Evaluation was done at 14 days after inoculation (DAI). Water-soaked
lesions start near the leaf tip and margins, extends downward,
enlarge and turn yellow to gray within days. Disease rating: Scale 1=
lesions from cut tip cover 1-5% of the leaf area, 3 = lesions from cut tip
show blight chlorotic symptoms 6-24%, 5 = downward length of lesion
from cut tip may extend covering 1/4 to 1/2 leaf area showing chlorotic
symptoms 25-50%, 7 = downward length of lesions from cut tip may
extend 3/4 of leaf showing chlorotic symptoms 51-75% and 9 = lesions
cover > 75% of the leaf and reaching the leaf sheath >75%. The scales
were categorized as resistant (R) for scales 1 and 3, intermediate (I)
for scale 5, and susceptible (S) for scales 7 and 9.
Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani)
Twenty-five day old seedlings at ten hills per entry were

transplanted in the field at 20 x 20 cm distance between rows. Every
ten rows of test entry, 1 row of standard susceptible check (IR20) and
1 row of the local susceptible check (TN1) were planted. After 45-60
days of transplanting, inoculation was done by placing cultured
organism in between tillers. Evaluation was done at 14 days after
inoculation. Spots or lesions occur on leaf sheaths and may extend to
the leaf blades. They are grayish-green, oval or elliptical and coalesce
mostly on the lower leaf sheath. Disease Rating Scale: 1 = lesions
limited to lower 1/4 of leaf sheath area, 3 = lesions present at the
lower 1/2 of leaf sheath area, 5 = lesions present on more than 1/2 of
leaf sheath area and slight infection on lower 3rd or 4th leaves, 7 =
lesions present on more than 3/4 of the leaf sheath and severe
infection on upper leaves, and 9 = lesions reaching top of tillers and
severe infection on all leaves and some plants died. The scales could
be categorized as resistant (R) for scales 1 and 3, intermediate (I) for
scale 5, susceptible (S) for scales 7 and 9.
160
Tungro (Rice Tungro Virus) under Induced Method

Three day-pregerminated seeds were transplanted in clay
pots for two weeks. Greenhouse-reared green leafhopper (GLH)
adults were allowed to feed on infected plants for 4 days to acquire
the virus. After 4 days of virus acquisition, viruliferous GLH were
allowed to feed to the test plants for 24 hours for virus inoculation.
After 24 hours GLH were removed from the test plants. The pots with
inoculated plants were then transferred in caged water pan for
symptom development. Test plants were evaluated 3-4 weeks after
inoculation. Symptoms observed included: stunted plant, mottled
and yellow to yellow-orange leaves. The plants were classified based
in stunting compared with the height of the resistant check as
resistant (R) for 10 -20% reduction, intermediate for 21- 40% and
susceptible for 41 - 100%.
Tungro (Rice Tungro Virus) under Modified Field Method

Spreader rows using susceptible check (TN1) were
transplanted at the border 2-3 weeks before transplanting the test
entries. After the spreader rows showed infection, 25-day old
seedlings were transplanted in row of 20 hills per entry spaced 20 cm
x 20 cm at one seedling/hill. Evaluation was done 45 and 60 days after
transplanting. Entries were categorized as resistant (R) for 0 – 25%
height reduction, intermediate (I) for 26 - 50% and susceptible for 51 -
100%.
Abiotic Stress
Drought
Rice germplasm from PhilRice Genebank were used for mass
screening under reproductive stage during the dry season and
rainfed condition during the wet cropping season. Sowing time was
staggered for the lines with interval of 10 days to allow a
synchronized flowering for all materials based on the data of heading
date of this germplasm. Five checks were used: IR64 (susceptible
check), PSB Rc14, PSB Rc68, NSIC Rc192 and NSIC Rc222 (tolerant
checks). The checks were included after every 15 test entries
following the augmented experimental design. Each entry is planted
in 2 rows (0.4 m) x 10 hills (2 m long) and spaced at 20 cm within and
between rows, with one seedling per hill.
161
It is recommended to establish separate plots to

accommodate different maturity groups to ensure homogeneity in
the growth stage of the entries when imposing drought stress. When
the maturity durations are not known and resources are available a
non-stressed, fully irrigated set-up may be conducted for comparison
of yield reduction and recording of flowering delay of the entries
caused by drought.
The entry labels include the entry code and number. Layout
and raise seedlings in the seedbed and transplant seedlings following
the field lay-out in accordance with the protocols included in the
PhilRice Field Operations Manual (2007), following the east to west
plot orientation and plant entries from left to right row within a plot,
and plot direction in left to right zigzag pattern. As a guide, seedlings
were ready for transplanting at:
a. 16-18 days for varieties maturing in 115 days or earlier.

b. 18-20 days for varieties maturing in 116-125 days
c. 20-25 days for varieties maturing in 126 days or more
Drought was imposed during expected panicle initiation or

about 50 days after sowing, by withholding the water until the
susceptible check variety reached leaf drying score of 1 or soil
moisture content reached to around 20% (gravimetric method) or soil
water potential is -1.0 MPa ( leaf water potential could be around -1.5
MPa); re-irrigated for at least 2 days and continue cycle of drought.
To monitor the stress development, after drought

imposition, two tensiometers, one each at 15 cm and 30 cm soil depth
were installed strategically in the main plots. At least two
piezometers, 1.5 m long, were installed with 125 cm below and 20 cm
above soil to monitor the water table depth. A sloping or vertical
gauge was installed per block to monitor ponded water depth.
Appearance-disappearance and duration of ponded water per block
was recorded. When necessary, a rain gauge maybe installed to
monitor amount of precipitation (or may refer to on-station
automated weather station data). Soil samples at 0-15 cm and 15-30
cm soil depth were taken starting at soil moisture saturation after
water withdrawal, and every other day, thereafter, for gravimetric
measurement of SMC. Soil fresh weight was determined
immediately after sampling, and dry weight taken after the soil is
162
dried at 105 °C for 72 hours. SMC in % was computed as: [(soil fresh
weight – soil dry weight)/soil dry weight] x 100
For stress treatment, two consecutive drying cycles were

imposed in order to prevent the plants from dying completely and
make most of the lines experience drought stress at reproductive
stage when plants started panicle initiation. Stress was realized by
stopping irrigation, draining out of water (water table kept at 1 m
below soil surface). Drought stress was removed by irrigating the
field to full water capacity when monitored soil moisture (0–20 cm
layer) below half of soil water capacity (16.4% by volume in paddy soil
field and 13.9% by volume in sandy soil field). The second round of
drought stress was applied to same degree. After drought stress,
normal irrigation was followed throughout the late stages of rice. The
soil water content was monitored using a TRIMET3 sensor device
(TRIME-T3, Ettlingen, Germany) by the method of time domain
reflectometry (TDR).Soil moisture gradient was based on the
quadrant sampling sites strategically located on the experiment area.
The rice germplasm was grown in the watertight

experimental bed under rainout shelter installed with line source
sprinkler system which can create various intensities of drought
stress (Kano et al., 2011). The volumetric soil moisture content (SMC)
was monitored with a soil moisture sensor (Em 50, Decagon, Utah,
USA).
Twenty-one days old seedlings of each entry were

transplanted perpendicular to the pipe so that they were exposed to
and grown under various intensities of drought. During the
experiment, developmental traits such as plant height and tiller
number were measured. Similarly, physiological traits such as the
relative transpiration was estimated by measuring the leaf
temperature index of the canopy of each genotypes using thermal
gun. At heading stage, the plants were harvested. Shoots was oven-
dried at 70°C for 3 days and the dry weights was measured. The roots
of the selected genotypes were sampled with the round monolith
method by using stainless cylinder of 15 cm in diameter, and the soil
cores of 20 cm in depth was taken. The sampled roots were carefully
washed for the measurements of number of nodal roots, and number
of laterals roots per unit length of nodal root axes. After those
163
measurements, the roots were scanned for image analysis for the
total root length by using WinRhizo.
Salinity Stress
The test rice genotypes were screened for salt tolerance at
seedling stage in hydroponics system using IRRI standard protocol
(Gregorio, 1997). In this experiment, FL478 and NSIC Rc222 were used
as salt tolerant and sensitive checks, respectively. The screening was
done under controlled environmental conditions having 29°C/21°C
day/night temperature, 70% relative humidity and natural daylight
inside the glass house. Firstly, the seeds were disinfected with
sodium chloride solution (200 ml NaCl in 1-liter water) and incubated
for 48 hours to enhance germination. Eleven trays were filled up with
tap water and styrofoam seedling floats were placed on the tray. Two
pre-germinated seeds were sown in each hole of styrofoam seedling
float and the seedling floats were then covered with a lid for 3 to 4
days to promote germination in the dark. The tap water was replaced
with Peter nutrient solution after six days of seeding and salinized by
adding crude salt to obtain EC of 12 dS/m. The volume of the Peter
solution was adjusted to the level of touching the seedling float at
two days’ interval. The pH was adjusted to 5 as well as EC with 12 dS/m
synchronizing with the Peter solution. Tap water was added to the
solution when EC with higher than 12 dS/m and NaCl was added when
EC was lower than 12 dS/m. In the similar way, HNO3 was added to
the solution when its pH was more than 5.0 and NaOH was added into
the solution when pH is less than 5.0. Standard Evaluation System
(SES) for salinity tolerance scoring was done when salt sensitive
check was almost going to die or already dead. Scoring was done
according to the modified standard evaluation system used in rating
of the visual symptoms of salt toxicity injury.
Submergence
Submergence screening was conducted at seedling stage.

Rice accessions were planted in nursery beds along with IR64-Sub1
and the susceptible check IR42. The entries were allowed to grow
without submergence up to 14 days and then were submerged.
Submergence screening was conducted in a concrete tank facility.
The entries were seeded in trays and submerged at 14 days after
sowing (DAS) along with the susceptible check. The lines were de-
164
submerged after 16 days based on the survival of the susceptible

check IR42. The actual number of seedlings per line was recorded
before desubmergence and 2, 7, 14, and 21 days after de-
submergence, and the percentage survival was calculated.
Zinc Deficiency
Germplasm from PhilRice Genebank were screened for

tolerance to zinc deficiency in the field. The experiment was laid out
in RCBD, and replicated thrice. In the replicated trial, there were two
treatments: T1= applied with 5 kg/ha Zinc sulfate (spray method at 14
DAT & 21 DAT), and T2=without Zinc. The local check varieties used
were NSIC Rc122 (Angelica) and IR64 (susceptible check).
Recommended management practices (i.e. fertilizer application) was
employed uniformly in all test entries. Data on yield and other
agronomic parameters were gathered based on the Standard
Evaluation System (SES) scoring for rice.
At harvest, collected are all the plants in a plot except the

border rows, one on each side of the plot and 2 border rows on both
ends of all the plots (the total number of plants harvested from a plot
is 6 rows x 13 plants or 78 hills). The harvest from each plot was placed
in clean net bags. Labels, bearing the entry number and plot number
were put inside the bag. Manual threshing was used to thresh the
samples. All threshed samples were dried at 14% moisture content.
Seeds were cleaned using the winnowing method and then the
samples were weighed. The moisture content was registered and the
yield of the entries with the harvest was estimated.
Collective efforts of different group of people and

interdisciplinary approach is necessary for rice conservation and use
in the Philippines particularly at PhilRice Genebank. Throughout the
course of time from 2012 to 2017, the database has been populated
with accessions and data from partners who are experts in different
biotic and abiotic stresses including grain quality traits.
165
Biotic Stress Evaluation
Reactions to blast were resistant in 43 entries and

intermediate in 135 entries during 2012 wet season. During 2013 dry
season, 33 entries were observed resistant while 119 had
intermediate reaction and in 2014, 87 entries showed resistance while
37 entries had intermediate reaction to the disease. In 2015, 232
entries showed resistance while 84 entries had intermediate reaction
and in 2016, 275 accessions were observed resistant while 150 entries
had intermediate reaction to the disease. Furthermore, among the
entries tested in two seasons of 2017, 251 entries were determined
resistant and 47 had intermediate reaction to blast (Figure 1).
Reactions to bacterial leaf blight were intermediate in 9

entries tested in 2014 wet season, in 63 entries during two seasons of
2016 and 252 entries in two seasons of 2017 (Figure 2). For sheath
blight reaction, intermediate reactions were observed in 1 entry
during 2016 dry season and in 27 entries during the two seasons of
2017, while in wet seasons of 2014 and 2016 all entries were observed
to be susceptible to the disease (Figure 3). Tungro reactions were
resistant in 2 entries in 2013 dry season and in 1 entry in 2017 wet
season and intermediate reaction to the disease was observed in 3
entries during 2013 dry season and in 3 entries during the two seasons
of 2016, while the rest were observed susceptible to the disease
(Figure 4). And under modified method of evaluation, reactions to
tungro were resistant in 25 entries and intermediate in 36 entries
during 2017 wet season (Figure 5).
Figure 1
Reactions of Rice Germplasm to Blast from 2012 Wet Season to 2017
Wet Season
166
Figure 2
Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Bacterial Leaf Blight from
2014 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season
Figure 3
Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Sheath Blight from 2014
Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season
Figure 4
Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Tungro under Induce
Method of Evaluation from 2013 Wet Season to 2017 Wet Season
167
Figure 5
Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Tungro under Modified Field
Method of Evaluation
Figure 6
Summary Reactions of Rice Germplasm Accessions to Blast, Bacterial
Leaf Blight, Sheath Blight and Tungro under Induce Method of
Evaluation and under Modified Field Method of Evaluation. 2012 Wet
Season to 2017 Wet Season
168
Abiotic Stress Evaluation
Twenty seven out of the 35 germplasm identified with

potential drought tolerance from LSS (line source sprinkler)
experiment were thoroughly evaluated for root system
developmental responses under various water stressed conditions.
Drought significantly reduced biomass production on all genotypes
except for Ibarraki. Among the selections, Ibarraki showed a good
response to drought stress neither on fluctuating soil moisture or
progressive drought as indicated by the increased in shoot biomass
production by 50% on both SMF and PDR relative to CWL (control)
counterpart. Meanwhile, Belibod also showed an increase (77.6%)
under PDR only. The increased in biomass production of Ibarraki may
be attributed to the promotion of TLRL under SMF (225%) and PDR
(261%) which consequently contributed to the increase in TRL both
water stress condition. Belibod increased SDW in PDR only was
brought about by greater RSD due to promoted TLRL and TNRL.
Major roots component traits such as TRL, TNRL, TLRL and NNR had
highly significant contribution to the increase in shoot biomass
production in a water stresses environment.
There were genotypes which showed higher shoot biomass

production ranging from 5.6g – 66.2g plant-1 under stressed (≤15%)
relative to well-watered and moderately stressed conditions. Root
system developmental responses showed that there were certain
genotypes which exhibited greater root systems under severe
stressed (≤15%, SMC) conditions ranging from 10001cm – 25000cm
plant-1 (Fig. 4). Thirty-five germplasm were identified to have showed
high shoot biomass at different intensities of progressive drought
stress as indicated by their sensitivity drought index (SDI) and
plasticity index (PI) (Table 1). Low index value means more desirable
under stressed condition. Positive value indicates plasticity under
stressed condition.
A total of 2446 rice germplasm were evaluated against zinc

deficient soil. Tolerant (T) entries were characterized having good
stand across the plots and no rusting. Moderately Tolerant (MT)
showed minimum rusting but overall had good stand and no stunting
while susceptible. Figure 5 shows most of rice germplasm (65%) were
susceptible, while only 10% were tolerant. Validation of these tolerant
varieties was still necessary prior to breeding for zinc-tolerant rice
169
varieties. Numerous studies investigated potential mechanisms for

tolerance to Zn deficiency in rice. Tolerant cultivars may have lower
Zn requirements or translocate relatively more Zn from roots to
shoots. It was concluded that high translocation of Zn to shoots and
reduced translocation of Fe, Mg, P, Mn, and Cu would be an
important tolerance mechanism. How these nutrient imbalances
affect plant growth remains unresolved, but one likely explanation is
a disturbance of enzyme functions. Studies on genotypic differences
in the ability to increase Zn availability in the rhizosphere for
subsequent uptake have focused on the active release of Zn-
mobilizing substances from rice roots. Yet another interpretation of
cause-and-effect mechanisms under Zn deficiency focuses on the
negative effect of secondary stress factors, such as high bicarbonate
concentrations in the soil solution, on root growth with subsequent
negative effects on Zn acquisition (Mori et al., 2015).
Under salinity stress, eleven entries were tolerant and five

were moderately tolerant out of the 333 entries screened. On the
other hand, four were tolerant and 14 were moderately tolerant for
submergence stress. Both salinity and submergence stresses were
evaluated under screenhouse condition. Further validation in natural
field is desirable. This is another opportunity for collaboration.
Similarly, in Bangladesh, six rice varieties were recently released for
salt tolerance named BRRI dhan47, BRRI dhan53, BRRI dhan54, BRRI
dhan55, BINA dhan8 and BINA dhan10.
Among them, BRRI dhan54 is appropriate for the wet season

and the rest are for both wet and dry seasons (Islam et al., 2008).
Similarly, five varieties were released in India, nine varieties released
in the Philippines and 5 varieties released in Vietnam within the last
five years of 2013. The Indian released varieties are CSRC(S)7-1-4 and
CSR89-IR8 (CSR43) which are suitable for inland salinity and Luna
Sampad (CR Dhan 402), Luna Suvarna (CR Dhan 403) and Luna Sankhi
(CR Dhan 405) are suitable for coastal salinity. The rice varieties
released in Philippines are NSIC Rc182, NSIC Rc184, NSIC Rc186, NSIC
Rc188, NSIC Rc190, NSIC Rc290, NSIC Rc292, NSIC Rc294 and NSIC
Rc296; all of them are suitable for irrigated ecosystem both in wet
and dry seasons (Gregorio et al., 2013).
170
Table 1
List of Germplasm Identified in the LSS with Potential Drought
Tolerance
Name of Name of Name of

No. No.
Germplasm Germplasm No. Germplasm
1 ARABON 17 MATING 33 MACABATO**
BAKSALAN
2 18 PALAWAN
(KAWALWAL) 34 MACASAPI**
MINANTIKA
P7-3-1 (BINIDING
3 19 TUBOD 35 (GLUTINOUS)
(IR68))
POP RICE**
4 BELIBOD 20 CUEVAS ** - still for root
validation using
5 BINATO 21 IBARRAKI rootbox
method
6 BININTANAG 22 INAPOSTOL
7 M45 23 INCANTADO
8 M5 24 KINARURAY 1
9 BINARIT 25 MALAGKIT 1
10 GININTO 26 MIMIS
11 GOBERNO 27 ORTOC
AGO-
12 MININDORO 28
OYONG**
BULYHAN
13 NAGSALAY Coll1434 29
(KALINDOL)**
14 QUINIZON 30 CABACHAO **
15 DURYAT 31 CAIDOL**
16 MALIKET 32 GINARACIA**
Figure 5
Abiotic Evaluation of Rice Germplasm Against a) Natural Zinc-Defficient
Field Condition; b) Screenhouse Salinity Stress at Vegetative Stage; and
c) Screenhouse Submergence Stress at Vegetative Stage
171
Based on the result of the evaluation, there are several

available germplasm accessions that could offer resistance against
major rice diseases, which could be considered as option for selection
of parent materials for rice breeders to produce rice lines/varieties
that would perform well against problematic rice diseases. It is highly
recommended to continue exploring the potential of available rice
lines/varieties against major rice diseases that would further expand
the option for breeders in selecting parent materials and also to
monitor the stability of resistance of the earlier tested accessions.
Results from this study could help identify sources of

germplasm for single or multi-stresses in the Philippines and in the
world. Since the information generated were appended in the
Germplasm Management System housed at PhilRice Genebank,
researchers from different institutions locally and internationally
could request following the Standard Material Transfer Agreement
(SMTA) to access the rice germplasm of interest. The methods
employed in this project could also be used by other institutions who
have the same research objectives. Solely, the Genebank could not
make this study possible but the multitudes of collaborating experts
from other groups and stations have helped achieve the success of
the evaluation of the vast rice germplasm against major biotic and
abiotic stresses in rice.
Conclusions
Plant genetic conservation specialist alone could not make

sense of the true value of the germplasm stored in the Genebank. An
inter-disciplinary and collaborative approach is vital to generate the
necessary information that could bridge the gap between
conservation and utilization. The biotic stress-resistant and abiotic
stress-tolerant germplasm identified in this project could be used as
basis for breeding of new rice varieties.
172
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174
LEARNING BY DOING: CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES IN CAPACITY BUILDING OF
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN
AGRICULTURE AT PhilRice
Leonilo Gramaje
Joanne D. Caguiat NL Manigbas
OE Manangkil JC Berto
EC Arocena and Xavier I. Caguiat
Philippine Rice Research Institute, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Learning does not only happen within the four corners of the
classroom. Students look forward to put theories into practice. This
study aimed at evaluating the impact of internship at Plant Breeding
and Biotechnology Division (PBBD) of Philippine Rice Research Institute
(PhilRice) Central Experiment Station (CES) of several local and
international higher education institutions (HEIs). PBBD catered 40
agriculture students from NEUST, DMMMSU, CLSU, MINSCAT, and KKU-
THAILAND from 2012-2017 in the conduct of their theses, major practice,
and data analyses on hybrid rice breeding and seed production. The
students were provided with tasks-to-do appropriate to their field of
specialization. This study evaluated the students’ capacity of
engagement in field work, contributions to the hybrid rice breeding
program, and learnings from linking with HEI using active feedback
mechanisms, key informant analysis and tracer methods. Majority of
the students rated their experience as excellent and relevant to their
learning and to their future career (60%) and most of the appreciative
students are currently practicing agriculturists in both private and
government service. The learning-by-doing approach enabled them to
practice and grasp every process of the tasks. This study proved the
relevance of collaboration that could enhance the capacity of students.
Strong partnership between research agencies and HEIs could provide
important role to future professionals of this country.
Keywords: Engagement, internship, linkages, research institutions, SUCs
175
Introduction
In global perspective, the extent of learning should not be

confined in the four corners of the classroom. It has long been
established that experiential education helps provide young
professionals with balanced learning of both theories and their
applications, and for them to be prepared in their chosen career.
Service-learning or outside-the-classroom approach could be
categorized as community service where volunteerism falls in the
field of education where internship is under. It is an informal way that
could cut across a variety of disciplines, with or without direct
connection to the formal education. The latter on the other hand,
involves the formal, structured and corresponds to the specialization
of the students (Furco, 2018).
The concept of experiential learning dates back to the early

periods of Medieval Europe. It was conceived as vocational training
which took the form of apprenticeships that ranged from five to
seven years of service. The apprenticeships were used as a pathway
for students of a specific trade to get into a trade guild, which is an
association of specialists in a specific field of work. While vocational
apprenticeships and “journeyman” programs are still offered in many
of the fields in which this style of instruction originated, college
students today have the opportunity to participate in an internship,
on-the-job training (OJT), or practicum, in conjunction with their
chosen curriculum.
In the late 1970s and '80s, there was a surge in the college
faculty members establishing internship programs after hearing
about success stories from colleagues at other institutions.
Universities took the lead in making internships more appealing to
and productive for students by giving course credit for internships.
Most early university internship programs were established in fields
such as business and medicine. Soon, after the increase in new
interest in these curricula, most universities established internship
programs in other disciplines such as psychology and social work.
These early programs served as a way for students to try out possible
future careers without the commitment of having to work a full-time
job (Jackel, 2011).
176
There are few publications on the nature of the academically

structured practicum, on-the-job-training (OJT) or internship.
Student experiences were found to vary widely both in terms of
trainer and the trainee and in the nature of the supervision received.
Most of the students felt their OJT was a great experience that
prepared them for a career (Dieffenbach et al., 2011). Acquiring new
knowledge and bringing out the students’ creativity through
internships, major practices, on the job trainings, theses, and
conducting special problems should enable students to be more
equipped and confident to pursue their chosen career. Apart from a
requirement for graduation, taking theory into practice is more
advantageous especially in the future employers on the preference
of less training time for soon-to-be part of the team (Dieffenbach et
al., 2011; Furco, 2018).
The Philippines has a lot of internship programs both in the

private and public institutions. However, there are also few
publications that discussed the influence of internship experience on
students’ career selection. A paper describes tourism and hospitality
industry (Salatan, 2016) and the other on pharmacy (Carido et al,
2015). This paper tackles the agriculture sector with PhilRice-SUC
partnership. This pioneering work is the first formal study on the
impact of internship in the students’ career path and as a model in
driving the development of the next generation of agriculture
research, development and extension workers in the country and in
the world.
PhilRice is a government corporate entity (Classification E)

under the Department of Agriculture. It was created through
Executive Order 1061 on 5 November 1985 (as amended) to help
develop high-yielding and cost-reducing technologies so farmers can
produce enough rice for all Filipinos.
With the vision, “Rice-Secure Philippines”, PhilRice adheres

to equip the Filipino rice farmers and the Philippine rice industry to
be competitive through research for development. PhilRice fully
coordinates its research work to its seven branch stations, satellite
stations, and networks comprising 60 members nationwide.
PhilRice is ISO-complied with certificates on ISO 9001:2015

(Quality Management), ISO 14001:2015 (Environmental
177
Management), and OHSAS 18001:2007 (Occupational Health and

Safety Assessment Series). It carries the nation’s overall vision of
becoming a rice-secure country. It has also strong linkages in national
and international institutes. It serves as training ground for students
coming from both national and international SUCs. PhilRice PBBD
caters students for major practice, thesis, internship, and OJT
focusing on cultural management of crops for breeding inbred and
hybrid rice, seed production technologies, special problems, data
gathering and analysis.
In order to evaluate the current internship program at

PhilRice, there is a need to document students’ and teachers’
learnings, career after graduation, and identify obstacles and best
practices. This paper also evaluated the redesigning of internship
programs and emphasize the importance of feedback system in
capturing the impact of such program in the agriculture sector.
The general objective of the study was to evaluate the

impact of internship program conducted by the Hybrid Rice Breeding
and Seed production Project, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology
Division (PBBD) of PhilRice.
Specifically, the study aimed to: (1) document the students’

preferred ways of field engagement ;(2) identify the contributions of
178
the students and the internship program to the hybrid rice breeding
program; (3) trace the whereabouts of the students after the
internship program; and (4) determine the learnings, including the
challenges and opportunities in collaborating with HEIs for internship
programs.
Methodology
A descriptive, correlational research design was employed in

the study using survey, key-informant interviews, tracer method and
participant observation as the methods of data collection. Online
survey was conducted for the students who previously had their
internship program at PhilRice-PBBD, from 2012-2018. Advisers and
instructors who were assigned to oversee the students in their
schools served as the participants of the key-informant interviews.
PhilRice researchers also conducted participants’ observations and
schedules during their internship, including students’ presentations
at the end of the program. A simple tracer method was also
conducted to determine the whereabouts of the students who have
undergone the internship.
The respondents consisted of three teachers and 40

graduate students from universities in Thailand and Philippines who
did their internship at the PBBD, PhilRice.
The students consisted of four interns from Khon Kaen

University (KKU), 18 major practice and theses students from Central
Luzon State University (CLSU), and 18 OJT students from Nueva Ecija
University of Science and Technology (NEUST), Mindoro State
College of Agriculture and Technology (MinSCAT) and Don Mariano
Marcos Memorial State University (DMMMSU). Students were
categorized according to the course they are enrolled in their
respective schools, as follows:
Internship. It was used by Khon Kaen University, Thailand, for their

students who underwent a four month or a season-long involvement
in hybrid rice breeding and seed production.
179
Major Practice. This was a season-long involvement of the students

with a specific study related to the normal operation of the hybrid
rice breeding and seed production group.
Thesis. It was a season-long involvement of the student conducting

applied or basic research related to hybrid rice breeding and seed
production.
On the Job Training. This involved a series of lectures and hands-on

training given to students for 30 working days on the growth stages
of rice.
Data Analysis
Data were collected and encoded in Microsoft Office Excel

2007© for statistical analysis. Each school was given a code for
confidentiality. IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences© Statistics
version 21 was used for correlation and descriptive analysis.
Descriptive statistical analysis, measuring the frequency, mean and
standard deviation, was employed to evaluate the different variables
in the study. To investigate the relationship among independent and
dependent variables, the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used.
Students’ Methods of Field Engagement
Most of the students (83%) preferred hands-on activities

over lectures. Meanwhile, majority of the students (70%) find it more
relevant if they engaged in whole farming operation process
compared to tackling only one specific activity. This activity limits the
students’ work because OJT students stays for a very short period.
a. How Things were Done in the Program?

Before the conduct of the study, the students were oriented
to the breeding program of the division in all rice ecosystems such
as rainfed, upland, cool elevated, drought, saline, submergence,
high temperature, and irrigated lowland for inbred and hybrid
rice. They were also toured to the facilities and experimental
areas. The division head or senior breeder of the division was
180
required to give the overview of the rice breeding being done by

PhilRice. This was to inform the students of the impact and
importance of developing rice varieties of our country.
Afterwards, the students were introduced to the assigned
researchers in all breeding groups and were oriented how they
were interrelated. Series of lectures and actual application were
given to them by the different resource speakers from different
breeding group. In order for them to be more interactive, they
were also advised that from time to time they can always ask
questions for all the breeding topics that needs clarification. After
tackling all scheduled lectures, the students were turned over to
the hybrid rice breeding group for their specific studies.
b. Internships, Major Practice, Theses and On the Job Trainees.

The different research studies about hybrid rice seed
production were assigned to the for Thai intern stdents from
Khon Kaen Unversity. The studies were aligned to the core
activities of the hybrid breeding project such as nucleus seed
multiplication, evaluation of paired crosses, breeder and
foundation seed production, and other basic research in flowering
synchronization for hybrid seed production. The study was more
on actual application to expose them in all stages of hybrid seed
production. The students were also taught on gathering and
analyzing data. Progress on their study was monitored regularly.
The topics of nine Major Practice students from CLSU were

based on the routine activities of the breeders especially in
producing F1 hybrid seed or the A x R seed production. This is done
to engage them in actual field work in the production of hybrid
rice seeds. The students were required to be in the field with core
workers from sowing to harvesting. They were obliged to be
present in critical stages of the crop, during fertilizer application,
primordial sampling, boot collection, gathering initial heading and
flowering, leaf clipping, GA3 application, pollination and data
gathering. The written report was monitored every month or
whenever there are suggestions and clarifications.
Topics of the nine CLSU theses students were

conceptualized by their school and PhilRice adviser through focus
group discussion before implementation. The study can be basic
181
or applied research related to the hybrid rice breeding project.

The nine students were required to visit their setup minimum of
three days every week from sowing to harvesting. The students
were also taught how to gather data and interpret results.
The 18 OJT students from the different universities attended

to both lecture and field work. However, not all stages of the crop
were part of their learnings because of time limit. (maximum of 30
days only). OJT students were also given a short special problem
for them to appreciate research work. This was part of their
presentation at the end of the training period.
Based on the results, 83% of the students noted that the

most relevant part of the training was their engagement in
actual field operations. Jayson, a major practice student of CLSU
said,
“The most relevant part of major practice is experiencing

and engaging actual activities and communicating with
other researchers and laborers about the techniques and
strategies in hybrid seed production.”
Also, Sylvia of CLSU said,
“For me the most relevant part of the training was the

hands-on part wherein they allowed us to try the methods
they’re doing, that is one way we can evaluate ourselves if
we learn or not during the training.”
These testimonies of the students provide proof that learning-

by-doing approach is an effective tool for the students conducting
studies at PBBD. These findings were similar to those reported by
Sides et al. (2017), that internships provide an opportunity for those
engaged in them to “learn the process of self-generating skill”, which
involves learning how to undertake continuous learning.
In the end, all students agreed that internship, OJT, theses and
major practice in PBBD were very helpful. Alpha of MinSCAT noted,
“Yes OJT was helpful because I have learned many things that
enhanced my understanding and capabilities that I could use in my
182
work. It also afforded me with the crucial skills and knowledge

learned from some of the best professionals in agriculture
industry.” (Alpha, is not her real name)
Contribution of Students on Hybrid Rice Breeding Program

Based on the experience of study leaders in PBBD who
handled the students, study programs such as thesis, major practice,
OJTs and internships have been helpful to the project. As part of the
team, students assisted the researchers in their day-to-day activities
in the field and laboratories, including slide preparations, pollen
evaluations, pair crossing, rouging, leaf clipping, supplemental
pollination, bagging of panicles, data gathering, and post-harvest
activities. Thus, the project had saved resources by not hiring
additional manpower to do the job during the peak of breeding work
because students could complement the needs. Employers benefit
from internships because they provide them with risk-free-trial
access to potential future employees, and schools benefit from them
because it helps strengthen their connections to the business
community (Divine, et al. 2006). Another contribution of the students
to the hybrid program is that they can promote the use of public
hybrids or apply the technology to their school and to their respective
communities. In that way, adoption of the technologies at PhilRice
can be disseminated in wide scale for commercialization.
Tracer Method
Based on data gathered for the 40 students from the four
schools, 70% of them were females and 30% were males (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Gender of the 40 Former Students
30% MALE
70% FEMALE
183
Majority of the students came from CLSU with 52%, followed

by NEUST with 15%, DMMMSU had 13% and MinSCAT and KKU had 10
% respectively (Figure 2). CLSU got the most number of students
because PhilRice is very accessible to the university, and already
established strong collaboration.
Figure 2
Percentage of Students from Different Universities
15% CLSU
MinSCAT
13%
KKU
52%
10% DMMSU
10% NEUST
Out of the 40 students, 90% of them are employed. All of

them agreed that conducting studies at PhilRice helped them land a
job and agreed that the program was useful to them. For the
unemployed, 5% have continued their academic studies while the
remaining 5% are still searching for job (Figure 3).
184
Figure 3
Employment status of the 40 former studentsMost of the students
(75%) now have jobs related to agriculture (Figure 4)
10% EMPLOYED
UNEMPLOYED
90%
Figure 4
Percentage of Students Who Landed a Job in an Agriculture and Non-
Agriculture Sector
0%
10%
15%
75%
Agriculture Non-agriculture Unemployed
Of the 90% employed, 55% of them are working in

government institutions focusing on agriculture, and 20% are
connected to private companies focused on agriculture (Figure 5).
Based on the students’ program categories, high percentages of
student who landed jobs related to agriculture came from theses and
major practice students with 89% respectively.
185
Figure 5
Percentage of Former Students Employed in Government and Private
Sector
Government
Private Agriculture
Companies
Private not Agriculture

Companies
unemployed
Through online survey, the 40 students who participated in the

internship program at PBBD- Hybrid Rice Breeding group were
contacted and located. Only 60 % of them responded to the survey
questions that the research team forwarded. Among the
respondents, several students (60%) expressed their improvement of
their skills in field operations. Thomas, a major practice student said:
“Involvement in actual activities like land preparation up to

postharvest made me realize that being Agriculturist is fun
and at the same time engaging your self will gain new
knowledge and learnings in proper management practices
that help in getting high yield of the crop.”
Meanwhile, several students (25%) improved their English

language especially those coming from Thailand.
Aside from the skills of the actual operations, 41% of the

students agreed that their motivation towards research were
improved. According to them, being resourceful, flexible, manage
time, critical thinking especially in the data analysis, and being
independent were also worth of the time spent at PhilRice. The
internship program boosts motivational levels of interns and
internships helped them to understand theories learned in classroom
186
and enhanced their understanding of issues relevant to their

respective studies (Bukaliya, et al. 2012).
Learning from Linking with HEI using Active Feedback Mechanism

At the end of the training, all students submitted their
outputs through narrative report and power point presentations for
OJT and interns, and manuscript for thesis and major practice
students. The reports were checked thoroughly by the assigned
PhilRice advisers to ensure that all information are correct. They also
presented their study as their exit seminar. The final presentation
was attended by researchers of PBBD, school advisers, and
representatives. After presenting their results, question and answer
portion followed. Students were asked questions by the researchers
to validate the information they presented especially those who
handled them. Researchers also contributed to the discussion by
clarifying some processes or adding information to the studies
conducted. They were also graded by selected researchers who were
present during the presentation. The grade will be part of the grade
in class which PhilRice submits to their respective schools. School
advisers were also given the chance to give their feedback to the
students and to the division about the program. The challenges,
opportunities, and importance of collaborations between
universities and SUCs were also tackled on the discussion after the
presentation. This could help the schools that deploy students in
various internships and have external industry people formally
evaluate the students’ job performance. This feedback can be used
to assess areas of strength and weakness, thus influencing the
school’s curriculum and/or preparation of students to improve
workplace performance (Divine, et al. 2006).
Most of the school representative that gave their comments

were very thankful to what the students had accomplished within the
whole duration of the study. They also said that the collaboration and
partnership should continue because many students need this kind
of exposures for them to be more competitive. Angie, DMMMSU OJT
adviser said:
“Most of us here at school were amazed when the students

presented their outputs. They were very confident in
presenting their reports as indications that they learned many
187
things and did their on the job training well. Actually, it was
like a promotion, many of our incoming fourth-year now
already give their intentions that they want also to conduct an
OJT at PhilRice but we have only limited slots for them because
we have still other partners” Ma’am Angie said.
According to one of the advisers of CLSU, having

collaboration can help students, trained by competent individuals,
deepen their understanding and appreciation of their chosen course.
They can become more equipped and competent when they
graduate thus, abling them to be more productive individuals. This
statement was consistent to the report of Gavigan and O’Neil’s
(2010) saying that students also gain professional knowledge about
workplace behaviors and were better prepared for future work or
graduate school. Other advantages surfaced during the interview of
the school advisers were noted such as having advanced facilities at
PhilRice that is not present in their schools and the place is very
conducive for learning because everybody are research-oriented and
friendly.
On the part of the students and school advisers, some of the

challenges they encountered were: too much academic load or
number of units of students during the conduct of the thesis and
major practice that the students cannot be in site as much as they
can. Students also found it difficult when they have very limited
background on the study they will work on.
According to one respondent, the curriculum must be

upgraded to meet the current trends and issues that are worth
studying. Another challenge that was emphasized is that some
students had difficult time to adjust on the new equipment because
they were very new to these. Some students have not enough
background on the topics, they have to adjust to the terminologies
used. Some schools also noted the wrong timing of deployment of
their students because students arrived at PhilRice after harvest
season or the crop was about to harvest, and because of this,
students cannot experience actual practice on different cultural
management of the crop at the different growth stages.
Furthermore, because of only maximum of 240 hours was given to
OJT students, they have very short period to learn the whole process
of plant breeding, and most of them did not tackle the management
188
of some of the important stages of the crop and the hybrid rice
breeding process. For Thai students, adjustment to the terminology
used was their challenge.
On the other hand, opportunities also came out during the

interview of advisers. According to Sir Joy, one of the CLSU thesis
adviser said that:
“Creating a strong research network that taps on the young minds to

come up with relevant and timely technologies that can benefit the
farmers and the nation”. Partnership is very important we need
research institution like PhilRice to fill the gaps that academe cannot
provide to the students he said.
As a result of the training, two students were able to present

their thesis output to the Crop Science Society of the Philippines
(CSSP) scientific conference in Legazpi City, Albay. This conference
helped them established new network and linkage for future
collaboration on their chosen career. Another opportunity was on
the acceptance of one of the thesis studies for presentation to the
International Rice Congress 2018 which will be in Singapore. This is a
good encouragement and opportunity to the student because they
can experience the importance of the research not only in the local
level but in the international forum. These experiences of the
students can boost and encourage more students to pursue their
career in agriculture.. Other students noted that their OJT experience
at PhilRice became their advantage in landing a job.
Conclusions
Most of the students preferred actual hands-on exercises
because they can easily understand the topics if they are the ones
doing them. This supports the Learning-by-doing approach as an
effective strategy for interns, OJTs, thesis and major practice
students. These findings were similar to those reported by Gavigan
and O’neil (2010) that “practical and internships are supervised
discipline- and career-related work experiences that involve active
learning (i.e., learn by doing), critical reflection, and professional
development”. Meanwhile, most of the students noted that
engagement in actual field operations is the most relevant part of the
189
OJT, internship, major practice, and thesis because they understand

more the whole process of hybrid rice breeding and seed production.
It was shown that students’ engagement in Hybrid Rice

Program helped the researchers to gather and process data easier
and faster and save resources. However, further study must be
conducted to establish greater impact and contribution of internship,
thesis, OJT and major practice programs.The students described that
skills such as land preparation, DNA extraction, data analyses, post-
harvest operation, and writing and communication skills which they
learn from the internship program have helped them land a job in
government and private companies.
Too much academic load for the major practice and thesis,
and lack of exposure to some stages of rice were among the
challenges noted. Creating strong collaboration, new linkages and
networks by the students attending conferences to present their
result, and advantage in job hunting because of their experience,
were among the opportunities for the HEI and students who
conducted their research at PhilRice.
190
References
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benefits and challenges of internship programmes in an ODL institution:
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trends in education and their implications, 3(1), 118-133.
Carrido, DI., Lorenzo C.A., Macaldo A.C.L., & Loquias MM. (2015). Assessment of
knowledge, skills and attitude among pharmacy students toward hospital
pharmacy internship in the Philippines. International Journal of
Pharmacy Teaching & Practices 2015, Vol.6, Issue 2, 2093-2099.
Divine, R., Miller, R., & Wilson, J. H. (2006). Analysis of student performance in an
internship program in a US university. Analysis, 6(01).
Dieffenbach, KD., Murray M., & Zakrajsek. (2011). The coach education internship
experience: An exploratory study. International Journal of Coaching
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Jackel, D. (2011). "Evaluating the effectiveness of an internship program". Masters

Theses & Specialist Projects. Paper 1117.
http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1117
Sides, C., & Mrvica, A. (2017). Internships: Theory and practice. Routledge
Simons, L., Fehr, L., Blank, N., Connell, H., Georganas, D., Fernandez, D., & Peterson,
V. (2012). Lessons learned from experiential learning: What do students
learn from a Practicum/Internship. International Journal of Teaching
and Learning in Higher Education, 24(3), 325-334.
191
THE ENDURING SILENCE ON VIOLENCE IN
THE NURSING WORKFORCE:
AN EMERGING PHENOMENON
Ma. Nelia P. Silloriquez
West Visayas State University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
This phenomenological study aimed to understand the lived
experiences of nurses on workplace violence in two tertiary hospital
settings. Selected nurses who have personally experienced two or more
bullying behaviors in the setting and whose job statuses were either
regular, casual, or job hired were identified informants for an in-depth
interview. The interview data were transcribed and five themes
generated and evolved. These are (a) workplace violence happens to
anyone: workplace violence is becoming rampant in the health care
industry, (b) there are damaging circumstances as a nurse: impact of
workplace to nurses, (c) unpleasant experiences are better forgotten:
how nurses survive workplace violence, (d) I am a Nurse and I stand by
my profession: why nurses opted to stay despite their workplace
violence experiences, and (e) I long for a better place: A better
workplace for nurses. In the narratives, study reveals that informants
experienced unforgotten disruptive behaviors such as fear, frustration,
verbal abuse, humiliation and threat, abuse or misuse of power and
authorities resulting in helplessness and demoralization that eventually
reduced their feeling of dignity and self-respect. Legitimate
occupational issues within the nursing workplace need attention and if
interventions are ignored, the consequence is enduring silence.
Keywords: Enduring silence, nurse, phenomenology, and workplace violenc
192
Introduction
Given the central focus of caring in the nursing profession, it

is ironic that evidence of violence has become a common work-
related phenomen. Griffin (2004) defined horizontal violence as overt
and covert actions by nurses toward each other especially towards
those viewed less powerful. In a US based study, this prevalence
affects new nursing graduates, nursing students, and even those
nurses who have worked at a health facility for a long rime (Roy,
2007). Griffin further explained that because most communication is
nonverbal, covert behaviors have the biggest impact. Lateral
Violence (LV) manifests itself in a variety of unkind, antagonistic
interactions that occur among nurses in the same organizational
hierarchy the lack of a universal term to contain these actions makes
integrating research on LV difficult (Bartholomew, 2006).
Lateral violence is so widespread in the nursing world that at

one point or another, everyone, regardless of age, sex, employment
status, or religion has been affected. Less is known about workplace
violence facing the nursing workforce in the Philippines (de Castro,
Cabrera, Gee, Fujishiro, & Tagalog, 2009). It is assumed that Filipino
nurses do not report incidence of violence in the workplace.
Workplace violence or disruptive behavior involving a nurse is the
subject being investigated. Disruptive or bullying behaviors may be in
the form of physical assault, threatening, either covert or overt, that
the nurse may experience from peers, nursing aides, laboratory
technicians, supervisors, physicians, patients, or their significant
others, in the tour of their duty.
Overt and covert behaviors are generally a summation of

personality. Those are characteristics that may either be seen or
unseen. Overt behaviors encompass traits that are observable and
readily perceived through an individual’s sense. Ready impressions
on a person exemplify how an individual is seen through his overt
attributes. Covert behaviors, on the other hand, include those traits
that are hidden deeply within an individual, those that he/she keeps
to himself/herself for some reason (Magalona & Sadsad, 2008).
The American Nurses Association (ANA) recognizes that

workplace violence is a problem in the health care industry and it
works hard to provide resources to protect nurses in the US. In 2009,
193
more than 50% of emergency center nurses experienced violence

inflicted by patients. There were 2,050 assaults and violent acts
reported, requiring an average of four days away from work. Of these
acts reported, 1,830 were inflicted with injuries by patients or
residents, and from 2003 to 2009, eight (8) registered American
nurses were fatally injured at work (Bureau of labor Statistics [BLS],
2013).
Nurses may experience workplace violence for a number of

reasons. Murray (2009) mentioned that the basis most often is the
need for the bully to be in control of all aspects of the work
environment. The perpetrator of the violent behavior may have a
personality flaw, such as being shortsighted, stubborn to the
extreme of psychopathic tendencies such as trying to be repulsively
charming; has an exaggerated sense of self; and lacks the ability to
be remorseful or feel guilt over the harm inflicted upon others.
Disruptive behaviors also exist because of a white wall of

silence that often protects the bully. In some cases senior managers
insinuate these behaviors and often protect the bully instead of the
victims (Longno, 2007). Another study on American student nurses
reported that 53% had been put down and reported being insulted by
a staff nurse (Longno. 2007); 52% reported having threatened or
experienced verbal abuse at work (ANA, 2011). In another study De
Castro et al. (2009) and his group described work-related problems
among a sample of nurses in the Philippine. Cross-sectional data were
gathered through a self-administered survey during the Philippine
Nurses Association in 2007 convention. Measures included four
categories: work-related demographics, occupational injury/illness,
reporting behavior, and safety concerns. About 40% of nurses had
experienced at least one injury or illness in the past year, and 80% had
experienced back pain. Most who had an injury but did not report it.
The top ranking concerns were stress and overwork. Filipino nurses
encountered significant health and safety concerns that are similar to
those faced by nurses in other countries. It is recommended in this
study that future research should examine the work organization
factors that contribute to these concerns to strengthen policies that
promote health and safety.
The Philippine Nursing Act of 2002 (R.A. 9173 Section 2 in

Vinzon, 2007) hereby declares that it is the policy of the State to
194
assume responsibility for the protection and improvement of the

nursing profession by instituting measures that will result in relevant
nursing education, humane working conditions, better career
prospects, and a dignified existence for the nurses.
Epistemology
The epistemology of constructivism and the theoretical

perspective of interpretivism framed this study. Interpretivism is
understanding something in its context. A person may respond in a
number of ways to a particular stimulus since people’s actions are
context-bound and dependent on time, location, and the minds of
those involved. In other words, people create and associate their
own subjective meanings as they interact with the work around them
(Holloway, 1997). Thus, interpretative research attempts to
understand phenomena through assessing the meninges that the key
informants assign them.
Seemingly, Albert Bandura (1969), the proponent of Social

Learning Theory highlighted the significance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses of
others as a way to understand a particular group. Much of the
learning to direct interpersonal situations is a product of following
the behaviors one observes in the group to which one wants to be
accepted as a member. When maltreatment of a nurse is occurring,
members of the work unit may model the behavior of the individuals
participating in the negative behavior as a way to be accepted by
them (Griffin, 2004).

This qualitative study aims to (1) describe the lived
experiences of Filipino nurses exposed to workplace in tertiary
hospitals in Iloilo City, (2) understand the significant memories and
insights of nurses as they look back at their experiences on violence,
and (3) analyze the meaningful feelings and outlook towards
workplace violence. It is assumed that nurses experience some kind
of violence from their peers, colleagues, patients, and their families
or from other members of the health care team.
195
Methodology
Creswell (2003) described phenomenological research as a
strategy associated with the qualitative approach, in which the
researcher identifies the essence of human experiences concerning a
phenomenon. This type of research is used to study areas in which
there is little knowledge (Donalek, 2004). The nursing literature,
mainly from the Western countries, is full of clinical articles about
bullying, harassment, and horizontal violence in the workforce but
actual research evidence is limited.
Data Sources
The study was conducted in December 2015 in two of the ten

hospitals in Iloilo City. Two tertiary hospitals that carry Level 4 status
as teaching and training hospitals (Department of Health, 2015) were
considered as the venues of the study: One of the hospitals is a
government institution while the other is privately owned. As in
tertiary hospitals, nurses were regularly rotated to different general
wards and specialty units and are given the opportunity to handle
bigger responsibilities.
Work-related Demographics. An accompanying work-

related demographic data sheet was used to gather information on
the nurses’ personal and non-personal characteristics such as age,
sex, religious affiliation, marital status, and type of hospital, area of
assignment, position held, educational qualifications, employment
status, and the number of years of experience as a nurse.
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Table 1
Nurses Personal and Non-Personal Characteristics
Nurse
(in Pseudonym) Characteristics
Teresita She is a 30 years old, single, and has worked as a staff nurse semi-private
general ward of a government hospital for nine years and occupying a
permanent position.
Orly He is the most senior informant, who served at a government hospital for 31
years and is the present Nurse Supervisor of the Operating Room complex.
She is a 39 year-old mother of a young boy. She is working at the general

Loraine wards of a government hospital as a permanent Staff Nurse.
Lorenzo He is a young gentleman at age 28, single and has been to several health care
units before becoming a permanent staff nurse in one of the Government
Hospitals in the City. He is assigned in the general wards.
Pedy She is a 42 year-old, single nurse, is assigned to the pediatric department of

the same tertiary institution holding a permanent position, and served as the
Head Nurse of the unit for 6 years.
Ice He is a job-hired employee of a privately owned tertiary hospital in the city and
has been assigned in the Intensive Care Unit for 2 years.
Workplace Violence Survey Questionnaire. (Dumont and

Colleagues, 2012).
The modified survey consists of 18 statements on workplace-

related disruptive behaviors and was used to identify the key
informants for the in depth interview. Measures included three
categories: covering three aspects, namely: (1) frequency of
experiencing workplace violence or disruptive behaviors, (2) how a
nurse personally is affected by these behaviors, and (3) the
perpetrators of disruptive behaviors. Under the frequency of
experiencing of workplace violence or disruptive behaviors,
statements like: (a) Harshly criticizing someone, (b) Belittling or
making hurtful remarks to others, (c) Complaining about a co-worker,
(d) Raising eyebrows or rolling of eyes at coworker, and (e)
Pretending not to notice a coworker struggling with his or her
workload. As to category two how a nurse personally is affected by
these behaviors, statements were: (a) I was discouraged because of
lack of positive feedback, (b) I have not spoken up because of fear of
retaliation, (c) I hesitated to ask question for fear of being ridiculed,
(d) I left work feeling bad about myself because of not so good
interaction with certain coworkers, (e) I had physical symptoms
197
because of bad interaction with a coworker. Lastly, the perpetrators

of disruptive behaviors include: (a) nurse peers, (b) supervisors, (c)
physicians, (d) other professionals such as laboratory technicians,
respiratory therapist and physical therapist, (e) other staffs like
secretarial, security, housekeeping personnel, (f) patient or client,
and (g) watcher or relative.
The frequency of workplace violence was determined with a

5-point Likert scale with the following descriptions: 1 = never, which
means that workplace violence was not experienced at all within the
period of 12 months; 2 = once, which means that workplace violence
was experienced only one time within the period of 12 months; 3 =
monthly, means that workplace violence was experienced every
month within the period of 12 months; 4 = weekly, which means that
workplace violence was experienced every week within the period of
12 months; and 5 = daily, which means that workplace violence was
experienced every day within the period of twelve months.
The Self-test for “Type A” Personality. Carver and Scheier,

(2000, in Magalona & Sadsad, 2008) defined personality as a dynamic
organization inside the person, of psycho physical systems that
create a person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and
feelings which convey sense of consistency, internal causality and
personal distinctiveness. The Self-test for “Type A” Personality
Checklist was used to determine the nurse’s personality type.
Understanding personality traits is important in the workplace.
Everyone has different preferences that make up their personality
type, and some personalities work better together than others. A
particular personality type might make it really easy to work with one
colleague and leave one struggling with another. The Self-test for
“Type A” Personality is a published standardized instrument adapted
from Guzman (1981, in Posecion, 1998). Using the semantic
differential scale, the test is composed of twenty pairs (20) of
adjectives and phrases. Each pair is chosen to represent two kinds of
contrasting behaviors. The nurses were asked to encircle the number
to which, they think they belong, given the two extremes; the score
was obtained by adding all the encircled numbers. Personality type
was determined by means of score intervals.
Type A Personality behavior is described as an action-

emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is
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aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more

and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the
contrasting efforts of other things or persons. Type A Personality
traits are: ambitious, controlling, highly competitive, preoccupied
with status, workaholics, and lack patience. This type of personality
implies a temperament, which is stress prone, concerned with time
management, great multitasking feels guilty when relaxing and does
not easily accept failure. Type A1 has a high risk of cardiac illness and
other stress-related illnesses especially those who are smoking and
are over 40 years of age. Type A2 is also cardiac-prone personality but
not quite as high risk of heart disease as a Type A1. People with Type
B personality traits are relaxed, less stressed, flexible, emotional and
expressive, and have a laid-back attitude. This personality type is not
concerned about time, mild mannered, does not brag, focused on
quality rather than quantity, enjoy achievement, is thoughtful, and
creative. Type AB is a mixture of Type A and Type B patterns. This is a
healthier pattern than either Type A1 or A2. AB individuals have the
potential for falling into Type A behavior.
The key informants for the in-depth face-to-face interview

were six nurses who consented to take part in the study. All of the
key informants have various experiences with workplace violence
with at least 43 cases in a year. Two of them have had experienced
with workplace violence on a daily basis while the other four have
experienced disruptive behaviors weekly. Majority of the informants
have Type A2 personality.
Interview Guide Questions. The developed interview guide

was used in interviewing the key informants. Krueger and Casey
(2001) mentioned that when the issues at hand are sensitive and
highly confidential, the interactive processes could be compromised.
In this case, individual interviews were appropriate in gathering the
necessary information related to disruptive behaviors in the nursing
workplace. The interview techniques of probing (verbal and non
verbal) were used. The researcher has explored all information about
the nurses’ experiences until redundancy of the answers or point of
saturation was reached and all the topics on workplace violence were
covered during the interview. When similar pattern in the responses
of the informants and when few or no new information were
received from the interview process, the researcher stopped or
ended the interview.
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Procedure
Ethical Considerations. Ethical permission for the study was
obtained from the West Visayas State University Bio-Medical
Research Ethics Review Committee. Confidentiality was assured by
no personal or identifying information being included in the
transcript. The informants qualified for the interview were assigned
pseudonyms to hide their real identities. The potential risk of
psychological distress from the informant recalling the incident of
workplace violence was acknowledged. The researcher who is a
nurse has experiences in debriefing and knowledge of referral
services for those experiencing on-going psychological distress. Their
contact numbers were included in the cover letter of the survey
questionnaire, with an invitation to contact them and discuss any
psychological distress caused by the interview.
Data Collection
Permission to conduct the study was sought from the two

Hospital Directors. Fifty-three (53) nurses from the private institution
and fifty-five (55) from the government hospital participated in the
survey to identify the key informants using the modified workplace
violence survey questionnaire (Dumont & colleagues, 2012). The
obtained scores were used to identify the frequency with which a
nurse experiences workplace violence. Nurses who had personally
experienced two or more bullying behaviors in the last twelve (12)
months and whose job statuses were regular, casual, or job hired
were considered as key informants for the in-depth interview. Of the
one hundred eight (108) nurses who participated in the survey,
thirteen (13) fit in these criteria. Letters to invite these thirteen (13)
nurses were delivered personally by the researcher. Six (6) nurses
consented to take part in the in-depth interview. Three (3) nurses did
not respond to the invitation for reasons they will be retiring soon
and will be on sabbatical leave; two (2) will not be available in the
next two months, and two (2) nurses refused not to participate in the
in-depth interview. All of the six (6) key informants have various
experiences with workplace violence with at least 43 cases a year.
Two (2) of them have experienced disruptive behaviors weekly.
Majority of the informants have Type A2 personality. Type A2
individuals are hard driven, competitive, impatient, and aggressive.
200
They are short-tempered persons, and tend to be achievement

striving and hostile. Type A2 is also cardiac-prone personality.
The entire interview session of the key informants was

conversational. Every individual interview was recorded. Voice
recorders enabled the researcher to maintain eye contact with the
informant as well as preserve the informants’ words during data
collection. The researcher used bracketing to improve the rigor and
lessen the bias in this qualitative research. Bracketing aims to keep
what is already known about the description of the phenomenon
separately from the informants’ description. Bracketing brings
forward the researcher’s prejudices. It is only with this awareness
that the researcher can truly be open to what are their own
experiences (Kvale, 1996). Done at the outset of the study the
researcher, asked a colleague to interview her using the same
interview guide questions intended for the key informants. A
narrative description was transcribed and included as part of the
researcher’s subjectivity statement that assisted her to maintain an
open approach when interviewing the key informants in analyzing
the data.
Data Analysis
The inductive data analysis was utilized in this
phenomenological study in order to construct themes by
categorizing the data into increasingly more abstract elements of
information. The steps involved were based on the data analysis
according to Colaizzi (1978, in Creswell, 2009) that included
transcription, horizontalization, coding, textural description,
structural description, and interpretation.
Demonstrating Trustworthiness of the Study Findings

Qualitative research has to demonstrate trustworthiness in
keeping rigor and strength to the study’s validity and reliability in all
stages of the research process, including data collection, data
analysis, and descriptions. A research project is trustworthy when it
reflects the reality and ideas of the key informants. Holloway (1997)
stipulated, the trustworthiness approaches like credibility,
dependability, conformability, and transferability were undertaken
throughout the research process and was supported by
triangulation, or multiple sources of data as evidenced by
201
consultation with experts; member checks, or arranging for those

who provided data to evaluate the conclusions.
Trustworthiness in this study was supported by

triangulation, or multiple sources of data as evidenced by
consultation with experts; member checks, or arranging for those
who provided data to evaluate the conclusions (Merriam, 2009). The
researcher ensured trustworthiness by laying aside her preconceived
idea about the phenomenon under investigation and by returning to
key informants to establish whether the description was a true
reflection of their experience.
In this study the researcher used some strategies for

triangulation such as conducting face to face in-depth interview with
individual informants, having the key informants review the
transcription of their audio recorded interviews and conducting peer
interviews to substantiate the information gathered. The researcher
validated the statements of the key informants by interviewing their
peers who were with the informant during the workplace violent
incident. The peers were asked to describe the actions, facial
expressions, statements and behaviors of the key informants as they
experienced violence in the workplace. They were also asked to
confirm the unforgettable experiences of the key informants as well
as liken the previous workplace experience with their recent ones.
The nurses were candid in their responses to the open-

ended qualitative questions like: “What do you feel about workplace
violence, how are you affected, what made you remain in situations
where bullying behavior is a great possibility, and what do you think
should be changed or improved to prevent workplace violence,
stipulating specific examples of behaviors they had experienced. The
following themes were generated: (a) Workplace violence happens
to anyone: workplace violence is becoming rampant in the health
care industry, (b) there are damaging circumstances as a nurse:
impact of workplace to nurses, (c) unpleasant experiences are better
forgotten: hoe nurses survive workplace violence, (d) I am a nurse
and I stand by my profession: why nurses opted to stay despite their
workplace violence experiences, and (e) I long for a better place: a
202
better workplace for nurses. Each theme provided in-depth

observations that displayed insights and feelings of the key
informants.
“Workplace Violence Happens to Anyone”: Existence of Workplace

Violence in the Health Care Industry
In the complex health care workplace of nurses, violence is

accepted as a common destructive problem and a persistent
occupational threat within the nursing workforce. When asked about
their experiences with workplace violence, all six informants
acknowledged they have experienced disruptive behaviors in the
workplace. The nurses who responded to this question were
reflective in their comments, speaking from the perspective of a
victim. Below are Teresita’s and Ice’s responses.
Teresita: I think it happens to everyone especially if you are working in

a public workplace, so we are at risk.
Ice: Bullying of nurses actually is rampant even in the private hospital,

it is a natural workplace happening.
They voiced out disappointment in their inability to keep

their frustrations in check that sometimes resulted in behaviors that
defied their personal and professional standards. This theme is
aligned with the American Nurses Association (2011 and De Castro, et
al., 2009), which points that workplace violence is a problem in the
health care industry and the situation is so widespread in the nursing
world that at one point or another everyone has been affected.
“There are Damaging Circumstances for me as a Nurse”: Impact of

Workplace Violence for Nurses
Comments related to their perpetrators included examples

of disruptive behaviors as illustrated by Teresita’s statement.
Teresita: Maybe with the doctor it is moderate but with the folk it’s
severe. The patient’s folk put me to shame in front of the surgical
resident. My feeling was: He is a nurse and I am a nurse too and he put
me to shame and humiliate me repeatedly [At this point of the
203
interview, she could not hold back her anger and burst to tears.] There
are folks that understand and there are also those terrible ones.
Recalling the experiences, the nurse mentioned that the

incident affected their job performance for instance the experience
affected nurses socially.
Teresita: I am really a silent type, so I become more silent. As if I am

shameful, as if I don’t interact easily. I minimize interaction. I am like
that for weeks; I don’t stay at the bedside.
Lorraine: It is not right just because we are nurses and they are doctors,
we secure the consent and prescribe the materials, when it is their job.
Most of the time it is we, nurses, who do things for the patient…but I
don’t know.
Lorenzo: Violence need not be in the form of physical violence like

verbal or sometimes it can inflict emotional distress. If satisfied with
what you report, she would stand up, throw the chat away, look for
other charts, then throw the chair away and go back again and play
silent.
Pedy stated that she experienced bullying from supervisors

or head of the unit. She believed this incident did not directly affect
her work; however, her relationships with her superiors were
affected.
Pedy: I still remember what they did to me. They bullied me. They are
stepping on my rights. I told myself: just because I am just like this, they
will do this to me? Despite the threat I received, I pursued my case.
Sometimes I asked for legal advice and they will tell me: Why do you
need to seek legal advice? I said because you don’t listen to me, you even
bullied me. I have received threats from my superiors, or somebody will
approach me and say: be careful, they are watching you.
Also, Ice expressed his bullying experience after several

years of working in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and his insights why
nurses are bullied.
Ice: After years working in ICU, after encountering harsh physicians,

folks, you just learn how to deal with them. Usually bullying in the
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workplace with regards to nurses depends in the performance of the

nurse. If you do not perform well, you will be bullied.
The appreciation nurses received from patients’ and peers

and the thought of doing the job well to render quality care are the
fulfillment of nurses after a day’s work. Regardless of the demeaning
incidents and other forms of disruptive behaviors that nurses
experienced, nurses still continue their work and opted to stay and
practice their profession with compassion and love for service. The
second major theme was fear of retaliation. The key informants
expressed passionate feelings about workplace violence. Some even
stated that if the physician or the folks report the disruptive behavior
incident, she would lose her job. This thread of fear is disturbing.
Nursing is a profession that advocates for and protects patients, but
people are afraid to advocate for themselves.
“Unpleasant Circumstances are Better Forgotten”: How Nurse

Survive the Workplace Violence Experience
Nurses were given an opportunity to share any disruptive or

bullying behaviors they personally experienced, which did not fit into
the category of behaviors already described in the previous
questions. While no new categories of behaviors were recognized,
detailed descriptions were provided. Five of the six informants
verbalized that the majority of disruptive behaviors were verbal in
nature. Griffin (2004) however, explained that because most
communication is nonverbal, covet behaviors have the biggest
impact. Verbal abuse ranged from “being embarrassed in front of
colleagues and other member of the health care team,” to the
“yelling hostilely,” that, “the informant still feels bad and had been
so much affected but sometimes he just laugh it out.” While no
physical aggressive behaviors were aimed at individuals as Lorenzo
described, objects being tossed around the nurses’ station. Five
informants insisted that these “unforgotten experiences helped
them through bad times.” Moreover, the nurses believed that
whatever has happened is done, that the clock moves forward, and
wanting to change what has happened is impossible, just like what
Pedy and Ice stated.
205
Pedy: This is common knowledge, yes, but it's helpful to acknowledge

there is always another time to get it right when now just is not working
out.
Ice: after years in ICU, after encountering harsh behaviors from

physicians, folks, you just learn how to deal with them, we just shrug
off and put it off in our mind.
A Major contributing factors the informants have identified

included lack of respect, support, and positive recognition from
management. In this case, the informants verbalized:
“let go and get over it…this too shall pass.”
“I am a Nurse and I Stand by my Profession”: Why Nurses Opted to

Stay Despite their Workplace Violence Experiences
When Teresita was asked if there was anything she would

like to add or any information that were not included or we had left
out, she said:
Teresita: “I think the rights of the caregivers. Because if you work here
in the station of the hospital, as if we are not legally conscious so every
time somebody tells you…do you like to lose your job? This makes you
startled. For us those words were like as if it’s the end of the world.
However, despite those experiences, I decided to stay as a nurse
because, of course you are a patient advocate; you are there to perform
your job.”
Typically, the healthcare professional with the most

interpersonal contact with the patient is the nurse. The nurse may be
in the best position to act as liaison between patient and patient’s
family and other team members of the health care and inter-
departments. To perform this function adequately, a nurse must be
knowledgeable about and involved in all aspects of the patient’s care
and should possess a positive working relationship with other
members of the health care team. Not everyone appreciates a nurse
who steps forward on patients’ behalf.
Orly expressed his concern about surgeons.
206
Orly: “wondering why I was the only one who was assisting him and so
he asked me, “Why you are the only one assisting me in my surgeries?”
and I replied, “Doc, who would assist you because everybody else is
afraid of you. For you what they are doing is wrong. The staff would
say, what is the problem with doctors, they would just reprimand you.”
and I would reply back, “That would not be the case, if you have a good
reason. We are nurses. We chose nursing……some staff nurses…they
just keep quiet. They are afraid as they look upon them [physicians] as
persons in authority.”
Some of the descriptions were more specific, such as the

response of Lorenzo.
Lorenzo: It is irritating sometimes since you are both staff nurses. You
have to be levelheaded when answering questions in the nurses’
station. It is not a competition but rather the kind of work we can offer
in order to render quality patient care,”
Considering that patient and significant others also

experienced anxiety so Lorenzo believes that part of the nurses’ job
is to attend to their needs. After having experienced and witnessed
violence in the workplace on several occasions, Lorenzo requested
for several times to be transferred to Out Patient Department (OPD)
during the first months of working in the service ward.
Lorenzo: “Ma’am, can I transfer to Out Patient Department (OPD)? I am

not happy with environment. [Frowns and lightly strikes fingers on the
table]. Ma’am it is not about workload. What I don’t like is the group
dynamics of the team, it is all insulting.” There are different
personalities in that group that make it bad. “
However, the SO made him realized that he did ot need to

be transferred out because people need him.
Pedy shared her feelings why she opted to stay in the department
Pedy: I love public service. I am there for my patients not for anyone
else. I feel happy with pediatric patients.
The six informants stand by their being a nurse, assumed the

caring role and subscribed to the core value of nursing which are the
207
vital components in the development of a professional nurse as

emphasized in the Philippine Nursing Act of 2002.
“I Long for a Better Place”: A Better Workplace for Nurses
When asked to share their feelings, memories and

suggestions about ways to lessen the amount of violence in their
workplace, nurses spoke of their sincere duty to improve dealings
with their colleagues and other members of the health team.
The responses to this question were understood as a desire

on the part of the nurses to be active in conflict resolution. The
relationship of management to an environment that promotes
workplace violence was discussed. Instances of exchanging shout
for orders or demands from patients and significant others made
clinical work experiences for nurses extremely difficult. To them, co-
workers or immediate superior like the Head Nurse were the people
she could talk to about her work-related problems.
Below are the responses of the informants when they were

asked about their experienced incident which they have shared to
their co-workers or immediate superior. It was very evident in their
responses that they were longing for a better workplace.
Teresita: If you have a problem the person you can talk to is your
colleague or your head nurse. That’s why we don’t report (referring to
higher hospital authorities) that kind of incidence anymore. It’s hard if
you report it. They are not the kind of people who can give time to those
under their stead. If they have their own problem, this issue of yours
will not even be entertained. I suggest they conduct seminars focusing
on personal and professional growth, specifically about ethics, attitude
of the workers, hospital staff, hospital heads, and those who work
under them. The hospital Human Resource (HR) Office is also
conducting personnel orientation. Is she? “There is none, Ma’am. The
HR in the hospital is for hiring only. We seminar about Civil Service (CS)
policy that includes ethics too but that was years ago, only for newly-
hired staff. It is sensible to have a counselor since it is an everyday
happening, but our heartaches whatever it is are not given much
attention. I talked with my parents… She will reply: “never mind dear”.
There were advice and comfort provided by my parents.
208
However, the informant thought of quitting her job as one

of the senior nurses in a tertiary institution.
Orly: One doctor made a letter of complaint about nurses signed by all
members of the surgery, orthopedics and anesthesia.
When asked if he could share the outcome of the complaint

letter, the informant opened his arms.
Orly: Nothing. The Nursing Service Office (NSO) and Human Resource
(HR) are pointing back at each other.
Lorraine: I said doc, isn’t it a protocol? We should follow the protocol.

If I complain here in the hospital administration office no one would
listen to me. I fought back following due process, I sought legal advice
and got myself a lawyer.
Ice: There are residents who are mean and our head nurse is aware of it
and she will just tell us, never mind they are okay and it is natural in the
workplace. My feelings, to the nursing department as a whole, they
should address like an official letter to the Medicine Department, so
that their chief could make their own policies for the attending
physicians because mostly there are no policies that governs attending
physicians, only residents and nurses. The thought that it is difficult to
be employed in other hospitals because of competition and few slots
left, so since I am hired here already, I will push through it.
Two basic factors were described in this theme. One was

that the leaders (supervisors, charge nurses, directors of nursing,
administrators, and physicians) use their power or position to
intimidate and threaten subordinates. These results support the
finding of Longo (2007) on senior managers’ insinuating these kinds
of behaviors and often protect the bully instead of the victims.
Secondly, these leaders often turn a blind eye and a deaf ear to
what’s happening in terms of both violence in the workplace
perpetrated around them and violence they themselves may
perpetrate. The nurses stated that when they reported the
behaviors, nothing was done about them. The bully was often felt to
be friends with the leader. The nurses’ comments reflected the
strong belief that all levels of management should be involved in
solving the problem of workplace violence in their particular
209
workplace. Two of the six informants want a better workplace if ever

there is a chance to find one.
Essence of the Phenomenon
Disruptive or bullying behaviors may be in the form of

physical assault, threatening, either covert or overt, that nurses may
experience from peers, nursing aides, laboratory technicians
supervisors, physicians, patients or significant others, in the tour of
their duty.
In this study, there is presently an understanding on two

issues. Workplace violence is rampant in the nursing profession, and
the experience of this behavior is psychologically upsetting,
threatening patient safety, and affecting the nurse self-esteem.
Strong emotions were evident in the telling of these stories whether
they occurred in the recent time or distant past. The stories nurses
shared about the disruptive behaviors they experienced were
distressing, and the stories widened one’s understanding and
appreciation of the impact of workplace violence for nurses.
In the responses, it was obvious many nurses were aware of

the existence of violence in the workplace however, they prefer to
endure in silence the occurrences rather than report the incident to
authorities. Moreover, individual responses to the qualitative
questions provided rich descriptions of the nurses’ experiences as
victims of this phenomenon.
Based on the responses of the informants, the researcher

learned that workplace violence can happen to any nurse in both
private and public healthcare industries regardless of their rank or
position. This workplace violence that they have experienced
affected their job performances, relationship with their superiors or
even their personality. However, despite these unpleasant
experiences, they have survived and continued to perform well in
their jobs. They have learned and got used to these circumstances
that if they encounter similar situations, they are just shrugging these
off and think that these too shall pass. Moreover, the informants still
chose to stay because they believed that they are professional nurses
and they must stand by their profession. Yet, they are also longing for
a better workplace. And they suggest that a better workplace has
210
less incidence of violence, and a good relationship between

colleagues and other members of the health team and superiors
should prevail. Superiors should be fair in treating their subordinates
and as much as possible keep the workplace free from violence.
Comments related to supervisors included examples of

disruptive behaviors being ignored as shown in Lorenzo’s statement,
“I informed a couple of incidents to my supervisor and nothing was
done.” While no nurse reported being aware of overtly aggressive
behaviors aimed at her or him from a supervisor, majority of the key
informants reported feeling they were recipients of negative covert
behaviors. These included being ignored by a supervisor, not
encouraged to apply for advancement or recommended for
promotion, and not mentored professionally as were other peers.
Two (2) out of the six key informants reported the incident to the unit
supervisors; the rest preferred silence for fear of retaliation. The
various experiences about numerous types of disruptive behaviors in
the workplace affected the way nurses see the future. When asked
to share their thoughts and recommendations about ways to lessen
violence in the workplace, the nurses spoke of their sincere
commitment to improve relationships with their colleagues and
other members of the health care team, to include patients and their
significant others. The commonality of responses to this question
was interpreted as a desire on the part of the nurses to be active in
the solution. Finally, Ice said every nurse should focus her responses
on the necessity of encouraging personal responsibility, stating,
“Handling staff well and trying to lessen working short staffed so
people do not feel burned out and give themselves an alibi to be
concerned with self over others.”
211
Conclusion
This study provided a venue for the nurses to air out their
inner feelings and apprehensions regarding workplace violence, and
a chance for them to be listened to and be understood as they shared
their experiences. In the complex health care workplace of nurses,
workplace violence is accepted as a common destructive problem
and a persistent occupational threat. Experienced nurses are often
the perpetrators; novice nurses are most likely victims.
Administrators often ignore disruptive behavior in the workplace,
despite a facility-wide policy designed to address this problem. A
trickle-down effect was portrayed in the reports presented in which
the leadership set the attitude: disruptive behavior is commonplace
and tolerated by upper management and is allowed to occur, and
nurses do nothing about it; instead, they endure the silence of
violence in the nursing workplace allowing it to remain an emerging
phenomenon.
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213
SOCIAL NETWORKING AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION: EXPLORING FACEBOOK AS A
TOOL FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH
Mona Froida Matolo-Langoh
Mindanao State University-Tawi-Tawi, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to determine the teachers’ and students’ perceptions
of social networking such as Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching
and learning English. The study made us of a descriptive-correlational
design in answering the research questions. The respondents were the
19 teachers and 92 students from one private school and one public
school in Zamboanga City, Philippines. Based on the findings, the
teachers’ perceptions on Facebook is Uncertain. The students’
perception on the use of Facebook as a Facilitative tool in learning
English revealed as “agree”. Moreover, the students’ English
Competency Level is Competent. There is no significant relationship
between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook and the students’
English competency level. However, there is a significant relationship
between the students’ perceptions of Facebook and their English
competency level. Furthermore, there is no significant difference
between the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook when data are
classified according to age, type of school-employed and gender. There
is no significant difference between the students’ perceptions on
Facebook when data are classified according to gender and type of
school enrolled. Thus, Facebok inclusion could potentially enhance
language skills, motivate learners to participate in educational
activities, help students to gain self-study skilsm access massive
amount of authentic learning materials, receive feedback, practice new
points and revise previous knowledge.
Keywords: Facebook, social networking, second language acquisition,

effects, teaching English, learning English
214
Introduction
The evolution of internet resulted into a set of innovative

practices in global education system. English Language Teaching
(ELT) is one of the prominent areas which were influenced by the
internet and other nternet-based technologies in the 1990s. Open
approach to knowledge dissemination has led to a blend of
technology usage and classroom practices in ELT. During the past
years, social networks have come into existence and were used in
language teaching activities (Patel, T 2015). Our increasing
dependence on and use of various technological tools has impacted
every facet of our lives, and language teaching and learning are no
exception. Educators regularly incorporate a variety of tools (Thorne
and Payne, 2005) to engage their students and to allow them to
interact in new and different ways, both in class and beyond the walls
of the classroom. In particular, popular social networking sites (SNSs)
such as Facebook, Edmodo, and LinkedIn offer educators even more
ways to help students increase motivation and reinvigorate the
classroom climate (Mazer et al., 2007). Social networking tools such
as these, and others, also provide opportunities for language learners
to enhance digital and multi literacy skills, interact in and through the
target language, work collaboratively, and enhance their linguistic
and pragmatic proficiency (Blattner and Fiori, 2011).
Recently, the way languages are learned has been greatly

influenced by technology. Both learners and teachers are exposed to
the internet daily, so they can take advantage of it to teach and learn
a foreign language. For this reason, it has become necessary to find
ways to blend technology with language instruction.
The use of Facebook moves beyond formal academic

learning to include corollary aspects of learning such as effective
collaboration and communication. This research endeavored to find
out whether there is congruency between the use of social
networking site such as Facebook in language teaching and learning
in the classroom and its effect on the students’ English competency,
and how teachers and students have actually been using it. By
understanding how students and teachers in this study use Facebook
as a tool that facilitates the teaching and learning of language,
teachers and students can better emphasize the ways Facebook can
be used as an interactive learning environment. By determining the
215
congruency in using such tool in its current, actual use, this research
will provide the teaching and learning of language through Facebook
with invaluable information that will aid future direction about the
use, governance, and training related to social media implementation
in secondary schools.
The researcher chose to conduct a study on social

networking and second language acquisition: exploring Facebook as
a tool for teaching and learning English among students and teachers
for these reasons: First, E-learning and how it can be applied to ELT is
probably a good area for research as the internet becomes more
available to an ever wider group of students and teachers as well.
How students and teachers interact and how the systems were used
to facilitate that interaction is a question which will need to be
understood to increase the effectiveness of this medium. Second,
blended learning is the approach that is at the cutting edge in
education and with a wide range of possibilities for ELT. It helps
teachers optimize language learning and teaching by using ICT
(Information and Communication Technology) resources (internet,
web-based tools, CD-Roms, etc.) in combination with face-to-face
sessions. E-learning that encompasses the use of technological and
electronic support for educational purposes embraces blended
learning and lastly, E-Learning or technology in learning has become
a buzz in the education industry and today it caters to the needs of
modern-day learners. Infusing technologies in classroom learning
have added to stimulus and enhanced learner's interaction within the
classroom. E-Learning has a vast presence in almost every field.
Language teaching is one such field where technology has taken over
and improved the ways of learning.

The researcher’s study on the social networking and second
language acquisition: exploring Facebook as a tool for teaching and
learning L2 English is pattern from Krashen’s Affective Filter, and
social constructivist theories. In terms of learning purposes,
Facebook can promote the affective filter hypothesis and Social
constructivist theories. According to Krashen (1981), motivation,
attitude, self-confidence, and anxiety are principle factors in second
language acquisition. High motivation, a good self-image, and a low
216
level of anxiety lower the affective filter, thus increasing the amount
of comprehensible input, which eventually contributes to language
learning (Krashen, 1988). In normal classroom settings, many
students experience such problems as the fear of being considered
as a low learners, the anxiety of speaking in front of the class, and
many other negative feelings, all of which prevent them from
participating or even cause them to get panicked (Warschauer,
1996). Meanwhile, when they study online, they study in a non-
threatening environment. As an online synchronous tool, Facebook
offers a sense of anonymous communication thus building a state of
anxiety-free relaxation (Murphy, 2009). In other words, students can
ask freely on Facebook without the fear of making mistakes. They
experience less social pressure in learning. In this state, the affective
filter is lowered, which enhances the amount of comprehensible
input in language learning. Apart from this, Terantino (2011) reported
that Facebook can promote social interaction between teachers and
students through discussions, negotiations, comments, questions,
and status updates. Teachers can post photos, texts, or videos on
Facebook and then assign students to make comments on the
postings. Students can stay connected with other people through
this social networking site as well. After being given an opportunity
to communicate with other people, students are likely to benefit
from collaborative learning on Facebook (Dawson, 2008). At this
stage, a zone of proximal development (ZPD) is constructed on
Facebook. This hypothesis echoes the core notions of Vygotsky’s
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which Vygotsky (1978) defines
as “the distance between the actual development level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”
.Both theories emphasize the necessity of disparity, and ultimately,
Vygotsky’s (1978) emphasis on meaning making through
collaborative learning provides the bridge between comprehensible
input in theory and comprehensible input in practice.
Relating to the social constructivist theories, in this zone,

language assistants on Facebook, such as teachers, friends, or users
in general, can play the role as more knowledgeable people
explaining English grammar usage and giving suggestions for their
writing work. This help students move from their actual stage of
217
development to their potential stage of development, a stage in

which their grammatical and writing competence is enhanced.

The main purpose of this study was to determine the grade
ten (10) teachers’ and students’ perceptions on social networking
such as Facebook as a facilitative tool for teaching and learning
English. It also explored whether these perceptions affect the
students competency level in English. Specifically, the objectives
were: (1) to determine the overall perceptions of the grade ten (10)
high school teachers and students of Zamboanga City, Philippines in
the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching and learning
English, (2) to find out the students’ English competency level, (3) to
examine the significant relationship and difference between the
grade ten teachers’ perceptions in the use of Facebook in teaching
English and the students’ English competency level, and (4) to find
out the significant difference in the teachers’ and students’
perceptions in the use of Facebook when data are classified
according to different variables.
Methodology
This study used a descriptive-correlational research design.
This was conducted in one public high school and one private high
school in Zamboanga City. The subjects of this study were the grade
ten (10) teachers and students of one private and public school in
Zamboanga City. To determine the sample size for survey, a
purposive sampling technique was used to get the teachers’ total
population, while Gay’s Formula was used which means 20% of the
students’ population.
The development of the survey questionnaires involved

preparation, selection, adaptation, and modification of the item
statements. The preparation of the research instruments was done
through careful research in the internet thereby choosing only those
related topics that was most appropriate to the study. Only items
that are relevant to the study were selected and shall be validated by
three (3) raters.
218
The students’ English competency test instrument is

standardized and adopted from the study of Thanawan
Suthiwartnarueput on Effects of Using Facebook as a Medium for
Discussions of English Grammar and Writing of Low-Intermediate
EFL Students. The reliability index of the study is r=0.859, which
means that the instrument has a high reliability index.
The research instruments on teachers’ and students’

perception on Facebook was referred to the researcher’s adviser for
comments and suggestions. It was distributed to the panel of experts
with master’s degree or doctorate degree in Language teaching to
evaluate the items of the research instrument in terms of relevance,
appropriateness and suitability. The panel of experts was given a
validation form indicating their agreement or disagreement to the
item statement.
To determine if the statement is valid, two or all of the three

panels of experts manifest their agreement to the statement. On the
contrary, if the statement is not valid, two or the entire three panel
of experts manifest their disagreement to the statement. To measure
the reliability of the research instruments on teachers’ and students’
perceptions on Facebook, face validity was employed.
The first research instrument is a survey questionnaire. The

questionnaires were adapted, modified and evaluated research
instrument to determine the teachers’ perception on Facebook as a
facilitative in teaching – learning English. To measure the teachers’
perceptions towards the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool for
teaching and learning English, a thirty (30) item– 3 point Likert scale
was used. Corresponding to each statement in the research
instruments were three (3) possible responses out of which the
respondents were instructed to make a choice. Each question was
followed by possible responses to the three scales with the following
meaning: Agree – which means that the respondent completely
agrees to the given statement being described. Uncertain – which
means that the respondent cannot simply decide or has no opinion
to the given statement being described; and Disagree – which means
that the respondent completely disagrees to the given statement
being described.
219
The second research instrument was also a survey

questionnaire. The questionnaires were adapted, modified and
evaluated research instrument to determine students’ perceptions
on Facebook as facilitative in teaching and learning English. To
measure the students’ perceptions towards the use of Facebook as a
facilitative tool for teaching and learning L2, a thirty (30) item– 3 point
Likert scale was used. Corresponding to each statement in the
research instruments were three (3) possible responses out of which
the respondents were instructed to make a choice. Each question is
followed by possible responses to the three scales with the following
meaning: Agree – which means that the respondent completely
agrees to the given statement being described. Uncertain – which
means that the respondent cannot simply decide or has no opinion
to the given statement being described; and Disagree – which means
that the respondent completely disagrees to the given statement
being described.
Before gathering the data needed, the manuscript was

submitted to the Ethics Committee for a review. After the review, the
Ethics Committee provided a certificate allowing the administration
of the study to the respondents.
The researcher personally conducted the gathering of data

and fully explained the intent of the study. For teacher-respondents,
survey questionnaires were distributed and administered to them in
order to gather the needed data. They were given two (2) days to
finish the survey questionnaires on Teachers’ Perceptions on
Facebook. The survey questionnaires were collected after two days.
The data collected were used solely for the study and the findings
were stated in broad-spectrum with no reference to any specific
teacher, student, or school. Data were tabulated, tallied and
analyzed.
To gather the needed data for students’ English competency

level test, the researcher set a schedule with the grade ten (10) class
advisers. Again, the researcher personally conducted the gathering
of data and fully explained the intent of the study. Test
questionnaires was distributed and administered to 56 student-
respondents in school X and 36 student-respondent in school Z. They
were given an hour to answer the English competency level test; 20
minutes on grammar test and 40 minutes on writing composition
220
test. The grammar test consisted of 25 items and 20 items for the
composition writing. Test questions were collected from the student-
respondents afterwards. Data were checked, tabulated, and
analyzed.
The data were generated from the survey questionnaires

checklist and students’ English competency test which were analyzed
using the appropriate statistical tools. Weighted mean was used to
analyze research questions 1 and 2, and mean was used to analyze
research question 3. Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient was used to analyze research questions 4 and 5 in order
to determine whether there is significant relationship in the grade 10
teachers’ perceptions on the use of Facebook and the students’
English competency level and whether there is significant
relationship in the grade 10 students’ perceptions on the use of
Facebook and their English competency level. In research question 6,
one way ANOVA was used to analyze whether there is a significant
difference in the grade 10 teachers’ perceptions on the use of
Facebook and age; independent T-test was used to analyze whether
there is a significant relationship between the teachers’ perception
on Facebook and age and type of school employed. Independent T-
test also was used in order to analyze whether there is a significant
difference in the students’ perceptions on Facebook when data are
classified according to gender and type of school enrolled.
221
Table 1
Social Networking and Second Language Acquisition: Exploring
Facebook as a Tool for Teaching and Learning English
Variables Result Description

Overall perception of Teachers in the Use of 2.30 Uncertain
Facebook as Tool in Teaching English
Overall perception of students in the use of 2.42 Agree
Facebook as a tool for Learning English
Students’ English Competency Level 31.52 Competent
Relationship between Teachers’ Perception and .372 Not Significant

English Competency
Relationship between Students’ Perceptions .021 Significant

and English Competency Level
Significant Difference of Teachers Perceptions .580/.176/.217 Not Significant

on Facebook (age, type of school, gender)
Significant Difference of Students Perceptions .339/2.27 Not Significant
on Facebook (Gender/type of school enrolled)
As shown in Table 1, the result of the study revealed that the

overall perceptions of grade ten teachers towards Facebook as a
facilitative tool in teaching and learning English was “uncertain” with
an overall mean score of 2.30. The result maybe uncertain, but it does
not necessarily mean that it gives a negative impact as to their
perceptions toward the use of Facebook as a tool for teaching and
learning English. It simply implies that they are just starting to adjust
and consider the use of Facebook (FB) platform to teach English. The
result is similar to the findings found in the study by Clarke 2008,
Teaching and Learning Strategies though Facebook. In order to
improve the academic performance of students, teachers need to
help students develop different learning and alternative ways of
learning a language. One effective learning strategy is the used of FB
in language classroom settings.
The overall perceptions of the grade ten (10) high school

students of Zamboanga City in the use of Facebook as a facilitative
222
tool in learning English was “agree” with an overall mean score of

2.42. This implies that the students believed that Facebook could be
utilized as an online environment to facilitate the learning of English,
that FB support educational activities by making interaction,
collaboration, active participation, information and resource sharing,
and critical thinking possible. In addition, Facebook is a unique and
fun environment that lowers students’ stress levels and enhances
learners’ engagement and interaction. According to Wu and Hsu’s
(2011) study of the influence of SNSs on EFL learners in a university in
Taiwan and Yunus, Salehi and Chenzi’s (2012) study on integrating
SNSs into EFL writing classroom in a university in Malaysia, English
language learners were found to enjoy interacting with peers in
English and felt comfortable expressing their opinions and sharing
their thoughts.
The students’ English competency level was competent with

a mean score of 31.52. This implies that the grade ten students have
the knowledge and skills on grammar and composition writing that
functions effectively making them perform well on their English
competency test. In addition, teachers also play a great role in
making the students perform well in the class. For the students to
gain a high competence level in grammar and composition, teachers
are but one factor that can contribute to the students’ good
performance in their English class. The teachers’ language teaching
strategies and motivation have led to the success of the students’
language performance in the class.
Meanwhile, there was no significant relationship between

the teachers’ perception on Facebook and the students’ English
competency level with a significant p-value of .327, that is greater
than the alpha (p-value<.05). It implies that the teachers’ perceptions
on FB has no contributing factor that would affect the students
English competency level as revealed in the overall mean score of
2.30 as the grade ten teachers perceived FB as uncertain. Meaning to
say, the students English competency level which is competent with
a mean score of 31.52 is the result of their knowledge and skills on
grammar and composition that functions effectively. It further
implies that the teachers overall perception towards FB as a
facilitative tool in teaching English which is uncertain is parallel to the
result that there is no significant relationship between their
perception on Facebook and the students English competency level.
223
In addition, it is revealed that there is a significant

relationship between the students perceptions towards Facebook
and their English competency level with a significant p-value of .021,
that is less than the alpha ( p-value>.05). The result of the overall
perceptions of the grade ten students on FB which is “agree” with a
grand mean score of 2.42 shows a positive impact towards their
English competency level which is competent with a mean score of
31.52. The positive result of the students’ perceptions towards FB is
in parallel with their result in their English competency. This further
implies that their perceptions on FB influence their performance in
grammar and composition. Findings revealed that the grade ten (10)
students believe that FB as an online learning environment facilitates,
supports, and encourages their English language learning. In
addition, the findings indicate that students' motivation and
confidence towards English language learning improved via FB.
Further, it is revealed that there is no significant difference

in the teachers’ perception towards FB with a significant p-value of
.580, 1.76 and .217 respectively, which is greater than alpha (p-value
<.05). This implies that all teachers regardless of whatever their age,
type of school employed and gender, have the same perceptions
towards the used of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching
English. Meaning to say, the integration of technology into the
language classroom setting must be used wisely and moderately.
Teachers, when integrating Facebook as instructional tool in teaching
and learning English, must know the positive and negative impacts
that FB has towards the students. When integrating FB in language
classroom setting, they must first teach the students on how to use
it wisely, so that students may know their limitations in using FB as a
tool in language learning. More importantly, teachers should employ
such tool for educational purpose only and set aside its social
use/function when teaching the English language.
Finally, it was also revealed that there is no significant

difference in the students perception towards FB and the type of
school they are enrolled and gender with a significant p-value of .339
and 2.27 respectively, which is greater than alpha (p-value<.05). This
implies that the grade ten private and public students, whether male
or female, has the same perceptions towards Facebook as a
facilitative tool in teaching English. It only shows that the influence
of social media such as Facebook and its integration into the
224
classrooms is very strong and that is being viewed by these teachers

as the same regardless of whether they are private or public
students. It also manifest that the utilization of FB among classrooms
has generated interest in the educational setting.
Conclusions
Based from the findings of the study, it is therefore
concluded that the overall perception of the grade ten (10) teachers
on the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in teaching English is
uncertain. The overall perception of the grade ten (10) students on
the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in learning English is
“agree”, where the students’ English competency level is competent.
Furthermore, there is no significant relationship between

the teachers’ perceptions on Facebook and the students’ English
competency level, while there is a significant relationship between
the students’ perceptions on Facebook and their English competency
level. There is no significant difference between the teachers’
perceptions on Facebook when data are classified according to: age,
type of school employed, and gender. There is no significant
difference between the students’ perceptions on Facebook when
data are classified according to gender. Thus, the research findings
support the idea that the use of Facebook as a facilitative tool in
teaching and learning English posits a positive impact on the both the
teachers as well as the students.
225
References
Blattner, G., & Fiori M. (2009). Facebook in the language classroom: Promises and
possibilities. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance
Learning.
Kirschner, P., & Karpinski, A. (2010). Facebook and academic performance.

Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237–1245. [20].
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Pergamon Press Inc.
Krashen, S. D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New
York: Prentice-Hall International.
Madge, et al., (2009), The effects of Facebook habits on academic success,

BritanyHelton.
Mazer, J. P., Murphy, R. E., & Simonds, C. J. (2007). I'll see you on “Facebook”: The
effects of computer-mediated teacher self-disclosure on student
motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate. communication
education, 56(1), 1-17.
Patel, T. (2015). Analyzing the impact of social networks on English language teaching.
ELT VIBES: International E-Journal for research in ELT, 1(2), 70-76.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.),

Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
226
BARAYTI NG WIKANG FILIPINO SA BALITA O
LATHALAING PANSHOWBIZ SA MGA
PANGUNAHING PERYODIKO
Arche R. Tudtod
University of Perpetual Help System-GMA Campus, Philippines
ABSTRAK
Ang pag-aaral na ito ay isinagawa upang tuklasin at alamin ang
kalagayang pangwika partikular na ang pagkilala sa kung anong barayti
ng wikang Filipino ang mas ginagamit ng mga manunulat sa paglikha ng
balita o lathalaing pumapaksa sa showbiz. Binuo ng dalawang bahagi
ang isinagawang pag-aaral na ito tungkol sa barayti ng wikang Filipino
sa pagsulat ng balita at lathalaing panshowbiz sa mga tabloid. Ang mga
peryodikong pinaghanguan ng mga salita bilang korpus ng pag-aaral ay
ang limang Tabloid: Balita, Bulgar, Pang Masa, Abante Tonite at Pilipino
Star Ngayon. Itinala at inuri ang mga leksikal na aytem ayon sa apat
mula sa pitong tepolohiyang nabuo salig sa pinagsama-samang
pananaw nina Haugen (1966), Weinrich (1981), Rodman (1988), at
Enriquez (1985). Ito ang apat na patern na ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito:
Hiram-Ganap (HG), Hiram-Paimbabaw (HP), Hiram-Sanib (HSb), Hiram-
Daglat (HD). Inuri ng mga mananaliksik ang mga barayti na ito sa
tatlong kategorya batay sa morpolohikal na aspeto: Purong Tagalog,
Filipino-Ingles o Asimiladong Filipino at Sosyolek. Natuklasan sa
pananaliksik na ang pinakamaraming salitang naitala bilang halimbawa
para sa hiram-ganap at malawak ang paggamit ng mga manunulat at
kolumnista ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa Asimiladong Filipino o
Filipino-Ingles bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikita at
mapapansin sa mga pangunahing peryodiko.
Susing salita: Wikang Filipino, barayti at baryasyon ng wika, kuwalitatibo,

Pilipinas, Asya
227
Introduksiyon
Ang isang makabuluhang katangian ng wika ay ang walang

tigil na pagbabago nito. Ito ay dahil sa walang humpay ang
pagbabago ng kapaligiran ng wika at dahil na rin sa malikhaing
kakayahan ng isipan ng taong napapansin ang kapaligirang ito. Batay
kay Consuelo J. Paz, ang resulta nito ay ang pag-iiba ng variant o mga
salitang halos pareho ang kahulugan. Kadalasang resulta ito ng
panghihiram sa ibang wika ng salitang may katumbas sa katutubong
pangwika sa Pilipinas at sa panghihiram sa banyagang wika.
Sa pagkakalaya ng mga Pilipino sa mga nandayuhang

mananakop, masasabing hindi maipagkakaila ang naging epekto ng
kanilang kultura, paniniwala at paraan ng pag-iisip sa kanilang naging
kolonya. Sa patuloy na pagsulong ng globalisasyon at kompetisyon,
nagkaroon ng adhikain ang ilang bansang naging kolonya na gamitin
ang wika ng mga mananakop upang makasabay sa umano’y global na
kompetisyon at isa na rito ang bansang Pilipinas. Kaya’t sa ganitong
phenomena, hindi rin maiiwasan ang panganganak ng iba’t ibang
baryasyon ng wika dulot ng pagsasanib ng wikang sinilangan sa
ikalawang natutunang wika.
Ang mga norm ay isang panlipunang namamana’t naipapasa.

Samakatuwid, partikular na marahil sa isang indibiduwal na
magtanong sa sarili kung ang mga ito ba ay naisasangkalan sa usaping
panlinggwistika. Mula sa empirikal na oryentasyon, maliwanag na
ang mga norm na napapaloob sa isang wika ay kinikilala sa larangan
ng sosyolinggwistika. Ang kalikasan ng mga batas na ito ay
tinatalakay kaugnay ng paggamit ng bawat isa ng wika sa paraang
pasalita at pasulat. Batay sa paglalarawan na isinagawa ni William
Labov, na ang isang komunidad ay mayroong karaniwang
pamantayan na ginagamit upang magkaroon ng malinaw at maayos
na pakikipag-ugnayan sa isa’t isa (1996).
Sa kabilang banda, ang pagpasok ng norm na ito ay dulot ng

proseso ng mabilisang pagbabago’t pag-unlad sa usapin na may
kaugnayan sa wika. Ang penomenang ito ay maiuugnay sa tinatawag
nating globalisasyon. Dito ngayon pumapasok ang papel ng
pagpaplanong pangwika na isang paraan upang humanap ng
solusyon sa kinakaharap na suliraning pangwika. Halimbawa nito ang
nangyari sa wikang Hebrew ng bansang Israel, kung saan upang
228
muling maibanyuhay ang naturang wika’y tinuruan ang mga

mamamayang Israel ng Hebrew; lumikha ng mga salita o
terminolohiya upang maging modernisado ang kanilang wika; at
bumuo ng mga opisyal na terminong magagamit ng buong bansa sa
pamamagitan ng kanilang Akademiyang Hebrew (Ignace, 1998). Ito
ay isang halimbawa lamang nang pagkakaroon ng malaking papel ng
pagtatakda ng norm lalo na sa larangan ng linggwistika.
Sa kabilang banda, winika naman ni Dr. Emerlinda R. Roman,

ang dating pangulo ng U.P. Diliman noon na dapat alisin ang pag-
aalinlangan tungkol sa pagpapayabong ng wikang Filipino at
umalinsunod sa itinakda ng Konstitusyon.
Para kay Jose V. Abueva, naging pangulo ng U.P. Diliman ang

paglinang at pagpapalaganap sa isang wikang pambansa ay isang
makasaysayang tugon sa dayuhan at lokal na opresyon.
Pinangatwiranan naman ni Dr. Consuelo Paz, kilalang

linggwista at dekano ng Kolehiyo ng Agham Panlipunan at Pilosopiya
ng U.P. Diliman ang panghihiram sa ilang wika upang makaagapay
ang Filipino sa mga pagbabagong nagaganap ngayon sa daigdig.
Para kay Pamela C. Constantino sa kabilang dako,

makakatutulong sa paglutas ng suliraning ito ang mga kaalaman sa
barayti ng wika. Para sa kaniya, may bisang sikolohiko ang
pagkakaalam ng mga barayti ng wika para sa mga tao.
Makapagsisimula ito ng pagbabago sa pagtanggap ng mga tao sa
wika. Dahil dito aniya, “Magkakaroon ng kamalayan ang mga tao na
may bahagi siya o papel sa pagpapaunlad ng wikang pambansa.”
Mahalagang bagay rin ang mga proyektong tulad ng taon-

taong ginagawa ng Filipinas Institute of Translation, ang Sawikaan:
Mga Salita ng Taon. Sa gawaing ito na idinaraos tuwing Agosto ng
bawat taon mula pa noong 2004, nagtitipon-tipon ang mga eksperto
o sinumang may malaking interes sa wika upang pag-usapan ang mga
bagong salitang nadagdag sa bokabularyong Filipino. Sa nalathalang
pagsasaaklat ng mga pagtalakay sa mga bagong salita ng taon noong
2004, makikita ang mga salitang hiniram tulad ng fashionista at text
o hinango mula sa mga umiiral nang salita sa ibang rehiyon sa Pilipinas
tulad ng salbakuta na galling diumano sa Bikolnon.
229
Ang pagkakaroon ng baryasyon sa wika ay isang natatanging

katangian na nauugnay sa sosyo-sitwasyunal. Ito rin ang pagkakaiba-
iba sa uri ng wika na ginagamit ng mga tao sa bansa. Maaaring ang
pagkakaiba-iba ay nasa bigkas, tono, uri at anyo ng salita na ginagamit
ng bawat indibiduwal na kabilang sa isang komunidad. Ayon nga kay
Clifford (1965), mayroong dalawang pangkalahatang uri ng barayti ng
wika: una, ang barayting permanente sa isang indibidwal; at ang
ikalawa, ang barayting pansamantala sapagkat ito ay nagbabago-
bago batay na rin sa hinihingi ng isang sitwasyon o maging ang anyo
ng pagpapahayag.
Ang pagkakaroon ng barayti ng isang wika ay hindi

maipagkakailang umuusbong batay na rin sa pangangailangan ng
isang lipunan o ng mga indibidwal na bumubuo na rin sa isang
komunidad. Partikular na matutukoy ang mga barayti na ito sa
anyong pasulat. Isang malinaw na halimbawa rito, ang ipinapakita ng
mga artikulo higit na ang mga balita at lathalaing patungkol sa
showbiz.
Sa pagsulat ng showbiz hindi maipagkakailang maraming

matatagpuang iba’t ibang antas at barayti ng wika. Nariyan ang
paggamit ng jargon o mga swardspeak, sosyolek at idyolek. Ang lahat
ng ito ay naaayon sa kagustuhan o istilo ng mga manunulat.
Ang mga nabanggit ang nagtulak sa mananaliksik upang

tuklasin at alamin ang kalagayang pangwika partikular na ang
pagkilala sa kung anong barayti ng wikang Filipino ang mas ginagamit
ng mga manunulat sa paglikha ng balita o lathalaing pumapaksa sa
showbiz. Dagdag pa, nilalayon nitong tugunan ang mga sumusunod
na suliranin: Ano ang kalikasan ng wikang Filipino batay sa
pamamaraan ng leksikal na panghihiram ng salitang banyaga sa mga
balita at lathalain sa mga tabloid hinggil sa showbiz?; at Ano-ano ang
umiiral na barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng mga balita o
lathalaing panshowbiz sa aspetong morpolohikal? Sa pagtukoy na
ito’y naniniwala ang mananaliksik na magbubukas ito ng pinto tungo
sa paunang hakbang sa pagpaplanong pangwika na hahantong sa
istandardisasyon ng wikang Filipino.
230
Balangkas ng Pag-Aaral
Ang Theory of Norms and Exploitations (TNE) naman ni

Patrick Hanks ay nagsasaad na pinapatnubayan ng mga pamantayan
at mga batas ang paggamit ng isang wika. Ilan sa mga batas na ito ay
ang ipinapatupad sa paggamit ng mga salita alinsunod sa
pangangailangan ng isang komunidad. Kabilang din dito ang
pamantayan sa wikang ginagamit sa iba’t ibang anyo ng panitikan. Sa
pamamagitan ng teoryang ito, ipinapakita na ang gumagamit ng wika
ay may kakayahang maging malikhain sa kung paano niya gagamitin
ang wika sa paraang pasalita at pasulat. Isinasaalang-alang din ng TNE
ang malaking bahagdan ng pagbabagong panlingguwistika tulad ng
pagbabago ng baybay batay sa makabago at kumbensyunal na
alituntunin, pagbabago sa kahulugan ng mga salita at ang
pagdaragdag ng kahulugan sa mga salita.
Ang teoryang sosyolinggwistiko na batay sa pamamalagay

na ang wika ay isang panlipunang phenomenon. Nagiging
makabuluhan ang anumang pahayag, aksyon, salita ng isang
indibidwal kung ito ay nakakonteksto sa loob ng lipunan at
ikinokomunika sa isang indibidwal o grupo. Dahil naman dito,
nakakabuo ng iba’t ibang konteksto ang paggamit ng wika dahil sa
iba’t iba ring mga tao na may iba’t ibang gawain, papel, interes,
saloobin, pananaw ang kasangkot sa proseso ng komunikasyon. Dito
rin pumapasok ang katangian ng wika na pagiging heterogeneous o
may iba’t ibang anyo malunggwistiko, ma-okupasyonal o ma-sosyal
man ang mga anyong ito. Dagdag pa sa mga dahilan ng pagkakaiba-
iba ng anyo ng wika ang lokasyong heograpikal, pandarayuhan,
sosyo-ekonomiko, politikal at edukasyonal na katangian ng isang
partikular na lugar o komunidad na gumagamit ng naturang wika
(Doctor-Dinglasan, pp. 15).
Sa teorya ng akomodasyon ni Howard Giles, nakapokus ito

sa mga taong kasangkot sa sitwasyong pangwika. Ipinapaliwanag
dito na sa interaksyon ng mga tao, nagkakaroon ng tendensya na
gumaya o bumagay sa pagsasalita ng kausap para bigyang halaga ang
pakikiisa, pakikilahok, pakikipagpalagayang-loob, pakikisama o
kaya’y pagmamalaki sa pagiging kabilang sa grupo (convergence).
Pero kung minsan, pilit naming iibahin ang pagiging iba o naiiba, di-
pakikiisa. O kaya’y lalong paggigiit sa sariling kakayahan at identidad
(divergence). Mahalaga ang mga teoryang ito sa pag-aaral ng barayti
231
ng wikang Filipino lalo na kaugnay ng atityud sa paggamit ng

inaakalang “mas mataas” na barayti kumpara sa “mas mababa”
depende sa istatus ng kanilang unang wika (Doctor-Dinglasan, pp. 16-
17).
Samantala, sa teoryang interference phenomenon and

Interlanguage ay nakapokus naman ito sa mga wikang kasangkot.
Magandang halimbawa ng interference ang pagbuo ng mga barayti
ng wikang Filipino. Ang impluwensya ng unang wika, halimbawa ang
Cebuano ay kapansin-pansin kapag nagsasalita ng Filipino. Isang
katangian, halimbawa ng Cebuano-Filipino ang di-paggamit ng
reduplikasyon (Hal: Doon ako magturo sa Palawan). Isa pang
halimbawa ang paggamit ng panlaping mag- kahit sa dapat gamitan
ng um- na panlapi sa Cebuano. Kaya, sa pagpi-Filipino ng isang
Cebuano, nagiging “Huwag kang mag-ihi dito” sa halip na “Huwag
kang umihi rito.” Ang Interlanguage naman ang tinatawag na
“mental grammar” na nabubuo ng tao sa pagdating ng panahon sa
proseso ng pagkatuto niya ng pangalawang wika. Dito, binabago ng
tagapagsalita ang grammar sa pamamagitan ng pagdaragdag,
pagbabawas, at pagbabago ng mga alituntunin. Halimbawa nito ang
salitang malling na ginagamit na mula sa salitang mall sa Ingles.
Impluwensyang Ingles ito sa Filipino na sa dalas na ng paggamit at
popularidad ng salita ay nadagdagan ito ng gamit (nominalisasyon at
verbalisasyon).
Pigura 1
Paradigma ng Pag-aaral
232
Makikita sa dayagram ang daloy ng pag-aaral na ito,

bibigyang-pansin ng mananaliksik ang pagsusuri sa limang tabloid na
pinili na nagtataglay ng balita at lathalaing pangshowbiz na nasusulat
sa Tagalog. Susuriin ang mga nakalap na korpus o salita batay sa
kalikasan ng wikang Filipino sa usaping leksikal na panghihiram sa
mga salitang banyaga at barayti ng Wikang Filipino sa morpolohikal
na aspeto. Ang pagsusuring ito ay gagabayan ng mga teoryang
ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito na kinabibilangan ng mga sumusunod:
theory of norms and exploitations, teoryang sosyolinggwistiko,
teorya ng akomodasyon at teoryang interference phenomenon and
interlanguage. Mula sa magiging bunga ng pananaliksik na ito ay
makakabuo ng isang mungkahing panuntunan sa pagsulat ng balita o
lathalaing panshowbiz.
Layunin ng Pag-Aaral
Nilalayon ng pananaliksik na ito na matuklasan ang kalikasan
ng wikang Filipino batay sa pamamaraan ng leksikal na panghihiram
ng salitang banyaga sa mga balita at lathalain sa mga tabloid hinggil
sa showbiz. Gayundin, upang matukoy ang umiiral na barayti ng
wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng mga balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa
aspetong morpolohikal.
Metodolohiya
Binubuo ng dalawang bahagi ang pagsasagawa sa pag-aaral
na ito tungkol sa barayti ng wikang Filipino sa pagsulat ng balita at
lathalaing panshowbiz sa mga tabloid. Sa panimula ng pag-aaral,
sinang-ayunan ng mga mananaliksik ang mga peryodikong
paghahanguan ng mga salita bilang korpus ng pag-aaral. Limang
Tabloid: Balita, Bulgar, Pang Masa, Abante Tonite at Pilipino Star
Ngayon. Pinili ang mga tabloid batay sa kalawakan ng sirkulasyon sa
ginawang sarbey ng infoasaid.org noong taong 2016. Upang makita
ang iba’t ibang barayti ng wikang Filipino, isang linggong isyu ng
pang-araw-araw na peryodiko ang iminungkahing paghahanguan ng
mga datos. Kaya’t hinango ang mga salita mula sa mga pahina na
pumapaksa tungkol sa balita at lathalaing panshowbiz sa bawat
peryodiko mula Pebrero 24 hanggang Marso 2, 2017.
233
Pinangkat at binilang ang mga nahangong salita batay sa

barayti ng wikang Filipino. Sinimulang suriin ang mga salitang hiram
upang makapaghanda ng isang instrumento sa pag-aaral.
Ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito ang mga modelong ginamit nina

Hockett (1956), sa kanyang pagsusuri sa mga pagbabagong
nagaganap sa mga magkakaugnay na wika, ang tinawag niyang
‘phylogenetic change’; ang kina Weinrich (1964) at Beardsome (1982)
sa kanilang pagtalakay at pagsusuri sa mga panghihiram ng mga
dayuhang wika.
Naging malaking tulong din sa pagsusuri ang Gabay sa

Ortograpiyang Filipino ng Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino tungkol sa
leksikal na panghihiram na kalikasan ng Wikang Filipino. Sunod na
hakbang na ginawa ng mananaliksik ay ang pagpapangkat-pangkat at
pag-uuri-uri ng mga korpus batay sa kinabibilangan nitong barayti ng
wikang Filipino.
Nakapokus ang pagsusuri sa lebel na ito sa mga patern ng

leksikal na panghihiram ng Filipino sa larangan ng showbiz. Itinala at
inuri ang mga leksikal na aytem ayon sa apat mula sa pitong
tepolohiyang nabuo salig sa pinagsama-samang pananaw nina
Haugen (1966), Weinrich (1981), Rodman (1988), at Enriquez (1985).
Ito ang apat na patern na ginamit sa pag-aaral na ito: Hiram-Ganap
(HG), Hiram-Paimbabaw (HP), Hiram-Sanib (HSb), Hiram-Daglat (HD).
Sumunod na proseso sa pagsusuri ay ang pagkakategorya ng

mga leksikon sa iba’t ibang barayti ng Wikang Filipino. Inuri ng
mananaliksik ang mga barayti na ito sa tatlong kategorya batay sa
morpolohikal na aspeto: Purong Tagalog, Filipino-Ingles o
Asimiladong Filipino at Sosyolek.
Resulta at Pagtalakay
Leksikal na Panghihiram
Nakalalamang ang paggamit ng Hiram-Ganap ng mga

manunulat at kolumnista ng mga pangunahing peryodiko sa pagsulat
ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz. Sapagkat, ito ang pinakamainam
na paraan upang hindi na mahirapan pang humanap ng panumbas
234
mula sa katutubong wika ng mga salitang banyaga. Buhat sa mga

leksikon na naitala ng mga mananaliksik, mahihinuha na nagaganap
ang tuwirang panghihiram ng mga salita batay sa mga sumusunod na
salik:
a. Ganap na hinihiram ang salita kapag wala itong anumang

panumbas sa wikang Filipino at pinapanatili ang paraan ng
pagbaybay dito.
Halimbawa:
animated movie buffet decorum bouquet
acid reflux debut condominium red carpet
billboard pilot episode hunk Xerox copy
blockbuster curriculum upper box
broadsheet designer variety show
album disc jockey visual effect
bold films exfoliant guru
b. Hinihiram ng ganap ang mga salitang pantangi, teknikal, at pang-

agham. Pinapanatili rin ang sistema ng pagbaybay rito.
Halimbawa:
Academy Awards Film Festival Instagram
Alzheimer’s Disease Call Center Agent Hollywood
American Idol Christmas gynecologist
American Eagle Outfitters Chemistry health center
Botox Celebrity Bluff Martial Law
Asian Tour Consular Diplomatic Affairs
Facebook Dolby Theater
Best Actor Best Actress
Ang naunang dalawang salik ay ganap na hinihiram sapagkat

kung tatangkain na ito’y tumbasan ng isang manunulat sa wikang
Filipino hindi malabong maganap na magkaroon ng kalituhan. At ito’y
hahantong sa hindi pagkaunawa sa mensaheng nais ipahiwatig ng
isang kolumnista ng showbiz.
235
c. Kapag ang isang salita ay kabilang sa direktang sinabi ng

kinapanayam ng manunulat o sa madaling salita ‘direct quotation.’
Halimbawa:
“Siguro, naging interesting sa viewers ‘yung pagiging love
team namin ni DJ kahit very opposite kami pagdating sa pananamit,
pananalita, pagkilos and personality,” ani Kathryn.
Sa puntong ito, ang mga salitang interesting, viewers, love

team, very opposite at personality ay ganap na hiniram dahil kabilang
ito sa winika ni Kathryn Bernardo sa isang panayam. Mapapansing
hindi ito tinangkang baguhin o palitan ng manunulat. Sa
kadahilanang, iniiwasan ng mga manunulat na baguhin ang mga
eksaktong salitang ginamit ng taong kanilang nakapanayam sa loob
ng isang pangungusap upang hindi mawala ang orihinal na kahulugan
ng kanilang mga pahayag.
d. Batay sa preperensiya ng isang manunulat o kolumnista sa

pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz.
Halimbawa:
Marami sa mainstays ng isang musical variety show ng isang
top TV network ang hindi pabor sa sobrang exposure sa kanilang
show ng isang young actress/singer. Weekly na lang ay napakarami
nitong production number. Basta may “achievement” ito sa career ay
hina-highlight sa show.
Ang mga nakasalungguhit na mga salita sa itaas ay ganap na

hiniram at ginamit ng isang manunulat ng showbiz sa kanyang
artikulo. Bagama’t karamihan sa mga salita rito ay may katumbas sa
wikang Filipino, hindi ito ginamit ng manunulat. Sa halip, pinanatili
ang mga salitang iyon sa kadahilanang mas napapadali nito ang
paglalahad ng mensahe at higit sa lahat napapaikli ang espasyo ng
artikulo sa isang pahayagan.
Ang tepolohiyang Hiram-Paimbabaw ay kilala rin sa

katawagang Hiram Di-Ganap. Buhat dito, mawiwikang ito’y isang uri
ng panghihiram ng salita kung saan ang ponolohikal na aspeto o ang
paraan ng pagbigkas ay nananatili samantalang nababago naman ang
morpolohikal nitong aspeto. Mula sa mga leksikon na nakalap at
naitala sa Ikalawang Matrix, mapapansing karamihan sa mga salitang
236
ito ay sumusunod sa tuntuning pangwika na kung ano ang bigkas,

iyon rin ang baybay. Nagaganap ang Hiram-Paimbabaw batay sa
sumusunod:
a. Pagbabaybay batay sa katutubong sistema sa pagbubuo ng mga

salita o mas kilala sa sistemang ABAKADA.
Halimbawa ng mga salita:
bokabularyo - mula sa salitang vocabulary

distribusyon - mula sa salitang distribution
edukasyon - mula sa salitang education
anibersaryo - mula sa salitang anniversary
espekulasyon - mula sa salitang speculation
bakasyon - mula sa saltang vacation
ambisyon - mula sa salitang ambition
atensyon - mula sa salitang attention
kontrobersiyal - mula sa salitang controversial
kampanya - mula sa salitang campaign
intriga - mula sa salitang intrigue
komiks - mula sa salitang comics
karakter - mula sa salitang character
b. Panghihiram alinsunod sa tuntuning kung ano ang bigkas, siya ang

baybay.

interbyu - mula sa interview
karir - mula sa career
isyu - mula sa issue
komedi - mula sa comedy
kaswal - mula sa casual
aktor - mula sa actor
aktres - mula sa actress
dayalog - mula sa dialogue
ekstra - mula sa extra
espesyal - mula sa special
inlab - mula sa in love
isnab - mula sa snob
ilusyon - mula sa illusion
holdap - mula sa hold up
237
komersiyal - mula sa commercial

kompows - mula sa compose
denay - mula sa denie
lider - mula sa leader
selebreyt - mula sa celebrate
kyut - mula sa cute
sey - mula sa say
seksi - mula sa sexy
prodyus - mula sa produce
produser - mula sa producer
pipol - mula sa people
relaks - mula sa relax
tradisyunal - mula sa traditional
tayming - mula sa timing
Kung susuriin ang mga leksikon na ito sa ilalim ng naturang

tuntunin, mahihinuhang karamihan sa mga salita ay sadyang
ginagamit na o kabilang na ito sa talasalitaan ng wikang Filipino.
Samantalang, ilan naman sa mga salita ay nakalilikha ng pagkalito sa
karamihan tulad ng kompows, sey, denay, selebreyt, prodyus,
tayming, isnab, pipol at iba pa. Bagama’t mapapadali nito ang pag-
unawa sa salita, wala pa ito sa hinagap ng karamihan sapagkat hindi
pa ito napagkasunduan na ito ang magiging panumbas sa mga hiram
na salita.
c. Panghihiram na may pagbabago at pagadaragdag ng mga ponema.

aktibo - buhat sa active
artista - buhat sa artist
eksena - buhat sa scene
ere - buhat sa air (live broadcast)
diperensiya - buhat sa difference
direkta - buhat sa direct
kritiko - buhat sa critic
kultura - buhat sa culture
komento - buhat sa comment
kuwalipikado - buhat sa qualified
porsiyento - buhat sa percent
pamilya - buhat sa family
pruweba - buhat sa proof
serye - buhat sa series
238
responsibilidad - buhat sa responsibility

resulta - buhat sa result
respeto - buhat sa respect
rason - buhat sa reason
Ngunit, kapansin-pansin din naman ang hindi pagiging

konsistent ng mga manunulat sa paggamit ng mga salita partikular na
ang panghihiram sa mga salitang banyaga. Halimbawa, may mga
manunulat na gumagamit ng baybay sa salitang produce na ‘produs’
at ang iba naman ay ‘prodyus’. Gayundin naman sa ‘produser’ at
‘prodyuser’ para sa salitang producer. Ang ganitong isyung pangwika
ay maaaring magbunga ng kalituhan sa mga mambabasa kung ano ba
ang nararapat at angkop na salin para sa dalawang nabanggit na
salitang banyaga.
Ang isa sa madalas na gamiting istilo ng mga manunulat at

kolumnista sa pagsulat ng showbiz ay ang hiram-sanib. Kung saan,
kapansin-pansin ang pagsasama ng mga banyagang morpema at
katutubong morpema sa isang salita lamang. Nagaganap ang
ganitong uri ng tepolohiya sa pamamagitan ng paglalagay ng mga
panlapi sa mga salitang banyaga na pinapanatili ang orihinal na
baybay ng mga salitang hiram.
Halimbawa nito ang mga sumusunod na salita:

• i-check
• ini-schedule
• mag-apply
• ma-accommodate
• ka-publicized
• ka-love team
• nag-front act
• na-realize
• makiki-fiesta
• pang-Cannes
• interviewhan
• maishowing
Mapapansin din na sa paglalapi at pag-uulit ng mga salitang

hiram, idinurugtong ang tunog KP sa unlapi. Kahalintulad din ito sa
sistema ng pagbabaybay kapag nasa aspektong kontemplatibo
(panghinaharap) ang isang salita.
239
Halimbawa nito ang mga sumusunod na salita:

• nadi-discuss
• magco-complain
• nag-e-effort
• mag-o-open
• nagpo-post
• nag-wo-workshop
• naggi-guest
• pangba-basted
• pagli-link
• ia-announce
Nagaganap din ang Hiram-Sanib kapag ginigitlingan ang mga

pangngalang pantangi at salitang hiram kapag inuunlapian.
Halimbawa ng mga salita ang sumusunod:
• pang-Cannes
• taga-Starstruck
• taga-American Idol
• mag-Best Supporting Actress
• ala-People Power Revolution
• mag-Best Picture
Hindi mawawala ang paglikha ng sariling istilo sa pagbuo ng

salita sa pamamagitan ng hiram-sanib higit na sa pag-uulit ng mga
banyagang salita. Tulad ng:
• fresh-fresh-an
• nag-a-action-action
• nail-link
Mapapansin sa ikaapat na tepolohiya ng leksikal na

panghihiram na kakaunti lamang ang bilang ng salitang naitala. Ito ay
sa kadahilanang bihira lamang gamitin ang Hiram-Daglat ng mga
manunulat at kolumnista ng showbiz. Karaniwan ang ganitong anyo
ng leksikal na panghihiram ay kadalasang binibigyang katuturan
bilang pag-iimbento o paglikha ng mga salita sa pamamagitan ng
pagpapaikli sa mga ito sa paraang pasalita o pa-iskrip. Halimbawa ng
mga salita:
•Indie film/movie - independent film/movie

•Noontime show - Afternoon Time Show
•Presscon - Press Conference
240
•Resto - Restaurant
•Senti song - Sentimental Song
•Showbiz - Show-business
•Teledrama - Television Drama
•Telefantasya - Television Fantasy
•Teleserye - Television Series
•cooking demo - cooking demonstration
•music fest - music festival
•Produ - Production
•Infotainment - Information
Entertainment
•Tech buzz - Technology Buzz
•Congrats - Congratulations
•Fantaserye - Fantasy Series
•lip synch - lip synchronization
•Televiewer - Television Viewer
•Vidcaps - Video Captions
•V-day Dinner - Valentine’s Day Dinner
•Preggy - Pregnant
•Telegenic - Television Photogenic
Narito naman ang mga salitang kabilang sa pa-iskrip na

paraan ng pagdadaglat. Karaniwan itong mapapansin sa paggamit
lamang ng mga letra o titik bilang kinatawan ng kabuuang salita.
Halimbawa:
• CR - Comfort Room
• TFC - The Filipino Channel
• PA - Personal Assistant
• LQ - Love Quarrel
• MU - Mutual Understanding
• Ex-BF - Ex-Boyfriend
• GF - Girlfriend
• TF - Talent Fee
• TV - Television
• R&B - Rock & Ballad
Morpolohikal na Aspekto
Sa aspetong leksikon o morpolohikal, lumalabas na higit na
nakalalamang ang paggamit ng Asimiladong Filipino o Filipino-Ingles
bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikitang ginagamit ng mga
manunulat at kolumnistang panshowbiz. Ang barayti na ito ng wika
241
ay bunga ng panghihiram ng ganap sa isang salitang banyaga at

nilalapatan ng pangkatutubong sistema ng pagbaybay o dili naman
kaya paglalapi at pinapanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salitang
hiram. Halimbawa nito ang mga salitang tropeo, titulo, umapir,
turista, pinag-effort-an, at marami pang iba. Habang pumapangalawa
naman ang Purong Tagalog o ang sariling bokabularyo ng wikang
Filipino halimbawa nito ang tumbok, milagro, mahalukay, mabusalan
at marami pang iba. At kakaunti naman ang mga halimbawa ng
salitang naitala sa Sosyolek o ang tinatawag na lenggwahe ng isang
pangkat tulad ng tsika, tsalap-tsalap, umariba, waley, wankatitat at
iba pa.
Samakatuwid, ipinapakita lamang nito na lumulutang ang

impluwensiya ng banyagang wika sa pagsulat ng mga balita o
lathalaing panshowbiz ng mga manunulat at kolumnista nito.
Marahil, epekto rin ito ng tinatawag nating bilinggwalismo o
paggamit ng dalawang wika maaaring ito ay Ingles at Filipino.
Kongklusyon
Ang barayti ng wikang Filipino na ginagamit ay nagtataglay
ng mga sumusunod na katangian: (1) may panghihiram sa Ingles na
hiniram ang buong salita; (2) panghihiram sa paraang may anyo ng
kulturang Filipino sapagkat ginamit ang katutubong sistema sa
pagbubuo ng mga salita; (3) paghahalo (Code-mixing) ng mga
salitang Ingles sa konstruksyong Filipino sa isang likas na paraan at
pagpapalit-koda (code-switching) ng konstruksyon ng mga pahayag
sa wikang Filipino at wikang Ingles; (4) paglilikha ng mga bagong
salita batay sa pangkat na kinabibilangan; at (5) pagiging matapat sa
paghahanap ng mga katumbas na salita sa wikang Filipino.
Ang pinakamaraming salitang naitala bilang halimbawa ay
para sa hiram-ganap. Naisasakatuparan ang paraan na ito ng leksikal
na panghihiram batay sa sumusunod: ganap na hinihiram ang salita
kapag wala itong anumang panumbas sa wikang Filipino at
pinapanatili ang paraan ng pagbaybay dito; hinihiram ng ganap ang
mga salitang pantangi, teknikal, at pang-agham. Pinapanatili rin ang
sistema ng pagbaybay rito; kapag ang isang salita ay kabilang sa
direktang sinabi ng kinapanayam ng manunulat o sa madaling salita
‘direct quotation.’; at batay sa preperensiya ng isang manunulat o
kolumnista sa pagsulat ng balita o lathalaing panshowbiz.
242
Malawak ang paggamit ng mga manunulat at kolumnista ng

balita o lathalaing panshowbiz sa Asimiladong Filipino o Filipino-
Ingles bilang barayti ng wikang Filipino na makikita at mapapansin sa
mga pangunahing peryodiko. Nananaig ang sariling preperensiya ng
mga manunulat at kolumnista sa leksikal na panghihiram ng mga
salitang banyaga. Kung kaya’t kahit na may malinaw na pamantayan
at tuntunin para rito ay bihira na nila itong masunod.
Sanggunian
Alonzo, R. I. (1996). Ang pagsasalin sa agham panlipunan: Isang pagsusuri. Nasa

Daluyan. V11-45-74.
Batoon, P. J. Q. (Marso 1999). Isang mungkahing gabay sa istilo ng pamamahayag.

Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman, Lungsod Quezon.
Constantino, P. C. et al. (1985). Wika, linggwistika at bilinggwalismo sa Pilipinas. Manila:

Rex Book Store.
Hudson, R.A. (1993). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press.
http://nlp.fi.muni.cz/projects/cpa/
Littlejohn, S.W. (1992). Theories of human communication. 4th Edition. Belmont,

California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Mercado, T. P. (Oktubre 1992). Ang preperensiya sa pagbabaybay ng mga salitang

hiram sa mga pangunahing peryodiko: Tungo sa istandardisasyon at
kodipikasyon ng Filipino. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman, Lungsod
Quezon.
Nilsen, D. N.L., Nilsen, A.P. (1977). Language play: An intro to linguistics. Newsburry
House Publishers/Rowley, Massachusettes p. 1.
Paz, J. (Agosto 20, 1998). The national lingua franca for people Empowerment. Nasa
The Philippine Star.
Semorlan, T. P. et al. (2009). Retorika: Masining na pagpapahayag. Lungsod ng

Quezon: Rex Bookstore.
Tiamson-Rubin, L. G. et al. (1983). Sining ng malikhaing pagsulat at pananaliksik.

Lungsod ng Quezon: Rex Book Store.
243
AN ANALYSIS ON ERROR PRODUCTION AMONG
CHAVACANO SPANISH LEARNERS
Joseline S. Alvarez
Western Mindanao State University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
Chavacano is widely considered to be one of the world’s oldest creole
and influenced by Spanish, so it is expected that Chavacano learners are
error free in the Spanish language. Since there has been no study on this
aspect, the current study is imperative. This study aimed to investigate
the errors committed by Chavacano learners in learning Spanish as a
foreign language in a conversational context and to determine which
errors are more persistent. The study employed the descriptive-
qualitative method through the use of the Spanish articles and
conjugation-based approach to structurally distinguish the verb’s stem
and its inflectional affix, as in comer (you eat) in which “com” is the
stem and “0, es, emos, eis, en” is the inflection. Ten Chavacano speakers
from Mass Communication students as informants were purposively
selected. A set of pictures adopted from Tendero (2012) and audio
recorder were used. The data were transcribed and analyzed. Results
showed that the informants committed the deviation language froms
(omission, addition, misformation, and misordering). This study would
provide research-based insight among Spanish teachers to anticipate
error production from Chavacano learners.
Keywords: Linguistic Spanish articles, qualitative method/conjugation-based

approach, Philippines, Southeast Asia
244
Introduction
In producing speech, the students often make errors in their

speaking. The students sometimes hesitate or stop in the middle of
sentence for a moment to think the appropriate word be said next.
And most of them do not prepare full planning before speaking,
especially in spontaneous speech. Error is considered as an inevitable
and positive part of that process” (Fauziati, 2009).
Throughout the language learning process, students

inevitably face imperfection in their production. Learners advance
through stages of second language (L2) attainment when taught to
identify their errors and understand the other language’s differences
in structures.
In this research, the writer uses some related theories, they

are:
1. Interlanguage
Interlanguage was coined by Selinker (1977). According to

Fauziati (2009), Interlanguage is a study on the language of the
second language learners. These terms refer to (1) Transitional
Competence, (2) Idiosyncratic Dialect, (3) Approximative System.
Interlanguage are divided into three concept: Adjemian’s concept,
Selinker’s concept, Tarone’s concept.
2. Error analysis
According to Ellis (1994), Identification of error is defined as

deviation from target language form. According to Dulay, Burt and
Krashen (1982) errors can be classified into many types. The first
Language components include phonology (pronunciation), syntax
and morphology (grammar), and semantics and lexicon (meaning
and vocabulary). The second surface taxonomy strategies are divided
into four types, namely: Omission, Addition, Misformation, and
Misordering.
245
3. Speech Error
According to Fromkin (1968) and Green (1969) in Fromkin

(1973), “Speech errors have been investigated in attempt to show the
reality of phonological units and rules, and the relationship between
linguistic competence and performance. According to Clark and Clark
(1977: 263) in Fauziati (2009), there are many kinds of errors. Those
are: 1) Silent pause, 2) Filled pause, 3) Repeats, 4) Unrestricted, 5)
Retraced, 6) Correction, 7) Interjection, 8) Stutters, and 9) Slip of
tongue.
The Spanish verb system, like that of French and Italian, is

highly inflected thus providing an ideal context to further the study
of the variables having an impact on inflectional assignment. Spanish
verbs encode several semantic notions: tense, mood, aspect, person,
and number. In addition, each Spanish verb involves a "thematic
vowel", a, e, and r, easily recognized in the infinitive (e.g., tomar! to
drink, comer/to eat, subir/ to move up, to go up). According to their
thematic vowel, Spanish verbs can be classified into first, second, and
third conjugation classes depending on whether their inflectional
endings follow the -ar, -er, or -ir inflectional patterns, respectively.
Grammatical and Semantic Features in the Spanish Verb Paradigm
Feature Types
-ar
Theme -er
-ir
Present
Tense Past
Future
Mood Indicative
Subjunctive
Imperative
Aspect Imperfective
Perfective
Person First
Second
Third
Number Singular
Plural
Using the morphological descriptions suggested by

Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) and Quilis and Hernandez-
246
Alonso (1990), the structural paradigm of a Spanish verb can be

summarized as STEM+ THEMATIC VOWEL + M ORPHEME I
+MORPHEME II, in which morpheme I stands for the tense, the mood,
and the aspect, and morpheme II represents the person and the
number encoded by the particular verb. It is clear that, as suggested
by Quilis and Hernandez-Alonso (1990), the morphological structure
of the Spanish verb is able to encapsulate the symbolic domain
(lexeme [stem]) and the deictic domain (the speaker's
conceptualization of the action: morpheme.
In this study, I employed a conjugation-based approach that

were structurally distinguished the verb’s stem and its inflectional
affix only, as in comes (you eat) in which “com” is the stem and “es”
is the inflection. This approach differs from a morphologically-based
taxonomy that would break a verb down into its theme vowel and its
different morphological components, as reported by Jarema
(personal communication, April 25, 1996).
Mood: These are meanings communicated by a verb involving the

"speaker's attitude to the proposition or to its truth-value" (Dahl,
1985). Gili-Gaya (1989) identifies three moods in Spanish: indicative,
subjunctive, or imperative. The indicative mood expresses actions
considered real or certain (e.g., Yo tomo vino/I drink wine), the
subjunctive mood refers to possible, wished, or uncertain actions
(e.g., Dudo que yo tome vino/ doubt that I would drink wine), and the
imperative mood expresses commanded actions (e.g., Tomar/ Drink).
Tense and Aspect: Three tenses can be communicated by Spanish

verbs; present, past, and future, depending on when the action
described by the verb occurs. However, the action expressed by the
verb can involve temporal shades in meaning unrelated to tense and
resulting from the sentential context addressing the action's
duration or completion. These temporal specifications are identified
as aspectual features. Comrie's (1976) terminology illustrates these
fine temporal descriptions by referring to tense as situation external
time and aspect as situation-internal time. To Comrie, aspect is not
concerned with relating time of the situation to any other time-point
(as tense does), but rather with the internal temporal consistency o f
the one situation. For instance, consider the aspectual differences in
these examples of past-tense sentences; "When she called, I was
having dinner" and "When she called, I had dinner". In the first
247
sentence, the two actions, "calling1’ and "having dinner" occur within
the same time frame, whereas, in the second sentence, "calling"
precedes "having dinner". Both sentences denote past tense
situations yet differ in their internal temporal dynamics. Stockwell et
al. (1965) describe aspect as imperfective or perfective depending on
whether we conceptualize an event in terms of the course of its
occurrence (imperfective) or its termination (perfective). They add
that perfective forms in Spanish are necessarily past tense, and
imperfective forms can be either past or non-past. The Real Academia
Espanola, REA, (1985) calls perfect tenses the preterito perfecto
simple (PR1: tome/drank), and all the compound tenses such as
preterito perfecto compuesto and preterito pluscuamperfecto (PRP:
he tomado/have drunk; PRC: habia tomado/had drunk) since the past
participle (tornado/drunk) gives the auxiliary a perfective meaning. In
contrast, excluding the preterito perfecto simple, REA calls imperfect
tenses all o f the simple tenses: presente (P: tomo), preterito
imperfecto (PRI: tomaba) futuro (tomare), and condicional (C:
tomaria) in the indicative mood; and presente(tome), preterito
imperfecto (tomara/tomase), and futuro (tomare) in the subjunctive.
Marcos-Marin (1975) states that the Spanish verb system does not
have a different morphological marker to indicate aspect, as do
Greek, Russian, and Arabic. The only exception in which the
perfective-imperfective aspectual opposition is morphologically
distinguished in Spanish, and does not depend on sentential or
discourse context, is in the preterito perfecto simple (Yo tome/I
drank) and the preterito imperfect (Yo tomaba/I used to drink, I was
drinking). Otherwise, tense, mood, and aspect meanings in Spanish
coalesce at the morphological level (Morpheme I in the above
paradigm) thus being identified as tense-mood-aspect (TMA)
notions, or, more often, as tense-aspect when referring to the
temporal characteristics of a particular verb in a sentence. Person
and Number: Spanish verbs also encode agreement information
relating the verb form to the agent of the action and its number
(Morpheme II above). In this manner, Spanish verbs can express a
first, second, or third person for each singular (yo/I, tu/you, el/he,
ella/she) or plural (nosotros [masculine], nosotras [feminine]/we,
ustedes/you, ellos [masculine], ellas [feminine]/they).
248
Other Pertinent Features
Spanish verbs are also subject to other variables such as the

stress-assignment rules of the language and frequency patterns in
daily discourse.
Stress: Lexical stress placement in Spanish, which can be graphically

shown in the word (PRI: sublet, Appendix A) or only acoustically
detected upon speech production (P: “tomo2”), can occur on the last
syllable or on any of the preceding syllables of a word. Hence, stress
placement along the verb syllabic structure can highlight the stem or
its inflection as seen in the verb "Tomar" whose stem is tom-, "tomo"
(I drink), "tomamos" (We drink/drank), and "tomaria" (I would drink)
(Appendix A). Harris (1969, 1983) notes that each paradigmatic form
(all inflected forms for the different tenses) and non paradigmatic
form (infinitive, gerund, and participle) of Spanish verbs has a
characteristic stress pattern involving the penultimate syllable that
admits no variation. Except for the infinitives and some forms of the
preterite and the future, with the stress on the final syllable, Spanish
verbs are always stressed on the penultimate syllable. Similarly, Ch.
Cairns (H. S. Cairns, personal communication, March 5, 1996) notes
that Spanish has a basic trochaic, strong-weak syllable pattern.
There are many other researchers that are related to this

study. The first was done by Rakhmawati (2011) UMS, entitled “A
psycholinguistic analysis of speech errors made by Rachel Ray on TV
show”. The second was conducted by Fadhila (2013) UMS, in her
research paper entitled “Errors in Speaking English made by students
of English department of Muhammadiyah Uneversity of Surakarta”.
The third was conducted by Wijayanti (2013) UMS. In her research
entitled “Speech errors in a talk show program of Metro Tv face to
face with Desi Anwar broacasted in January to June 2012”. The fourth
was done by Ilmiani (2014) UMS, in her research entitled “Error in oral
production made by English departement students of
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta”. The fifth research was
conducted by Saad (2014) University Kuala Lumpur British Malaysian
institute, in his reserarch paper entitled “Error analysis in role- play
presentation among less proficient L2 Malaysian learners”.
The theory of contributions is based in part on the analysis

of repairs by Schegloff et al. (1977). According to this analysis, repairs
249
are organized according to the participants' opportunities for making

repairs. These opportunities occur only at certain points in
conversation, and this leads, for example, to a preference for self
over other-repair, and to a preference for self- over other initiation of
repair. Yet the notion of contribution cannot be reduced to the
notions of· repair and repair opportunity. The notion is needed to
capture one of the goals people have in talking--the satisfaction of
the grounding criterion. It helps define what counts as trouble, and
what counts as repairing a trouble. It also helps specify how people
reach that goal, namely via a process of mutual acceptance, which
includes elements other than troubles and their repair. In short,
contributions have an organization that goes beyond the
organization of repair.
It is inevitable for learners to make mistakes when they

attempt to use the target language before they have mastered it.
Teachers, therefore, should be prepared to handle the variety of
errors that could occur in learners’ speech (Burt, 1975). The role of
corrective feedback in the process of learning a second language has
been debated. As Krashen (1982) argues, corrective feedback may
not benefit learners in acquiring the correct form if they are not ready
to learn. Then the question is whether treating errors will facilitate
speedy acquisition of the correct form or will simply be futile until the
learners reach a stage of interlanguage development where they can
make use of such feedback to modify their ill-formed utterances.
However, if a teacher chooses not to treat an error in one learner’s
utterance, the other learners in the classroom may assume that the
form is correct. Consequently, this assumption could lead some
learners to internalize incorrect forms, i.e., fossilization. The next
question is whether teachers should deal with errors immediately or
wait until learners finish with the messages they are trying to convey.
Immediate error correction may inhibit a learner’s willingness to
speak in class at all because it can interrupt the learner in the middle
of a sentence. On the other hand, although delayed feedback can
allow the learner to finish what the learner is trying to say, the
feedback may become less effective as the time between the error
and treatment increases.
250
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The study of language learning remains incomplete without

an in depth analysis of the errors that creep into its usage both, from
the theoretical point of view and from the standpoint of the
methodology employed in analyzing them. This research deals
precisely with this aspect of language learning. Language learning
was initially perceived as mastery over its interrelated subsystems
through extensive practice. Skinner (1957) declared that language is
learned through a process of 'habit formation' and 'verbal
behaviour'. This is usually referred to as the Behaviouristic theory.
However, Noam Chomisky (1960) mentions that influences
bringabout a change of attitude in this sphere. Language came to be
viewed as not merely 'verbal behaviour' but also as a complex system
of internalized rules underlying this behaviour. It is believed that it is
this system of internalized rules that empowers a person to create
innumerable original sentences. According to Chomskyian theory
children are born with an innate capacity for acquiring language. This
inherent ability helps them in a creative-construction of language.
While learning a second language students commit errors. Errors are
indispensable to learners since the making of errors is an effective
meaningful means of improving and accurate learning. These are two
ways to identify or analyse the errors– Contrastive Analysis and Error
Analysis. Contrastive analysis is based on ‘habit formation’. It reflects
the essential truth of the behaviourist view that "We learn what we
do" (Wilkins, 1974). According to this theory, ‘habit’ plays an
important role in acquisition of the first language as the learner is
considered to have mastered his mother tongue through the
imitation of adult utterances. Applied linguistics used the contrastive
analysis distinction between the learner’s first and second language
to predict errors. The importance of contrastive analysis as stated
initially by Lado and then reiterated by others is as follows ‘The errors
and difficulties that occur in our learning and use of a foreign
language are caused by the interference of our mother tongue.
Whenever the structure of the second language differs from that of
the mother tongue, we can expect both, difficulty in learning and
errors in performance (Wilkins, 1972). From the behaviourists’
perspective, the learner uses his preview mother tongue experiences
as a means of organizing the second language data. So, if the
structure of both the languages is similar, the learning will be easier.
But, when the system of both the languages is different it creates
251
problems. Contrastive analysis is helpful in locating those

problematic areas and efforts could be made to find solutions to
them. On the whole, contractive analysis has a prognostic value i.e.
to predict the errors, difficulties and problems faced by learners,
while learning a second language. These views are also put forward
by Lado who says that ‘individuals tend to transfer the forms and
meaning and the distribution of forms and meaning of their native
language and culture– both productively when attempting to speak
the language and act in the culture, and receptively when attempting
to grasp and understand the language and the culture as practiced
by native (Wilkin, 1972: 198). Contrastive analysis is the method of
analyzing the structure of any two languages with a view to estimate
the differential aspect of their system, irrespective of their genetic
affinity or level of development.
The objective of this study is to identify the errors made by

Chavacano speakers in learning Spanish as Foreign language.
Specifically, this research aimed to answer the following:
1. What errors do students make in a conversational

context?
2. What errors are more persistent?
Methodology
This section describes the research design, sampling

technique, elicitation materials and the process of data collection,
analysis and interpretation.
Research Design
This study made used of descriptive-qualitative method. It
aimed to determine the existence of error production among
Chavacano Spanish learners particularly on verb and article.
252
Informants
This research employed purposive sampling technique to

determine the 10 Chavacano Spanish learner informants. Informants
were purposively selected from the Mass Communication students
who were enrolled in the S.Y. 2017-2018 of the second semester of
the College of Liberal Arts, Western Mindanao State University, and
were taking Spanish subject with the description of Conversational
Spanish.
Instrument
The instrument used was a picture. The informants were
asked to describe the picture. In order to ensure the connection of
theoretical constructs and the central objectives of this study to the
instrument, the picture was validated.
Data Gathering
To obtain the necessary data for analysis and interpretation,

the picture was administered among informants which was audio-
recorded. Informants were properly oriented to the process of data
gathering. Each was asked to describe the picture. The task lasted a
maximum of 15 minutes.
The following procedures were done:

1. Gather the 10 students.
2. Orient the informants.
3. Distribute the picture. They were given 10 minutes to
organize their thoughts.
4. After 10 minutes, informants were called to describe this
picture.
253
Data Analysis
The following were the descriptions and transcriptions of the

picture made by the informants. The transcription was validated by
Spanish teachers who is also proficient and licensed to teach the
subject.
Informant 1
Una foto ta significa un profesora ensenando lecciones en
una clase.. Segunda foto ta significa un profesora otorgado por un
trabajo. Ultimo foto ta significa un profesora viajar para relajarse
como recompensa por ella misma.
(The first picture is a teacher teaching in her class. The second picture
shows a teacher is assigned for a work and the last photo shows a
professor will travel to unwind)
Informant 2
Uno de los estudiantes esta presentando un studio a los
panelistas. En na segunda foto, los tres son appreton del manos
despuies de la presentacion exitosa. El tercero, los dos chicos que
son mejorees amigos continuaron navegando para delajarse y
disfrutar de momentos libre de estres en el mar.
(One of the students is presenting a study to the panelists.

In the second photo, the three shakes their hands after the successful
presentation. The third photo shows, the two boys are better friends
and they will continue to sail to enjoy the moments for stressed free.)
Informant 3
Erazo una ves, un estudiante llamado Carlo se esfuerza por
estudiar donde puedemos ver en la imagen uno. Tebido a su
deligencia, se graduo con gran exito, como le que puedemos ver en
la imagen dos. Despues de todos sus dificultades y el exito que tiene
ahora,requerda la epoca en que todavia era un pescador que luchava
por ganarse la vida, como puedemos ver en la imagen tres.
(Once upon a time, a student named Carlo strives to study

where we can see in image one. Who is diligent, graduated with great
success, as you can see in the picture two. After all his difficulties and
254
the success, he has now, he is still a fisherman who is striving for a

living, as we can see in image three.)
Informant 4
Una foto ta significa un profesora ensenando a sus
estudiantes. Segunda foto ta significa una chica recibiendo su
premio. Ultimo foto ta significa dos amigos navegando en un barco.
(The photo is a teacher teaching her students. The Second

photo is a girl receiving her prize. Last photo are two friends sailing
on a boat.)
Informant 5
La profesora y los alumnus estan en la aula. Esta explicando
sobre algo y sus alumnus la escuchan. Las dos personas tambien
estan platicando, quizas sobre la discussion de la profesora. Agui
tiene tres personas. Probablemente son profesionales. El caballero
tiene el gusto de conocer la mujer, asi como para mutual
colaboracion. Claro que los dos caballeros ya son colegas. Las dos
personas estan en el bote que esta intentando a encontrar una forma
de atravesar las grandes olas en el mar.
(The teacher and the students are in the classroom. He's

explaining something and her students listen. The two are also
talking, maybe about the discussion of the teacher. They're probably
pros. The gentleman has the pleasure of knowing the woman, as well
as for mutual collaboration. Of course the two gentlemen are already
colleagues. The two people are in the boat that is trying to find a way
to cross the big waves in the sea.)
Informant 6
Como percibi de esas cifras, muestar que el barco representa
ir al extranjero, y el maestro esta solicitando ese puesto en otro pais.
Significa que, en nuestra sociedad,especialmente en el entorno de
Filipinas, el salario o el salario es lo suficietemente minimo como para
soportar un dia. Otros gastos como vestimente y otras cosas no son
sostenibles . es pore so que la mayoria de nuestros companeros
Filipinos estan trabajando con la esperanza de obtener una mayor
cantidad de salario.
255
(As you perceive these figures, the ship represents going

abroad, and the teacher is applying for that position in another
country. It means that, in our society, especially in the Philippine
environment, wages or wages is not sufficient minimum to withstand
a day. Other expenses like dress and other things are not sustainable.
Most Filipinos are working abroad in the hope of obtaining a greater
amount of salary.)
Informant 7
De alguna manera esta imagen se relaciona entre si. En el
momento un maestro ensena sus cuatro estudiantes y ella fue
promovida y ella tuvo un viaje gratis a otro pais.
(Somehow this image relates to each other. At the time a

teacher teaches his four students and she was promoted and she had
a free trip to another country.)
Informant 8
La primera imagen muestra que el grupo de personas se
encuentra en una reunion formal encabezada por la mujer que eta de
pie sosteniendo un papel y el resto del grupo escucha y los demas
habla con cada uno. La imagen muestra que el tema del que se habla
es serio como un problema , ofertas de la empresa o una cita
importante basada en la gente que se muestra en la imagen. Parece
que el grupo discute el tema dentro de ellos mismos para que den su
decision, decision acordada por todos ellos, a la mujer frente a ellos
que encabezada la reunion. Ademas, la imagen de bajo de la primera
imagen muestra que basandose en la decision tomada por el grupo
durante su reunion, el grupo acordo finalmente hacer un trato dentro
de la otra compania tal vez. Con la mujer dandose mano con la otro
se asegura que los dos estuvieron de acuerdo con un trato
determinado que puede dar beneficio entre ellos. El hombre y la
mujer parecen estar de acuerdo con el trato, ya que parecen sonreir
el uno con otro. Al equal que una cita, un grupo a los dos personas
necesitan aclarar las cosas para que tomen una decision que sea
acordada por la mayoria y que sea Buena y beneficiosa para los
demas. La tercera foto muestra que la decision acordada por las dos
partes de la cual de grupo hablo seriamente fue para viajar donde los
miembros se devierten y se sienten libres de entres sin los problemas
de la oficina ya que los trabajos de oficina pueden ser tan estresantes
256
y complicados que puede dar la emfermedad mental y fisica que es

mala para a la salud de cuerpo.
(The first photo shows that the group of people is in a formal

meeting headed by the woman standing in front holding a paper
while the rest of the group listens and the others talk with each other.
The picture shows that the topic being talked about is serious like a
problem in a company that deals or a major appointment based from
the people’s seriousness shown in the picture. It seems that the
group discusses the topic within themselves as for them to give out
their decision agreed by all of them, the woman in front of them
headed the meeting. Below the first picture shows that based from
the decision taken by the group during their meeting the group
agreed to finally make a deal with the other company perhaps. With
the woman shaking hands, is giving assurance on certain deal which
can give benefit to them. It seems that the woman and the man
agreed on their deal. The third photo shows that the two parties
agreed seriously, to travel and have fun or to be stressed free and
avoid sickness.)
Informant 9
La primera foto significa la profesora habla con los alumnus
despues la segunda foto, la jefe dar su saludo a profesora.
(The first picture shows a professor teaches her student

then the second picture, the boss congratulate the professor.)
Informant 10
Creo la foto muestra buen exito porque la jefe dar su saludo
a profesora , significa que la profesora haga su trabaho poreso oferta
un vacacion a ella.
(I believe the picture shows that the professor did her work
well that is why she was offered to have a vacation.)
257
The error production made by the Chavacano Spanish

learners is the deviation from the language form which are addition,
malformation, and misordering.
Addition errors are the opposite of omission errors. They are

characterized by the presence of an item which must not be present
in a well-formed utterance. Misformation errors are characterized by
the use of the unacceptable forms of the morpheme or structure.
While in omission errors the item is not supplied at all, in
misformation errors the learner supplies something although it is
incorrect.
To know the description of the errors in Mass

Communication students, the writer identified the errors and classify
them into four aspects: Omission, Addition, Misformation, and
Misordering.
Table 1
Additional Error Committed by the Chavacano Spanish Learners
The most common errors committed are addition and

misformation. The insertion of the word ta and na evidently were
used. Informant 1 and 2 used ta and informant 3 used na, these words
do not exist in Spanish language, they are Chavacano words. In the
misformation, informant 1 use un profesrora to which it must be una
profesora because profesora is feminine in gender so the article must
be una not un. Informant 2 used uno estudiantes, estudiantes is plural
in meaning so the article uno must be unos. Informant 5 has the
misordering and misformation errors. The subject is alumnos (
Students) la is misformation for it must be los, it is also misordering
258
because it must be before the subject( Los alumnos escuchan not

alumnos la escuchan).
Conclusions
The writer concludes that the error production committed
by the Mass Communication learners particularly Chavacano
speakers, who took Spanish with the description of Conversational
Spanish has the deviation from the language form which are
addition, misformation and misordering. Evidently, 3 out 8
informants displayed the deviation error of addition, and it can be
concluded that this was due to the first language interference, for ta
(be form of the verb) and na (preposition) are Chavacano words.
References
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Bailey, N., Madden, C., & S.D. Krashen. (1974). Is there a natural sequence in adult
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Duncan, S. Jr., & Fiske, D.W. (1977). Face-to-face interaction: Research, methods, and
theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. London: Oxford University
Press.
Fadhila, H. (2013). Errors in speaking English made by students of English department

of Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta. Unpublished Research Paper.
Surakarta: Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta Fromkin.
Goffman, E. (1976). Replies and responses. Language in SocietjJS, 2:57-313.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1983). Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, 14-104.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge,

Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Poullise, N. (1999). Slip of the tongue: Speech errors in first and second language
production. Huebner, Thom and Kees de Bot (Eds.). Amsterdam: University
of Amsterdam.
Rahmawati, S A. (2011). A psycholinguistic analysis of speech errors made by Rachel

Ray on TV program. Unpublished Research Paper. Surakarta: Universitas
Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
259
ANALYZING WAR EXPERIENCES OF COMBAT
SOLDIERS IN THE MARAWI SIEGE
USING FIELD THEORY
Christoper F. Sasot
ABSTRACT
The study presents a perspective for the analysis of war experiences,
particularly through the war soldier’s habitus. Bourdieu’s Field theory,
helped in understanding the factors that affected the survival through
the concepts of field, cultural capital and habitus. Habitus, in particular,
focused on the psychosocial aspects of the soldiers. Data came from the
three combat soldiers who had private as ranks and were deployed in
Marawi City. They were part of the first batch of reinforcement sent to
rescue soldiers who were ambushed by the extremist group. The study
emphasizes the way in which the cultural capital, power relations, and
dispositions that forms habitus represent war experiencesand affected
the practice of killing, and survival.
Keywords: Habitus, soldiers, field theory
260
Introduction
The Marawi siege is considered to be the 'most serious

terror event'in Southeast Asia in the past 15 years (Morallo, 2017).
Given the said situation, many families, communities, and
individuals were affected by the crisis. The five-month war caused
serious damage to the physical environment, the community, and
individuals, not only physical, but emotional and psychological as
well. At the center of this, were the Filipino soldiers, being engaged
in what is known as the longest urban battle in the history of the
Philippines (France-Presse, 2017). The Marawi conflict claimed the
lives of a total of 165 government forces and more than 1400
wounded (Manila Times, 2017). There was limited to no information
with how soldiers carried themselves in combat” or “in-depth
information with how soldiers made sense of their combat
experiences”, specifically, the psychosocial processes that took
place while they were the warzone, or a new field.
Production of Violence
The experiences of the soldiers during war, specifically, in
combat, have been studied in the field of social sciences, such as
sociology, and anthropology. One way of understanding such is
through explanations on how violence is produced. Theory of
violence explains that violence can be normative, which is an
effective and acceptable method for meeting needs with little to no
lasting consequences (Polaschek, Calvert, & Gannon, 2007). It also
states that violence is necessary to protect agency, maintain social
order, and is a result of uncontrollable circumstances. Furthermore,
violence is brought about by the social structure itself, such as the
state versus terrorists. In the context of war, the violence produced
is viewed as normal justified, specially by the government as the
institution which operationalizes violence, because it is deemed
necessary for peace (Galtung, 1881). In the individual level, violence
is ensued because of individual and group conflicts, such as
terrorists are perceived as the enemy of the state, which is
represented by the soldiers(Christie, Wagner, &Winter 2001).
Violence therefore is a precedent to killing, which is the main goal
of soldiers at war.
261
Killing as Practice
Killing as a practice in war has also been studied using a
philosophical lens (Kilner, 1998), focusing on moral justification of
killing in combat, with the conclusion that soldiers believe that they
are not responsible or accountable for the death of their enemies
during wartime. Leaders, in particular, have the obligation to
explain the moral justification for killing and explain the morality of
killing so soldiers can live with themselves in the years after combat
(Kilner, 2002). These studies, though give explanation on why
soldiers kill, they do not take into account other factors that are
intertwined in the complex process of taking another person’s life
in the context of war. Thus, we look into other factors that
contribute to the practice of killing in the warzone, such as soldiers’
experiences.
Soldiers’ war experiences

There is a plethora of research conducted on combat
soldiers, mostly focusing on the effects of combat. Soldiers suffer
from the adverse results of combat, affecting their psychological
and social functioning (Henschel, & McDevitt-Murphy, 2016). Aside
from the physical injury, negative changes to mood, emotions and
behaviors are experienced by the soldiers, which are invisible to
others, hence these effects are unrecognized (Tanielian, 2009).
Research shows that they are more likely to suffer from a mental
health problem if they are part of combat arms unit, engineers
(assigned with explosive ordinance), and transportation or support
unit (Castro, 2016). Being exposed to combat, especially seeing
dead bodies, getting shot at, hearing that someone they know
were injured/killed, and being attacked or ambushed, increases
risks for developing negative mental health outcomes like PTSD,
depression, and anxiety (Castro, 2016). While these studies offer
utility in Psychology such as in the clinical area, it does not look into
other factors that explain how the soldiers survive their ordeal,
taking into account history, training, and the environment.
262
Using Habitus as Frame in Understanding War Experiences of

Soldiers
This study attempted to contribute to the knowledge base
by exploring the habitus of war soldiers in the context of the
Marawi siege. This study also examined power, dispositions, and
sense of self in the field. These elements are important in
understanding mechanisms that drive or motivate them to survive
in the field, and to reproduce the practice of killing. Power relations
explain how the soldiers, together with the Maute (a major agent
in the field), compete for dominance in the warzone through the
acquisition and proper use of their capitals. Affective dispositions
of soldiers will be included, to beused as a tool for understanding
the affective dimensions of both privilege and disadvantage in the
warzone. The sense of self is how the soldiers see themselves as
capable agents in the field, and their efficacy to carry out their task
or goals. The results of this could provide a better understanding of
combat and a preliminary contextual analysis of the factors that
enable an understanding of engagement killing and surviving that
explores habitus, which is embodied through emotions, among
them.
Field Theory as Frame in Analyzing War Experiences.

This research made use of the Field theory by Bourdieu
(1887). Field theory is a theoretical construct consisting of three
elements: field, capital, and habitus (Wacquant, 2004). Cultural
capital refers to the set of knowledge and skills which an individual
possesses. It is not distributed evenly and cannot be acquired
instantly, making its procurement difficult and putting its owners in
an advantageous position in relation to those who lack it and
cannot immediately obtain it. According to Bourdieu (1987) , in the
context of this study, cultural capital is found in three states, which
are: a) the embodied state, which are the military training and
expertise in battle; b) objectified state, which are translated to
guns and ammunitions; and c) institutionalized state, which is the
soldier’s state of being the protector of our nation, and having the
legitimate right to kill.
Habitus is made up of the mental schemata that results

from the incorporation of visions and objective social divisions that
configure principles of difference and membership in certain fields
263
(Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992). In this study, it is described as the

soldier’s practical learning that is neither conscious nor deliberate,
as it is acquired through the embodiment of the practices, visions
and values of the social space in which, other subjects such as their
family, the Maute group, and their comrades operate. These are
sometimes forgotten and have, as a result, led to the association of
the concept with something innate, whereas in reality it refers to
something whose incorporation was involuntary, through the
process of socialization (Dromundo, 2007). The habitus of soldiers
in the context of war will be examined and how they make sense of
it given the situation that they are in.The concept of a cleft habitus
(Reay, 2015) was explored, as soldiers enter a new field which has a
layer of affective aspect. The concept of field is described as a set
of power relations between agents or institutions in the struggle
for specific forms of domination and monopoly of an efficient type
of capital (Gutiérrez, 1997), and in this study, it investigated how
soldiers identify their capital as agents in the field against the
rebels. Cultural capital refers to the set of knowledge and skills
which an individual possesses (Bourdieu, 1987).
Bourdieu defines the concept of field as a set of power

relations between agents or institutions in the struggle for specific
forms of domination and monopoly of an efficient type of capital
(Gutiérrez, 1997). This space is characterized by relations of alliance
among its members (soldiers, family, comrades, and the rebels),
who are on a quest to obtain the most benefit and impose as
legitimate that which defines them as a group; and by
confrontation of groups and individuals in the search to improve
their positions or exclude groups. The space which the study refers
to is the warzone. The position depends on the type, volume and
legitimacy of the capital and the habitus that the subjects have
acquired over the course of their lives, and how these vary over
time. Hence, field, capital and habitus are concepts that are
interconnected in this study.
Soldier’s Habitus
Studies on combat soldiers’ habitus, specifically, the
dispositions and personal history, and preferences that they carry
on the warzone, which is heightened by the emotions they feel,
which will explain the context of their dynamics at war and the
264
complexities of the backgrounds of soldiers, remain unexplored.

Bourdieu uses habitus to reveal how a cultural economy of class is
embodied and lived out in individuals, and will also include affective
dispositions, as a tool for understanding the affective dimensions
of both privilege and disadvantage in the warzone. (Reay, 2015).
Despite the numerous armed conflicts in the country, there is a
dearth of studies that explored the Filipino soldiers’ experiences,
and in particular, their habitus. Habitus is made up of the mental
schemata and practices that result from the combination of ideas
and objective social divisions that configure principles of variance
and participation in certain fields (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1995).
It gives the subject with the skills and values needed for entry into
a group, confers the ability to move, act and take a position or a
strategic orientation in a situation without it being necessary to
establish a plan of action, because all these are the result of a series
of dispositions embodied in the course of a trajectory (Gutiérrez,
1997). For instance, a soldier, having been trained in the military
school, experiences further training and work load, then receives a
particular post or position, thus, will act based on the dispositions
he embodied through that course. The studies presented above
uses different lenses that does not account for capitals, power
relations, and dispositions essential for identifying a soldier’s
habitus. Hence, this paper addresses this gap. I argue that war
experience of combat soldiers should be understood as
phenomenon, connected with the subjective experiences together
with the elements of the field theory such as power relations and
capital. This argument enables war experience to be understood
beyond the existing approach in research on soldiers. Particularly,
it focuses on the psycho-social processes which is the psychological
and social structures and spaces in the formation of identity, action
and relating (Hollway, 2006).

In this study, using the Field theory of Bourdieu as a frame,
the researcher attempted to answer the question, “what is the
habitus of soldiers during a war?” Specifically, the researcher
answered the question “What is the habitus of combat soldiers
during the Marawi Siege?
265
Methodology
Design
This research utilized a qualitative design. Personal semi-
structured interviews were used as the strategy for the data
collection and thematic analysis (Braun & Clark, 2006) was used in
analyzing the data collected from the transcribed interviews.
Personal interview was the chosen format to allow for the
participants a level of privacy and to make them more comfortable
sharing private details. Semi-structured interviews were used to
allow for leeway with any unforeseen but relevant data. Bourdieu’s
habitus, field, and capital served as framework for explaining the
experiences of the combat soldiers. The framework also dealt with
concepts of power, practices, and dispositions (Bourdieu &
Wacquant, 1992).
Participants
The participants in the study were three combat soldiers
who had private as ranks and were deployed in Marawi City. They
were part of the first batch of reinforcement sent to rescue soldiers
who were ambushed by the Mauteextremist group. The limited
number of participants is due to the difficulty in acquiring
permission, and the ethical consideration of possibly unearthing
negative emotions. The selected participants, after being
interviewed were subjected to debriefing procedures.
Data Collection Instrument

The researcher from the initial research study held
separate, personal interviews with each of the five participants. The
interviews followed a semi-structured format, where the
researchers prepared a set of guide questions (Appendix A) but
depended on the participant’s responses to dictate the flow. The
guide questions opened with introduction questions to build
rapport and paint a picture of the participant’s context and
background. After which, the questions were focused on probing
experiences during the war. The interviews were conducted in
either Filipino or Bisaya, whichever the participant was most
266
comfortable with. The responses in Bisaya was translated to Filipino

for the purpose of analysis.
Procedure
Initial readings of all data transcripts derived from the 3

participants was done from an initial study. Transcripts were then
selected based on the research question for the present study. Data
analysis was made to the purposely identified transcripts that
described the soldiers’ habitus.
Data Analysis. The thematic analysis approach by Braun

and Clarke (2006) was utilized for the data analysis. Analysis was
initially done with multiple reading of texts, making initial codes,
and looking for initial themes. After the initial themes were
subjected to further evaluation, the coded transcripts were
reviewed again toidentify final themes. The meaning of each final
theme was then subsequently defined. The set of themes were
then further analysed for the labels of the themes. Lastly, the final
themes were then organized using the Field theory of Bourdieu,
which includes Habitus as frame. Finally, the themes were arranged
logically and explained in such a way that it shows the habitus of
the combat soldiers during war.
Validity. For this study, validation was made through

certain procedures. From the conceptualization of the study until
its final form, it was subjected to numerous critique, iterations, and
questions for improvement made by psychology PhD graduate
students and Professors from the Ateneo de Manila. Revisions were
made taking into account the comments and suggestions.As an
individual with no personal experience of war, and using only the
data and available literature as source material, I constantly
checked my reflexivity.

In this study, using the Field theory of Bourdieu as a frame,
I attempted to answer the question, “what is the habitus of soldiers
during a war?” Specifically, I answered the question “What is the
habitus of combat soldiers during the Marawi Siege?” Using the
267
thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006), the data from the
interviews were analyzed, and using Bordieu’s Field theory as
frame. The final identified themes that explains soldiers habitus
were dependency on God, social support, and being a protector of
the state. The themes will be analyzed and connected to capitals
used, power relations, affective dispositions, and practices that led
to survival in the field.
Table 1
War Experiences in Relation of Field Theory
Power Affective Agents

Theme Capital Practice
Relations Dispositions Involved
Dependency on Embodied Symbolic Propensity to Enemy-Maute Praying
God Cultural Capital power over fatalism
Faith in God enemies brought God
about by fear (Internalized)
and axiety
Social Support Cultural Capital Alliances, Resilience Soldiers-Allies Helping
Social Capital- shared Empathy Families other
Human Capital power over Cooperation soldiers
enemies Reciprocity
Trust
Contempt Maute group

Being a Soldier Institutionalized Violence moral Enemy-Maute Killing
Cultural Capital towards superiority
Status in Society each other Non ally-
to claim pride Civilian
Objectified Marawi
Cultural Capital visceral
Ammunitions aversions
and guns
ambivalence
Embodied
Cultural Capital distrust
Military Training
and expertise in
battle
Dependency on God
In the warzone, soldiers are vulnerable to many kinds of

danger, and are always exposed to the possibility of death. As they
enter the war, soldiers carry with them their faith in God. The social
structure during wartime, which involves so much chaos, evokes
internalized beliefs that God is in control of the situation. In a highly
religious society, faith in God is considered to be a capital, which is
268
embedded in the soldier’s psyche. This belief gives a symbolic

power over the enemies or the rebels, who are positioned to be the
ones who are not following societal rules, and therefore are evil and
source of chaos. It is interesting to note that even if the soldiers
viewed belief in God as a capital, it does not translate to certainty
of survival. For instance, if they survive, it is because God protected
them from their enemies, but if they do not survive, it is because it
is already their time, which is described as the propensity for
fatalism. Agency in life is not present, but because of the belief,
they became more courageous, and fear and anxiety was
minimized.
In the text below, it is shown that the soldiers disposition

is that they have no agency in life, but they put their trust on God
all the same.
“So once na nag-move kasi yung (short pause) isang sundalo,

which is operation, ah i-mind set mo na na may ganyan mga
putokan so prepare nalang po together nasa bayan mong
dasal.” (Andres)
In the succeeding texts, soldiers recalled how they

survived the warzone, and it reflects the affective disposition of
fatalism, wherein they just surrendered whatever happens to them
to God.
“Palaging magdasal palaging mag ingat basta sumabay lang

sa agos wag mong kontrahin tas ano go with the flow”
(Andres).
“Wala na mang purpose po yung GOD naikakapahamak mo

kundi ikakaikaka kumbaga ikakaunlad ngkuan mo” (Andres)
“..[laughs].. eh swerte pa rin. ‘Yun nga… ah… swerte swerte

ano din ng Panginoon, dasal lang talaga dun sa loob. Yun
bless kami nakuha kami dun narescue” (Mario).
All of these texts reflect the religiosity of Filipinos which is

strongly embedded in our culture. The habitus of soldiers is
described in this theme as being able to connect with God in times
of difficulty, and use this as capital to face the adversaries. Being in
269
the side of God helped soldiers think they have an advantage over
the enemy and the situation. The practice of prayer, was identified
in all texts, which was viewed as their protection against the Maute
group. The use of having “God”that soldiers can pray to was
somewhat adefense thus created the illusion of superiority and
false confidence, warding off fears of failure and inadequacy’
(Ryan, 2006). It also reflected the lack of agency in one’s own life.
Social Support
The habitus in terms of social support was described in

terms of how soldiers interacted with allies and how they viewed
this in the context of the field. For soldiers, these alliances,
established exchanges that allowed them to form secure support
and mutual recognition for what they are and what they produce
(Bourdieu, 2000). Under this theme, agents included comrades and
families as allies, and the Maute group as enemies. Families as
internalized agents, were seen as cultural capital, and the
anticipation of reuniting with them in the future gave soldiers a
sense of hope. It was interesting though, that soldiers deliberately
distance themselves from their families and loved ones, and
contact was minimized. This was the struggle that they have to
make to affectively focus on their task. The absence of
communication in itself was a strength or a capital.
Soldiers, as much as possible, wanted to be devoid of

emotions during war. Thus, they do not want to see their family or
loved ones getting worried or getting emotional, because they
might bring the thoughts with them in the warzone, and might
affect their performance as a soldier.
“Pamilya? Ay oh. Di nila alam na kasama ako dun sa..di ko

sinabihan. May nag text yung kuan ka buddy ko..tinext yung
ate ko. Sabi nya pakitawagan daw ako kasi tropa naming
yung na trap. Tinatawagan ako nung kuan mga magulang ko.
Di dawmakontact.Parangkuanbasila [short pause]
emotional na (client laughs). Umiiyakyung ate ko. Tapos
nung nakalabas na kami dun, tinext ko na yung ate ko, okay
na ako. Tapos nung umuwi ako, sinabi ko sa kanila, kung ano
yung mangyari sa akin, tanggapin natin” (Mario).
270
On the other hand, soldiers also relied on comrades for

their well-being and safety. Soldiers who were also agents in the
field, and shared power to each other in the common goal to defeat
the Maute.The care and support of soldiers for each other was very
evident during the war. Having no one to turn to during the war was
hard, especially if they were in a difficult situation, like being
physically wounded.
“Eh yung kabuddy ko na isa, “yun, kami lang dalawa, sya

umiiyak na lang. Parang ako na lang ang nag fa-function. Ang
sya e pinatatag ko nalang yung kalooban nya, na hindi sya
mag —“Ching lalaban tayo Ching. ‘Wag kang mawalan ng
pagasa mare-rescue tayo”. (Andres)
In the data, it is showed that Andres encourages another

soldier to endure and fight even if they were in the middle of a
difficult situation. This also reflects their disposition that as soldiers,
they should not leave anyone behind, and in this instance,
emotionally they are there for each other. They provide emotional
support and hope, until such time that they leave the warzone.
Affective dispositions of empathy, resilience, and cooperation is
reflected in the excerpt. Soldiers who were facing difficult
situations during deployments relied on battle buddies for survival.
Part of their training was to help each other, and in this context of
war, their trust to their comrades was shown in the following
narrative, wherein one of the soldiers relies on the expertise of the
other.
“Ang kadalasan po kasi maam, kasama mag escort, patrol,

security doon. Para (ahh) narerecognize yung lugar doon
para mafamiliarize po naming na ah, ganito pala dito,
maraming building, maraming tao, parang hindi safe,
ganyan, so kahit di ko kabisado yung lugar, ayyy kuan na ako,
parang may idea na ako na kuan (Andres).
“Ay dun sa mga kasama ko dun sa kuan, yung opisyal naming

nakikipagkwento. Siya lang kasi may hawak nung cellphone
nalagi naming ginagamit sa pagcontact ng mga opisyal.
Sinasabi nya na kuan, papunta nasila, parang high morale
lang..nandyan nasila (Mario).”
271
As shown in the text above, even just the implied presence

of the soldiers, and the anticipation of the help they will get was
enough to give them hope. Knowing that they have comrades who
will come to their aid made them think that they still have power
over the situation and over their enemies. This was taught to them
as soldiers. This shows affective dispositions of trust, resilience and
cooperation. The strength of one, is strength of all.
The unique context of war, with the uncertain dangers

brought about by the environment, in spite of the soldier’s skills
and training, with no certainly is they will survive. Part of the
military discipline is to trust each other as soldiers, and just do what
they can to accomplish the task assigned to them.
“Bakit tayo pupunta dun? Wala bang ibang tropa?” Eh sabi

nila dun nga, nag encounter na. May tropa na naipit sa loob.
May namatay na, ganun ba. Kumbagaang amin nalang,
naawa rin kami sakanila. Sige sir tarana (laughs) sabi ko sa
sarili ko, “tara na rin”. Kumbaga, makisawsaw na lang ..
(laughs).. din ba. Kung baka matulungan din yung kapwa
naming sundalo nga.” (Andres).
In the above narrative, the soldier showed fear before

joining the rescueteam. Upon realizing that it is invetible, agreesto
go to the warzone, and help other comrades. The new field
positions them as people who can help other soldiers, who are also
agents in the field, thus is a cultural capital in itself. The fear is
caused by the possible defeat in encountering the maute group,
and being killed in an unfamiliar territory.
The struggle of claiming Marawi, and killing as many

enemies as possible, was made possible with coordination and aid
from allies. Soldiers were trained to show dispositions of empathy
and resilience, and this was reflected. Working together as a unit,
helped them perceive a shared power over the enemy.
272
Protector of the State
Figure 1
Thematic Map of Soldiers’ Habitus in Terms of Capitals
Being a soldier means meeting certain expectations. These

expectations are carried out through certain practices that prepare
soldiers in the warzone. The process that they go through, if
acquired properly, are considered as cultural capital. Training for
combat and expertise in the handling ammunitions for one is
considered to be a very important skill. These are considered as
embodiedcapitals because these are internalized and become
unconscious due to practice. Ammunitions and guns on the other
hand are viewed as cultural capital in objectified state.
The acquisition and ownership of ammunitions (guns and

bullets), are considered as cultural captital by the soldiers. They see
these objects as of high importance, and that possession of these
will aid them in survival.
“Yun nga e, nakakataas ng moral kasi marami na akong bala.

Yung baril na dala ko, maganda na rin makipaglaban”
(Mario).
It was also recognized by the soldiers that these resources

are limited, and since they have no sense of how long they will stay
in the battlefield, it is important for them to use these capital wisely.
Mario, one of the soldiers implied that he previously had. As also
273
reflected in the text, the acquisition of ammunition had a

psychological effect of increased morale, and in effect, resulted to
having an edge over the enemy in terms of power.
“Kung (long pause)..kumbaga ammo discipline sa bala, na

mag ah, wag ano ang bala, wag sayangin ang bala. Tapos
presence of mind” (Andres).
Though the soldiers are prepared to go into war in terms

of supplies, there were certain situations that strip them of these
capitals. One instance was when they did not anticipate the
position of the Maute rebel. In the succeeding text, it is shown that
lack of supplies affected their strategy, and caused the death of one
of the soldiers. Power is shifted to the rebels, who are in the
advantage in terms of position and capital.
“Yung driver naming na magkuha sana ng bala dun

sakabilang vehicle kasi naubusan na, naisnipe dun salikuran,
sa may pinto….”
“Yung gunner naman namin, eh mag attempt din sana na
kunin din yung ano, yung bala, e na snipe syabuti dito sa may
ilalim banda” (Jose).
The soldier’s training was also perceived as capital. As

reflected in the soldier’s excitement to go to the warzone, he
wanted to practice his training and abilities. Bourdieu (1989)
describes this comfortable ease of habitus in familiar fields as a fish
in the water.
“Excited. Eyy malamang, hindi naman yun yung una na

operation na sinamahan ko, so, hindi na ako bago, so excited
akona kung anongmangyaridoon, mga na gaganap, ganun”
(Mario).
Even at the face of death, soldiers relied on their training

and expertise in the battlefield as a means to survive. When the
soldiers enter the battlefield, it was very clear to them that they can
die anytime, and that they have no agency of their own life. They
were just placed in a situation that they have no control over, and
did their best to stay alive, but also recognizing that anytime, they
274
can die. In the excerpt below, it is illustrated how the soldiers used
the training they got, and the disposition of ambivalence is felt.
“Tatakbo kami, kailangan takbo naming yung pacross-cross

yung takbo ka nang ano lang talaga kumbaga abo bah,
kuling… panghuling… pang one time nalang nabuhay ba.
Kung mabuhay ka, swerte mo talaga, kung mamatay ka,
palad mo rin” (Andres).
These capitals, as identified by the soldiers, are present in

the identification of soldiers’ habitus and are essential in
understanding the relations that they have with other agents in the
field.
In the context of war, the soldiers carry with them their

personal dispositions, things that were taught to them,
philosophies that were handed over by their superiors, and
previous experiences that they carry with them. Entering a new
field, power relations, capitals and sense of self were also affected.
“Then yun nga, parang tagilid kami pero still fighting kami.—
pa rin kami lumaban. Iniisip naming ganito na talaga buhay
nakasalalay na dun. Hindi kalalaban wala na… “yung
mamamatay ka nalang dahil sa takot mo” (Jose).
This also reflects their “never say die” disposition, which is

connected to their moral superiority, over the Maute rebels. Even if
the odds were against them, they still chose to fight and strove to
overcome their predicament.
Killing the enemy is one of the most practiced in this

theme. Being the protector of the state, and in the context of
martial law as a harsh and violent environment, they made it their
goal to destroy or kill the enemy as their main goal, next to
surviving. In the text below, anger as a disposition is apparent, and
violence through killing is the manifestation of the power relations
in the particular habitus.
“Parang may galit. Gustong.. gusto naming pumatayngano.

Hindi mo na maisip. Ang iniisip mo na lang makadale akong
275
kalaban… Papatay ako papatay hangga’t buhay pa

ako”(Andres).
Two of the participants even expressed happiness upon

killing one of the rebels, reflecting the idea that killing the enemy
was their responsibility and goal. The soldiers even expressed that
killing the enemy is so important, that they needed to do it until
they still have breath. The warzone as a field, in which the soldiers
need to compete for power domination, the rule of the game is to
kill or be killed.
“Yun parin yung masaya makapatay kang.. yun nga, makuha

nila. Makuha Maute nila masiyahan karin”(Mario).
Being in the midst of war, and being in a different territory

means that soldiers will encounter different people. During the
war, soldiers mistake certain Maute terrorists as civilians, and
regretted helping them out. In the text below, anger is felt because
of the regret that they were too trusting of the family member of
the rebel posing as a civilian.
“Eh yun nga, kala yun pala tatay na pala ng Maute nakita din
naming sa social media nahuli, Putangina di pa nakabihis yun.
Iyun pa yung suot nya. … dun naming narealize nay un
palang matanda nay un, papa pa lang Maute. Kung alam
palang naming, dun pa lang, wala. Matagal narin naming
kinatay (Andres).”
The text reflects the soldiers’ disposition of distrust to

anyone, much more people who are connected to soldiers have
sworn to protect the state, meaning, all of the civilians and citizens
of the Philippines, but because of the context of war, the enemies
were positioned as people not deserving of any form of mercy.
Distrust, as an affective disposition is very evident in the above text,
and anger towards those who “tricked” them. In this particular
text, in terms of power relations, because of the trust and mercy
the soldiers given to the civilians, it was evaluated as a success for
the Maute, and a weakness for the soldiers.
Being exposed to training, soldiers are perceived to have

an implied advantage over the Maute rebels. But during the heat of
276
war, the soldiers also experienced fear of the enemy, and

wondered where the enemies strength comes from.
“Makikita mo sa mata nilapulang pula. Eh..yun nga

nakadroga man. Eh parang walang takot, walang kamatayan
ang tao ba.” (Jose)
“Di ko nga alam kung bakit matagal lang nila yung (slightly
prolonged) isang buwan na sobra mahigit na halos walang
saktong tulog, walang saktong kain, tapos andyan pa yung
mga eroplano naghuhulog ng bala, ng bomba. Kami nga mga
more on 300-400 meters, lumalagabug nayung mga kuwan”
(Andres).
Part of the military training involves desensitization and

dehumanization of the enemy, due to the fact that soldiers find
psychologically a need to refer to the enemy as animal or other non-
human beings. The process, if not assimilated will make a soldier
impossible someone to kill another human, even in combat or
under threat to their own lives (Grossman, 1996). These affective
dispositions, were also considered capitals, because the easier for
them to pull the trigger and kill someone, the better chances they
would complete their task as soldiers. Power relations, clearly were
violent confrontations from both agents, and were treated with
visceral aversions.
Figure 2
Thematic Map of Soldiers’ Habitus in Terms of Dispositions
277
Due to soldiers’ knowledge about warfare, a cultural

capital, soldiers learned not to trust anyone in the warzone, except
for their superior and comrades. In the transcript, one of the
soldiers expressed distrust towards the locals. They were also
taught to be civil with the locals, but not to the extent that they will
befriend them.
“Kung dito sa marawi expected ko talaga kung may makita ako bale
di ko dapat ilingat yung paningin ko kasi sabi nga sa akin nang nanay
ko at tsaka tatay ko rin, wag kang magtitiwala sa Maranao kasi
Maranao is back fighter, di pwedeng pagkatiwalaan. So pag may
Makita ako kung makipagusap man sila ahh mag yes yes na lang ako
pero deep inside or inside may kuan eyy sinasakayan ko lang”
(Mario).
“Ahmm kung sa kaibigan meron pero more on plastikan kasi yung

ginagawa ko sa kanila, kumbaga yayayain nila ako sa ganitong
lugar sige lang ako nang yes nang yes” (Jose).
During war, even if the soldiers sworn to protect civilians,

they expressed their distrust to them just so to minimize the
possibility of being betrayed. This strategy was seen as an edge, and
in terms of power relations, this disposition prevented them from
the possibility of being ambushed or betrayed.
Conclusion
Using Bourdieu’s field theory as a frame, this study aimed
to identify the habitus of soldiers in a war. The concepts of habitus
and field provide an idea of the mechanisms that affected combat
soldiers’ experience in the warzone. Three major themes from the
soldiers’ habitus emerged from the analysis, namely dependency
on God, social support and being a protector of the state.
The first theme focuses on the soldiers’ personal faith, and

belief in God. Soldiers, upon entering the warzone sees faith in God
as a capital, and brings with them the belief that their fate is in the
hands of God. It was acknowledged, that a soldier’s time on earth
depends on God’s will. This belief also means that God is on their
side, and they are the ones whom He is protecting. The Mauteis
viewed and positioned as enemies for the soldiers have the moral
278
superiority because God is with them. This is related to the popular

religious discourse in the Philippines that God protects the faithful,
and punishes evil doers. This also results to the practice of praying,
which is a manifestation of the soldier’s faith.
The second theme under the soldiers habitus, is social

support which explains that soldiers need different kinds of
support to survive. Comrades are viewed as essential for survival,
because their survival depend on their trust and support for each
other. In this theme, it is shown that soldiers keep their significant
others with them in the warzone.Power is shared among them, and
their degree of trust, cooperation, and resilience help them become
more capable in defeating their enemies. Family, as an internalized
agent in the field, which also provides support, particularly,
emotional support, but this is done minimizing their involvement
with them while they are in the war. In this theme, it is shown that
soldiers keep their significant others with them in the warzone.
They are the only people to be considered in a positive light with
their actions. Comrades and family are what keeping the soldiers
sane in the midst of the violence and chaos. The alliances, memories
and connections are considered as social capital against the Maute
group. For survival, the practice for social support is helping one
another and supporting each other’s need.
The last theme is being a soldier, which focuses on the

habitus of soldiers that treat their enemies as people who need to
be killed and eliminated. The act of killing, and all the negative
attributes identified with the enemies are essential so that they can
survive, and eventually return to their normal life. In this theme, the
soldiers do not show any mercy, to the point of dehumanizing the
enemies, which makes it easier for them to kill, and eliminating the
guilt that they would feel after. The important capitals to act out
killing should be present, such as ammunitions, guns, military
training and expertise, and the symbolic capital of being a soldier.
Power is exerted through these capitals, and violence ensues.
Different dispositions towards the Maute group and even civilians
include ambivalence, distrust, visceral aversion and pride. These
affective dispositions are identified as essential in the practice of
killing, and of their survival in the field.
279
During wartime the soldiers strive to survive, but these

depend on the congruence between the volume and type of
cultural capital and habitus that they possess during the situation.
In this respect, it is assumed that soldiers whose qualities are
congruent with what the war demands, will have greater
possibilities to survive and keep them sane, whereas those who lack
these attributes will have more difficulties building cultural capital.
War habitus, in general, is also taught to soldiers. What they bring
with them to the field is what their superiors gave them. In this
study, all are survivors, are thought to possess the proper habitus
in the war.
In this respect, it is inferred that soldiers whose qualities

are congruent with what the war demands, will have greater
possibilities to survive and to stay sane, whereas those who lack
these attributes will have more difficulties building cultural capital.
War habitus, in general, is also taught to soldiers. What they bring
with them in the field is what their superiors gave them, what they
have learned from the military training, and also brought about by
their experiences as soldiers. It also looked into the psychosocial
aspects of habitus, where changing structures, from the barracks
to the warzone, affect a soldier’s affective dispositions.Frequency
and intensity of interacting agents such as comrades and family,
and enemies are considered as important and essential for survival,
such that minimal frequency and intensity for family is deemed
right, while frequent and intense positive interactions are needed
for comrades, and inverse relationship with the rebels.
Given the limited number of participants in the study,

because of the nature, sensitivity and difficulty of acquiring
approval for soldiers’ interview, the study provided valuable insight
in the experiences of soldiers in the warzone, taking into account
the field and capital, thereby identifying their habitus. A more
extensive study about Filipino soldier’s habitus can be made, to
verify the results of this study. Exploration of other Bordeiusian
concept can also be incorporated for a more comprehensive
analysis of the soldiers’ experience.
The research gives valuable insights to the dynamics and

interaction of different forces inside the warzone. These
unconscious mechanisms act as regulation and required elements
280
for soldiers who do not possess cultural capital or the required

habitus. Habitus as a framework identified through the soldier’s
perspective, these capitals and habitus, that can be found helpful in
providing support to certain areas. For example, there were
numerous instances of demoralization because of lack of guns and
ammunition. A program supporting families of soldiers in dealing
with their loved ones going to war is can also be inferred as a need.
Another insight is to provide soldiers with appropriate
psychological support in helping themselves and other soldiers in
terms of crisis.
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282
PAGSUSURING PANLEKSIKOGRAPIYA SA MGA
SALITANG BAKLA NG MGA PILING FREELANCE
CROSS DRESSER GAY PROSTITUTE
Arche R. Tudtod
ABSTRAK
Ang pag-aaral na ito’y isinagawa upang tukuyin ang mga salitang
ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay
prostitute at iba pang homoseksuwal gayundin ang mga salitang
inaangkop sa pagsasagawa ng anumang gawaing may kinalaman sa
prostitusiyon. Ang pag-aaral na ito’y kinapapalooban ng walong (8)
freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute na nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30
at matatagpuan sa Quirino Avenue, San Dionisio, Lungsod ng
Parañaque. Gumamit ng kuwalitatibong pamamaraan upang
maisakatuparan ang pag-aaral. Sinuri rin ang mga salitang nakolekta
sa pamamagitan ng leksikograpikal na lapit. Natuklasan na mga salita
na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa gawaing prostitusiyon at
pagpapahayag ng mga bagay na may kinalaman sa seks tulad ng milo,
tsupa, booking, blowjob, hada at iba pa. Ang paggamit ng mga
alituntuning nakapaloob din sa pagbuo ng mga gay lingo tulad ng mga
sumusunod: ang pagpapalit ng mga letra sa unahang salita na
nakapaloob sa tinatawag nilang J Law, KY/NY Law, SH Law at CH Law;
nagkaroon din ng paglalapi ng mga salitang wala namang
panggramatikal na gampanin; pag-uulit ng mga salita, pagpapalit ng
tunog at paggamit ng katunog na salita ng isang orihinal na salita. Ang
pagkakaroon o paglalathala ng isang talatinigan o diksyunaryo ng
mga salitang bakla ng mga gay prostitute para sa kapakanan hindi
lamang ng mga karaniwang bakla kundi maging ang sambayanang
Pilipino na hindi lingid sa ating kaalaman na malaking bahagdan ng
mga Pilipino ay may impluwensiya ng mga salitang ito.
Susing salita: Wikang Filipino, salita ng mga gay prostitute, pagsusuring

panleksikograpiya, Pilipinas, Asya
283
Introduksiyon
Tsika, Chenes, Chorva, Kaekekan, Checheboreche, ilan

lamang ito sa mga nauso at pinausong salita ng mga homoseksuwal.
Ang mga salitang bakla na ito ay madalas na nating marinig at
ginagamit saan mang dako—sa bahay, sa paaralan, sa palengke, sa
kalye at maging sa kalakaran ng midya. Sa katunayan, pangkaraniwan
na itong bahagi ng pang-araw-araw na pakikipagtalastasan ng hindi
lamang ng mga homoseksuwal kundi maging ang mga hindi kabilang
sa gay society.
Ang mga salitang ito ay hinango at binuo batay sa pagtanaw

at karanasan ng isang homoseksuwal sa lipunang kaniyang
ginagalawan. Tulad ng winika ni Tim La Haye,
Like most sub-culture, the homosexual community has its

own vocabulary. They understood ours, but we don’t always
understand theirs. They have attached definitions to certain words
and terms that give them a whole new meaning (1980: p.2)
Ipinapakita lamang na ang mga homoseksuwal ay may

kakanyahang bumuo ng kanilang jargon. Kung saan, ito ang nagiging
sandata nila upang sagkaan ang mapangmatang lipunan sa pagturing
sa kanila bilang taliwas sa nakagawiang norms o batas ng lipunan.
Samakatuwid, sa pamamagitan ng mga salitang ito ay nagagawang
makipagsabayan ng mga homoseksuwal sa isang komunidad na ang
tanging nagdodomina lamang ay ang mga heteroseksuwal.
Sa kabilang banda, mahalaga para sa atin na maunawaan ang

lahat ng mga salitang naririnig upang matamo ang mabisang
pakikipagkomunikasyon sa isa’t isa. Ngunit, aminin man natin o hindi,
sadyang mahirap maintindihan ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga
homoseksuwal lalo na kung hindi tayo mulat sa kulturang kanilang
kinabibilangan. Gaya ito sa mga salitang nabubuo ng mga gay
prostitute na kung saan hindi tulad ng mga pangkaraniwang gay men,
ang mga salitang bakla ay hindi lamang inaangkop sa ordinaryong
talastasan kundi nagsisilbi din itong argot upang ilihis at itago sa
sinumang direktang nakikinig sa kanila higit na kapag ang usapan ay
pribado at may kinalaman sa seks gayundin sa kanilang sinuong na
trabaho—ang prostitusiyon. Sa puntong ito, iniiba rin nila ang
pagbibigay kahulugan at interpretasiyon sa mga salitang kilala na
284
upang iayon sa konseptuwalisasiyon at persepsiyon ng kulturang

kinapapalooban. Sapagkat, ang pagkakakilanlan ay binubuo ng isang
wika na ginagamit sa isang partikular na kaganapan at may
kakayahan itong humubog ng mga paniniwala at kaisipan na
nagpapakilala ng isang identidad ng gumagamit nito.
Ika nga, kung ang wika ay hinuhubog sa pamamagitan ni X

ito’y hindi katulad sa kaisipang si X ang paksa ng konbersasyon; ang
pamantayan sa kasarian ay maaaring maghubog sa kung paano
gagamitin ang lengguwahe kahit na hindi gaano itong pinagtutuunan
ng pansin at ang pagsasalita ng mga etnikong dayalekto ay hindi
limitado upang pag-usapan ang etnisidad. Sa lahat ng ito, “ang wika
ay ideolohiya...na bahagi lamang ng kung anong sinasabi ng
karamihan ukol sa wika. Ang pag-uusap ng tao ukol sa lengguwahe ay
kahalintulad sa kanilang praktikal at maayos na pang-unawa na
nakabit sa kung paano nila ginagamit ang wika” (Keane, 1997 na
binanggit sa Keane, 2018). Ang paglalapat ng semiotikong ideolohiya
sa pagtuklas ng mas malalim na kahulugan sa mga salita’y nagdudulot
ng isang malawakang posibilidad ng paggamit ng mga sagisag at
pandamdam gaya ng pang-amoy, haplos, sakit, galaw ng katawan at
iba pang mga instrumento na ginagamit upang higit na maging
epektibo ang paglalapat ng isang wika (Gal, 2013; Hankins, 2013;
Harkness, 2014; Tomlinson, 2014; Alatas, 2016); Nakassis, 2016;
Strange, 2016; Chumley, 2017; Reyes, 2017).
Hindi man alintana, nakakagawa ang mga gay prostitute ng

mga salitang ayon sa hinihingi ng pagkakataon lalo na sa kanilang
hanapbuhay. Madalas na itinuturing nila itong secret code o
patagong komunikasyon upang hindi sila dagliang mapansin at
mahuli ng mga taong nasa kanilang paligid tulad ng mga alagad ng
batas. Kung tutuusin, masasabing ito ang nagsisilbing puhunan nila
sa pang-araw-araw na pakikibaka sa mundo ng prostitusiyon. Sa
pamamagitan ng mga salitang ito ay nakapasok sa mundo ng
prostitusiyon ang mga bakla nang hindi nahuhuli ng mga awtoridad
sa kabila na ito ay ipinagbabawal at nilalapatan ng karampatang
parusa kung sakaling mahuli sa akto. Ang mga salitang ito ay naging
salalayan din ng kanilang mga iniisip at nadarama na hindi kayang
maipahayag sa mga karaniwang salita lamang. Batay nga kay Stanley
(1970 na binanggit sa Doleželová, 2016), ang mga salitang
homoseksuwal ay nag-ambag ng kaalaman ukol sa usaping sosyal sa
mga lugar na kung saan umusbong ang iba pang jargons partikular
285
na sa komunidad ng mga homoseksuwal na Amerikano. Ang

pagpapalabas ng mga talatanungan para sa mga bakla mula sa iba’t
ibang siyudad sa Amerika ay isang paraan upang matukoy kung alin
sa mga slang na salita ang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal ang
naging pamilyar. Base sa naging resulta ng kaniyang pag-aaral,
napatunayan ni Stanley na may tinatawag na core vocabulary at
fringe vocabulary sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal
kahit na ang ilan sa mga terminong kaniyang nakalap ay halos
ginagamit din ng pangkahalatan. Subalit, may mga salitang
eksklusibong ginagamit sa loob ng isang pangkat na tanging sila
lamang ang nakakaunawa. Kaugnay nito, ang pag-unawa sa iba pang
salitang bakla ay sinasabing hindi madaling maunawaan sa
kadahilanang magkakaiba ang pagkakagamit ng bawat indibiduwal.
Sa katunayan, ipinapakita na ang bahasa gay language ay

malawakang ginagamit ng mga homoseksuwal sa Indonesia. Subalit,
sa usaping leksikal ito’y limitado lamang sapagkat nagbabago ang
ponolohikal na aspeto nito sa iba’t ibang mga lokal na pook.
Magkagayunpaman, lumalabas na ang komunidad ng mga
homoseksuwal ay nasa konteksto ng pagpapakilala kung sino at ano
ang gampanin nila sa loob ng lipunang ginagalawan. Ayon nga sa
kanyang isinalaysay na karanasan sa Surabaya kung saan
matatagpuan ang isang eksklusibong pook para sa mga
homoseksuwal—ang Texas (isang terminong bahasa gay), ang
paggamit ni Andri (pinuno ng isang samahan doon) ng mga salitang
homoseksuwal ay lubhang nakakatulong sa pagtamo ng inaasam
nitong paglilibang ng walang nakakaintindi sa kanya kundi tanging
ang kanyang mga kasamahan lamang at mga nagiging kustomer. Ilan
sa mga ginagamit na pahayag ay ang “Aduh, brondong sekali!” My
isn’t he young! “Cucok kamu ya!” You are so handsome! (Sa mga
pahayag na ito, hindi lahat ay nasa pamantayan ng wikang Indonesian
dahil may halo itong terminong bahasa gay na brondong na
nangangahulugang young man at cucok na ibig sabihin ay
handsome). Sa kabuuan, nagsisilbi itong komunikasyon sa isa’t isa
partikular na sa isang komunidad na tinatawag nilang pribado para sa
mga homoseksuwal. Kung saan, ang mga ginamit na mga salita ay
nagmamarka sa kanilang pagkatao at sa kinapapaloobang
komunidad (Boellstorf, 2004). Ayon nga kay Smith-Hefner (2007 na
nabanggit ni Huff, 2015), ang wika na nagpapakilala ng kasarian ng
isang indibiduwal ay humahantong sa pagtaguyod ng kultural na
pagkakakilanlan. Ito’y nagsisilbing instrumento upang magkaroon ng
286
mahigpit na ugnayan sa lahat ng kasapi sa isang lipunan na gaya na

lamang ng Bahasa Gaul na itinali ang bawat isa batay sa edad, at
giniba ang kaibhan dulot ng heyograpikal at etnisidad.
Sa kabilang banda, ang wika ng mga prostityut ay nahahati

sa berbal at di-berbal na komunikasyon. Isang patunay dito, ang
paggamit ng mga salitang bulgar at bastos o mga salitang balbal na
nagpapakita ng kanilang kinalakhang lipunan at estado ng buhay.
Bilang simbolo, ang mga salitang bulgar at bastos (berbal o di-berbal)
ay isang uri ng mababang klase ng tao, salat sa buhay at hindi lumaki
sa konserbatibong komunidad na kung saan dinominahan ng
Simabahang Katoliko. Bagkus, tinulak sila ng isang sistemang
naglalayong maging malaya at produktibo sa
pakikipagkomunikasyon. Ang mga pang-araw-araw na bokabularyo
ng mga prostityut ay nagpapakita ng paglago at pagyabong ng wika.
At kapag ito’y naisalin sa iba, nagtutulak ito na gamitin at makilala ng
karamihan, partikular sa mga prostityut. Kung saan nakakabuo sila ng
mga salita upang mailarawan ang kanilang gawaing
pamprostitusiyon gamit ang isang jargon. Halimbawa nito ay ang
salitang Gimmick na nangangahulugang pakikipagtalik na may
karampatang kabayaran sa serbisyong isinagawa. At ang Rumarampa
na tumutukoy sa paglabas sa kalye ng mga prostityut upang mang-
akit ng kustomer. Ang pagbuo ng mga salita ay nagbubunsod sa mga
prostityut na makabuo ng isang mekanismong poprotekta sa kanila.
Tulad ng pagpapalakas sa kanilang katauhan sa lipunan. Patunay dito
si Merly, isang prostityut sa Cubao na bumubuo ng mga bagong
salita. Ilan sa kaniyang mga binuo ay ang mga sumusunod:
putatching, kepyas, pokpok, puta, at landi na nagpakita at
nagpalabas sa tunay niyang katauhan – ang pagiging prostityut.
Ipinaliwanag din ni Merly ang dahilan kung bakit nila binubuo ang
mga salitang ito, “Inuunahan na namin ang tao para naman ‘di
masyadong masakit.” (Portus, 1998 na binanggit sa Review of
Women’s Studies, Bol.13 no.1, 2003).
Kaugnay nito, ang layunin ng mga mananaliksik sa pagpili ng

pag-aaral na ito ay upang maimulat at gawing kritikal ang pagtanaw
ng sinuman sa mga gay prostitute sa kung paano sila
makipagkomunika. Layunin din nito upang maipaunawa sa
nakararami kung paano binibigyang kahulugan ng mga gay prostitute
ang mga salitang kanilang ginagamit nang sa gayon hindi ito
magbunga ng anumang hindi pagkakaintindihan lalo na sa mga
287
indibiduwal na may negatibong pagtanaw ukol sa mga gay prostitute.

Sa pagkakabuo naman ng Gay Slang Dictionary ni Wei Lee (2007)
naipakita kung paano nagkakaiba sa istilo ng pagpapahayag ang mga
nasa gay society sa iba pang kasarian. Ang mga terminong kanilang
nilikha ay hindi lamang nila madalas ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw na
pamumuhay kundi maging sa paghahanap ng panandaliang-aliw. Ito
ang nagsisilbing daluyan nila upang makipag-ugnayan sa kapwa sa
lihim na paraan at upang maisakatuparan ang anumang naisin nang
hindi tahasang natutukoy ng mga ordinaryong tao sa kanilang paligid.
Sa kabilang dako, hindi ninanais ng pag-aaral na ito na lalong

palutangin ang negatibong persepsiyon ukol sa pamumuhay at gawi
ng mga gay prostitute at ikondena kung anumang nangyayari sa
kanila. Sa halip, hinahangad ng mga mananaliksik ang pagkaunawa at
pagtanggap sa kasalukuyang lingo na ginagamit nila. Sapagkat, ito
ang magsisilbing tulay upang higit silang matanggap sa lipunan. Ang
pag-aaral na ito’y kinapapalooban ng walong (8) freelance cross-
dresser gay prostitute na nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30 at
matatagpuan sa Quirino Avenue, San Dionisio, Lungsod ng
Parañaque. Sinaklaw ng pananaliksik na ito ang mga salitang
ginagamit ng mga freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute sa pang-
araw-araw nilang pamumuhay bilang isang prostityut at isang
indibiduwal habang kasama nila ang kanilang kapwa prostityut na
pinili ng mga mananaliksik ayon sa mga pamantayang inilitag nila.
Ang etimolohiya ng mga salitang nakalap ng mga mananaliksik ay
hinango mula sa diksiyunaryo, internet at iba pang batayan. At ang
target na bilang ng mga salitang sinuri ay 100 salita lamang. Hindi
saklaw ng pag-aaral na ito ang pagtalakay sa personal na buhay ng
mga gay prostitute gaya ng dahilan upang pasukin nila ang
prostitusiyon. Gayundin, hindi saklaw ng pag-aaral na ito ang
pagkukumpara at pagtalakay ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay
prostitute sa iba pang lugar dito sa Pilipinas na may katulad na
gawain.
Ito ay isinagawa upang tukuyin ang mga salitang ginagamit

ng mga gay prostitute sa pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay prostitute
at iba pang homoseksuwal gayundin ang mga salitang inaangkop sa
pagsasagawa ng anumang gawaing may kinalaman sa prostitusiyon.
Sinuri rin ang mga salitang nakolekta upang bigyang tugon ang mga
nabuong katanungan ng mga mananaliksik. Una na rito, ano ang
kahulugan ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute batay sa
288
kung paano nila ito binigyang pagpapakahulugan? Paano binabaybay

ang mga salitang ito? Kung paano nabubuo ang mga salitang ito?
Gayundin, saang bahagi ng pananalita nakapaloob ang bawat salita
ayon sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa kanilang
pakikipagtalastasan?
Balangkas ng Pag-Aaral
Ang lipunang ginagalawan ng mga gay prostitute ay isang

patunay na larawan ng pagyabong ng sub-kultural na pangkat kung
saan mayroon silang sariling kultura, sariling lingo na may sariling
bokabularyo na maituturing na daynamiko. Sapagkat, patuloy pa rin
ito sa pagbabago at pagkalat. Hindi ito nakakapagtakang mangyari sa
kadahilanang ginagamit din nila ang mga salitang kanilang nalilikha
upang itago sa ibang tao ang anumang pribadong usapin na may
kinalaman sa prostitusyon. Samakatuwid, ang mga salitang kanilang
ginagamit ay hindi lamang isinasakatuparan sa pang-araw-araw na
pakikipagtalastasan kundi para na rin mailihis ang kahulugan ng isang
salita na may negatibong epekto sa sinumang makakarinig.
Sa puntong ito, hahantong ang mga mananaliksik sa

pagsusuri ng mga salitang nakalap mula sa mga kalahok nito.
Titingnan ito batay sa kung paano binigyan ng kahulugan ang mga
salita na ginabayan naman ng Teoryang Dekonstraksyon. Sa teoryang
ito, isinaad na ang paglalapat ng kahulugan sa isang salita ay hindi
lamang nakakulong batay sa konseptuwalisasyon at iniisip ng utak ng
isang tao kundi sa kung paano ito ginamit sa loob ng lipunang
ginagalawan. Sa kabilang banda, sinuportahan naman ito ng
Symbolic Interactionism na naglahad pa ng tatlong perspektibo sa
pagpapakahulugan ng isang salita: (1) kumikilos batay sa kahulugan
na kanilang ikinakabit sa mga bagay na nasa paligid; (2) hinango mula
sa pakikipag-ugnayan ng tao sa kanyang kapwa at sa kanyang
lipunang ginagalawan; at (3) hinuhulma at minomodipika batay sa
interpretatibong proseso na ginagamit ng isang indibiduwal sa mga
bagay na kanyang nakikita o nakakasalamuha sa lipunang kanyang
ginagalawan.
Samantalang, ipinakita naman sa Cognitive Theory of
Language ang iba pang paraan ng pagsusuri sa isang salita. Sa
puntong ito, ginamit ang teoryang nabanggit upang maging gabay sa
pagsusuri ng mga etimolohiya o pinagmulan ng salita. Gayundin,
289
kung ano ang istruktural nitong gampanin batay sa pagkakagamit sa

pakikipagtalastasan o pagsusulit. Dagdag pa ang pagsusuri sa kung
paano ito binabaybay.
Iniangkop rin naman sa pag-aaral na ito ang Theory of

Gender, Sex, and Sexuality in Relation to Language, na binanggit na
ang wika’y nagtataglay ng hindi masukat na pagpapakahulugan na
kadalasan ay nagiging batayan ng pagkakakilanlan pagdating sa
aspekto ng kasarian at/o seksuwalidad. Ang interkoneksyon nito sa
wika’y madalas na pinagkakaiba halimbawa ang sekso ay isang
bayolohikal na penomenon habang ang kasarian at seksuwalidad
naman ay pangkultural na kaganapan. Gayun pa man, hindi pa rin
maipagkakaila na ang isang wika’y nagiging daan upang maisiwalat
ang interaksyong lingguwistikal ng isang indibiduwal sa kanyang
kapwa (Kulick, 2000; Cameron and Kulick 2003; McConnell-Ginet,
2011)
Layunin ng Pag-Aaral
Nilalayon ng pananaliksik na ito na matuklasan ang mga
salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostityut sa pang-araw-araw nilang
pamumuhay at mabigyan ito ng kahulugan sa pamamagitan ng
leksikograpikal na lapit. Isa sa mga tuon ng pag-aaral ay maipakita ang
dibersidad ng wika sa paglikha ng mga jargons na ginagamit ng isang
pangkat sa loob ng isang komunidad. Dinamiko o nagbabago man
ang wika at/o maaaring lumipas na ang mga salitang nakalap sa
pananaliksik na ito dahil sa walang sapat na sistema o hulwaran na
sinusunod sa wika ng mga homoseksuwal. Ipinapamalas naman sa
pag-aaral na ito, ang proseso kung paano binubuo ng mga
homoseksuwal ang kanilang mga salita at mula rito’y maaaring
makabuo ng mga hulwaran na magagamit upang mapalawig pa ang
Wikang Filipino.
Metodolohiya
Gumamit ng kuwalitatibong pamamaraan upang
maisakatuparan ang pag-aaral. Ang kuwalitatibong pag-aaral ay
nauukol sa hindi paggamit ng istadistikal na pamamaraan ng
pagsiyasat at pag-unawa sa panlipunang penomena. Kung saan,
290
isinagawa ang pangangalap ng mga datos na hindi na gumamit ng

sarbey sa halip ginawa ito sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang paraan
tulad ng obserbasyon na ginamitan ng pandama, panayam, paggamit
ng digital na kamera, rekorder at pag-analisa ng mga dokumento o
materyales na nakalap. Bukod dito, ang mananaliksik ay sumailalim sa
mahigit isa’t kalahating buwang imersiyon upang makakolekta ng
mga korpus na kailangan sa pananaliksik na ito. Iniangkop naman sa
pag-aaral na ito ang Leksikograpikal na Pagsusuri na nakatuon sa
katangian ng mga salita gaya ng pagtuklas sa etimolohiya, paraan ng
pagbaybay, bahagi ng panalita at ang kahulugan nito.
Narito ang ilang pamantayan o kriterya para sa pagpili ng mga salita:
• Pinakagamitin.
• Ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw na pamumuhay at sa
prostitusiyon.
• Madaling bigkasin at sulatin.
• Napapanahon at bago sa pandinig.
Binuo ng walong (8) freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute

na siyang inobserbahan, pinag-aralan at pinagmulan ng mga korpus
na kailangan ng mananaliksik. Gumamit ng universal sampling bilang
paraan ng pagpili ng kalahok sa ginawang pag-aaral ng mga
mananaliksik. Ang universal sampling ay isinasakatuparan kung ang
populasyon ay maituturing na maliit at sapat na gamitin upang
maging kalahok (Castillo et al., 2008). Ang mga kalahok ay pinili batay
sa kanilang kaalaman sa kinakailangang impormasyon ng pag-aaral
na ito. Narito ang ilang pamantayan ng mga mananaliksik sa pagpili
ng mga magiging kalahok: Ang mga gay prostitute ay dapat na
nagkaroon na ng mahigit anim na buwan hanggang isang taon na
karanasan sa pagiging isang prostityut; Ang mga kalahok ay dapat na
nasa gulang 17 hanggang 30; at kabilang sa isang grupo ng mga gay
prostitute na may lingo at bokabularyong umiiral at ginagamit hindi
lamang sa pakikipagtalastasan kundi maging sa prostitusiyon.
291
Resulta at Pagtalakay
Matrix 1
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang A
PALABAY BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA

SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN
BAYAN PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP
/ey-key-i-ti- Mula sa salitang Panghalip. GP5: Bakla ikaw Ako.
si-eych/ Tagalog na ako na na
AKETCH tumutukoy sa sarili. GP8: Sino
aketch?
/ey-ji-yu- Hinango mula sa Pang-uri Mga Agua Tawag sa isang

ey-en-i-ji- kuwentong Negrita. indibiduwal na
ar-ay-ti-ey/ pangkomiks na Mabenta sa mga maitim ang kulay
Agua Bendita ni Rod foreigner, ng balat ngunit
Santiago na nailatha maiitim na may taglay na
AGUA sa Liwayway noong magaganda. ganda o sa Ingles
NEGRITA 1980 at muling black beauty.
pinasikat sa
telebisyon sa
anyong teleserye
noong ika-8 ng
Pebrero 2010.
/ey-en-ey- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Ems: Tang ina Nakakahiya.
es-eych- hanashi nai na isang mo Mark, ha. Yan
ay-en-ey- salita sa wikang ka na naman, ha.
way/ Nihongo ng Yung ano, ha.
ANASHINAY bansang Hapon na Sinabi ko sa’yo,
nangangahulugang ha.
sabihin ang hindi Barbie: Magi!
dapat sabihin. Anashinay.
Ems: Sige lang.
/ey-en-ay- Mula sa salitang Panghalip GP2: Anik daw? Pangunahing
key/ ugat na Tagalog na Anik daw? ekspresyon ng
ano na GP4: Nilafes mo mga
nangangahulugang ba ung burat? homoseksuwal
ANIK
naghahanap ng na nagsasaad ng
kasagutan. “ano ngayon” o
“ano naman
ngayon.”
/ey-pi-i-ti- Mula sa Pang-abay EMS: Magi! Isang
ey/ ekspresyong abi mo Apeta… (tawa) ekspresyong na
ginagamit ng mga magi ikinakabit sa mga
APETA Bisaya kapag apeta,nakakalok salita upang
binibigyang-diin ang a naman chi di magbigay ng
nais sabihin. ba? eksaherasyon
(exaggeration).
/ey- Nagmula sa orihinal Pangngalan GP3: Awra na. Pang-aakit sa
dobolyu- na salitang aura na Ishobay. isang lalaki o
ar-ey/ buhat sa salitang isang kustomer.
Griyego na aurea
AWRA (1350-1400) na
‘nagtataglay ng
isang natatangi at
kapansin-pansin na
kagandahan, istilo at
iba pa.”
292
Buhat sa mga nakatalang salita sa Matrix 1, karamihan sa

mga ito’y sumusunod sa tuntuning kung ano ang bigkas, siyang
baybay. Ang salitang aketch ay nagkaroon din ng pagdaragdag ng
mga salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin. Ngunit,
nananatili ang kahulugan nito kahit paano man ito gamitin sa loob ng
pangungusap o sa pakikipag-usap. Ang agua negrita naman ay
pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng salita mula sa wikang hiniram
subalit binigyan ng panibagong kahulugan. Kapag ang salitang ito ay
inaangkop sa pandadaot sa kapwa, nagsasaad na ito ng negatibong
konotasyon na maitim na tao na may hindi kanais-nais na itsura. Sa
kabilang banda, mula sa pang-uri ay nagiging pangngalan ito kapag
ang salitang Agua Negrita ay ginamit bilang palayaw o pantawag sa
kapwa homoseksuwal. Samantala, ang anashinay ay isinunod sa
alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng
pagbabago sa kahulugan batay sa kung paano ito ginamit sa lipunan
ng mga gay prostitute. Nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag
nagkaroon na ng paglalapi sa salita: (a) Anashinayin—pahiyain; at (b)
Inashinay—pinahiya. Sa puntong ito, mula sa pang-uri ay nagiging
pandiwa na ang gamit nito. Habang, ang salitang anik ay nagkaroon
ng tinatawag na pagpapalit ng ponema mula sa /o/ ito ay naging /i/ at
kinabitan ng letrang /k/ upang makabuo ng panibagong salita subalit
ang kahulugan ay nanatili pa rin. Mula sa panghalip tungo sa
pangngalan. Sapagkat, kapag ito’y ganap na inulit (anik-anik)
nangangahulugan na ito ng aksesorya sa katawan. Ang apeta ay
isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay.
Nananatili ang kahulugan nito kahit paano man ito gamitin sa loob ng
pangungusap o pakikipagusap. Ang salitang awra bagama’t isinunod
din sa banggit na tuntunin ay nagkakaroon ng baryasyon kapag
nilapian at isinakatuparan ng aspekto ng pandiwa ay nagbabago ang
kahulugan nito. Halimbawa: Umawra—nang-akit; Umaawra—nang-
aakit; Aawra—mang-aakit; at Inawra—inakit.
293
Matrix 2
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang B

/bi-ey- Mula sa bati na Pangngalan GP7: Net kong Salsal o
way-ay- isang salitang magpabayis. Pagsasariling-
es/ balbal na GP3: Wety nyo sikap.
BAYIS
nangangahulug ‘ko nyobat.
an ding
pagsasalsal.
/bi-i-en-ji- Halaw sa tunog Pangngalan Kaya nga. Baril.
bi-i-en-ji/ na nagmumula Pagtingin ko
sa baril na akala ko kung
BENGBENG “bangbang.” ano yung
hinuhugot ‘yun
pala bengbeng.
Shokbo ko eh!
/bi-i-ti-ey/ Mula sa Pangngalan GP4: Uy si May
dalawang salita Mark! si Mark! nagmamay-ari
na pinagsama: GP3: Betchay na na.
ang bet na mula ‘yan.
sa Old English GP4: Oo nga
BETA
na baetan na betchay na.
ang ibig sabihin
ay “make
better, arouse,
stimulate.”
/bi-ay-en- Mula sa salitang Pandiwa GP3: Magkano Binili.
ey-way-el- Ingles na buy o binayla mo
ey/ tumutukoy sa dyan chi ba?
pagbili ng isang EMS: Ikura
bagay. binayla ko yan
BINAYLA chi…a
okama…hay..!
/bi-ay-ti-ti- Mula sa Old Pangngalan Tanga! walang Hinanakit o

i-ar-en-i- English na biter bitterness sama ng loob.
es-es/ na promise.
nangangahulug
ang “may
mapait na lasa”
at “pagkagalit.”
BITTERNESS
Habang ang
ness ay isang
hulapi mula sa
Old English na
may
kahulugang
“marami.”
294
/bi-el-o- Sumulpot ang Pangngalan 150 lang babae. Oral seks;

dobolyu- salitang ito Nablowjob yan. Pagsubo ng
jey-o-bi/ noong 1961 na labas-masok sa
mula sa ari ng isang
dalawang lalaki upang
pinagkabit na maihatid sa
salitang Ingles orgasmo.
na blow at job.
Nagsimulang
ikabit ang salita
sa
eupimistikong
kahulugan na
“suck” kaya’y
pagkakaroon
ng tinatawag na
BLOWJOB
“explosive
climax of
orgasm” subalit
noong 1950’s
ginamit naman
ito ng mga
amerikanong
piloto upang
tawagin ang
kanilang mga
jet plane bilang
blow jobs batay
ito sa
“Thesaurus of
American
Slang.”
/bi-o-bi- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Bakla ka naman Walang alam o
ay-ti-ey/ Espanyol na kasi! Bobita ka! ignorante.
bobo na Hayop ka!
nangangahulug Nakamagkano
ang “stupid lang ako.
person, slow
bird” na
ginamit noong
BOBITA 1590 na
tinatayang
hinango mula
sa salitang Latin
na balbus na
ang ibig
ipakahulugan
ay
“stammering.”
/bi-o-di- Mula sa bodabil Pangngalan GP3: Buksan na Oral seks; Ang
ey/ na isang uri ng ‘yan. kaibahan nga
BODA palabas na GP5: Jana boda lamang sa
sumikat noong na. Blowjob ito’y
1910 hanggang may kasamang
295
sa kalagitnaan GP4: Boda na… paglalaro sa ari

ng 1960. boda na… ng lalaki.
/bi-o-key- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Shumakbo kami Takot.

o-ti/ Tagalog na chi ng
nangangahulug Manuyo….nash
ang takot. o-ko talaga
BOKOT kame chi,
talagang bokot
na bokot talaga
mga lola mo di
ba?
/bi-o-en- Hango sa Pangngalan Ay, madumi na Anal seks
ey-em-ay- gamot na chi. Shogay
en/ Bonamin na nalang.
iniinom bago Bonamin ‘yan?
BONAMIN bumiyahe Witchells.
upang Nakakaloka.
maiwasan ang
pagkahilo at
pagsusuka.
/bi-o-en-ji- Mula sa Pang-uri Uy yung juking Sosyal.
ji-ey-si-ay- dalawang mo kagabi
o-yu-es/ pinagsamang nakita ko
salita: ang kagabi bakla ka
bongga na isang bonggacious
salitang bakla ka!
BONGGACIO na tumutukoy
US sa pagiging
extravagant/am
azing at ang
panlaping cious
na
nangangahulug
ang sobra.
/bi-o-o- Buhat sa Pangngalan GP2:Bakla, Pagkakaroon
key-ay-en- salitang Ingles naasar ako. ng kustomer
ji/ na book kung GP1: Otomo at
saan ito’y yun, booking ko pagsasagawa
hinango mula yun. ng gawaing
sa salitang seksuwal.
Gothic na boka
(A.D. 900) o
titik ng mga
BOOKING alpabeto.
Noong 1635
naman, sa
pamamagitan
ng paglalapi ng
–ing nagbabago
ang kahulugan
nito na naging
kontrata,
kasunduan o
296
anumang
iskedyul na
nakalaan para
sa isang
indibiduwal.
Ito’y pinaikli rin
ng salitang
booking up na
sumulpot
noong 2006 na
nangangahulug
ang pagkikita
ng dalawang
magkapareha
upang
magsagawa ng
gawaing
seksuwal.
/bi-o-ar-ti- Mula sa Pangngalan Hmmm…..ano, Malaking
ey- dalawang ano’ng nyikreto pangangata-
dobolyu- salitang mo sa, aneklavu wan ng lalaki o
ey-en/ pinagsama, ang sa…bortawan tumutukoy sa
salitang bakla mo? isang macho
na bongga o sa guy.
ingles
extravagant/am
az-ing.
Samantala, ang
BORTAWAN
isa naman ay
katawan na
isang termino
sa wikang
Tagalog na
nangangahulug
ang ‘ang
kabuuang
istruktura ng
isang nilalang.’
Mapupuna na ang salitang Bangelya ay isinunod sa

alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. May pagkakataon
din na ginagamit ito bilang labis na pagkalango sa alak o sobrang
kalasingan. Ang salitang baste ay nilapatan ito ng panibagong
kahulugan batay sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute. Kapag
nilapatan ng paglalapi ang salita, nagkakaroon na ito ng pagbabago
sa kahulugan: (a) Nabaste—nalugi o nabarat; (b) Binaste—binarat o
tinipid; at (c) Bastedora—taong nambabarat. Ang salitang bayis ay
nagkaroon ng panibagong baybay sa salita na nagbunga ng pagbuo
ng isang bagong baryasyon nito. Kapag isinakatuparan na ang
panahunan o aspekto ng pandiwa, nagkakaroon na ito ng baryasyon
297
sa kahulugan: (a) Magpabayis—magpasalsal sa ibang tao; (b)

Nagbayis—nagsalsall at (c) Magbabayis—magsasalsal. Samantala,
ang bengbeng ay ginamitan ng pagpapalit ng ponema kung saan ang
mga titik /a/ ay napalitan ng /e/. Ngunit, walang pagbabago sa
kahulugan.
Sa kabilang banda naman, bagama’t tuwirang hiniram ang

baybay ng salitang bet nagkaroon naman ito ng pagdaragdag ng
isang letra na wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin, ang
salitang beta’y walang pagbabagong naganap sa kahulugan.
Gayundin naman ang salitang betchay. Ngunit, May pagkakataon na
ang salitang ito ay ginagamit bilang katumbas ng kuha, kinuha. Kapag
ginamit naman ito sa nomo o inuman, ito’y nangangahu-lugang
itongga na. Habang, ang salitang binayla ay nagbabago ang
kahulugan ng salitang ito kapag nilapatan na ng paglalapi.
Halimbawa: Nabayla—nabili. Ganap na hiniram ang salitang
bitterness na pinanatili ang kahulugan. Subalit, may pagkakataon na
ginagamit ito sa loob ng pangungusap o pakikipagtalastasan bilang
katumbas ng selos o inggit. Ganap na hiniram ang salitang blowjob
mula sa wikang Ingles at pinanatili ang orihinal nitong baybay subalit
nabago ang orihinal nitong kahulugan. Nagbabago ang kahulugan
ayon sa pagkakalapat ng paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: Nablowjob—
tawag sa lalaking naisubo na ng labas-masok ang ari nito. Ang salitang
bobita ay nagkaroon ng pagpapalit sa ponema mula sa /o/ tungo sa /i/
upang maipakita ang anyong peminismo ng salita at nilapian ito ng ta
na walang panggramatikal na gampanin sa salita. Isinunod rin ito sa
alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagbabago ang
kahulugan ng salitang ito batay sa pagkakagamit ng kaantasan ng
pang-uri. Halimbawa: (a) Kasingbobita- magkaparehong antas ng
pagiging ignorante o walang alam; at (b) Napakabobita- sukdulan sa
pagiging ignorante o walang alam.
Samantala, ang boda ay Nagbabago ang kahulugan nito

kapag nagkaroon na ng paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: Bodahin—
laruin ang ari ng lalaki habang ito’y sinusubo. Kapag nagkaroon
naman ng pag-uulit sa salita. Halimbawa: Boda-boda—pagkahilig sa
pagsubo ng ari ng lalaki. May pagkakataon na ginagamit ito bilang
pag-inom o pagtongga ng alak. Ang bokot naman ay mapapansing
may iba’t ibang baryasyon ng salitang ito tulad ng shokot, nyokot ay
nananatili pa rin ang kahulugan nito. Ngunit, kapag ito’y nilapian at
inulit na, nabago na ang konotasyon nito gayundin ang istruktural na
298
gampanin sa loob ng pangungusap. Halimbawa: (a) Nabokot—

natakot; at (b) Bokot na bokot—lubha ang pagkatakot. Ang salitang
bonamin ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang
baybay. Nagkaroon din ng pagbabago sa kahulugan nito. Walang
pagbabago ang nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit na sa iba’t
ibang paraan pasalita man o pasulat. Ang salitang bonggacious ay
isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at
walang pagbabago ang nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit na sa
iba’t ibang paraan pasalita man o pasulat. Ganap na hiniram ang
salitang booking at pinanatili ang orihinal nitong baybay. Subalit,
nabago ang kahulugan nito. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salitang
ito ayon sa aspekto ng pandiwa at paglalapi sa salita. (a) Nagbooking-
mayroon ng customer; (b) Bumubooking- kukuha ng customer; (c)
Bubooking- kukuha pa lang customer; at (d) Binooking—isinama ng
kustomer sa isang motel o isinakay sa taxi. Habang, ang bortawan ay
isinunod sa tuntuning kung anong bigkas siyang baybay at walang
naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan.
Matrix 3
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang C
GAMIT SA
PALABAY BAHAGI NG
SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA PANGUNGUSA KAHULUGAN
BAYAN PANANALITA
P
/si-eych- Hango sa isang Pang-uri EMS: Pangit o
ey-key-ey- palabas na Cha…chakarat hindi kanais-
ar-ey-ti/ “chakadoll” naman di ba? nais na anyo.
kung saan ang GP1: Oo nga
manika ng isang chakarat…
batang tauhan EMS: Pero…
CHAKAAT sa kwento ay okama….’yung
napakapangit at …’yung boo…
pumapatay ng booking mo
tao. kagabi okama,
a...ano
chakarat na
naman?
299
/si-eych-i- Nagmula sa Panghalip Patingin ka Ekspresyon

en-i-el-ay- salitang Griyego para magka- na ginagamit
en/ "cheorvamus" okani, chenelin. upang idiin
na ang ibig ang mga
sabihin ay sinasabi.
kakulangan sa
angkop na
salitang
gagamitin o
katumbas ng
anumang bagay
CHENELN
na gusto mong
ipahayag ngunit
hindi mo masabi.
Hawig sa "aloha"
ng wikang
Hawaiiano, na
nangangahuluga
n ng
napakaraming
bagay.
/si-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP5: Oh anik Pantawag sa

ay/ Pranses na chichi na… kapwa
na GP5: Shogay na. homoseksu
nangangahuluga GP4: Shogay na wal lalo na
CHI
ng “extremely, chi. kung sila’y
sophisticated” magkaibigan
.
Sa puntong ito, ang salitang chakarat ay may ibang

baryasyon ng salita tulad ng chaka, chakadoll ay nananatili pa rin ang
kahulugan nito. Ngunit, maliban sa paglalarawan ng katangian ng
isang tao, ginagamit din ito upang tukuyin ang isang bagay o
pangyayari na hindi maganda. Habang, ang salitang chenelin ay
isinasakatuparan sa salitang ito ang pag-aaply ng ch sa mga
ekspresyon na ginagamit ng mga bakla. Walang pagbabagong
nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ikinabit o idinugtong na sa isa pang
salita sa loob ng pangungusap. Bagama’t may pagkakataon na
ginagamit ito bilang palayaw ng isang kaibigan bilang panghalili sa
pangalan nito. Ang salitang chi ay ginagamit din ito upang ikabit sa
isang salita nang sa gayon magkaroon ito ng panibagong baryasyon.
300
Matrix 4
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang D
BAHAGI
PALABAYBA NG GAMIT SA
YAN PANANAL PANGUNGUSAP
ITA
/di-ey-key-o/ Hango sa salitang Pang-uri Desiree: Tsaka Malaking ari ng
Bisaya na “dako” ang babait ng lalaki.
na ang ibig tropa niya.
sabihin ay malaki. Hindi maliit ang
DAKO
ano nito.
Ems: Dako?
Desiree: Dako
talaga
/di-i-ti-si- Hango sa salitang Panghalip Kasi…ang cha- Dito.
eych-ay/ Tagalog na dito. chakadoll mga
DETCHI
amoy ng mga
ari detchi.
/di-way-yu-ti- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP5: Dyutay Maliit na ari ng
ey-way/ Cebuano na dyutay… Oo… lalaki.
dyutay na Wala ng… 200
DYUTAY
nangangahulugan nga sa kanya
g maliit o maikli. eh... kakaloka!
Mapapansin na ang salitang dako ay isinunod sa alituntuning

kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Maliban sa kahulugang
panseksuwal ginagamit din ito upang ilarawan ang pagkakaroon ng
malaking kita, bagay, tao o pangyayari. Habang, ang detchi naman ay
walang naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan. At ang salitang dyutay
ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay.
Maliban sa kahulugang panseksuwal ginagamit din ito upang
ilarawan ang pagkakaroon ng maliit na kita, bagay, tao o pangyayari.
301
Matrix 5
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang E
/i-pi-i-key/ Hinango mula Pangngalan GP1: Oo apeta. Epekto.
sa Middle EMS: O di
English na ba…epek,
effective na epek…
nagmula naman
sa salitang Latin
na effectus na
EPEK nangangahulug
ang “ang
nakukuhang
resulta mula sa
kakompletuhan
ng isang
aksiyon.”
/i-ar-i-ar/ Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP7: Kadiri.

bakla na er- Julutjulutan nga
beauty na lang ang buhok
nangangahulu- ko kagabi.
gang mga GP5: Sori…
lalaking may julutjulutan…Er
ER ER
blue collarjobs Er.
tulad ng mga
construction
workers,
taxi/jeepney
driver at iba pa.
Ang mga salitang epek at ere r ay isinunod sa alituntuning

kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Subalit ang epek ay walang
naganap na pagbabago sa kahulugan. Habang ang ere r naman ay
mula sa pang-uri tungo sa pangngalan. Sapagkat, ginagamit din ito
bilang panghalili sa dumi ng tao o hayop.
302
Matrix 6
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang G
/ji-ey-en- Hango sa Pangngalan Okama, keri na May gana o
ey-ti-si- salitang ung mga... nasa mood.
eych-ay/ Tagalog na gana kareng-kareng
na mgabers
nangangahulug ganatchi….ok,
GANATCHI
ang pagiging ikaw
magana o magkwero…a...
masiglang a-no ginawa
gawin ang isang sayo ni Harrold,
bagay. ano eksena?
/ji-i-ti-el- Hango sa Pandiwa GP3: Wag kang Kunin o
ey-key/ salitang Ingles maglalasing. kuhanin.
na get na GP4: Limang
GETLAK nangangahulug piso… limang
ang kunin. piso…
GP3: Batiin ko
yung getlak.
/ji-o-jey- Mula sa sistema Pangngalan GP1: Kheme- 50 pesos .
yu/ ng pamilang ng kheme…
wikang
Nihongo na GP3: Goju, pero
GOJU
goju ina na shogaling siya
ngangahulugan Los Bahan.
g limampu.
/ji-o-ar-ey/ Pinaikling gora Pandiwa Bakla, Pag-alis.

agora ng bakla…gora na
salitang bakla may
GORA na hinango booking…dali
mula sa salitang may booking,
Ingles na go. okama dali go
go go!
Mapupuna na ang salitang ganatchi ay nagbabago ang

kahulugan kapag ito’y nilapian na. Halimbawa: (a) Ginaganatchi-
ginaganahan; at (b) Maganatchi—masigla. Gayundin naman ang
getlak na nagbabago ang kahulugan nito batay sa aspekto ng
pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Ginetlak—kinuha; (b) Gumigetlak—
kunukuha; at (c) Gigetlak—kukuha. Samantala, ang goju ay ganap na
hiniram ang salita mula sa wikang Nihongo at pinanatili ang
kahulugan nito at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita. Ang
salitang gora ay nagbabago ang kahulugan ng salita depende sa
aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Gumora—umalis; (b)
Gumogora—humahada; at (c) Gogora—aalis. May pagkakataon din
303
na ginagamit ito upang tukuyin ang pagsang-ayon sa inaalok na

presyo ng isang kustomer.
Matrix 7
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang H
/eych-ey- Ang salitang Pandiwa GP3: Hahada Pagsasagawa
di-ey/ “hada” ay tayo para may ng isang
nangangahulug palafes maya… gawaing
an ng EMS: …bakla prostitusyon
paglalagalag o booking… kung saan
maaari rin naglalako ang
namang mga gay
pagrampa kung prostitute ng
saan ay walang laman.
permanenteng
HADA
lugar na
tinitigilan. Ang
katumbas nito
sa salitang
Spanish ay fairy
o diwata at
engkantada na
katulad ng mga
ligaw na
espiritu.
/eych-ey- Hango sa Pangngalan EMS: Magi, 150 pesos.
key-yu-ji- sistema ng magi…
o-jey-yu/ pamilang ng magibers...ano..
wikang .
Nihongo na GP1: Hakugoju.
haku o isang EMS: A…
daan at goju o hakugoju…
HAKUGOJU limampu na
kapag
pinagsama ang
dalawang salita
ay nagiging
hakugoju na
nangangahulug
ang 150 yen.
/eych-ay- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay GP3: Hindi, Hindi.
en-way- tagalog na hinyi…
ay/ “hindi.” EMS: Shimihan
HINYI
yang si bakla...
GP3 & GP1:
Hinyi…..
304
Ang salitang hada ay ginamitan ng sistema na kung ano ang

bigkas ay siya ring baybay. Nagbabago ang kahulugan depende sa
aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Humada—naisagawa na ang
gawaing prostitusyon; (b) Humahada—kasalukuyang naghahanap
ng customer; at (c) Hahada—nagpaplanong maghanap ng kustomer.
May pagkakataon na ginagamit ito upang tukuyin ang labas-masok
na pagsubo sa ari ng lalaki. Samantala, ang hakugoju ay ganap na
hiniram ang salita mula sa wikang Nihongo at pinanatili ang
kahulugan nito at walang pagbabago sa kahulugan ng salita. Ang
salitang hinyi naman ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas
siyang baybay. Mapapansin rin na nagkaroon ng pagsasakatuparan
ng NY Law na nakapaloob sa gay lingo kung saan pinalitan ng ny ang
letrang /d/.
Matrix 8
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang I
/ay-key- Mula sa salitang Panghalip GP2: Ikura? Magkano;
yu-ar-ey/ Nihongo ng kinidnap sayo Tumutukoy sa
bansang Hapon nung ombre? halagang
na EMS: Ikura ba? ibabayad ng
IKURA nangangahulug kustomer sa
ang “magkano serbisyong
o ilan”. ibibigay ng
mga gay
prostitute.
Ang salitang ikura ay ganap na hiniram ang salita at pinanatili

ang baybay nito sa wikang Nihongo. May pagkakataon rin na
nagbabago ang salitang ito kapag ginamit na sa pangungusap bilang
pantukoy sa halagang ibabayad o ibibigay ng kustomer sa serbisyong
ibibigay ng mga gay prostitute sa kanila.
305
Matrix 9
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang J
PALABAYB BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA

SALITA ETIMOLOHIYA PANGUNGUSAP
KAHULUGAN
AYAN PANANALITA
/jey-ay-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay Sabi ko nga e, Ingat.
ji-ey-ti/ Tagalog na bakla artistahin
“ingat.” ung juking,
JINGAT jukelya mo
ha…pero
magjingat ka sa
kaniya…
/jey-ay-ar- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Shogaling Los Hirap.
ey-pi/ Tagalog na Bahan pero
“hirap.” syutang
JIRAP ina…nagjijirap
pa rin yata
siya… (tawa)
ma-gi apeta!
/jey-o- Hinango mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Jeboy ‘yan. Ka-live-in-
dobolyu- Scottish Archaic GP5: Ang partner o
ey/ na jo bago ang gugwapo ng karelasyon.
JOWA ika-16 na siglo na mga jowa mo
may kahulugang ah.
“sweetheart” o
minamahal.
/jey-yu-key- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Sabi ko nga e, Kustomer na
i-el-way-ey/ juking na isang bakla artistahin nabooking.
JUKELY salitang bakla na ung juking,
A nangangahuluga jukelya mo ha...
ng pagkuha ng pero magjingat
kustomer. ka sa kaniya…
/jey-yu-el- Hango sa Pandiwa Alam nyo chi, Nahuli o
ay-i-vi-i-ji- pangalan ni Julie munchik na Nadakip.
ey/ Pearl Apostol kame chi
Postigo o mas anik….ma….
kilala bilang Julie Julie Vega
Vega, isang ng….anik
JULIE
Filipina child kagatush…
VEGA
actress at singer.
Isinunod sa
kanyang
pangalan dahil sa
katunog nito ang
salitang “huli.”
/jey-yu-el- Hango sa salitang Pandiwa Hoy ma… Piniit sa
o-en-ji/ Tagalog na Ijujulong kami. kulungan.
“kulong” na Pina-late time
nangangahuluga muna nang
JULONG
ng pagpiit sa pina-late time.
kulungan. Ang maganda
dun pinalabas
kami,
306
pinagmasahe
nalang kami.
/jey-yu-el- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Julutjulutan nga Kinulot na
yu-ti-jey- Tagalog na kulot lang ang buhok pagkakaayos
JULUTJ yu-el-yu-tina ko kagabi. sa buhok.
ULUTAN ey-en/ nangangahuluga
ng di tuwid na
buhok.
/jey-yu-ti- Mula sa wikang Pandamdam. GP5: Pwede pa Katumbas ng
ey-en-ji-ay- Filipino na namang birahin “Putang ina
en-ey-em-i- “putang ina”, yan eh. mo” na
es-eych/ isang mura o GP2: Uy! Jutang kadalasang
ekspresyon na ina mesh. nababanggit
kadalasang upang
nagpapakita ng ipahayag ang
panlalait pagkagalit o
sapagkat pagkadismaya
JUTANG itinuturing itong sa isang
INA lapastangang bagay, tao at
MESH pananalita tungo pangyayari.
sa ina ng isang
tao, ang salitang
puta ay isang
wikang Kastila na
nangangahuluga
ng “babaeng
mababa ang
lipad” o
bayarang babae.
Mapapansin na ang salitang jingat ay isinunod sa

alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng
pagsasakatuparan ng J Law na nakapaloob sa mga salitang bakla
kung saan idinadarag o ikinakabit sa unahan ng salita ang letrang /j/
upang magkaroon ng panibagong baryason ang salitang ingat.
Nagbabago ang kahulugan kapag nilapian na ang salita. (a)
Jingatan—bigyan ng pag-iingat; at (b) Jijingatan—pagkakaroon ng
responsibilidad upang ingatan ang isang bagay na inihabilin o
ibinigay. Habang ang salitang jirap ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung
ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Sa puntong ito, kinaltas ang letrang /h/
sa unahan ng salita at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na rin sa J Law
na nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo. Nagbabago ang kahulugan ayon sa
paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Nagjirap—naghirap na; (b)
Nagjijirap—nagdudusa; (c) Sa punto naman ng pag-uulit sa salita ay
nagbabago rin ang kahulugan nito; at (d) Jirap na jirap – ipinapakita
ang sadyang paghihirap. May pagkakataon rin na tumutukoy ito sa
307
kahirapang makakuha ng kustomer. Habang ang mga salitang jowa

at jukelya ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang
baybay at walang pagbabagong naganap sa salita. Ang salitang Julie
Vega naman ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ayon na rin sa
alituntuning panatilihin ang baybay ng mga pantanging ngalan. May
pagkakataon na ginagamit din ito bilang katumbas ng mabagansiya
at pagpapahayag ng pagnanais na umuwi o bumalik mula sa
pinanggalingan. Gayun din naman, ang salitang julong ay kinaltas ang
letrang /k/ sa unahan ng salita at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na
rin sa J Law na nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo. Nagbabago ang
kahulugan batay sa paglalapi sa salita at aspekto ng pandiwa:
Halimbawa: (a) Jinulong—ipiniit sa kulungan; (b) Jinujulong—
kinukulong; at (c) Ijujulong—tangkang ipipiit sa kulungan. Ang
salitang julutjulutan kapag inalis ang pagkakalapi sa salita, nagbago
ang kahulugan nito na mula sa kinulot na ayos tungo sa natural na
pagkakakulot ng buhok. Ang salitang jutang ina mesh ay kinaltas ang
letrang /p/ at pinalitan ng letrang /j/ alinsunod na rin sa J Law na
nakapaloob sa mga gay lingo at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa
loob ng salita.
Matrix 10
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang K
/key-ey-di- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Okama, kadera Tawag sa tela o
i-ar-ey/ Tagalog na na….anik, huy basahang
kadera na andidyan…anik, inilalagay ng
tumutukoy sa anik? mga gay
KADERA basahan. prostitute sa
kanilang pigi
upang
magkaroon ng
balakang.
/key-ey-ji- Hango mula sa Pang-abay GP2: Ikura? Kagabi.
ey-bi-yu/ salitang Tagalog kinidnap sayo
na kagabi. nung ombre?
KAGABU
EMS: Ikura ba?
GP2: Kagabu?
Kagabu?
/key-ey-ji- Ang salitang Pangngalan Alam nyo chi, Barangay
ey-ti-yu-es- kagatush ay munchik na tanod.
eych/ nagmula sa kame chi
KAGATUSH
dalawang salita - anik….ma….Juli
kagawad at e Vega ng….anik
tanod. Ang kagatush…
308
“kaga” na
nagmula sa
salitang kagawad
na isinunod sa
bigkas ng mga
Bisaya ayon sa
mga Kastila.
Ang kagawad ay
kabilang sa
Sangguniang
Barangay na
pinakamaliit na
yunit ng
samahang
pampolitika.
Habang ang tush
ay
nangangahuluga
ng “tanod.” Ang
tush ay pinaikling
toches na mula
sa Yiddish tokhes
ng Hebreo, na
nangangahuluga
ng “sa ilalim ng”
(1914).
/key-ey-es- Mula sa salitang Pandiwa GP1: Sino ba Sagarin.
eych-key- Tagalog na nagpatonggay?
ey-es- kaskasin na GP3: Wit
KASHKASHIN
eych-ay- nangangahuluga GP4: Kashkashin
en/ ng kayurin. nyo pa ako…
tang-ina nyo.
/key-i-ay-ti- Hango sa wikang Pangngalan GP3: Tignan mo Cellphone.
ey-ay/ Nihonggo na ang ganda ng
nangangahuluga keitai niya no?
ng “portable.” EMS: O di
KEITAI
Ito rin ang ba…ganda ng
pinaikling salita keitai niya,
ng keitai denwa sosyal! Di...ba…
(cellphone).
/key-i-pi- Ito’y mula sa Pangngalan Batingin na natin Operada o
ey-way/ salitang Ingles na ‘yung kepay artipisyal na ari
puck na hinango halika na tapos ng isang
sa salitang ‘yung apat homoseksuwal.
pouke, isang paikutin natin
masamang ‘yung apat.
espiritu, noong
taong 1300. At
muli itong
KEPAY
hinango sa puca
hanggang sa
naging puki
(demonyo) sa
hindi malamang
pinagsimulan,
ayon kay Robin
Goodfellow.
Maaari rin itong
309
hinango sa isang
pangkat-etniko
na Gaddang sa
Cagayan ng
rehiyon II. Ang
kepay ay
nangangahuluga
n na hilaw sa
kanilang wika.
/key-i-ar- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri Okama, keri na Kaya lang yan o
ay/ Ingles na carry. ung mga… madali lang
kareng-kareng yan.
mgabers
ganatchi… ok,
KERI
ikaw
magkwero… a…
ano ginawa sayo
ni Harrold, ano
eksena?
/key-eych- Hinango mula sa Pangngalan EMS: Kheme- Hindi
i-em-i/ sikat na indie film kheme lang chi totoo/Jowk/Pa
na Kimi Dora ng anik… mbobola.
(Kambal sa GP2: May
KHEME Kyeme) na booking, may
ipinalabas noong booking tau dun!
2009 sa Malaki burat
direksyon ni nun!
Joyce Bernal.
/key-ay-en- Hango sa Pandiwa Kinarat Ginahasa.
ey-ar-ey-ti/ makarat o karat ako….ang laki ng
ng wikang nota!
KINARAT Kapampangan
na
nangangahuluga
ng pagtatalik.
/key-o-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay EMS: O… o di Kumusta.
en-ay-si- Nihongo na ba? (tawa).
eych-ay- konnichiwa na GP1:
dobolyu- nangangahuluga Konichiwa…
ey/ ng magandang GP2:
KONNICHIWA hapon o pagbati Konichiwa…
ng hi o hello. sarane, ano’ng
nyangyari sayo?
Ano’ng
nyangyari
sa’yong…
Ang salitang kadera ay ginamitan ng sistema na kung ano

ang bigkas ay siya ring baybay. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa
salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang salitang kagabu ay
Isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Ngunit
nagkaroon ng pagpapalitan ng ponema sa pagitan ng patinig na /i/
tungo sa patinig na /o/. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita
kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang salitang kagatush
310
ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siya ring baybay at

Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa
ibang paraan. Ang kashkashin naman ay bagama’t isinunod sa
alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinakatuparan pa
rin ang tinatawag na SH Law na nakapaloob sa gay lingo kung saan
malayang pinapalitan ang mga letra sa loob ng salita ng sh. Sa
kabilang banda, iniba rin ang pagpapakahulugan sa salita. May
pagkakataon na ginagamit din ang salitang ito upang ilarawan ang
pagbibigay-todo sa ginagawang pakikipagtalik o pagbibigay ng
serbisyo sa kustomer. Ang salitang keitai ay Pinanatili ang orihinal na
baybay ng salita batay sa kung paano ito binaybay sa wikang Nihongo
ng bansang Hapon. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag
ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang kepay at keri ay
isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siya ring baybay at
walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa
ibang paraan. At ang salitang kheme ay nagkaroon ng pagsisingit ng
letrang /h/ upang magbigay ng diin sa salita. Ang kinarat ay pinanatili
ang paraan ng pagbaybay batay na rin sa kung paano ito binabay sa
orihinal na salitang pinagmulan. Ngunit, binago ang kahulugan nito
batay sa pagkakagamit ng mga gay prostitute. May pagkakataon na
ginagamit din ang salitang ito bilang katumbas ng paghahanap ng
panandaliang-aliw o katalik. Ang salitang konnichiwa ay pinanatili ang
orihinal na baybay ng salita batay sa kung paano ito binaybay sa
wikang Nihongo ng bansang Hapon. May pagkakataon na ginagamit
ito upang batiin ang kausap sa iba’t ibang panahunan o oras.
Matrix 11
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang L
/el-i-ji-ey- Hango mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Ikaw, ang Binti.
el-yu/ salitang Ingles kinis ng legalu
na leg na mo para kang
hinalaw sa Old naka… (tawa)
LEGALU Norse na leggr EMS: Magi!
at may Ganda ng
kahulugang eksena!
“binti ng isang
tao o hayop.”
311
/el-o-es-bi- Hango sa lugar Pangngalan Shogaling Los Lugar kung

ey-eych- na Los Baños, Bahan pero saan
ey-en/ Laguna. syutang ina… isinasagawa
LOS
nagjijirap pa rin ang gawaing
BAHAN
yata siya… prostitusyon sa
(tawa) magi mundo ng mga
apeta! gay prostitute.
Mapupuna sa Matrix na ito na ang salitang legalu ay isinunod

sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon din ng
pagdaragdag ng salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin
sa loob ng salita. Walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag
ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang los bahan ay may
pagkakataon na tumutukoy rin ito sa isang club na pinagmulan ng
isang gay prostitute kung saan doon siya nagtatrabaho.
Matrix 12
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang M
/em-ey-ji- Hinango mula Pangngalan EMS: Magi, Nagpapahaya
ay/ sa Maggi nageeksena nga g ng pagpigil
Noodles na kayo di ba? o pag-antala
isang kilalang GP3: ng anumang
instant noodles Nagkikibers nga sasabihin o
MAGI na pinasikat sa daw sila e. gagawin ng
Pilipinas ng kasamahan.
multinasyunal
na
kompanyang
Nestle.
/em-ey- Buhat sa Pang-uri GP1: Bigay yata Mayaman.
eych-ey- pamilya ng ng ano mo
ar-el-ay- Malayo- ombre…
key-ey/ Polynesian na EMS: O?
mahar at lingga. EMS: Maharlika
Ang mahar ay un…maharlika.
nangangahulug
ang malaki.
MAHARLIKA Samantalang
titi naman ang
kahulugan ng
lingga. Ginamit
lamang ang
salitang ito ng
mga raha at
datu bilang
“pinakamataas
312
at
pinakamagaling
” na
pagpapakahulu
gan sa panahon
ng prekolonyal.
/em-o-en- Mula sa Pangngalan K: Sige Paunang
i-way-di- dalawang salita GP: Money bayad.
o- na money na down muna
dobolyu- hango sa K: Pagkatapos
en/ salitang Latin na.
na moneta
(mint, coinage)
MONEY
at down na
DOWN
isang Middle
English na doun
(to come
down).
Katumbas din
ito ng salitang
installment.
/em-ay-el- Mula sa sikat na Pangngalan Desiree: Tama Libog o
o/ inuming na nagmimilong pagtaas ng
pampalakas na ka na. libido sa
MILO “Milo.” katawan.
Kenneth:
Milong-milo
/em-ay-ti- Mula sa huling Pangngalan Barbie: May mit- Pamunas sa

em-ay-ti/ pantig ng mit diyan? Yung Mukha.
salitang damit. mit-mit kong
puti, bakla!
Kenneth: Yung
MIT-MIT
ano mo? Walang
show.
Barbie: Hindi.
Yung mit-mit
kong puti.
/em-yu- Hango sa Pang-abay Alam nyo chi, Muntik.
en-si- salitang munchik na
eych-ay- Tagalog na kame chi anik…
key/ nangangahulug ma… Julie Vega
MUNCHIK
ang muntik o ng… anik
isang kagatush…
pangyayaring
hindi naganap.
Mapapansin na ang salitang magi ay may pagkakataon na

ginagamit din ito bilang panghalili o palayaw sa kapwa kapag hindi na
kailangan pang banggitin ang pangalan nito. Habang, ang salitang
maharlika ay may pagkakataon na tumutukoy din ito sa pagtataglay
313
ng malaking ari ng isang lalaki. Ang money down ay pinanatili ang

orihinal nitong baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at walang pagbabagong
nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala,
ang milo ay pinanatili ang baybay mula sa orihinal na salita subalit
iniba ang pagpapakahulugan at pagbigkas nito. Kapag nagkaroon ng
paglalapi at pag-uulit sa salita ay nagbubunga ito ng pagbabago rin
ng kahulugan. Halimbawa: (a) Nagmilong—nagkalibog; (b)
Nagmimilong-nagnanasa; at (c) Milong-milo—libog na libog. Ang mit-
mit ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay.
Nagkaroon din naman ng ganap na pag-uulit sa salita. Walang
pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang
paraan. Samantala, ang salitang munchik ay isinunod sa alituntuning
kung ano ang basa siyang baybay, ay naisakatuparan pa rin sa salitang
ito ang paglalagay ng ch sa unahan, gitna o hulihan ng isang salita
upang mapalambot ang pagbigkas dito. Ang sistema na ito ay
nakapaloob sa tinatawag na CH Law ng mga gay lingo.
MATRIX 13
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang N

/en-ey-ji- Mula sa Pandiwa EMS: Magi, Nagtatalik.
key-ay- salitang Ingles nageeksena nga
key-ay-bi-i- na kibe na kayo di ba?
ar-es/ nangangahulu GP3:
gang Nagkikibers nga
surprising blow daw sila e.
to one’s
testicles.
Samantalang,
maiuugnay din
NAGKIKIBERS
ito sa salitang
kiberis na
tumutukoy sa
isang tao na
madaling
nakakakuha ng
katalik sa
pamamagitan
lamang ng
tingin nito.
314
/en-ay-en-i- Hinango mula Panghalip GP4: Juking. Kanino.

es/ sa salitang Maiba lang
nino o ang ako…
pinaikling
kanino. GP3: Pwede
NINES bang charing!
GP4: Pwede
bang nines.
/en-ji-i-en- Mula sa Pang-uri GP3: Witang... Nahihilo.

ji-i-el-yu/ salitang hilo ng ngengelu…
wikang ngengelu...
NGENGELU Tagalog. (tawanan)
GP3: Anu payu
paradezka na
ba?
/en-o-em- Mula sa Pandiwa GP5: Ay, Paglalasing.

o/ salitang madumi na chi.
Tagalog na Shogay nalang.
inom. Bonamin ‘yan?
Witchells.
Nakakaloka.
Kailangan ba
NOMO
talaga may
ganyan chi.
Dapat nagdala
kayo ng plastik
na malaki.
GP3: Nomo day,
nomo.
/en-o-ti-ey/ Ang salitang nota Pangngalan GP4: Pero Ari ng lalaki.
ay hango mula sa malaki ang nota
mga Espanyol. nung ombre…
Ika-13 siglo ng EMS: Malaki?
sumibol ang
terminolohi-yang
ito sa wikang
Latin na may
NOTA kahulugang di-
pabor na marka
na tinala sa isang
tao. Kaya naman
naiangkop ito sa
ari ng lalaki na
isang markang di-
malilimutan.
315
/en-way- Mula sa Pang-uri GP7: Net kong Pagod.

ay-key-ar-i- salitang Low magpabayis.
ti-o/ battery na GP3: Wety nyo
nangangahulu ‘ko nyobat.
gang
NYIKRETO pagkaubos ng
enerhiyang
inilalabas o
binibigay ng
isang baterya.
/en-way-o- Mula sa Pangngalan GP4: Wa ang Kustomer o

key-es-ti- salitang nyokstumer… mga kliyente
yu-em-i-ar/ Tagalog na wa ang ng mga gay
kustomer na nyokstumer prostitute.
NYOKSTUMER isang salitang
hiram mula sa GP5: Hay naku!
Ingles na Nakakaloka
customer
/en-way-o- Buhat sa Pang-uri GP4: Parang Abnormal.

en-ji-ji-o-el- salitang Ingles syolbam yan...
o-ay-di-es/ na mongoloid GP3: Parang
na nyonggoloids…
nangangahulu
NYONGGOLOIDS gang “taong
hindi normal
ang pag-iisip at
pisikal na
anyo.”
Mapapansin na ang mga salitang nakatala sa Matrix na ito’y

karaniwang sumusunod sa kung ano ang bigkas ay siyang baybay.
Subalit, ang salitang nagkikibers ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa
kahulugan kapag isinakatuparan sa salitang ito ang aspekto ng
pandiwa, (a) Nagkibers—nakipagtalik; at (b) Kikibers—
makikipagtalik. Gayun din naman ang nines na Nagkaroon ng
pagbabago higit na kapag inulit ng ganap ang salitang ito.
Halimbawa: Nines-nines—kani-kanino. Ang mga salitang ngengelu at
nota ay isinunod sa tuntunin na nabanggit at walang pagbabago sa
kahulugan nito. Ang nomo naman ay nagkaroon ng pagbabago kapag
nilalapian. Halimbawa: Nomohan—lugar na pinaglalasi-ngan tulad ng
videoke bar. Ang salitang nyikreto ay nabuo ang salitang ito sa
pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang
unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng sikreto na kinaltas
ang letrang /s/. Habang, ang nyobat ay nabuo ang salitang ito sa
pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung saan pinapalitan ang
unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso ng lowbat na kinaltas
316
ang letrang /l/. Isinunod din dito ang alituntunin ng pagkakaltas gaya
ng pagkaltas sa letrang /w/ sa lowbat. May pagkakataon na
tumutukoy din ito bilang kawalan ng mapagkakaa-balahan o pagiging
malas sa pagkuha ng kustomer. Ang nyokstumer naman ay nabuo
ang salitang ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law kung
saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng kaso
ng kustomer na kinaltas ang letrang /k/. Ang salitang nyonggoloids
naman ay nabuo ito sa pamamagitan ng tinatawag na KY/NY Law
kung saan pinapalitan ang unahan ng mga salita ng ky at ny tulad ng
kaso ng mongoloids na kinaltas ang letrang /m/. May pagkakataon na
nangangahu-lugan din itong tanga o kasingkahulu-gan din ng salitang
bobita.
Matrix 14
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang O

/o-key-ey- Hinango ito mula Pangngalan Ang gaganda Tawag ng
em-ey/ sa wikang ng mga okama isang
Nihongo ng di ba, sa make homoseksuw
bansang Hapon. up. al sa kapwa
Ang kama ay homoseksuw
nangangahuluga al.
ng takure.
Sapagkat, kapag
nadagdagan na
ng unlaping “O”
ang salita ay
nagbabago na
OKAMA ang kahulugan
ng salita, ito’y
tumutukoy na sa
baklang
nagdadamit
pambabae at
nagbibigay-aliw o
isang drag queen.
Ang salitang ito
ay mula sa
panahon Edo na
may kahulugang
puwit.
/o-key-ey- Ito ay hinango Pangngalan GP2: Oo, keri na Pera.
en-ay/ mula sa salitang ‘yun galing mo
OKANI
Nihongo ng ah.
bansang Hapon
317
na GP5: Syempre
nangangahulu- wala naman
gang salapi o tayong okani
pera. kapag hindi
tayo eh di
umawra.
/o-em-bi- Hinango ito sa Pangngalan GP2: Ikura? Lalaki.
ar-i/ salitang hombre, kinidnap sayo
wikang Kastila na nung ombre?
kinuha sa wikang EMS: Ikura ba?
OMBRE
Griyego na homo
na
ngangahulugang
lalaki.
/o-ti-o- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Gaga! Otoko Lalaking-
key-o/ Otoko na isang yan… hindi lalaki.
salitang Nihongo siya… ba...
OTOKO
na bakla... mahilig
nangangahuluga mag-eksena….
ng lalaki.
Mapupuna sa mga sumunod na salita ang mga pagsusuri,

ang salitang okama, okani at otoko ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay
na ginamit sa wikang Nihongo at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa
salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang salitang
ombre ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Espanyol.
Mula sa pangangalan tungo sa pang-uri. Sapagkat, ginagamit din ito
bilang katumbas ng salitang makulay kapag ang tinutukoy ay ang
kasuotan o aksesoryang sinusuot sa katawan.
Matrix 15
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang P
PALAB
BAHAGI NG GAMIT SA
SALITA AYBAY ETIMOLOHIYA KAHULUGAN
PANANALITA PANGUNGUSAP
AN
/pi-ey- Ang pa ay isang Pandiwa Yung may pera Painom o
el-ey-ef- panlaping palafes, ung pakain.
es/ idinikit sa lafes. may pera Katumbas ng
Hinango ang palafes na salitang
lafes sa salitang chi….huy blow-out.
lafang na isang palafes naman
PALAFES salitang bakla. chi ung mga
Samantalang, okama ditech,
sa bansang may pera ka ba
Rusya, ang chi… bakla,
kahulugan ng bakla booking…
lafang ay lapa o booking…
pagsunggab.
318
booking…
booking.
/pi-ey- Ito’y hinango Pangngalan GP3: Bakla, Tawag sa
way-o- mula sa salitang nabooking ko serbisyong
el-ey/ pay at ola. Ang ‘to… binabayaran
pay ay ang EMS: Hay payola tulad ng
pagbabayad o sayo keitai? pagbibigay-
pagbibigay ng aliw.
pera o anuman
para sa
serbisyong
nakuha sa isang
PAYOLA
tao. Habang
ang salitang ola
ay isang
hulaping
madalas na
dinidikit sa iba’t
ibang salita.
Nangangahulug
an ang ola na
korupsyon.
/pi-i-es- Hinango ang Pangngalan Hmmm… ba… Mukha.
el-ey- salitang peslak bakla… ang
key/ sa salitang ka… ang shupal
PESLAK Ingles na face at naman ng
ibinaybay ayon peslak nito,
sa tunog. shupal!
/pi-ay-si- Nagmula sa Old Pangngalan GP3: Ewan ko sa Tawag sa

key-yu- English na pician kanya, wag na mga gay
pi/ o ari ng isang nating pag- prostitute.
lalaki. usapan. Keri-keri
Nagbigyan ng lang ‘yun.
pagkakahuluga GP4: Dahil sa
ng pag-akit sa pick-up kasi…
PICK-UP
isang tao para
makipag-seks o
magbenta ng
laman noong
taong 1690
lamang.
/pi-o-es- Mula sa Pangngalan GP3: Nyogay na. Pagpapahing

ti-em- dalawang salita GP5: Postmate a matapos
ey-ti-i/ na post at mate. na ako. Si bayot ang
POSTMATE
ng bagong na… pakikipagtali
lahi.” k sa
kustomer.
Mapapansin na ang salitang palafes ay nagkakaroon ng

pagbabago sa kahulugan ng salita kapag isinakatuparan dito ang
319
aspekto ng pandiwa. Halimbawa: (a) Magpalafes—magpakain o

magpa-inom; (b) Magpapalafes—may planong magpapakain o
magpapa-inom; at (c) Papalafes—magpapakain o magpapa-inom pa
lang. Ang salitang payola ay mula sa pangngalan tungo sa pang-uri.
Sapagkat, gi-nagamit din ang salitang ito katumbas ng kurakot o
buraot. Ang salitang peslak ay isinunod ito sa alituntuning, kung ano
ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa
salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Habang ang pick-up ay
pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay ng hiniram na salita mula sa wikang
Ingles subalit nabago na ang kahulugan nito kung saan inaayon ito sa
mundong ginagalawan ng mga gay prostitute. Nagbabago ang
kahulugan nito batay sa pagkakalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Pumick-
up—nagsagawa ng prostitusyon o kumuha ng customer; (b) Pinick-
up—kinuha ng kustomer upang magbigay ng panandaliang-aliw; at
(c) Pipick-up—kukuha pa lang ng kustomer. Ang salitang postmate
ay pinanatili ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at
ginamitan ng pagtatambal ng dalawang salita upang makabuo ng
panibagong termino na may bagong kahulugan. Tumutukoy rin ito sa
isang homoseksu-wal na tumigil na sa gawaing prostitusyon.
Matrix 16
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang S
/es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP1: Bakla… Trabaho.
ay-ji-o-ti- shigoto ng Alipin?
o/ wikang GP2: Shigoto
Nihongo ng sya ah.
bansang Hapon GP1: Kaya nga…
SHIGOTO
na
nangangahulug
ang uri ng
trabaho.
/es-eych- Hango sa Pandiwa GP5: Shikman Tikman.

ay-key- salitang mo oh…
em-ey-en/ Tagalog na shikman mo.
“tikman” o ang GP1: Parang
SHIKMAN
pagkuha ng mahal na mahal
kaunti sa mga mo si Rasel.
pagkain upang GP5: Syempre
malasahan ang nagpatongga
320
inihain na sya di ba
putahe. syempre.
/es-eych- Hinango mula Pandiwa Pero at least, Binayad.

ay-en-o- sa salitang bakla juking nyo
di-ey/ bakla na binoda. na kaya yung
nakaraan
n’yong chi…
ano ba
SHINODA
yung…ang
shinoda sa akin
mga
ano…haku…
ano lang yun
eh, goju lang.
/es-eych- Hinango mula Pandiwa Pero at least, Binayad.
o-key-i/ sa salitang bakla juking nyo
bakla na binoda. na kaya yung
nakaraan
n’yong chi…
ano ba
SHOKE
yung…ang
shinoda sa akin
mga
ano…haku…
ano lang yun
eh, goju lang.
/es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay Shogaling Los Mula sa isang
o-ji-ey-el- nanggaling. Bahan pero lugar o
ay-en-ji/ syutang ina… nanggaling sa.
SHOGALI nagjijirap pa rin
NG yata siya…
(tawa) magi
apeta!
/es-eych- Hango sa Pandiwa GP4: Chell.. Tagay.

o-ji-ey- salitang chells..
way/ Tagalog na
tagay na GP5: Oh shogay
SHOGAY nangangahulug na shogay na…
ang pag-inom
ng isang shot GP3: Shogay
lamang. ana na mama.
/es-eych- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan Ayan na ang Kinahuhumali-

o-em-o- balbal ng shomoy ko, ngan na lalaki.
way/ wikang Ingles palapit na.
SHOMOY na moy na
nangangahulug
ang immature
men.
/es-eych- Mula sa Pandiwa GP4: Putang ina Tahasang
SHOWTI
o- dalawang ang sakit ng pagpapakita
ME
salitang Ingles leeg ko. ng
321
dobolyu- na show at Tinitingnan ko isinasagawang

ti-ay-em-i/ time. Kung saan ‘yung ilaw, pagtatalik.
ang show ay video pala.
unang ginamit GP3: Ayaw mo
noong 1300 na nun? Showtime
may ka.
kahulugang “an
act exhibiting
for view” at ang
time naman ay
mula sa Old
English na
terminong
getimian o “to
happen, befall.”
Hango sa
/es-eych- salitang
yu-em-ey- Tagalog na Pandiwa Saan kayo Tumakbo.
SHUMAK key-bi-o/ takbo o ang shumakbo?
BO paghakbang ng
mabilis at
madalas.
/es-eych- Nagmula ito sa Pang-uri Hmmm… ba... Walang hiya.

yu-pi-ey- terminong ba-kla…ang
el/ makapal na ka… ang shupal
matatagpuan sa naman ng
wikang peslak nito,
Tagalog. Dili shupal!
kaya’y sa balbal
na pahayag na
ginagamit ng
SHUPAL mga Amerikano
sa pakikipag-
usap tulad ng
“Dude, you’re
talking of pure
el kapal” na ang
kahulugan ay
“full of
bullshit.”
Sa Matrix na ito, ang salitang shigoto ay pinanatili ang

orihinal na anyo ng baybay mula sa wikang Nihongo. Walang
paraan. Samantala, ang shikman ay bagama’t isinunod sa alituntuning
kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinakatuparan pa rin sa salitang
ito ang pagkakaltas ng letra sa unahan ng salita at hinalinhinan ng sh.
Ang tawag sa prosesong ito ay SH Law ng mga gay lingo. Nagbabago
322
ang kahulugan nito batay sa paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a)

Nashikman—nasubukan na; (b) Shinikman—nilasahan; at (c)
Shishikman—titikman. Ang shinoda ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung
ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkaroon ng panibagong baryasyon
sa kahulugan. Habang, ang salitang shoke ay may pagkakataon rin na
ginagamit ito bilang pandadaot sa itsurang hindi kanais-nais ng isang
tao. Ang salitang shogaling bagama’t isinunod sa alituntuning kung
ano ang bigkas siyang baybay, isinasakatuparan pa rin ang SH Law sa
gay lingo, walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y
ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang shogay naman ay nagbabago ang
kahulugan nito kapag isinakatuparanna ang aspekto ng pandiwa.
Halimbawa: (a) Shinogay—tinagay; (b) Sinoshogay—tinatagay; at (c)
Isoshogay—itatagay. Ang shomoy ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung
ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa
salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Samantala, ang showtime
ay tahasang ginamit ang orihinal na baybay mula sa wikang Ingles at
inangkupan din ng sariling pagpapakahulugan mula sa kontekstong
kailangan ng mga bakla. Katulad ng iba pang mga salita, ang
shumakbo ay sumusunod sa SH Law at walang anumang pagbabago
sa kahulugan. Ang shupal naman ay ginamitan ang salitang ito ng
tinatawag na SH Law kung ang letrang /k/ at hinalinhan ng /sh/ upang
maging malambot ang pagbigkas. Kapag isnakatuparan naman ang
kaantasan ng pang-uri, nagkakaroon din ito ng pagbabago sa
kahulugan. Halimbawa: (a) Mashupal—makapal ang apog; at b)
Napakashupal—wala ng kahihiyan sa sarili.
323
Matrix 17
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang T
/ti-i-ji-ay/ Hango sa Pangngalan GP4: Tegi ka Patay.
salitang balbal lang.
na (tawanan)
TEGI nangangahulug GP3: Tegi ako?
ang walang GP4: Dapat may
buhay. kasamang
bulaklak.
/ti-i-en-ti- Mula sa salitang Pangngalan GP3: Awra na. Pampaganda
ey-key-i- tentacles na Ishobay. na ginagamit
TENTAK el-es/ tawag sa mga GP2: Mga upang lalong
ELS galamay ng tentakels natin. makapang-
isang oktupus. akit ng lalaki
o kustomer.
/ti-ay-key- Mula sa tunog Pangngalan Dalawang Tsismis.
ti-ey-key/ na nililikha ng lights.
orasan na tick- Dalawang puti.
TIKTAK tack na Wala ka ng
naunang naitala tiktak.
noong 1848.
/ti-es-yu- Hango mula sa Pangngalan Alam mo na Oral seks;

pi-ey/ isang pangalan ‘yun kung ano pagsubo sa
ng lollipop na ang gusto ari ng lalaki
TSUPA chupa chups. mo…tsupa. ng labas-
Ikaw, ano ba masok
gusto mong
gawin ko?
Mapupuna sa matrix na ito na ang salitang tegi ay

nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa kahulugan kapag nilalapian na ang
isang salita. Halimbawa: (a) Nategi—namatay; at (b) Tinegi—pinatay.
Ang salitang tentakels ay isinunod sa alituntuning kung ano ang
bigkas siyang baybay at walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita
kapag ito’y ginamit sa ibang paraan. Ang tiktak ay nagkakaroon ng
pagbabago ng kahulugan sa salita kapag ito’y nilapian. Halimbawa:
(a) Katiktak—tawag sa taong katsismisan o kakuwentuhan; at (b)
Tiktakan—lugar na huntahan ng mga gay prostitute. Habang, ang
salitang tsupa ay nagbabago ang kahulugan nito kapag nagkaroon ng
paglalapi sa salita. Halimbawa: (a) Tsinupa—isinubo ng labas-masok
ang ari ng lalaki; at (b) Tsumupa—sinubukan ang pagsubo sa ari.
324
Matrix 18
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang U
/yu-en-di-i- Ang salitang under Pangngalan Ems: Ano din Taong
ar-ey-ar- ay hango sa Old yan, ahmmm… Kontrolado.
ar-i-es-ti/ English na salita na Desiree: Under
katulad sa wikang arrest
Dutch na onder at Ems: Hindi
wikang Aleman na naman. Ano
unter. Na siya… kilabot
nangangahulugan yan ng mga
g “ibaba” o gangster.
“kontrol/pamamah
a-la ng isang tao o
grupo ng mga
tao.” Habang ang
salitang arrest ay
hinango sa Late
Middle English na
UNDER ARREST salita na nagsimula
sa wikang Pranses
na arrester na
hango naman sa
salitang Latin na
ad-‘at, to’+ restar
na
nangangahulugan
g remain o stop.
Na may
kahulugang legal
na pagdakip o
paghuli ng
otoridad sa
sinomang
nagkasala sa batas.
/yu-en-di-i- Mula sa tambal na Pangngalan GP3: Chaka… Matandang

ar-el-o-el- salita, ang lolo at chaka… lalaki.
o/ under. Ang salitang EMS:
under ay hango sa Underlolo?
Old English na GP3:
salita na katulad sa Thunderstorm
wikang Dutch na …
onder at wikang
UNDERLOLO
Aleman na unter.
Na
nangangahulugan
g “ibaba” o
“kontrol/pamamah
a-la ng isang tao o
grupo ng mga
tao.” Samantalang
325
ang lolo ay
hinango sa salitang
Tagalog na lolo o
isang matandang
lalaki.
/yu-en- Mula sa salitang Pang-abay GP4: Unya- Mamaya o

way-ey/ Cebuano na unya unyain natin, pagsasantabi
na unya-unya na. muna ng
nangangahulugan Unya-unya na. gawain.
g “maghintay GP3: Hindi.
UNYA
sandali.” Gawin natin
‘yung apat
tapos kunyari
ano pa rin tayo
sa kanila…
Ang salitang under arrest at underlolo ay pinanatili ang

paraan ng pagbaybay sasalita mula sa orihinal nitong baybay at
walang pagbabagong nagaganap sa salita kapag ito’y ginamit sa
ibang paraan. Habang, ang salitang unya ay isinunod ito sa
alituntuning, kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Nagkakaroon ng
pagbabago sa kahulugan batay sa paglalapi at pag-uulit. Halimbawa:
(a) Unya-unya—pagpapaliban nang kaunti; at (b) Unya-unyain-
dahan-dahanin.
326
Matrix 19
Pagsusuri sa mga Salitang Nagsisimula sa Letrang W

/dobolyu- Mula sa salitang Pang-uri GP2: Wis… Wala.
ay-es/ wala. GP4: Hala… la…
WIS lagot… pa…
patay ka…
(tawanan)
/dobolyu- Ayon kina Ann Pang-abay GP2: Uy wit. Ekspresyong
ay-ti/ Ford at Ben GP4: Paganun na ginagamit
Floyd (2009), para hindi upang
ito umano ay nakakahilo. ipahayag ang
daglat ng hindi
Whore in pagsang-
Training o mga ayon o hindi
kabataang pagtugon sa
nagpapalagay sinasabi.
sa kanilang mga
sarili na sila’y
WIT nasa hustong
edad na kung
kaya’t
nagagawa na
nilang hindi
sumunod o
tumalima sa
ipinag-uutos ng
mas
nakakatanda sa
kanila.
Mapupuna na ang salitang wis at wit ay isinunod sa

alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay at walang
paraan.
327
Kongklusyon
Sa kabuuan ng pananaliksik na ito’y gumamit ng istilo ng
obserbasyon at pakikipanayam sa mga kalahok na pawang mga
freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute na may kabuuang bilang na
walo. Ang istilong ito sa mga kalahok ay isinagawa sa paniniwala na
ang mga nakapanayam ay mayroong sapat na kaalaman at kasanayan
sa pagbuo at paggamit ng mga salita na kinakailangan ng
mananaliksik.
Ang karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay

prostitute ay ginagamit rin ng mga karaniwang homoseksuwal o
pamilyar ng naririnig at iniaangkop sa pakikipagtalastasan ng
sinuman. May mga salita rin na eksklusibo lamang nilang ginagamit at
sila lamang ang nakakaalam ng kahulugan nito halimbawa ng mga
salitang ito ay ang anashinay, apeta, magi. Bagama’t may ilan din
namang mga salita na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute sa gawaing
prostitusiyon at pagpapahayag ng mga bagay na may kinalaman sa
seks tulad ng milo, tsupa, booking, blowjob, hada at iba pa.
Mayorya sa kahulugan ng mga salitang bakla na ginagamit

ng mga piling freelance cross-dresser gay prostitute ay hindi
nagtataglay ng double meaning o pagkakaroon ng kahulugang may
kinalaman sa seks sapagkat ginagamit rin nila ito sa pang-araw-araw
nilang pakikipagtalastasan sa kapwa gay prostitute at iba pang
indibiduwal na nakakasalamuha. Sa kabilang banda, hindi naman
nalalayo ang bilang ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute
sa usapin ng gawaing seksuwal at prostitusiyon, hindi
nakakapagtakang ito ay nagtataglay ng higit sa isang kahulugan o
double meaning na patungkol sa gawaing seksuwal ng mga kalahok.
Karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute

ay nagbabago ang kahulugan kapag ito’y nilalapian. Halimbawa ang
anashinay ay nagiging anashinayin na may kahulugan na pahiyain.
Ginagawa ring panghalili o ipinanunumbas ang mga salitang
ginagamit ng gay prostitute na nagpapakita ng pagbabago sa
kahulugan nito. Halimbawa ang salitang betchay na ipinanghalili sa
kuha. Nagaganap din ang pagbabago kapag ang panahunan o
aspekto ng pandiwa ay nagkakaroon ng baryasyon sa kahulugan nito.
Halimbawa ang salitang bayis na nagiging nagpabayis, magpabayis at
magbabayis. Nagkakaroon din ng pagbabago sa kahulugan kapag
328
ang salita’y inuulit. Patunay dito ang salitang anik na may kahulugang
ano naman at kapag inulit na ang salita (anik-anik) ang kahulugan na
nito ay aksesorya sa katawan. May mga pagkakataon din na mula sa
positibong kahulugan nito ay nagiging negatibo ito batay sa
pagkakagamit sa pangungusap. Halimbawa ang salitang agua negrita
na bagamat may orihinal na kahulugan na tawag sa isang indibiduwal
na maitim ang kulay ng balat ngunit may taglay na ganda o sa Ingles
black beauty ay nagmumukha itong negatibo dahil may mga
pagkakataong ginagamit ang mga salitang ito bilang pangkutya o
pang-asar sa kapwa na ang kahulugan naman ay indibiduwal na
maitim ang balat at may hindi kanais-nais na hitsura.
Ang etimolohiya ng mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay

prostitute ay buhat hindi lamang sa umiiral na mga salitang gay lingo
at swardspeak ng Pilipinas kundi ibinatay rin ito sa mga wikang umiiral
sa ating bansa. Pinakamarami sa mga salita ay hinango mula sa
wikang Tagalog. Ikalawa naman, ang mga salitang hinango mula sa
wikang Ingles na ganap na hiniram subalit binago ang pagbibigay ng
kahulugan nito ayon sa paraan ng pagkakagamit ng mga gay
prostitute at ang iba naman ay hinihiram ngunit dinadagdagan ng
mga letra/salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin. Ikatlo
naman ay mga salitang nabuo mula sa mga sumikat at naging tanyag
na pelikula tulad ng Kimi Dora (Kheme); mga babasahin tulad ng
komiks gaya ng Agua Bendita (Agua Negrita); mga kilalang
personalidad tulad ni Julie Pearl Apostol Postigo (Julie Vega).
Ikaapat, ang mga salitang hinango rin ang ilang etimolohiya sa mga
umiiral na salitang bakla at sa mga salitang balbal sa lipunan.
Ang sistemang umiiral sa pagbabaybay ng mga salitang

bakla na ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute ay sumusunod sa
alituntuning kung ano ang bigkas siyang baybay. Subalit, hindi ito
nasusunod sa lahat ng pagkakataon dahil maraming kaso na
tahasang nanghihiram ng mga salita mula sa mga banyagang wika.
Ikalawa, ang paggamit ng mga alituntuning nakapaloob din sa
pagbuo ng mga gay lingo tulad ng mga sumusunod: ang pagpapalit
ng mga letra sa unahang salita na nakapaloob sa tinatawag nilang J
Law, KY/NY Law, SH Law at CH Law; nagkaroon din ng paglalapi ng
mga salitang wala namang panggramatikal na gampanin; pag-uulit ng
mga salita, pagpapalit ng tunog at paggamit ng katunog na salita ng
isang orihinal na salita. Ikatlo, ang pagpapanatili ng mga orihinal na
baybay sa mga salitang pantangi partikular na ang ngalan ng tao,
329
bagay at iba pa subalit nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa pagbibigay ng

kahulugan batay sa kung paano ito ginamit ng mga gay prostitute.
Ikaapat, ang ganap na panghihiram ng mga salitang mula sa wikang
banyaga tulad ng Ingles gayundin ang pagpapanatili sa baybay nito
subalit binabago ang kahulugan batay sa kung paano nila ito
ginagamit.
Karamihan sa mga salitang ginagamit ng mga gay prostitute

ay nabibilang sa pangngalan. Ang mga salitang ito ay pantangi kung
ang ginagamit ay mga ngalan ng tao, bagay at iba pa subalit
pambalana naman kung hindi natutukoy ang kasarian o uri ng ngalan
ng tao, bagay at iba pa. Pangalawa, ang pang-uri na karaniwan ng
bahagi ng salitaan ng mga gay prostitute kung saan madalas itinatago
ang mga literal na paglalarawan upang hindi tuwirang madekowd
kung sakali mang ito’y negatibo o lumilikha ng paninira sa kapwa.
Ikatlo, ang mga salitang nasa pandiwa na kung saan ang bahagi ng
pananalita ay nagpapahiwatig ng kilos, gawi o kalagayan. Ikaapat,
ang mga salitang ginagamit bilang panghalip na madalas na
pinapanghalili sa ngalan ng tao, bagay, lunan o pangyayari at pang-
abay na nagmomodipika sa pangngalan, pang-uri, pandiwa at kapwa
pang-abay.
Nagkakaroon ng pagbabago sa istruktural na gampanin ng

salita sa loob ng pangungusap ang mga salitang ginagamit ng mga
gay prostitute kapag ito ay nilalapian at isinasakatuparan ang aspekto
ng pandiwa o panahunan sa isang salita. Ang pangngalan ay nagiging
pang-uri at ang pang-uri ay nagiging pangngalan. Sumunod naman
ang pagbabago ng salitang ginamit na pang-uri tungo sa pagiging
pandiwa nito sa loob ng pangungusap, panghalip tungo sa
pangngalan, panghalip tungo sa pantukoy at pangngalan tungo sa
pang-angkop kapag ang isang salita ay ginagamit o idinugtong sa
isang salita upang magkaroon ito ng panibagong baryasyon.
330
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332
INFLUENCE OF ANTI-SMOKING CAMPAIGNS
AMONG STUDENTS IN NORTHERN ILOILO,
PHILIPPINES: A CASE STUDY
Fernan P. Tupas
Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was to find out the influence of ant-smoking
campaigns among students in Ajuy National High School. This study
used qualitative research focused in case study, which utilized
symposiums, posters and tarpaulin, video clips and lectures. During the
survey, it was revealed that there were students both female and males
from grade 7 to 10 who were engaged in smoking. But during the
intervention, the informants specially the smokers progressively
improved their desire to stop smoking because of its effect to our
health. Furthermore, the non-smokers assured that they will not get
involved in this kind of vices. The second-hand smokers, also vowed to
encourage their friends and classmates to stop cigarettes smoking
because of its results to our organ system. Thus, anti-smoking
campaigns and messages could be excellent avenue to educate
students about ordinances and laws, and effect of smoking to our
health. The school administrators should encourage teachers to
integrate smoking in their classes. Also, ask help from all stakeholders
to close monitor sari-sari stores or cafeteria not to sell cigarettes to
minors. Thus, messages, such as tarpaulin, posters and other forms of
media must be posted in school premises and various places in the
municipalities to inform students as well as their parents or guardians
about cigarettes smoking. Parents and guardians play a vital role in the
implementation of this advocacy. Also, the local government units
should regulate the implementation of policies and ordinances
regarding smoking of minor.
Keywords: Anti-smoking campaign, High School student, symposiums,

posters, lectures
333
Introduction
One of the most common problems in Northern Iloilo among

students is the rampant used of cigarettes smoking. Students from
all grade levels are already engaging in this kind of habitual act which
causes deterioration of interest in their studies. They escape from
classes together with peers and friends, and smoke around school
premises. Teachers are very vigilant to encourage these students to
stop smoking but it has no effect and the number of smokers
increases rapidly. Even thought, one of the rules and regulations of
the school is prohibiting smoking among students anywhere in the
school premises or one hundred meters away from the institution but
still have no effects to the learners.
There were reports shown that even elementary pupils are

cigarettes smokers. You can always see them walking in the streets,
setting in a nearby cafeterias or even standing in a plaza holding
cigarettes with classmates and friends. About one in five smokes
worldwide from ages 13 to 15, and 80, 000 to 100,000 children start
to smoke every day and around 50% of whom live in Asia (Martin,
2012).Due to this statistics, Department of Education (DepEd) in the
Philippines in 2003 implemented the Youth Smoking Prevention
(YSP) Program. The objectives of this order are to prohibit smoking
and sale of tobacco products inside public and private school
campuses and premises. Topics on smoking will be integrated in
Health Education (DepEd ORDER, No. 33, s. 2003). Schools together
with their stakeholders are also campaigning to help stop smoking
tobacco among young children. Institutions with smoking policies
have significantly decrease students rate of smoking. However,
school smoking bans are poorly complied, so enforcement is highly
important with the help of all agencies concerned (Wakefield et al,
2001).
Another research revealed that teenagers are heavily

influenced by tobacco advertising. Even though, companies
promote with precaution, such as it is dangerous to our health and
the age level of consumer allowed, there are still a lot who wanted to
continue to smoke. Parents play a significant role to ban smoking at
home. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke during childhood
can increase tolerance for tobacco smoke (Wakefield et al,2001).
334
Today, with the advent of technology, media messages are

endemic in our society. We can see them everywhere such as,
exposure to television and radio, movies, outdoor and point of sale
advertising, via newspapers and magazines, on the internet and
through books, brochures and posters. It can arouse curiosity among
children (Cruickshanket al, 1993).
The main thrust of this study is the influence and effect of

anti-smoking messages and campaigns among students who are non-
smokers, second-hand smokers and smokers in Ajuy National High
School. Thus, health behavior theory will be utilized in this study
because basically students are aware of the effects of cigarettes’
smoking to our health. Furthermore, the contents of the innovations
are more on the consequence, such as lung and throat cancers, skins
diseases, and abnormalities among users and non-users.
Objective of the Study

The objective of this paper was to determine the effect of
the anti-smoking campaigns among students in Northern Iloilo. Also,
this was to identify the most effective methods to help students stop
from smoking.
Methodology
This research utilized action research using qualitative

methods to unveil the effects of anti-smoking campaigns to the
students of Department of Education in Northern Iloilo. The first step
of this study is a two type survey questionnaire conducted that was
made up of a yes or no and some open ended question. The
symposium was divided into two parts: first is about the laws and
ordinance of anti-smoking and the second is about the effect of
smoking to our health. Also, tarpaulin as advertisement of the
different laws and ordinances, and crusade for the consequence of
smoking to our health were employed. In addition, instructional
materials about laws and ordinance, and effect of smoking to our
health were created. The researcher also asked the informants to
watch a video taken from YouTube about smoking. They were asked
to watch the video during their vacant period. The informants of this
335
study were 3 non-smoker, 3 second-hand smokers, and 3 smokers.

Prior to this research, the researcher conducted a survey about the
prevalence of smoking among students in some selected secondary
schools in Northern Iloilo.
Immersion with students

The results showed that students in Northern Iloilo already
started smoking at a very young age. They even learned to smoke
during their elementary days. They continue to smoke until they
reach their adulthood because they could not stop their habits. Some
of them said that peer pressure is the main factor that pushed them
to try smoking. Due to curiosity, many of the informants tried
smoking during their secondary education.
Based on the observation collected, there were students

both female and male who smoked within 50 meters away from the
school. You can see these students in the cafeteria, sari-sari stores, or
even in the houses of their friends and classmates. When they were
asked who encouraged them to smoke, majority of them said that it
was their peers.
Students escaped from classes and smoked in nearby

cafeteria or sari-sari stores. They even went to the mountains or
beaches with peers to smoke.
A grade 9 student said;
“After lunch, we escaped from our classes to go to

the mountain at the back of our school to smoke with my
classmates. We stayed there until 5 o’clock in the afternoon.
I enjoyed my group because we keep our secrets.”
Effect of Anti-Smoking Campaigns
Symposium. The researcher invited a Sangunniang Bayan

Secretary to discuss about the ordinances as well the laws related to
smoking during the flag raising ceremony. He promised that the LGU
336
will work together with education sector to totally eradicate the

rampant smoking among our students. In addition, he said he will
implement close monitoring together with the PNP on this situation.
Also, the chief of police was given the opportunity to further

discuss about the campaign on smoking of the government. He
stated that taxes for cigarette companies were raised to prevent
teenagers to purchase this product. They even monitor our school for
almost two months to ensure that smoking ordinances and laws
were executed. Figure 1 shows the chief of police as guest during the
flag raising ceremony together with his personnel.
A doctor was requested to orient the students about the

effect of smoking to our health. She discussed about different health
problems causes by smoking.
With this intervention many students were already aware of

the programs and projects of the government on smoking. They also
learned that all agencies both private and public were collaborating
in this advocacy. Sanctions will be given to students caught smoking
in school premises. Also, the integration of cigarettes smoking is part
of the curriculum.
Figure 1
The Chief of Police Discussed About Smoking During the Flag Raising
Ceremony
337
A grade 7 student revealed:
“After the message of the chief of police, I was

scared to try smoking. I have already an idea that it can give
effect to my body. I also heard that many already died
because of cigarettes smoking. I even told my classmates
not to try smoking even once because it can be addictive.”
Anti-Smoking Advertisement. The informants of this study

were asked about the effect of different advertisements of anti-
smoking message in the campus as well as neighboring places.
Many of them stated;
“With all those diseases that we can get from

smoking, I am afraid now of its effect to my health. I will try
not to engage in this habitual act.”
Also, a female grade 8 student added;
“Many of us were scared of the effects of smoking

to our health. We are alarmed of the pictures in the
tarpaulin.”
Figure 2
Campaigned used in the Study
338
Film Showing. The informants were grouped into two and

during their vacant period, the researcher allowed them to watch a
film taken from YouTube. All the 3 video clips were about the effect
of smoking to our health. (see figure 3).
After the film showing, most of them said that they will stop
smoking or will never try to smoke. They do not want to die early.
They do not want to get old easily.
Figure 3
Students Watched Youtube About the Effect of Smoking to Our
Health
Lecture. Students learned about smoking in their Health

class during their grade 8 level. In Unit IV which is “Prevention of
Substance Use and Abuse” they discussed “The Danger of Cigarettes
Smoking” in 4th grading period. Such orientation caters to the
awareness of every individual the hazards that the smoking may
inflict on them.
On the other hand, harmful effect of smoking to our

respiratory system is being laid down in Grade 9 science curriculum.
In Grade 10 Health, one activity is about cigarette packs that

deal about Tobacco Regulation Act of 2003.
Basing from the informal survey, I have found out that

smoking is rampant at the early age. Therefore, in order to lessen this
339
juvenile problem, if not to totally eradicate it, educational

amendment should imposed in elementary curriculum. Consider that,
the child at young age smoke maybe because of environmental
influence, since they can see their father or even mother smoke at
home. Another is that they are being asked to buy cigarettes to the
extent they are sometimes asked to light one.
After our lecture, the informant number 4 said:
“Anti-smoking must be included in elementary level

to warn the pupils about the consequence of smoking.”
Influence of Anti-Smoking Message
The advocacy was an effective method to orient students

about cigarette smoking. Many of the informants believe that it gave
a big impact to their lives. They have realized that they get nothing
about smoking but only health problems.
From then on, two of three smokers will not try to smoke
again. All the non-smokers will never engage in any activity related to
smoking.
Most Effective Interventions
For almost 1 month and half after the implementation of the

intervention, informants were interviewed for the last time. “Among
the different interventions given, which is the most effective?” See
Figure 4.
Informant number 1 stated:
“All the interventions were effective methods. I

have already stopped smoking and I am frightened about
the diseases it may cause me later.”
They also all agreed that the intervention were all effective
to encourage them to stop smoking.
340
Figure 4
The Researcher Conducted Interview to Selected Informants.
Conclusions
1. Educating the informants about cigarettes smoking in
various interventions, such as symposium, posters and
tarpaulins, lectures and film showing make them realized the
effect on our health. Non-smokers were scared to try
smoking. Second hand smokers promised not to go with
friends and classmates who are smoking because they
already understand that they are the most affected.
Smokers will try hard not to smoke again and they also stop
from escaping from classes.
2. The anti-smoking campaign really influenced the informants

because many of them stated that they are now educated
about the effect of smoking to their health. Health is a big
factor to encourage students not to engage in smoking.
Almost all of them were scared about health problems.
3. All the anti-smoking campaigns were effective according to

the informants. All of them were really frightened about the
effects of cigarettes smoking to our health.
341
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344
PAYING SCHOOL FEES THROUGH WASTES:
EXPERIENCES AND HEALTH RELATED
CHALLENGES OF AN ECO SCHOLAR
Mauro Allan P. Amparado
University of Cebu Lapu-Lapu and Mandaue, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The study explored the experiences of an Eco Scholar as he pays his
school fees from the sales of recyclables under the Eco Scholarship of a
university. This special non-academic scholarship of a university in the
Philippines covers the tuition fees and allowances of the scholar and
gives hopes to an aspiring student to finish the program. This case study
interviewed an Eco Scholar from a university in Central Visayas. This Eco
Scholar is a male student, 26 years of age and a resident of Sitio Panas,
Sta, Rosa Olango Island, Mactan, Philippines. The researcher utilized
participatory-observation. Consent was requested before the conduct
of interviews, and the informant was told that he could withdraw from
the study anytime if he decides to do so. The narratives of this case
revealed the personality of the scholar, the qualities that an Eco Scholar
should possess, and the difficulties he encountered while at work. The
scholar shares the values he learned from solid waste management, his
day-to-day struggle to make ends meet, and his dreams and aspirations
for the family. The case study recognizes that the school system is vital
part of our primary learning system and a powerful vehicle for change.
It also reminds us that environmental awareness and protection is
beneficial to the school and the society.
Keywords: Poverty, solid waste management, school fees, health-related

challenges, materials recovery facility, Central Visayas, Philippines
345
Introduction
Republic Act 9003 otherwise known as the Ecological Solid

Waste Management Act of 2000 is an act providing for an ecological
solid waste management program, creating the necessary
institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts
prohibited and penalties, appropriating funds therefor, and for other
purposes
(http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra_9003_2001.html
). The law was crafted in response to the looming garbage problems
in the country. RA 9003 declares the policy of the state in adopting a
systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management
program that ensures the protection of public health and the
environment and the proper segregation, collection, transport,
storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the
formulation and adoption of best environmental practices.
Moreover, it illustrates the potentials and benefits of recycling not
only in addressing waste management problems but also in
alleviating poverty (Aquino, Deriquito, & Festejo, 2013).
On December 12, 2008, the Republic Act No. 9512 otherwise

known as the National Environmental Awareness and Education Act
of 2008 was signed into law. This law recognizes the vital role of the
youth in nation-building and the role of education in promoting
environmental awareness (Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, 2015).
Globally, RA 9512 is one of the Philippine’s concrete

expressions of support to the United Nations Decade of Education
for Sustainable Development (2005-2014), and the ASEAN
Environmental Education Action Plan (AEEAP), and was later updated
to the AEEAP 2014-2018 (DENR, 2015).
R.A. 9512 aims to promote environmental education through

an inter-agency and multi-sectoral approach, involving various
agencies in the Philippines such as the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR), Department of Education (DepEd),
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA),
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and
Technology (DOST), Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG), and Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD).
346
These laws have guided the University of Cebu Lapu-Lapu

and Mandaue to implement a solid waste management program in
the campus. A Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) was created in 2015
for waste segregation and to identify recyclables that can be sold to
support the education of students who are rendering services in the
MRF. In line with the creation of the MRF is the implementation of
the Eco scholarship. The Eco Scholarship is a special, non-academic
scholarship of the university. Sales from the recyclables which
includes used paper, plastic bottled water and boxes was utilized to
pay off the tuition fees, miscellaneous fees and daily allowance of the
student. The scholar works four hours per day in the university’s
materials recovery facility and segregates bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable wastes.
In as much as the Eco scholars are segregating wastes, the

researchers explored in this case study the experiences of an Eco
Scholar as he pays off his school fees from the sales of recyclables.
He also shared the health-related challenges encountered and how
other students viewed his work in the university. The narratives of
this case also revealed the personality of the scholar, the qualities
that an Eco scholar should possess, and the difficulties he
encountered while at work. The scholar shared the values he learned
from solid waste management, his day-to-day struggle to make ends
meet, and his dreams and aspirations for the family.
Methodology
This case study interviewed an Eco Scholar from a university
in Central Visayas, Philippines. This Eco scholar is a Marine
Engineering student, male, 26 years of age and a resident of Sitio
Panas, Sta. Rosa, Olango Island, Mactan, Philippines. For purposes of
confidentiality, we shall refer to the Eco Scholar as Pedro. Pedro was
interviewed for one hour throughout the period of 12 months.
Participatory-observation was also utilized by the researchers.
Consent was requested prior to the conduct of interviews and the
informant was told that he can withdraw from the study anytime if
he decides to do so.
347
Theme 1: Coming from a Broken Family
Pedro comes from a broken family. He has eight siblings with

four brothers and four sisters. His mother left their home in Olango
Island, Mactan when he was 5 years old. Presently, he lives in a
boarding house together with his two brothers and is taking up a
degree program on Marine Engineering. Although he is supported by
his elder brother who pays for his school fees when he was in first
year, the second year of schooling was a harder time for them. Aside
from the boarding house expenses and school requirements, Pedro’s
family in Olango Island, Mactan relied on the salary of Juan.
“I used to work as a sales clerk in one of the malls of Lapu-

Lapu City and receives 227 Philippine pesos per day. I supported Juan
until he finished an Electrical Engineering degree. My father is a quiet
man and he is 60 years old. He has concern for his children but he is
torn between his first family and his new-found family. But, I do not
hate him. With this situation, I will continue to work to support my
education.”
Theme 2: Waste Segregation at a Young Age
As early as 6 years old, Pedro would collect empty plastic

bottles and other scraps which he and his siblings would sell to junk
shops. The sales of waste segregation were sources to buy food and
school supplies.
Pedro recalled, “Olango Island, Mactan is a relatively poor

community. When I was a kid, we would ride the public motorcycle
or ‘habal-habal’ to go to school. But if we do not have money, we
walk 1 kilometer from home to school. We go home at 12 noon to take
our lunch. Sometimes we do it so that my classmates would think
that I took my lunch. But there is no food at home. That would make
a 4 kilometer walk in a day.”
Pedro further mentioned that being absent in school during

his elementary and high school days was common. “If we do not
collect the empty bottles in trash cans, we would not have money.
And money is essential for us to go to school.”
348
Theme 3: Paying School Fees through Wastes
Pedro read from the university’s bulletin board that the

Community Extension Department was looking for an Eco Scholar.
“At first, I was hesitant to apply for the scholarship. Knowing

that I to segregate wastes would bring back memories of how hard
life was when we were kids. But I was convinced by my elder brother
to grab this opportunity.”
The announcement on the bulletin board required a male

applicant who will be assigned in the Materials Recovery Facility
(MRF) of the university. “I felt down during that time. I was always
thinking of what my classmates would say about my scholarship. I
was thinking of how they will ridicule me. Yet I was ready to tell them
that I want to finish school, that is why I am grabbing the opportunity.
I will also help Mother Earth when I do recycling.”
Pedro dreamed of becoming a ship captain someday. But

during the enrollment process, Pedro saw the long line of Marine
Transportation applicants. “I realized that with the long line of
applicants, it would also mean more graduates in the program. That
was when I decided to take up Marine Engineering. Few graduates
mean better chances of landing a job.”
The weekly sales of Pedro at the MRF ranged from P200.00

to P1,000.00. Sales were deposited to the school’s cashier. “With the
little cash, it motivated me to work harder. More sales mean I will be
able to pay my school fees. The more cash was depositing to the
cashier, the more I segregated wastes.”
Theme 4: Health-related and Self-esteem Challenges
Pedro was a picture of hard work in the university. Not to

mention the odor in the MRF, pests like cockroaches, rats and worms
were a typical sight. “I would bring scratch paper and bottles from
offices and the canteen to the MRF. People would look at me. But I
did not mind.”
There were health-related issues. Pedro shared he had

coughs and colds during the experience. The fumes of the wastes and
349
the bad odor was unavoidable. “I would be in contact with the

leachates and some wastes were wet. The odor would stick to my
uniform. Though I had masks and gloves, the odor and leachates
were undesirable.”
The MRF was also visited by rats and cockroaches. These

pests are possible carriers of disease. Although there were no
accounts of illnesses related to these pests, the eco scholar was
always reminded to protect himself through masks, gloves and the
use of boots.
Pedro became closer to the janitors. They would bring

recycled papers and plastic bottles to the MRF. It was observed that
the scholar would usually walk the hallways with head bowed down.
Pedro stated, “I was asked by one of my classmates, ‘are you a
janitor?’ I felt ashamed during that time but I told myself, I have to go
on. I am used to the job physically. But not emotionally.”
He also had to bring trash cans to the MRF. “How I wish

students are more mindful of segregating at source. Just imagine
food items are thrown with paper and plastics.”
Theme 5: Money in Waste Segregation
“I have realized that there is money in waste segregation. It

covered my tuition and miscellaneous fees for one year. It’s
amazing.”
Pedro recalled that the first month was the most difficult
since the total sales was less than P5,000.00. “I was wondering if I
would be able to reach P30,000.00 which was the semestral school
fees. But when students learned that the recycled papers and bottles
would fund my tuition fees, that’s when they started to donate their
old manuals, books and notebooks.”
Now on his 3rd semester as an Eco Scholar, Pedro is one of

the candidates for graduation. “I am thankful that I have reached this
far and the Eco scholarship has supported me in my education.”
Pedro said that this scholarship requires recipients who are

assertive and focused. “They should not mind what their classmates
350
would say. Your classmates will not be able to help you pay the tuition
fees. But your hard work will. And the scholar should be able to dig in
the different items found inside the trash can.”
Indeed a little sacrifice goes a long way. Pedro revealed that

he would budget P50.00 to P100.00 to cover for 3 meals in a day.
Theme 6: Dreams and Aspirations for the Family
In the future, Pedro plans to establish a recycling business.

He dreams of a land-based job in marine engineering. Pedro said, “I
would like to see my siblings working in the business that I will
establish. I have been doing this since I was a kid and I believe this will
be a great business to be in someday. There is money in wastes. And
I have experienced that.”
Pedro, during the interviews cried as he related his plans for

the family. “I want my family to have a comfortable life. They are the
primary reason why I am working hard. My relatives told me when I
was young that I will marry early, that I will be a drug addict, and I will
never succeed because we are poor. But I will prove them wrong
because I will finish the program.”
Pedro related how he questioned God about his situation

and the poverty he experienced. “I seldom go to church. But when I
pray, I cry. And I always ask God why I am experiencing all of this. Yet,
I thank Him for I am alive. I am hopeful that one day my hardships will
end.”
Conclusions
Since its implementation in 2015, the Eco Scholarship has

funded the tuition fee of one marine engineering student.
Segregating wastes in the university and selling the recyclables has
given hope to a poor but deserving student to continue his studies.
Aligned with the 3rd statement of the university’s vision, “Give hope
and transform lives,” this community extension program teaches the
faculty and students that solid waste management in the campus can
be a source of profit and inspiration.
351
As we continue to manage our solid waste in the university,

this case study recognizes that the school system is a vital part of our
basic learning system and a powerful vehicle for change. It also
reminds the university that environmental awareness and protection
is beneficial to the school and the society.
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352
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND PRACTICES
OF SCIENCE STUDENTS: INPUT FOR
ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
Danilo V. Rogayan Jr.

Eveyen Elyonna D. Nebrida
President Ramon Magsaysay State University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The role of the schools is very critical in order to develop
environmentally-aware and ecologically-conscious students. This
descriptive-correlational study sought to measure the level of
awareness and practices of 100 Science students in a public secondary
school in Zambales, Philippines. Findings revealed that the Science
students are very aware on environmental concepts and state of
environment; and very aware in environmental issues and problems.
They often practice taking actions to solve environmental problems
and sometimes practice the need to possess a high degree of
commitment. The study found out that there is a moderate correlation
between students’ awareness on environmental concepts and issues
and their practices to solve the environmental problems and possess a
high degree of commitment. The study recommends that information
dissemination programs regarding environmental concepts, state of
the environment, ecological issues and problems could be sustained by
the school to keep the ecological awareness of the students high.
Environmental advocacies and eco-movement may likewise be
institutionalized in the school through student organizations like YES-O
and Science clubs. The crafted ecological management plan is
recommended for implementation to increase the degree of
commitment of students towards ecological conservation.
Keywords: Environmental education, environmental awareness,

environmental practices, ecological management plan, descriptive-
correlational research, Zambales, Philippines
353
Introduction
In today’s era of globalization, we are faced with a lot of

societal upheavals including dilemmas pertaining to the
environment. Rogayan (2016) reiterated that the earth is now
suffering from innumerable afflictions at present caused by
egregious human activities that relentlessly denuding the
environment. The challenge for everybody is to take the wheel of
action and move towards a common cause in preserving life on earth.
The growing concern with environmental issues and their

impact on general awareness is one of the most noticeable
phenomena of the last two decades (Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Satheesh
Kumar, 2013). The rapid depletion of the earth’s natural resources
and the fast degrading environment are the realities which can no
longer be denied. These are the grave scenarios that threaten the
existence of both man and the earth (Marpa & Juele, 2016).
The Education for Sustainable Development of the United

Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
reiterates that education is an indispensable tool towards sustainable
development. Environmental education is a process aimed at
developing a world population that is aware of and concerned about
the total environment and its associated problems and which has the
knowledge, attitudes, commitments and skills to work individually
and collectively towards the solution of current problems and
prevention of new ones (Jain & Raghunathan as cited in Puri & Joshi,
2017).
Different countries in the world continue to develop active

environmentalism among the students and among the people in
general. India, for one, has become one of the fastest progressing
countries in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and
improving its environmental quality (Sivamoorthy, Nalini & Satheesh
Kumar, 2013). The environmental problems have become issues of
great concern to many parties. However, many people in Ethiopia
seem to have low level of knowledge about environmental problems
(Hailu, 2016). In Turkey, the level of high school students’
environmental awareness is high as revealed by one study (Anilan,
2014). The level of environmental awareness and practices on
354
recycling of solid wastes in one university campus in Malaysia was

likewise gauged (Omran, Bah & Baharuddin, 2017).
In the Philippines, the Department of Education (DepEd),

the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), in coordination
with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR),
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and other
relevant agencies, in consultation with experts on the environment
and the academe, lead the implementation of public education and
awareness programs on environmental protection and conservation
through collaborative interagency and multi-sectoral effort at all
levels (RA 9512, 2008).
Furthermore, one of the objectives of the Science education

in the Philippines is to develop students who are environmentally-
conscious and ecological-friendly. The month of June of each year is
declared as the Philippine Environment Month by virtue of
Presidential Proclamation No. 237 signed in 1998 by then President
Corazon C. Aquino. During the celebration, various important events
are being celebrated such as the World Environment Day on June 5,
Philippine Eagle Week on June 4-10 and Philippine Arbor Day on June
25 (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2016).
People’s awareness has been recognized as a powerful tool

in environmental sphere. Information through education has an
important impact to alter behaviour (as cited in Gonzaga, 2017).
Several studies have been conducted to gauge the

environmental awareness and practices of students in various levels.
Foreign studies have focused mainly on the environmental
awareness and practices of college students (Sivamoorthy, Nalini &
Satheesh Kumar, 2013; Sharma, 2016), tertiary students’
environmental awareness in relation to their stream of study and
their area of residence (Singh, 2015), college students’ level of
awareness, attitude and participation in environmental activities
(Bhat et al., 2016), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of tertiary
students and their ecological awareness and practice (Milos & Cicek,
2014), the level of environmental awareness and practices on
recycling of solid waste of college students (Omran, Bah &
355
Baharuddin, 2017) and the high school students’ environmental risk

perceptions and environmental awareness levels (Anilan, 2014).
In the Philippines, studies focused on the environmental

awareness and practices of high school students as basis for disaster
preparedness program (Marpa & Juele, 2016), level of awareness and
extent of practices in green technology of college students
(Gonzaga, 2016), and the environmental awareness of the graduating
college students (Garcia & Luansing, 2016).
While almost all the previous studies conducted are focused

only in describing the extent of environmental awareness and
practices of the students, the present study looked into the
environmental awareness and practices of Grade 9 Science students
as an input in crafting a proposed ecological management plan.
Considering the facts that students must be ambassadors of

the environment, it is hoped that this study can shed light as to how
the students put into actions what they know about the environment
which will serve as a baseline data in crafting the ecological
management plan to be implemented by the schools and be
extended in the communities.
The study is anchored on the National Environmental

Awareness and Education Act of 2008 otherwise known as Republic
Act 9512. According to RA 9512, Section 2, “consistent with the policy
of the State to protect and advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and
harmony of nature, and in recognition of the vital role of the youth in
nation building and the role of education to foster patriotism and
nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human
liberation and development, the state shall promote national
awareness on the role of natural resources in economic growth and
the importance of environmental conservation and ecological
balance towards sustained national development.” Hence, agencies
like the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), the Technical Education and Skills Development
356
Authority (TESDA), the Department of Social Welfare and

Development (DSWD), in coordination with the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) and other relevant agencies, shall
integrate environmental education in its school curricula at all levels
(RA 9512, 2008). Furthermore, environmental education shall
encompass “environmental concepts and principles, environmental
laws, the state of international and local environment, local
environmental best practices, the threats of environmental
degradation and its impact on human well-being, the responsibility of
the citizenry to the environment and the value of conservation,
protection and rehabilitation of natural resources and the
environment in the context of sustainable development” (RA 9512,
2008).
This study aimed to find out the relationship between

environmental awareness and practices of Science students in a
public secondary school in Zambales, Philippines for the School Year
2016-2017 as input for ecological management plan.
Methodology
Research Design
The study utilized a descriptive-correlational research which

sought to find the relationship of the respondents’ environmental
awareness and environmental practices through the survey-
questionnaire.
Respondents
The study involved 100 Grade 9 Science students divided into
56 girls and 44 boys of Subic National High School in Subic, Zambales,
Philippines. The study used simple random sampling technique.
Grade 9 students were chosen as they are already immersed with the
school setting and can still have one school year to participate in the
activities included in the proposed ecological management plan.
357
Instrument
In order to gather the data on the environmental awareness

and practices among the Grade 9 students, the researchers used a
researcher-made survey questionnaire with an overall Cronbach
alpha value of 0.92. The instrument measured the students’
Awareness of Environmental Concepts and the State of Environment
(Part I), Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems (Part III),
Practices on the Need to Take Actions to Solve Environmental
Problems (Part III) and Practices on a High Degree of Commitment
(Part IV). The instrument was content and construct validated and
undergone a reliability test. A focus group discussion (FGD) guide
which contains semi-structured questions was likewise used.
Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers secured approval from the school principal
to conduct the study. For ethical considerations, parental consent
were secured to ensure the protection of the respondents since they
are minors. Upon approval, survey-questionnaires were distributed
to the respondents. The respondents were given 10 to 15 minutes to
respond and then the researchers collected all the accomplished
survey-questionnaires on the same day. Select respondents were
asked for a focus group discussion (FGD) to validate the findings
obtained from the survey questionnaires. The researchers also
conducted participant observation and documentary analysis on the
environmental practices of the students.
Level of Environmental Awareness of Science Students
Awareness of Environmental Concepts and the State of

Environment. The respondents are “Very Aware” on environmental
concepts and state of the environment as revealed by the overall
mean of 3.67 and standard deviation of 0.17 (Table 1).
The top items include the following: the ozone layer of the
atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun (M=4.01); global warming is brought about by
rising levels of heat-trapping gases, known as greenhouse gases, in
358
the atmosphere (M=3.86); and rainforests are the world’s most

biologically diverse ecosystems (M=3.80).
Table 1
Respondents’ Awareness of Environmental Concepts and State of
Environment
Statement Mean SD VD Rank
1. Agenda 21 is a plan of the United Nations in 3.55 1.02 VA 8
which large developing countries promised
to develop their industries with an eye
toward protecting the environment.
2. Rainforests are the world’s most biologically 3.80 0.98 VA 3
diverse ecosystems.
3. Global warming is brought about by rising 3.86 1.02 VA 2
levels of heat-trapping gases, known as
greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere.
4. The ozone layer of the atmosphere protects 4.01 1.18 VA 1
life on Earth by absorbing harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
5. Sustainable development means increasing 3.62 1.08 VA 7
standards of living without destroying the
environment.
6. Desertification is the decline in the biological 3.63 0.93 VA 6
or economic productivity of the soil in dry
and semi-dry areas resulting from various
factors including human activities.
7. Acid rain is a form of air pollution in which 3.69 1.06 VA 4
airborne acids produced by electric utility
plants and other sources fall to Earth in
distant regions.
8. Indigenous peoples are those who have 3.62 1.06 VA 5
inhabited and made their living directly off
the same environment for hundreds or
thousands of years.
9. There is only one percent of all the water in 3.39 1.29 MA 10
the world that is available for drinking.
10. According to the Philippine Constitution, it 3.52 1.06 VA 9
is the state’s primary duty to protect and
advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in accord
with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
Total 3.67 0.17 VA
Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware
(MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware 1.00 – 1.49.
359
Meanwhile, the respondents are “Moderately Aware” on

the provision of the Philippine Constitution that the state’s primary
duty to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and
healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature
(M=3.52); and there is only one percent of all the water in the world
that is available for drinking (M=3.39).
The findings is consistent with the study of Singh (2015)

which concluded that the undergraduate students possessed a good
average level of environmental awareness.
Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems. The

respondents are “Very Aware” on environmental issues and
problems with an overall mean of 3.59 and standard deviation of 0.28
(Table 2).
In particular, the indicators with highest means include the

following: Bohol is greatly affected by a strong earthquake which
caused colossal destructions in the province’s old-age churches and
other structures (M=4.26); the Central Visayas is severely battered by
Typhoon Yolanda which is considered as one of the world’s strongest
typhoon in history (M=3.91).
The findings of the study is consistent with the results of the

previous studies that the environmental awareness of the students is
high (Anilan, 2014; Milos & Cicek, 2014; Singh, 2015; Garcia & Luansing,
2016; Sharma, 2016; Puri & Joshi, 2017).
The results of the study, however oppose the findings of

Sahu, Roy, Monika & Rajkiran (2015) which found out that the overall
level of awareness was found to be average. The number of students
with high level of awareness is found to be extremely low whereas
number of students with low level of awareness is found to be fairly
high.
360
Table 2
Respondents’ Awareness of Environmental Issues and Problems
Statement Mean SD VD Rank
1. The environment is confronted with a myriad of 3.52 1.10 VA 5
environmental issues and problems at
present.
2. There is an attempt to establish a coal-fired 3.32 1.06 MA 10
power plant in Subic Bay which can affect can
pose threats to the environment and the
health of the people.
3. The Central Visayas is severely battered by 3.91 1.07 VA 2
Typhoon Yolanda which is considered as one
of the world’s strongest typhoon in history.
4.Bohol is greatly affected by a strong earthquake 4.26 3.23 VA 1
which caused colossal destructions in the
province’s old-age churches and other
structures.
5. Ormoc City experienced one of the severest 3.53 0.96 VA 4
landslides in history which killed thousands of
people.
6. A total of 700 people were killed and hundreds 3.34 1.05 MA 9
were injured in Aurora landslide in 2004.
7. Major mine spill took place in 2005 which 3.52 1.02 VA 6
contaminated several bodies of water and
caused fish kill in Albay Gulf.
8. Rice crisis happened in 2008 and continued 3.36 1.02 MA 8
landlessness and backward agriculture
occurred.
9. Palawan clamored to the people in a signature 3.60 1.08 VA 3
campaign to never allow mining in the
province which is considered as the country’s
last ecological frontier.
10. Climate change is very evident in every part of 3.51 1.18 VA 7
the globe like the extreme heat experienced
by Australia and excessive coldness in Canada.
Total 3.59 0.28 VA
Legend: Highly Aware (HA) 4.50 – 5.00; Very Aware (VA) 3.50 – 4.49; Moderately Aware
(MA) 2.50 – 3.49; Slightly Aware (SA) 1.50 – 2.49; Totally Unaware 1.00 – 1.49.
Meanwhile, the respondents were “Moderately Aware” on

the following: a total of 700 people were killed and hundreds were
injured in Aurora landslide in 2004 (M=3.34) and there is an attempt
to establish a coal-fired power plant in Subic Bay which can affect can
361
pose threats to the environment and the health of the people

(M=3.32).
The study refutes the findings of Bhat et al. (2016) which

indicated that the students due to problems of population explosion,
exhaustion of natural resources and pollution of environment are not
having enough awareness and skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems.
Level of Environmental Practices of Science Students
Practices of the Need to Take Actions to Solve

Environmental Problems. The respondents “Often” practice the
need to take actions to solve environmental problems as revealed by
the overall mean of 3.68 and standard deviation of 0.18 (Table 3).
The top items include: turn off the lights and unplug
appliances when not in use to save electricity (M=4.06); avoid
throwing garbage anywhere and learn the science of segregation of
solid wastes (M=3.67); recycle and reuse non-biodegradable
materials to lessen solid wastes (M=3.76).
362
Table 3
Respondents’ Practices of the Need to Take Actions to Solve
Environmental Problems
Statement Mean sd VD Rank

1. Turn off the lights and unplug appliances 4.06 1.00 OF 1
when not in use to save electricity.
2. Harness solar energy, a radiation produced 3.76 0.93 OF 3.5
by nuclear fusion reactions deep in the
Sun’s core.
3. Plant endemic trees in the vacant areas in 3.65 0.95 OF 7
the community to prevent soil erosion
and get more oxygen to breathe.
4. Avoid the use of plastic and styrofoam 3.57 1.06 OF 8
which cause harm not only to the
environment but also to human health.
5. Avoid throwing garbage anywhere and 3.78 1.07 OF 2
learn the science of segregation of solid
wastes.
6. Keep a good food ethics and avoid eating 3.67 1.21 OF 5.5
with left-overs and wasting drinking
water.
7. Lessen the use of detergents for they tend 3.45 1.05 SO 9
to create foam in gutters and in sewage-
disposal plants and even appeared in
naturally occurring ground and surface
waters.
8. Practice the science of composting which 3.37 1.00 SO 10
produces partially decomposed organic
material used in gardening to improve soil
and enhance plant growth.
9. Recycle and reuse non-biodegradable 3.76 1.01 OF 3.5
materials to lessen solid wastes.
10. Use reusable water bottles or tumblers 3.69 1.02 OF 6
instead of buying bottled water in the
canteen or stores.
Total 3.68 0.18 OF
Legend: Always (AL) 4.50 – 5.00; Often (OF) 3.50 – 4.49; Sometime (SO) 2.50 – 3.49; Seldom (SE) 1.50
– 2.49; Never (NE) 1.00 – 1.49.
Meanwhile, the respondents “Sometimes” practice the

following: lessen the use of detergents for they tend to create foam
in gutters and in sewage-disposal plants and even appeared in
363
naturally occurring ground and surface waters (M=3.45) and practice

the science of composting which produces partially decomposed
organic material used in gardening to improve soil and enhance plant
growth (M=3.37).
The study corroborates the findings of Sivamoorthy, Nalini &

Kumar (2013) that the level of awareness is high but the practice level
is moderate among college students.
Practices of the Need to Possess a High Degree of

Commitment. The respondents “Sometimes” practice the need to
possess a high degree of commitment as revealed by the overall
mean of 3.31 and standard deviation of 0.11.
Table 4
Respondents’ Practices on the Need to Possess a High Degree of
Commitment
Statement Mean sd VD Rank
1. Discuss with friends and relatives about environmental 3.45 1.05 SO 1.5
issues and concerns that confront the community and
the country as a whole.
2. Lobby for relevant laws on environmental conservation 3.27 0.96 SO 6
with the support of your political leaders especially
the congressmen.
3. Write articles in the newspaper which encourage 3.10 1.05 SO 9
people to take part in responding to the different
environmental problems.
4. Organize an environmental forum or symposium with 3.30 1.03 SO 10
your fellow youth and the community people.
5. Write an appeal to your political leaders regarding 3.33 1.09 SO 4
environmental concerns of your community.
6. Ask the support of the media in exposing anomalies and 3.18 1.07 SO 8
irregularities which led to the destruction of the
environment.
7. Deliver a talk or discourse about environmental literacy 3.30 1.11 SO 5
to heighten the awareness of the people.
8. Volunteer to organizational groups which help for the 3.45 1.05 SO 1.5
preservation and conservation of the environment.
9. Encourage everyone to be ambassadors of the 3.26 0.99 SO 7
environment in their respective communities
specifically your fellow youth.
10. Support initiatives and programs on environmental 3.44 0.91 SO 3
conservation like the National Greening Program of
the present administration.
Total 3.31 0.11 SO
Legend: Always (AL) 4.50 – 5.00; Often (OF) 3.50 – 4.49; Sometimes (SO) 2.50 – 3.49; Seldom (SE)
1.50 – 2.49; Never (NE) 1.00 – 1.49.
364
The respondents “Sometimes” practice the following:

discuss within friends and relatives about environmental issues and
concerns that confront the community and the country as a whole
(M=3.45); volunteer to organizational groups which help for the
preservation and conservation of the environment (M=3.45) and
Support initiatives and programs on environmental conservation like
the National Greening Program of the present administration
(M=3.44) meanwhile the least “Often do the task” of the
respondents is organize an environmental forum or symposium with
your fellow youth and the community people (M=3.30)
This supports the claim of Puri & Joshi (2017) that the green
attitude of the students is clearly visible in their action which is step
towards Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Likewise, the
findings of the study is consistent with the results of the previous
studies that the environmental practices of the students is high (Puri
& Joshi, 2017).
Relationship between Environmental Awareness and

Environmental Practices of Science Students
Table 5 shows the correlation between environmental

awareness and environmental practices.
Table 5
Correlation Coefficients among the Variables of Environmental
Awareness and Practices
Variable 1 2 3 4
1. Awareness of Environmental
-
Concepts
2. Awareness of Environmental
0.680** -
Issues
3. Practices on the Need to Solve
0.600** 0.582** -
Environmental Problems
4. Practices on the Need to
Possess a High Degree 0.410** 0.573** 0.573** -
Commitment
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
There was a significant positive moderate correlation

between awareness of environmental concepts and awareness of
365
environmental issues (r=0.680; p=0.01) which implies that as the

awareness of environmental concepts increase, the awareness of
environmental issues will likely increase.
The awareness of environmental concepts was significantly

positively related to practices on the need to solve environmental
problems as revealed by the r-value of 0.600. (p=0.000). This
suggests that as the awareness of environmental concepts increases,
the practices on the need to solve environmental problems will also
increase. Additionally, results of the correlation revealed that the
awareness of environmental issues was moderately related with the
practices on the need to solve environmental problems (r=0.582;
p=0.01). This means that students who are aware of environmental
issues were more likely to practice the need to solve environmental
problems.
The students’ awareness of environmental concepts was

significantly positively related to practices on the need to possess a
high degree of commitment (r=0.410; p=0.01) which implies that as
the students’ awareness of environmental concepts increase, the
practices on the need to possess a high degree of commitment will
likely increase.
A statistically significant correlation was likewise noted

between awareness of environmental issues and the practices on the
need to possess a high degree of commitment (r=0.573; p=0.01). This
means that the students who are aware of environmental issues will
more likely to practice the need to possess a high degree of
commitment.
The practices on the need to solve environmental problems

was significantly positively correlated with the practices on the need
to possess a high degree of commitment (r=0.573; p=0.01). This
implies that the students who practice on the need to solve
environmental problems were more likely to practice on the need to
possess a high degree of commitment.
The findings corroborates previous studies (Gonzaga, 2016;

Marpa & Juele, 2016) that the level of awareness and extent of
practices were positively correlated to a moderate degree.
366
Meanwhile, the study of Sharma (2016) counter the result of

the present study that there exists no significant correlation between
environmental awareness and environmental practice. College
students are aware of the environmental issues but when they are
going to practice it they fail. Owens, (2000) in his study stated that
increase in knowledge and awareness did not lead to pro-
environmental behavior.
Proposed Ecological Management Plan
The proposed ecological management plan was crafted

based from the survey results. The authentic activities included were
based from the least weighted means obtained from the survey.
Proposed Activities
Person/s Expected
Specific Objective/s Activity Title Duration
Involved Output
 To develop Project IEC Eco- Teachers, June to July Developed IEC
localized, Material: Students, Eco-Materials
indigenized An IEC material DENR,
information production LGUs, Research Output
education and project NGOs
communication
(IEC) materials on
environmental
education
 To educate the Project Eco- Teachers, August to Attendance
students on likula: Students, September sheet of
the current and A film-viewing Resource participants,
future activity with Persons monthly
situations of interactive monitoring
the lecture and report,
environment film evaluation
processing report
 To practice the Project Teachers, October to Vermicast for
science of Vermicomposti Students, March income
composting to ng: Parents generation,
improve soil A composting Photo
and enhance project with documentation,
plant growth. the use of Monthly
vermi worms progress report,
 To lessen the Project Deter Teachers, November Attendance

use of Detergents: Students, sheet of
detergents. A symposium Resource participants,
on the Persons, evaluation
disadvantages Parents report, student
of the use of and parents’
detergents manifesto
367
 To conduct an Project Teachers, December Attendance

environmental Usapang Students, sheet of
forum or Kalikasan: OSYs, participants,
symposium An Resource evaluation
involving the environmental Persons, report,
youth and the forum Community Commitment
community highlighting People Form
people. the present
environmental
problems
facing the
community
 To produce a Project Eco- Teachers, Quarterly Newsletter,
newsletter Gazette: Students, Official
which A newsletter OSYs, Facebook Page
highlights production Community
articles on which reports People
engaging the programs,
people to projects and
contribute to activities
environmental being done by
conservation. the school and
community
on
environmental
conservation.
 To encourage Project e- Teachers, January- Attendance
everyone to be COOL-ological Students, March sheet of
ambassadors Drive: OSYs, participants,
of the A series of Community evaluation
environment in environmental People report,
their respective programs to pamphlets
communities be led by the
specifically the students such
youth. as coastal
clean-up,
endemic tree-
planting
activity, eco-
bricks, and
other
environmental
advocacy
campaigns
368
Conclusions
The study concluded that the Science students are very

aware of environmental concepts and state of the environment; and
in environmental issues and problems. The respondents often
practice the need to take actions to solve environmental problems
while they sometimes practice the need to possess a high degree of
commitment. There is a significant high positive relationship
between environmental awareness and environmental practices.
There are significant relationships among the variables of
environmental awareness and environmental practices. There are
varied authentic activities included in the proposed ecological
management plan.
The study recommends that the information dissemination

programs regarding environmental concepts, the state of the
environment, ecological issues and problems must be sustained by
the school to keep the awareness of the students high.
Environmental advocacies and eco-movement must be
institutionalized in the school through the YES-O Club and/or Science
club to increase the degree of commitment of students towards
biodiversity conservation. The crafted ecological management plan is
recommended for implementation to increase the degree of
commitment of students towards ecological conservation.
References
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awareness levels of high school students. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science
Learning and Teaching, 15(2), 1-23.
Bhat, B.A., Balkhi, M.H., Ashraf Wani, M., Nusrat, Tiku, A., Ganai, B.A. & Sidiq. T.
Environmental awareness among college students of kKashmir Valley in the
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Department of Environment and Natural Resources, (2016). June is Environment

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Garcia, E.C. & Luansing, B. (2016). Environmental awareness among select graduating
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370
THE MINDANAO DEATH MARCH: ESTABLISHING
A HISTORICAL FACT THROUGH ONLINE
RESEARCH
Robert John I. Donesa

Saint Louis University, Philippines
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to bring to the fore the rather untold story
of the Death March in Mindanao – one of the only two death marches
recognized in the Tokyo war crime trials as evidence of inhuman
treatment to Prisoners of War (POWs). On 4 July 1942, surrendered
Filipino and American soldiers in Mindanao were made to march on a
rocky dirt road and under the blazing tropical sun, from Camp Keithley
in Marawi to Iligan in Lanao – a distance of about thirty-six kilometers
for the purpose of joining them with the rest of the Mindanao POWs at
Camp Casisang, Malaybalay, Bukidnon. Transport trucks, although
available, were denied the POWs. Without food and water, one by one
the soldiers fell down due to exhaustion. Those who fell were shot at
the forehead to prevent them from joining the guerrillas in case they
recover. But the story did not end there. The challenge of establishing
said historical fact is very difficult because of utter lack of records. It is,
however, fortunate that some survivors of the ordeal left recorded
interviews, diaries and notes which may now b found on online archives
and libraries. But then again, historians and researchers are faced with
the challenge of validating and admitting these online sources as
primary sources of history.
Keywords: Online primary sources, world war II, death march in Mindanao,
Philippines, Asia
371
Introduction
During the World War II, there were two (2) death marches
that took place in the Philippines. Both were presented at the Tokyo
War Crimes Trials as evidence of inhuman treatment to prisoners of
war (POWs). These were the “Bataan Death March” and the “Iligan
Death March.” The Bataan Death March, which took place in April
1942, was an arduous 65-mile march from Mariveles, Bataan to San
Fernando, Pampanga. The Mindanao Death March , sometimes called
the Iligan Death March or Dansalan Death March, happened on July
4, 1942, was a 25-mile walk under the scourging heat of the tropical
sun from Dansalan (now Marawi), Lanao del Sur to Iligan, Lanao del
Norte.
While the Bataan Death March is a widely known indignity to

the WWII POWs, there seemed to be very scanty account on the
Iligan Death March. It is fortunate that at least four (4) of the
American POWs who participated in the said death march eventually
survived the gruesome war and narrated their ordeals before they
died. They were: Victor L. Mapes, Herbert L. Zincke, Richard P. Beck
and Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. These narratives, however, can only be
found online. After validating these sources, it is now possible to
retell the story of the Mindanao Death March for the present and
future generations. Thus, this paper.
Notes on the Sources
Although the Iligan Death March took place in Mindanao,

majority of the primary sources may only be found overseas. Thus, a
few years back, it will take a persistent historian, with means, to
access records from overseas libraries and archives to establish such
historical fact. It indeed is fortunate that in the recent years, some
survivors of the World War II left interview video records, memoirs
and photographs which were posted online by the overseas libraries
and archives.
Historians, before considering the expositions of a source,

examine its intrinsic and extrinsic validity. The source should be
historically verifiable in form and substance. Failure to pass these
tests may result to the rejection of a document, record, narrative,
interview and even memoir as evidence for the establishment of a
372
historical fact. This is also true to sources found online. The four
primary sources used in this work are primarily personal narratives of
the survivors of the event. Two were published online, that of
Richard P. Beck and Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. The other two are
published memoirs, that of Victor L. Mapes and Herbert L. Zincke. The
online sources, after triangulation, were verified and accepted as
records for purposes of reconstructing the historical fact - the
Mindanao Death March.
The first set of primary sources are the video interview and
memoir of Frederick M. Fullerton, Jr. He was a corporal in the US
Army assigned at Philippine Ordnance Depot, 75th Ordnance
Company. He survived the the Iligan Death March which he called
“Dansalan Death March.” He was interviewed by Holly Edwards of
the Veterans History Project of the American Folklife Center of the
Library of Congress on September 15, 2003 at the Tyler Junior College,
Tyler, Texas. He also wrote an unpublished account on his World War
II ordeals entitled “Memoir of Frederick Marion Fullerton, Prisoner of
War of the Japanese, May 27, 1942 - September 2, 1945.” These
sources can be accessed online and cited as: Frederick Marion
Fullerton, Jr. Collection (AFC/2001/001/15785), Veterans History
Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress. The said
memoir details the events before, during and after the 1942 death
march.
The second set of primary sources are the video interviews

of Richard P. Beck. He was a Master Sergeant of the 14th Bomb Group
of the US Army Air Corps. He surrendered in 1942 and was held a
captive in several Japanese prison camps days before being rescued
by the Rangers from Camp Cabanatuan in 1945. He survived the Iligan
Death March. He was interviewed by Janson Cox of the South
Carolina Cotton Museum, Inc. where he narrated his ordeal. The
videos of the interviews may be accessed online and cited as: Richard
P. Beck Collection (AFC/2001/001/54751), Veterans History Project,
American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.
The third primary source is a published memoir of Victor L.

Mapes. He was enlisted in the 14th Bomb Group of the US Army Air
Corps in 1939 and served until his retirement in 1959. Upon his
surrender at Camp Keithley in Dansalan in 1942, he served as the
Camp’s cook, thus, the title of his memoir is “The butchers, the baker
373
: the World War II memoir of a United States Army Air Corps soldier
captured by the Japanese in the Philippines.” It cannot be accessed
online. A copy may be found at The Filipinas Heritage Library (FHL),
Ayala Museum, Makati City. On the Iligan Death March, Mapes
devoted a detailed chapter on the event which he called the
“Mindanao Death March.” Mapes’ work verifies the online accounts
on the death march by Beck and Fullerton, Jr.
The last primary source is the published memoir of Herbert

L. Zincke. At 18, Zincke enlisted in the 14th Bomb Group of the US
Army Air Corps. He was a survivor of the Death March and even
helped Beck survived the ordeal. He wrote “Mitsui Madhouse,” a
memoir based on a diary he wrote during the war. Zincke’s notes on
the Mindanao Death March is very similar in substance with that of
Mapes. Nevertheless, it may also be used to validate the sources
found online.
The identified authors were confirmed survivors of the WWII

Mindanao Death March. Although they revealed their ordeals long
after the war is over, their narratives were gathered and kept by the
United States Library of Congress for posterity. The intended
audiences include future researchers, filmmakers, storytellers and
other stakeholders. All of the authors confirmed the existence of the
Mindanao Death March and its gory details. All of the sources were
assessed to be relevant, reliable and accurate. Thus, the following
historical narrative.
The objective of this study is to establish a historical fact - the

Death March in Mindanao. It is hoped that this paper spurs interests
among historians and researchers to reexamine Mindanao’s role
during World War II to better appreciate it and to place more space
for Mindanao in Philippine History textbooks.
374
Conceptual Framework
The Conceptual Framework. The conceptual framework

shows how online primary WWII documents, decrees, survivors’
memoirs, interviews, documentaries and movies were triangulated
through cross verification with print and non-print sources to
establish a historical event known as the Mindanao Death March.
Methodology
As the study involved a historical problem or a need to

establish a historical fact, the methodology used is historical
approach and triangulation. Data about the Death March in
Mindanao were mined from online records, memoirs, statements,
testimonies and as well as printed books and triangulated the same
with contemporaneous print and non-print sources.
The data collection includes: (1) mining online libraries,

archives and other sites for relevant public documents, statements,
testimonies, edicts, decrees, memoirs, books, documentaries and
movies among others; (2) combing Philippine libraries and archives
for published WWII books authored by some survivors; and (3)
looking into the secondary sources - the published the works of
historians and scholars found in Philippine libraries.
375
The collected records and documents were evaluated as

regards their extrinsic and intrinsic validity. They were cross-validated
with existing print and non-print sources through triangulation. They
were then classified as primary and secondary sources. The verified
primary sources were given primacy over secondary sources.
Secondary sources were consulted only when the primary sources
were ambiguous or contradictory.
A. The Tokyo War Trials and the Iligan Death March
On January 19, 1946, the victorious Allied powers—France,

the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States of
America— established the International Military Tribunal for the Far
East (IMTFE) in Tokyo, Japan. The IMTFE had the jurisdiction to try
individuals for Crimes Against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes Against
Humanity committed
during the World War II. The subsequent trials held were collectively
known as the Tokyo War Crimes Trials.
The IMTFE was authorized to try and punish Far Eastern war
criminals. It presided over the prosecution of nine (9) senior
Japanese political leaders and eighteen (18) military leaders who
were considered to be the prime movers of the World War II
atrocities. Eventually, the tribunal found all the defendants guilty and
sentenced them to punishments ranging from seven-year
imprisonment to death. Two of them died during the trial. The
Japanese Emperor Hirohito and the members of the imperial family
were not indicted. The Emperor was permitted to retain his royal
position, although on a diminished status.
General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of

the Allied Powers, as authorized by the IMTFE Charter, appointed
judges to the IMTFE from the countries which signed Japan’s
instrument of surrender: Australia, Canada, China, France, India, the
Netherlands, the Philippines, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,
and the United States. Each of these countries also sent a
prosecution team.
376
The Tokyo War Crimes Trials were held between May 1946 to
November 1948. The Philippine Prosecution Team presented and
proved before the IMTFE at least sixteen (16) incidents of indignities,
torture and barbarities committed against the Filipino and Foreign
Prisoners of Wars (POWs) and civilians. These incidents were as
follows:
1. The Bataan Death March

2. Bataan General Hospitals 1 and 2
3. Camp O’ Donnell
4. Iloilo Camp
5. Corregidor Fortress
6. Iligan Death March
7. Cabanatuan Camp
8. Gapan Camp
9. Bilibid Prison
10. Davao Penal Colony
11. Nichols Field
12. Tayabas Road Detail
13. Puerto Princesa
14. Bombing of Oryoku Maru
15. Execution of Two American Fliers
16. Los Baños
Each of these incidents is a bundle of gruesome stories and

tales of human sufferings. The Bataan Death March, notorious as it
was, overshadowed all the other incidents in history books. In fact,
of the 16 incidents, only the Bataan Death March appeared in history
textbooks. All the others remained unknown.
And because the evidence against the accused were

overwhelmingly strong, the Iligan Death March, along with others,
were only summarily presented and proven during Tokyo War Crimes
Trials. The trial records summarized the incident as follows:
“A milder counterpart of the Bataan Death March happened

on July 4, 1942, in Lanao. On that day, American and Filipino forces
were forced to march from Keithley to Iligan, Lanao, a distance of
about thirty-six kilometers with Malaybalay as their destination.
During the march a prisoner was sick and unable to keep pace with
377
the rest was shot. No food or water was given the prisoners. One died
during the march.”
B. Guests of the Emperor
The Japanese landed in the Southern part of Mindanao, in

Parang, Maguindanao. From there, they began advancing
northwards to the Province of Lanao. The Philippine Troops and
Moros formed the Bolo Battalion under General Guy Fort. The plan
was to defend Ganassi, Bacolod Grande on the southern end of Lake
Lanao and stopped the advancing Japanese troops. Gen. Fort
planned a guerilla warfare.
However, on May 6, 1942, Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright IV,

the Allied commander in the Philippines, surrendered the Filipino and
American Forces in Bataan and Corregidor. Gen. Homma threatened
to kill the American surrenderees from Bataan and Corregidor unless
all American and Filipino forces surrendered. Subsequently, on May
10, 1942, Gen. Wainwright ordered Gen. William Sharp to surrender all
his US and Filipino troops in Mindanao which he complied.
At Bubong, Lanao del Sur, a large number of Filipino troops

escaped to the hills. The Americans were ordered not to desert or
face court martial. On May 26, 1942, soldiers walked 6 miles from
Bubong to Dansalan, where they surrendered their arms. The
Japanese Commanding Officer declared them as “guests of the
emperor” and not “prisoners of war.” Soon, the surrenderees
realized it was just a lip service. There were 46 Americans and some
300 Filipinos under General Fort who surrendered.
While awaiting instructions from Gen. Homma, the POWs

were billeted in an abandoned building once used as a mint for
producing provincial money. Soon, the Japanese guarding the POWs
were replaced with extremely young men. These spirited new guards
forced the prisoners to count themselves in Japanese language.
Anyone slow in learning Japanese numbers or committed mistakes in
counting received a hard slap on each cheek.
Beginning June 10, 1942, the young Japanese guards invaded

the POW sleeping quarters. During these nightly invasions, the
Japanese looted the POWs of their belongings, beat and abused
378
them physically. These incidents resulted in hushed talks about

escaping. To avert possible escape, the Japanese guards adapted the
Honor System, that is, for every soldier who escaped, their officers
will be executed.
On July 1, 1942, Cpl. William Knortz, Pvt. Robert Ball, Seamen

Jas S. Smith and William Johnson escaped. Under the Honor System,
Col. Robert Hale Vesey, Captain A.H. Price and Sgt. John L. Chandler
paid the price. When asked about the whereabouts of the above-
mentioned officers, the Japanese interpreter only remarked: “They
died like soldiers.” The Japanese were very angry with the escape. As
punishment, all POWs were required to walk instead of riding to
Iligan.
C. The Iligan Death March
At 8:00 A.M., July 4, 1942, the POWs lined up for the march
at Dansalan (now Marawi), Lanao. The Americans were arranged by
four abreast and were strung together, in columns, by a gauge wire
through their belts. The Filipino POWs, though unwired, were to walk
barefooted. As it was the fourth of July, the march was mockingly
dubbed as the “Independence Day March.”
A truckload of Japanese soldiers with a mounted machine

gun followed the prisoners, ready to shoot anybody who will try to
escape. As the day progressed, the midday tropical sun became
unbearable.
Without food and water, one by one the soldiers fell down
due to exhaustion. Those who fell were left behind, however, they
were first shot at the forehead to prevent them from joining the
guerrillas in case they recover.
D. The Death of Childress/Kildritch
Mr. Childress, or in other documents - Kildritch, was an

American civilian who owned a coconut plantation in Mindanao.
Fullerton, Jr. shared that Childress married a Filipino and settled in
Pagadian, Zamboanga. When the Japanese landed at Parang,
Southern Mindanao, he volunteered for duty. During a skirmish at
379
Ganassi, Lanao, Childress was separated from his unit and wandered
for days in the jungles around Lake Lanao. While asleep on the side
of a trail, a Maranao attacked him, wounding him on the left side of
his body. The Maranao took his rifle, and left him unconscious
Lt. Ali, the leader of the Maranao guerrilla battalion, found

the unconscious Childress and brought him to Camp Keithley, a US
Military Reservation in Marawi. At that time, the camp was already
under the control of the Japanese Imperial Army. Lt. Ali had to
intoxicate the Japanese guards for Childress to be slipped in. Lt. Ali
believed that the patient will be better taken good care of at the
camp’s medical facilities and supplies and by Major Luther Heidger, a
US military surgeon.
Indeed, Childress improved under Major Heidger’s care.

However, he was not fit enough for a long walk. During the
“Independence Day” march, the throng had not gone far when
Childress collapsed on the road. He had to be carried by three other
prisoners wired with him. They were soon exhausted and called Col.
Mitchell for intervention. Col. Mitchell descended from the truck and
explained the situation to Lt. Osawa, who was in charge of the march.
But Lt. Osawa angrily replied, “this march is my responsibility.” He
ordered Col. Mitchell to get back to the truck.
A Japanese guard unhooked Childress from the throng and

brought him to the rear. Col. Mitchell hoped that Childress would be
placed on the truck. Instead, the Japanese guard led him some 75
yards behind the column and into bush and a shot was heard. When
the guard came back into sight, Lt. Osawa screamed ordering him to
make sure Childress was dead. The guard returned to the bushes,
leaned over, fired another shot and rejoined the column. The march
became a death march.
E. The Psychological Trauma of Richard P. Beck
Richard P. Beck was one of the lucky survivors of the war. He

been maneuvered into a safe spot as General Fort's orderly while a
prisoner at Camp Keithley. And during the march, Herbert Zincke, a
sturdy sergeant, was tied next to him. It was obvious to everyone
that without help, Beck would not have made it through the day.
380
The march became traumatic for Beck as he saw people

getting executed without reason. Beck felt like he was the next to die
as he was hardly moving. Zincke slipped his arm around Beck’s
shoulder and helped him along. “Had it not been for him,” Beck later
recalled, “I would not have made it through the march.”
F. The Death of Major Jay J. Navin, Commanding Officer, 84th

Regiment
Lt. Col. Barnes, the medical officer of the 81st Division,

loaded himself down with beddings, canned goods and medical
books. This load slowed down not only him but also his whole file. His
companions, Lt. Robert Pratt and Major Jay J. Navin, had to pull like
hell to keep up with the rest of the column. The other prisoners tried
to convince Barnes to throw off the yoke before he, or his comrades
get killed, but to no avail.
The Japanese guards allowed a ten-minute rest for every

hour of walk. But the rough and rocky country road, the burden of
pulling loaded comrades and the mercilessly blazing tropical sun have
taken its toll. After two hours of walk, Major Jay J. Navin, the
Commanding Officer of the 84th Philippine Regiment, was in bad
shape. Suffering from exhaustion, Major Navin fell to the ground.
Victor L. Mapes offered him pineapple juice and tried to get

him on his feet. It did not help. Major Navin asked for water. Zincke
handed him a canteen but insisted that Navin only drinks a little.
Instead, Navin turned the canteen upside down and drank half of it
before he could be stopped. He became delirious and was gasping
for breath. His comrades laid him on the ground, opened his shirt, and
called Major Heidger, the surgeon. A watching Japanese guard
stopped Major Heidger, walked over and looked at the unconscious
Navin. He pulled him off the road by his collar and shot him in the
forehead. Then, the death march continued.
G. The Death of the Filipino Soldiers
The Filipino soldiers, being resilient people, started the

march at a lively pace. They were not tied together. But unlike their
American counterparts who wore military shoes, they walked
barefooted. Few hours into the walk, the hot rocky dirt road started
381
to burn their feet. So unbearable that some of them started crawling.

One was left behind. The Japanese guard, tired of prodding him to
walk, bayoneted him to death. As the march continued, the Japanese
killed four more Filipinos, including a Medical Officer with a Red Cross
band on his arm. By the end of the day, Fullerton, Jr. estimated some
ten or twelve Filipino soldiers who were killed by bayoneting or
shooting.
H. At St. Michael’s Academy, Iligan
By mid-afternoon, when the throng was about 3 kilometers

near Iligan, the gauge tie was removed. They arrived in Iligan at
around 7:00 P.M. in the evening. All tired, thirsty, hungry and were at
the point of complete exhaustion.
The POWs, both Filipinos and Americans, were housed at

rickety two-storey school building of St. Michael’s Academy, located
across the St. Michael’s Church in Iligan. The Filipino POWs occupied
the first floor while the Americans were locked at the second floor.
Physically drained of the long walk, the Americans struggled their
way up the stairs. They were cramped in a small room that when they
tried to sit down, their legs became entangled. The prisoners were
irritable. They growled at each other like wild animals on slightest
provocation. It was only when the Japanese realized that their
prisoners were manageable when properly hydrated that they
allowed the men to obtain water from the nearby well.
I. The Death of Lt. Robert Pratt, Finance Officer, 81st Division
During the march, Lt. Robert Pratt, a young and

conscientious Finance Officer of the 81st Division, was positioned in
front of Lt. Col. Barnes, the Medical Officer. The fat Lt. Col. Barnes
couldn’t keep up with the pace of the throng. He was further
burdened by his baggage, which he refused to let go. As a result, Lt.
Pratt was forced to pull him all the way to Iligan. This left him
completely exhausted and dehydrated by the end of the walk.
That night, Lt. Pratt was violently vomiting. Some of his

comrades tried to comfort him by giving him whatever they had -
water, juices, etc. The physicians in the group, Lt. Col. Barnes and
Major Heidger, said there was nothing they could do for him. He was
382
delirious and he passed out. Before dawn, Pratt died in the arms of
his comrade, Victor L. Mapes, with a faraway look in his eyes. He was
buried in a shallow grave at a nearby Catholic Cemetery. Atop his
grave, they placed a wooden cross with Lt. Pratt’s dog tags.
J. Off to Camp Casisang, Malaybalay, Bukidnon
The POWs stayed in Iligan for two (2) days before they were
ferried away to Cagayan de Oro. The Japanese, every now and then,
confiscated the POWs’ money, valuables, gold rings, wristwatches,
etc. on the pretext that the POWs had to purchase their own food or
transportation. Afraid of another dreaded march, the POWs gave
whatever they have that are of value to the Japanese. On July 6, 1942,
the POWs boarded a canon boat and sailed a hundred miles east
along the shore of Mindanao to Cagayan de Oro, a town in Northern
Mindanao. From there, trucks took them to Camp Casisang,
Malaybalay, Bukidnon where they joined other POWs from
Mindanao.
Conclusions
The story of the Mindanao Death March, through all these

years, remained relatively unknown. This speck of Philippine History
was neither available nor accessible to the Filipino reading public until
online primary sources became available. Triangulating and verifying
these online primary sources with other available printed and non-
print sources made possible the admissibility of these sources as
historical records to be used as evidence for the writing of this
historic fact - the Mindanao Death March.
As shown, it was a tragic story of how the American and

Filipino POWs experienced undue brutalities and indignities during
the WWII in Mindanao. They surrendered and thus, under existing
laws of war they expected, at least, some civilized treatments from
the Japanese victors. It is now time to rewrite the Philippine History
textbooks and place more space for the participation of Mindanao in
the WWII.
383
References
Bassiouni, M. C. (1999). Crimes against humanity in international criminal law. The

Hague, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.
Chen, C. P. Invasion of the Philippine Islands, 7 Dec 1941 - 5 May 1942.

https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=46. Accessed August 25,
2018.
Fullerton, F. M. Memoir of Frederick Marion Fullerton, prisoner of war of the Japanese,

May 27, 1942 - September 2, 1945. Frederick Marion Fullerton, Jr.
Collection (AFC/2001/001/15785), Veterans History Project, American Folklife
Center, Library of Congress.
Mapes, V. L. (2000). The butchers, the baker: the World War II memoir of a United
States Army Air Corps soldier captured by the Japanese in the Philippines.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company.
POW Summation - Appendix B, Part II Summary of Evidence in Relation to Treatment

of Prisoners-of-War, Civilian Internees and Inhabitants of the Philippine
Islands Between December 1941 and September 1945.
https://dspace2.creighton.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10504/74573/Summ
ationAppB-Part2.pdf?sequence=4 . Accessed May 16, 2018.
Richard P. Beck Collection (AFC/2001/001/54751), Veterans History Project, American

Folklife Center, Library of Congress.
Zincke, H. (2003). Mitsui madhouse: memoir of a U.S. Army Air Corps POW in World
War II. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company.
384
LIVED EXPERIENCES OF PUPILS LIVING FAR
FROM SCHOOL
Elmo P. Ador
Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study was conducted using a narrative inquiry approach
to describe and understanding the experiences of pupils living far from
school, their struggles and challenge, happiness and lessons learned.
The objectives of the study were to determine (1) the struggles and
challenges experienced by the pupils, (2) the lessons learned by the
pupils, and (3) what makes the pupils happy despite their long journey
of going to school. Three grade VI pupils were chosen purposively. The
data were gathered through the use of an in-depth interview with the
pupils and parents. The study found out that pupils who lived far from
school experience walking in the rain, tracing uneven path, walking the
muddy and rocky way, passing along the sleepy hill. In their daily
journey towards school, they also experienced braving the cold and
freezing rain, breezing wind, their tired body had endured as they
walked everyday from home to school. The experience of the pupils
along with their journey also implied the same feeling and emotions
regarding happiness. Interestingly, they learned the value of sacrifice,
perseverance, commitment to finish their studies towards the goal that
they need to attain. They realized that patience should be the virtue of
every individual to strive and to undertake the challenges to school.
Keywords: Narrative inquiry, struggles, challenges
385
Introduction
“The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step” - Lao Tzu
People experience and attribute meaning to life by telling

stories. Researchers in many disciplines collect and study these
human narratives as a part of qualitative research.
A story is a depiction of a journey. In a story we follow a

character or a series of characters on a journey as they pursue
something up against obstacles. It is a telling of an event either true
or frictional. It is also a means of transferring information,
experience, attitude, or point of view.
The following are the life stories of the three grades six
pupils of Aglanot Elementary School who are living far from school.
First, we have Isabel Dumalaog. She is the second child

among the three siblings in their family. She is 11 years old and
currently a graduating pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident
of Sitio Agluy-a Dumarao,Capiz . She is a simple nice girl with simple
dreams, to finish her studies and to help her family overcome
poverty. For her, the distance is not a hindrance for there are many
ways to overcome the distance like playing while walking and doing
some pranks.
The next one named Kent Vincent Guinanao. He is a second

child among the three siblings in their family. He is 12 years old and a
Grade VI pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident of Sitio
Agluy-a, Dumarao, Capiz. He is a short boy, with fair complexion and
good - looking boy. Kent is physically healthy. He is also friendly to
other people. An obedient child and a dedicated pupil in school and
home. For him, education is very important and the key to success.
The last but not the least, we have Angel Punsalan. She is the
sixth child among eight siblings of their family. She is 12 years old and
currently a graduating pupil of Aglanot Elementary School. A resident
of Sitio Viray, Tina, Dumarao, Capiz. She is a cute and charming girl
who looks innocent, a silent girl but always keeps smiling every time
people meet her. Angel is a smart, a positive girl and also a very
friendly girl. She is a physically healthy child where one can see the
386
enthusiasm in her personality. To her, financial difficulty is not a

hindrance to continue studying and be able to succeed someday.
This study used qualitative format of research to have

suitable ideas about describing the experiences of pupils living far
from school.
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), a qualitative

research is involving an interpretive naturalistic approach to the
world. This means that qualitative research study things in
their natural setting, attempting to make sense of or interpret
phenomena in terms of the meaning of people bring to them.
This study was anchored on the theoretical perspective of

interpretivism in order to have deeper understanding of the
experiences of pupils who are living far from school. Interpretivism
refers to approaches emphasizing the meaningful nature of people’s
participation in social and cultural life.
Klein and Myers (1999) considered that interpretivism plays

a crucial role in interpretive research in information systems. Theory
is used as a “sensitizing device “to view the world in a certain way.
Particular observations can be related to the abstract

categories and to ideas and concepts that apply to multiple
situations.
Narrative is a powerful tool or methodology in sharing of

knowledge and it captures the emotions of the moments described.
Narrative is a way of characterizing phenomena of human
experiences and its study which is appropriate to many social science
fields.
According to Bamberg and Mc Cabe (2011), narrative inquiry

is devoted to providing a forum for theoretical, empirical and
methodological work on narrative. It draws upon a variety of
approaches and methodologies as a way to give contour to
387
experience and life, conceptualize and preserve memories, or hand

down experience and values to future generations.
Based on the definition of D. J. Clandinin and F.M. Connelly

(1999), narrative inquiry is a method that uses stories, autobiography,
field notes,journals, interviews, conversations, family stories and life
experiences as data sources. It focuses on the organization of human
knowledge more than merely the collection and processing of data.
It also implies that knowledge itself is considered valuable and note
worthy even known by only one person.
Objective of the Study
This qualitative study aimed to understand the experiences

of pupils who are living far from school.
Specifically, this study sought answers to the following questions:
1. What are the experiences of the pupils living far from school?
Methodology
This study aimed to describe the struggles, challenges and

happiness as well as the lessons learned by the pupils living far from
school.
The study used a qualitative format of research to have

suitable ideas about describing experiences of pupils living very far
from school.
In order to describe the experiences of pupils living far from

school, the qualitative study using interpretivist perspective took the
methods of narrative inquiry.
Czarniawska 's and Franzosi's (2004), the definition of

narrative identified the plot present in the story that ties together of
different parts of events, experiences or actions into a meaningful
whole.
388
It is based firmly in the premise that, as human beings, people come

to understand and give meaning to their lives through story
(Andrews, Squire and Tambokou (2008).
Aside from interviews, a number of data collection method

were used like letters, conversations, interviews, journals, field notes,
photos, family stories and life experiences (Clandinin and Connelly,
1999).These were used as basis of getting information and capturing
different stories and life experiences that happen in the lives of the
respondent.
Participants/Respondents
The respondents of the study were three grade six pupils of

Aglanot Elementary School who were living far from school. These
pupils live between 2 to 4 kilometers away from school. Their ages
vary from 12 and above and were purposively selected by the
researchers.
The respondents in this study were selected based on their

free consent and experiences regarding home and school
distance.The participants and parents’ consent to become the
subjects of the study were solicited first after rapport was
established with them. With due respect to the respondents, other
sensitive information about their personal data were not divulged to
remain its confidentiality. Important information told by the
respondents themselves were considered.
Data Gathering Instrument
For the purpose of this study, the researcher made an

interview guide. It contained questions which focused on pupils’
personal experiences such as happiness, struggles and challenges as
well as their lessons learned by living far from school. The teachers,
parents, some relatives of the respondents and friends discussed and
gave further information about the experiences of these pupils.
With the consent of the respondents, recorders were used

during the story telling, with the agreement not to publish the said
recording but with the purpose to validate what they said.
389
Data Gathering Procedure
The researchers initially discussed with the adviser the

experiences of the pupils living far from school. The adviser
suggested that qualitative research will be used in the study. After
it, permit of the study was made. The researchers talked and met
with each other and the adviser talked about the initial plan in
conducting the study. After an hour discussion, the researchers
decided to go to Aglanot Elementary School where the study was
conducted. The researchers need to have an amount of money to
spend for fare in riding motorcycle in 52 kilometers travel from Tina,
Dumarao, Capiz to the town of Dumarao.
Prior to that event, a dialogue was made between the

researcher and the principal of the school regarding the study. The
researcher gathered information from the principal and identified
who were those pupils qualified as the respondents.
After listing the names of those pupils, the researchers chose three
pupils who had the most interesting stories from the initial interview.
The researchers met the respondents and asked whether

they were willing to be part of the study, and they positively
responded to the request.
Permission was also asked from the parents through letters

regarding the approval of making their child as a respondent. The
researchers visited the place of the respondents to experience how
far they walk or how the scenario happened to these pupils during
class days. The researchers personally interviewed the respondents
with their consent to honestly answer the given questions in the
areas of concern of the study.
The one -on - one interview with the respondents was at

least one to two hours, depending on their willingness, responses
and readiness to answer the questions. The whole event was a
recollection of their stories which was gathered through individual
interviews. Rapport was established with the participants by starting
with non- threatening questions. Smooth and spontaneous
interaction was facilitated between the researchers and the
respondents. In this study, the researchers were directly involved in
gathering the data, no other persons were allowed to see any
390
information in the study to secure its privacy. Thereafter, the data

were gathered and subjected for data analysis or triangulation.

1. The study found out that pupils who lived far from school
experienced walking under the rain, tracing some muddy
and slippery roads, tracing uneven path, feeling the cold rain
and breeze of the air and enduring their tired bodies as they
walk everyday from home to school.
2. The feeling of happiness helped these pupils to continue
their pursuit of knowledge despite the hardships they met in
their lives. They also felt happy in school because they were
inspired by their teachers who create difference in their
lives.
3. At the end, they learned the value of perseverance,
commitment and sacrifice towards the goal that they need
to attain in their life and poverty is not a hindrance to success
in life. They feel blessed that they were in school because
they were lucky enough to acquire education in spite of the
situation that they were living far from school. They believed
that success comes within a person who is full of patience
and faith in God. They realized that patience should be the
virtue of every individual who lived far from school in order
to strive, to continue and to undertake challenges in order
to succeed.
Conclusion
1. The pupils living far from school believed that the distance
of their home to school does not urge them to stop or quit
schooling, instead they considered these as a challenge that
gave them strength and courage to face the problems or the
demands in their lives.
2. One of their major goals is to liberate their family from

poverty. Their family served as an inspiration for them to
study very hard, to strive as they valued the sacrifices and
391
hardships of their parents. According to them, they could

pay back the sacrifices of their parents if they pursue to
finish their studies without any let up and hesitations.
3. They also felt happy as they made footprints in the mud

every day. They still perceived good life, by having positive
disposition in their lives.
4. Commitment, hard work , perseverance and sacrifices were

the ingredients to attain their goals in life. They also had
strengthened their faith in God as they go along with their
journey in life.
References
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International

InternationalEditors/Consultants NationalEditors/Consultants EditorialBoard

Sawitri Suwanaroa, Ph. D. Alfredo S. Eustaquio, MBA (cand.)

Filoteo B Franco, Jr., MLS, RL

Research and Publication Unit (RPU)

Copyright by Universidad de Zamboanga

Book Cover and Design: Ms. Radzhata K. Sawadjaan

All rights reserved.

Printed in the Philippines

The International Social Science Review (ISSR) of the

The editorial board requires a standardized format and

All papers submitted for publication will be sent to the panel of

Patient Turnover, Nursing Workloads and Outcomes 21

Impact Assessment on the Effectiveness of the Magsasaka 36

Nurses’ Attitudes toward Nursing Research 59

Impact of the Zamboanga Siege on Women 77

Functional Adequacy of Computer Laboratory Facilities 90

An Exploratory Analysis of the Development of 142

Collective Efforts and Interdisciplinary Approach to 154

Learning by Doing: Challenges and Opportunities in 175

The Enduring Silence in Violence in the Nursing Workforce: 192

Social Networking and Second Language Acquisition: 214

An Analysis on Error Production among Chavacano 244

Analyzing War Experiences of Combat Soldiers in the 260

Pagsusuring Panleksikograpiya sa mga Salitang Bakla 283

Influence of Anti-Smoking Campaigns among 333

Paying School Fees through Wastes: Experiences and 345

Environmental Awareness and Practices of Science 353

The Mindanao Death March: Establishing a Historical 371

Lived Experiences of Pupils Living Far from School 385

Keywords: Manay, wildlife, Bantay Dagat, IEC, MENRO

The law was enacted to protect our country's fauna from

As one of the LGU's in the Southeastern part of the Davao

Disturbing coastal wildlife may have a great effect on the

Framework of the Study

Marine wildlife such as coral reefs, dugong, dolphins, and

A concept of knowing the implementation by the

The study also looked into three (3) aspects, namely;

There were different activities that can be related to the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR),

Objectives of the Study

This research aimed to evaluate the implementation of RA

a. How does the Municipal Environment and Natural

This section describes the overall aspect of the research

Data Collection Method

The researcher got permission from Hon. Antero L.

Results and Discussion

Source: MPDO Manay

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Age Bracket for the Community Respondents

The researcher grouped the respondents according to the

The bracket 31-40, who represented the “Working Age

The age beacket 41-50 years of age bracket were generally

For 51-60 years age bracket, these people in the “Early

The figure above represents the number of respondents for

Implementation of the MENRO Manay

The solution – as Tubigon municipality saw it – was to adopt

It shows that there were limited activities of the

Transportation of wildlife may be dangerous to the wildlife

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ART. 3, SEC. 4 OF RA 9147 IN YOUR AREA

On the research done, there were 43 or 50.42% of the

On the Radio Campaign Matters, only 4 or 4.70% have heard

There are 39 or 45.88% of the respondents who responded