Article

Solar Hybrid Micro Gas Turbine Based

on Turbocharger
Christos Kalathakis * ID
, Nikolaos Aretakis ID
and Konstantinos Mathioudakis ID

Laboratory of Thermal Turbomachines, School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of

Athens, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Zografou, Athens, Greece; naret@central.ntua.gr (N.A.);
kmathiou@central.ntua.gr (K.M.)
* Correspondence: chris@ltt.ntua.gr; Tel.: +30-210-772-1463




Received: 7 June 2018; Accepted: 27 July 2018; Published: 1 August 2018


Abstract: The performance of solar hybrid Brayton cycle materialized by a micro-gas turbine based
on a turbocharger is studied. The use of a turbocharger is aimed at investment cost reduction and
construction simplification. Two configurations are investigated, namely hybrid and solar-only.
Design aspects are discussed, in view of the requirement for minimizing the cost of electricity
produced. A key parameter is the turbine inlet temperature and its effect on performance is
investigated. The effect of heliostat field size is also investigated. Augmentation of the maximum
temperature leads to better performance, as a result of higher cycle efficiency. Solar-only configuration
features are compared with hybrid ones and the contribution of different cost components to the final
electricity cost is discussed.

Keywords: CSP; STPP; solar; gas turbine; turbocharger

1. Introduction
The first solar thermal power plant (STPP) built mainly uses troughs and oil as heat transfer
fluid (HTF), materializing a Rankine cycle [1]. While direct steam generation from troughs as well as
the use of other materials as HTF is still under investigation today [2–4], steam generation using a
tower receiver is already in commercial state either with the use of molten salts [5] or directly in the
receiver [6]. Solar thermal power in the Brayton cycle is used to preheat the air before it enters the
combustion chamber, in order to lower the needed amount of fuel. A heliostat field harnesses the Sun
beams and reflects them to a receiver, which is placed at the top of a tower. The compressed air is
fed into the receiver to be heated, before its entrance into the combustion chamber. Several European
Union (EU) funded projects [7–9] and research works study this option [10–13]. This technology is in
experimental stage [7–9].
The main difficulties encountered in the concept of this hybrid Brayton cycle are related to the
combustion chamber and the extraction of compressed air fed into the receiver. Higher thermal
stresses occur in the combustion chamber as a result of the higher inlet air temperature. Furthermore,
combustion stability problems may occur as a result of the wide fuel flow variation and high inlet air
temperature. Such difficulties have been studied by several groups [7–9]. The in-line arrangement
of modern gas turbine components makes redesign of the engine obligatory in order to permit the
extraction of air to be fed to the receiver [8,9,14].
Finally, in economic terms, installations with high power output are favored [15], but the use of
small gas turbines or microturbines (MGTs) in small scale plants (kW to MW scale) is recognized to
offer advantages in order to achieve lower investment cost [16].
The main problem with STPP today is that investment cost is high, resulting to high levelized
electricity cost (LEC) that makes them far from competitive with other renewable technologies. The fact

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27; doi:10.3390/asi1030027 www.mdpi.com/journal/asi

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 2 of 14

that mass production would be necessary in order to reduce the capital cost of CSP plants has
been recognized and addressed in recent publications [17]. The idea behind the present work is
to investigate if STPPs can be materialized by using low-cost components, taking advantage of
existing mature technologies in other fields. The possibility of using a turbocharger (T/C) in the solar
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
hybrid MGT scheme and its performance is investigated. Turbochargers for reciprocating engines
are mass-produced,
fact that mass their cost being
production would thus comparatively
be necessary in order tolower
reduce than
the other
capitalturbo-components,
cost of CSP plants hasbecause
of economies of scale. Furthermore, the use of a turbocharger has some
been recognized and addressed in recent publications [17]. The idea behind the present work advantages suchisastoeasy air
extraction to feed the receiver.
investigate if STPPs can be materialized by using low-cost components, taking advantage of existing
mature technologies in other fields. The possibility of using a turbocharger
Both solar-only and hybrid schemes are studied, while their performance is assessed (T/C) in the solar hybrid for three
MGT scheme and its performance is investigated. Turbochargers for reciprocating engines are
maximum cycle temperatures. For every scheme, an optimum rotational speed schedule is determined
mass-produced, their cost being thus comparatively lower than other turbo-components, because of
and used. The effect of heliostat field size on performance (produced energy and electricity cost) is
economies of scale. Furthermore, the use of a turbocharger has some advantages such as easy air
investigated, in order
extraction to feedtothe identify
receiver.the one that leads to the lower LEC.
The toolBoth
used to carry
solar-only and outhybrid
the engine
schemes performance studies
are studied, while theirisperformance
PROOSIS [18] utilizing
is assessed for TURBO
three [19]
maximum cycle temperatures. For every scheme, an optimum rotational
and SOLAR [20] libraries. It is noted that the performance of compressor and turbine components speed schedule is
determined
is represented and used.
by suitable The effect of maps,
performance heliostat field size onspeed,
interrelating performance (produced
mass flow energy and
rate pressure ratio and
electricity cost) is investigated, in order to identify the one that leads to the lower LEC.
efficiency, as is usually done for this kind of modelling. The maps for the studies presented in this
The tool used to carry out the engine performance studies is PROOSIS [18] utilizing TURBO [19]
paper have been produced
and SOLAR [20] libraries.using
It is the
notedsoftware TurboGENIUS
that the performance [21], which
of compressor and is basedcomponents
turbine on existing is widely
acceptedrepresented
methods by [22,23].
suitable performance maps, interrelating speed, mass flow rate pressure ratio and
efficiency, as is usually done for this kind of modelling. The maps for the studies presented in this
2. Design, Operation,
paper and Performance
have been produced Aspects
using the software TurboGENIUS [21], which is based on existing widely
accepted methods [22,23].
2.1. Design and Operation Aspects
2. Design, Operation, and Performance Aspects
A solar MGT based on a turbocharger (MGT-T/C) is materialized using a turbocharger, a receiver,
inlet and2.1.
outlet ducts,
Design a generator,
and Operation Aspectsand a burner in the case of the hybrid configuration. The generator
is coupled on the T/C
A solar MGT shaftbasedonon the compressor
a turbocharger side. A is
(MGT-T/C) high-speed
materializedgenerator, equipped with
using a turbocharger, a the
relevantreceiver,
electronics for connection
inlet and outlet ducts, atogenerator,
the network
and a is envisaged.
burner Alternatively,
in the case a gear box can
of the hybrid configuration. Thebe used
to matchgenerator
(reduce)ishigh
coupled on the T/C speed
turbocharger shaft on the that
with compressor side. A high-speed
of a generator, if the twogenerator,
rotational equipped
speeds cannot
with the relevant electronics for connection to the network is envisaged.
be directly matched. In the solar-only configuration operation exploits only the available solar Alternatively, a gear box energy,
can be used to match (reduce) high turbocharger speed with that of a generator, if the two rotational
while in hybrid configuration, solar energy substitutes (partially or entirely) the fossil fuel energy.
speeds cannot be directly matched. In the solar-only configuration operation exploits only the
Solar energy is captured
available solar energy,by while
the receiver,
in hybridwhich heats the
configuration, airenergy
solar after it exits the(partially
substitutes compressor. Solar beams
or entirely)
are concentrated on energy.
the fossil fuel the receiver by a heliostat
Solar energy field.
is captured by the receiver, which heats the air after it exits the
Thecompressor.
entire set Solar
up ofbeamsMGT-T/C is considered
are concentrated on theto be placed
receiver at the top
by a heliostat of the tower, instead of being
field.
placed on the ground, to avoid long piping to connect the engine with thetower,
The entire set up of MGT-T/C is considered to be placed at the top of the instead
receiver. The of layout
being of the
placed on the ground, to avoid long piping to connect the engine with the receiver. The layout of the
described configurations is depicted in Figure 1.
described configurations is depicted in Figure 1.

Receiver

Solar-only Hybrid Burner

Heliostats

Generator
Compressor Turbine

FigureFigure 1. Solar
1. Solar microturbines
microturbines basedon
based on aa turbocharger
turbocharger MGT-T/C
MGT-T/Cconfiguration.
configuration.
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 3 of 14

Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

A commercial, widely used turbocharger (SJ180 by Fuyuan turbo) has been selected for setting
up the A commercial, widely
configurations used
that will beturbocharger
studied. It is(SJ180 by Fuyuan
employed turbo)
in ship has been
generator 600selected for setting
kW diesel engines.
up the configurations that will be studied. It is employed
Design specifications for the T/C are summarized in Table 1. in ship generator 600 kW diesel engines.
Design specifications for the T/C are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Turbocharger design specifications.
Table 1. Turbocharger design specifications.

Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
AirAir
mass
massflow [kg/s]
flow [kg/s] 1.491.49
Compressor
Compressor isentropic
isentropic efficiency
efficiency 0.850.85
Turbine
Turbine isentropic
isentropic efficiency
efficiency 0.830.83
Pressure Ratio
Pressure Ratio 3.693.69
Speed [RPM] 52,000
Speed [RPM]
Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) [◦ C] 52,000400
Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) [°C] 400

Ducts,
Ducts,and andreceiver
receiver and heating
and heating elements
elements (burner)
(burner) areare
assumed
assumed to to
add adda pressure
a pressure drop
dropof of
2%2% each
at the design point [10,13]. The shaft/generator is assumed to have efficiency
each at the design point [10,13]. The shaft/generator is assumed to have efficiency of 98% [24,25]. of 98% [24,25].
Design
Designand andmanufacturing
manufacturing of of combustion
combustion chamberchamber for for useuse withwith T/CT/Chas hasalready
alreadybeen been
demonstrated, achieving ◦
demonstrated, achievinga aturbine
turbineinlet
inlettemperature
temperature of about about 800800 °CC[26,27].
[26,27].
The
Theheliostat
heliostatfieldfield consists of mirrors
consists of mirrorswith with 6464m2m 2 aperture
aperture [28] [28]
withwith reflectivity
reflectivity of 97%of[28].
97%The [28].
number of mirrors in this study is a design parameter, which should
The number of mirrors in this study is a design parameter, which should be chosen for minimizing be chosen for minimizing
electricity
electricity cost.Description
cost. Descriptionof ofmodelling
modelling of the heliostat
heliostat field
fieldisisincluded
includedininthe thesolar
solarcomponents
components
modeling
modeling tooltool producedby
produced bythe
theauthors
authors[20].
[20].
For
For given
given turbomachinerycomponents,
turbomachinery components, engine engine performance
performancedepends dependsmainly mainly onon turbine
turbineinlet
inlet
temperature (TIT). It is well known that the higher the TIT, the
temperature (TIT). It is well known that the higher the TIT, the better the engine performance. better the engine performance.
Increasing
Increasing TIT TIT however,makes
however, makesnecessary
necessary thethe use
use ofof more
more expensive
expensivematerials.
materials.Material
Material properties
properties
for the components employed, the turbine in particular, put limits as to how high the TIT can be. In
for the components employed, the turbine in particular, put limits as to how high the TIT can be.
view of these opposing trends, and in order to produce information that can be useful in choosing a
In view of these opposing trends, and in order to produce information that can be useful in choosing
design TIT, simulation of the performance of the studied MGT-T/C is carried out for different TIT
a design TIT, simulation of the performance of the studied MGT-T/C is carried out for different TIT
values. For the design specifications of Table 1, power and thermal efficiency are evaluated and
values. For the design specifications of Table 1, power and thermal efficiency are evaluated and
depicted in Figure 2. Power increases with TIT, while thermal efficiency achieves a maximum for
depicted in Figure 2. Power increases with TIT, while thermal efficiency achieves a maximum for
TIT of 850 °C. Here, three cases of turbine inlet temperature are studied: (a) 400 °C, because it is the
of 850 ◦ C.
TITnominal inletHere, threetemperature
turbine cases of turbine inletT/C;
of the temperature
(b) 800 °C, are studied:
because (a) it is400
◦
theC,maximum
because itone is the
nominal inlet turbine temperature of the T/C; (b) 800 ◦ C, because it is the maximum one experimentally
experimentally demonstrated [26,27] (while we are not sure if it is in within the limits of the specific
demonstrated
T/C used in[26,27] (while and
this work); we are(c) not
600sure
°C, ifthe
it isintermediate
in within theoflimits the of twotheinspecific
order T/C used in this
to establish a
work); and (c) 600 ◦ C, the intermediate of the two in order to establish a performance trend.
performance trend.
The
Thespecifications
specificationsofofsolar solarand
andother
othercomponents
components of the the MGT-T/C
MGT-T/Care aresummarized
summarized in in Table
Table 2. 2.

250 18
16
200 14
Thermal Efficiency [%]

12
Power [kW]

150
10
8
100
Power 6
Thermal Efficiency 4
50
2
0 0
350 550 750 950 1150
TIT [oC]

Figure
Figure 2. MGT-T/C
2. MGT-T/C power
power and thermal
and thermal efficiency
efficiency in function
in function of turbineofinlet
turbine inlet temperature.
temperature. TIT—turbine
TIT—turbine
inlet inlet temperature.
temperature.
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 4 of 14

Table 2. Added components design specifications.

Parameter Value
Heliostats
Reflectivity 0.97
Heat interception 1
Shading–Blocking 0.98
Aperture [m2 ] 64
Receiver
Absorptance 0.95
Optical efficiency 0.96
Emissivity 0.05
Engine Components
Ducts pressure drop 0.02
Receiver pressure drop 0.02
Burner pressure drop 0.02
Shaft/Generator efficiency 0.98
TIT [◦ C] (a) 400, (b) 600, (c) 800
Hybrid Setup
Fuel Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] 42.6
CO2 emissions [kgCO2 /MJfuel ] 0.07315

For our test case, hourly ambient data (DNI, ambient temperature, pressure, and humidity) for a
location in the south of the island of Crete, Greece were used by taking into account 10-year measured
data to produce the typical meteorological year [28].
A model of each configuration is used and performance is simulated in hourly intervals, taking
into account ambient conditions. Then, by integration, the annual figures are derived.
The continuous variation of the ambient conditions results in the off-design operation of
the studied configurations, which is taken into account during the simulation with the usage of
appropriate turbomachinery maps and the computation of time-changing loss factors for the solar part.
The simulation of the design and off-design operation of turbomachinery and solar components can be
found, in detail, in the literature [18–20,28].

2.2. Economic Aspects

Competitiveness and thus attractiveness of a plant are judged in terms of its economic
performance. The economic performance of an installation is best expressed using the levelized
electricity cost (LEC). Here, LEC is computed using Equation (1) below, which was derived from taking
into account the discussion in the literature [29–32].
     
N N N
DEP+ I NT DPT + I NT OP
PI − ∑ · TR + ∑ + ∑ · (1 − TR)
t =1 (1+r )t−0.5 t =1 (1+r )t−0.5
t =1 (1+r )t−0.5
LEC =   (1)
N
E
∑ · (1 − TR)
t =1(1+r )t−0.5

where: DEP: Depreciation; DPT: Loan Dept; INT: Loan Interest; N: Plant’s Life; t: Time; OP: Operating
Cost; PI: Privet Investments; r: Discount Rate; TR: Tax Rate; E: Energy.
This formula has some advantages compared with others (e.g., [30]), because it takes into account
accounting factors, such as the investment source type (private and/or loan), and the depreciation
and tax rate. Thus, plant economic performance can be determined for a variety of financing
cases. In order to apply this formula to compute LEC, economic data of the used components
are necessary. They include the cost for acquiring the installation (investment cost) and the cost
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 5 of 14

needed for operation (operational cost). Data for investment and operational cost were drawn from
publications of international organizations (e.g., IEA—International Energy Agency, NREL—National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, EIA—Energy Information Administration) [15,16,25], as presented by
Spelling et al. [33], as well as communication with manufacturers. Annual operational cost equal to 2%
of investment cost for turbomachinery components were considered, as proposed in the literature [25].
For components that are already mass produced and used in existing applications
(e.g., turbomachinery, generator, etc.), the investment and operational costs are not expected to
significantly change over time. On the other hand, solar components are not yet mass produced, and
thus the advancement and penetration of solar thermal technology is expected to lead to lower costs.
This applies in particular to the case of air type receiver, which is today in a rather experimental stage,
while mirrors are already used in commercial solar Rankine plants, with water/steam or molten salts
type receiver. In the particular application examined here, the relative low pressure and temperature
at the receiver would permit the selection of cost values lower than the ones used for this component,
which are current figures and obtained for receivers with pressure input from 10-bar and above.
Fuel cost can be the dominant factor to determine if a plant based on renewable energy sources
is more profitable compared with a conventional one, based on fossil fuel. As a result of a variety of
reasons, fuel price can change dramatically over time. For example, in the period 2012–2017, diesel
price has fluctuated between 0.98 $/gallon and 3.3 $/gallon [34]. Furthermore, the fuel cost can
significantly rise for remote locations because of the added transport cost.
In this study, carbon emissions cost is also taken into account. The methodology used for the
computation of the CO2 emissions is described in the literature [35].
Plant life is assumed to be 30 years, built solely by private investments, while the discount rate is
chosen to be 5% and constant. The used economic data are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Economic data. T/C—turbocharger.

Component Value
Investment Cost
T/C [USD] 2000
Burner [USD] 10,000
Generator [USD] 50,000
Mirrors [USD/m2 ] 200
Tower/Receiver [USD/MWth] 231,000
Annual Operational Cost
T/C [USD] 2% of Inv. Cost
Burner [USD] 2% of Inv. Cost
Generator [USD] 2% of Inv. Cost
Mirrors [USD/m2 ] 1.1
Tower/Receiver [USD/MWth] 11,400
Tower/Receiver [USD/MWhth] 0.68
Fuel [USD/t] 465
CO2 emissions [USD/t] 5

3. Results

3.1. Solar-Only MGT-T/C

This configuration operates solely on solar energy. The compressed air is heated in the receiver
by the solar power and then expands through the turbine. The achievable TIT depends solely on
the available solar power. Furthermore, the receiver outlet temperature is limited to be equal to the
TIT (specified in a particular design). When irradiance is so high that it could drive the receiver
outlet temperature above the limit, then the outlet temperature is set to a value equal to the limit,
by defocusing an appropriate number of mirrors in the heliostat field. Before presenting results of
 Syst. Innov.
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2,
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14

performance calculations of this set up, it is useful to comment on some aspects of its operation and
performance calculations of this set up, it is useful to comment on some aspects of its operation
control.
and control.
Considering the use of a variable speed generator and/or power electronics, variable shaft
speedConsidering
is allowable. theWhen
use ofirradiation
a variable speedis suchgenerator
that TIT and/orfor a given power electronics,
mass flow rate variable
is lower shaft
thanspeed
the
is allowable. When irradiation is such that TIT for a given mass
desired TIT, shaft speed is reduced, leading to lower mass flow and thus higher receiver flow rate is lower than the desired TIT,
shaft speed is(TIT),
temperature reduced, given leading to lowersolar
the available massthermal
flow and thus higher
power. receiver of
The reduction temperature
air mass flow (TIT), given
and the
the available solar thermal power. The reduction of air mass flow
augmentation of the TIT have opposing effects on the power output. In order to optimize the engine and the augmentation of the TIT
have opposing
performance toeffects
produce on the
thepower
maximum output. In order
possible to optimize
power, the optimumthe engine performance
speed value fortodifferent
produce
the maximum
receiver thermal possible
input power,
values the wasoptimum
determined, speedand valuethus forthe
different
speed receiver
schedule thermal input values
was obtained and
was determined, and
utilized in the presented work. thus the speed schedule was obtained and utilized in the presented work.
The installation
The installation can can be
be operational
operational when when the the thermal
thermal input input leads
leads to to turbine
turbine powerpower higher
higher than
than
the one
the oneneeded
neededbyby thethecompressor.
compressor. Thus, therethere
Thus, is a minimum
is a minimum thermal thermal
input forinput sustainable operation,
for sustainable
at which turbine and compressor powers are equal. For thermal
operation, at which turbine and compressor powers are equal. For thermal inputs higher than this inputs higher than this minimum, net
output power is available for electricity generation. Furthermore,
minimum, net output power is available for electricity generation. Furthermore, this minimum value this minimum value depends on the
ambient conditions.
depends on the ambient For example,
conditions. increase of the ambient
For example, increasetemperature
of the ambient leads to the augmentation
temperature leads to the of
the minimum value because compressor power demand is increased.
augmentation of the minimum value because compressor power demand is increased. In order to In order to determine when this
configuration
determine whencan be thisoperational,
configuration the minimum thermal inputthe
can be operational, value is computed
minimum considering
thermal different
input value is
ambient conditions.
computed considering different ambient conditions.
These operation
These operationaspects aspectsare areincorporated
incorporated in in a simulation
a simulation model model of the
of the installation
installation studiedstudied
and
and different scenarios for design parameters are considered.
different scenarios for design parameters are considered. The performance of the solar-only The performance of the solar-only
configuration is is computed
computed for for the
the three
three values
values of of TIT
TIT (400,
(400, 600600 andand 800 ◦ C) for a different number of
800 °C)
configuration for a different number of
mirrors andand isis depicted
depictedin inFigure
Figure33(for (forthethecase
caseofofTIT TIT==400 400°C),◦ C), in terms of produced energy over
mirrors in terms of produced energy over a
a year
year andLEC.
and LEC.For ForeacheachTIT,
TIT,yearly
yearlyproduced
producedenergy energyincreases
increaseswith withthethe number
number of of mirrors,
mirrors, while
while
LEC becomes minimum for a particular number. Energy production
LEC becomes minimum for a particular number. Energy production for the three TITs are shown in for the three TITs are shown in
Figure 4.
Figure For aa given
4. For given number
number of of mirrors,
mirrors,energyenergyoutputoutputincreases
increasessignificantly
significantlyasasTIT TIT increases.
increases. This
Thisis
a direct consequence of the increase of thermal efficiency shown
is a direct consequence of the increase of thermal efficiency shown in Figure 2 and the higher in Figure 2 and the higher receiver
temperature
receiver limit, which
temperature limit,permits the exploitation
which permits of a larger
the exploitation of aamount of the available
larger amount solar energy.
of the available solar
A given number of mirrors correspond to a certain amount of
energy. A given number of mirrors correspond to a certain amount of solar energy captured by thesolar energy captured by the heliostat
field. Thefield.
heliostat higher Thethe TIT, the
higher thehigher
TIT, the the efficiency
higher and the higher
the efficiency and the the exploitable
higher amount of
the exploitable the solar
amount of
energy.
the solarAenergy.
furtherAconsequence is the reduction
further consequence of the corresponding
is the reduction of the correspondingLEC shown LECin shown
Figure 5. in For the
Figure
same
5. For investment, the usefulthe
the same investment, output
usefulis more,
outputthus the unit
is more, thuscosttheisunitlower.cost is lower.

80 720
70 700

60 680
Energy [MWh/y]

LEC [USD/MWh]

660
50
640
40
620
30
600
20 Energy 580
10 LEC
560
0 540
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Number of Mirrors

Figure 3. Performance of solar-only configuration for TIT = 400 ◦ C. LEC—levelized electricity cost.
Figure 3. Performance of solar-only configuration for TIT = 400 °C. LEC—levelized electricity cost.
 Appl. Innov.
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500
500
450 TIT=800oC
450 TIT=800oC
400
400
350

[MWh/y]
350

Energy[MWh/y]
300 TIT=600oC
300 TIT=600oC
250
250
200
Energy
200
150
150
100 TIT=400oC
100 TIT=400oC
50
50
0
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of Mirrors
Number of Mirrors

Figure 4. Yearly
Figure energy
4. Yearly energyoutput
output from differentsolar-only
from different solar-only configurations.
configurations.
Figure 4. Yearly energy output from different solar-only configurations.

800
800
700
700 TIT=400oC
600 TIT=400oC
600
[USD/MWh]
LEC[USD/MWh]

500
500
400
400
300 TIT=600oC
300 TIT=600oC TIT=800oC
LEC

200 TIT=800oC
200
100
100
0
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of Mirrors
Number of Mirrors
Figure 5.5.LEC
Figure LECfor
fordifferent solar-onlyconfigurations.
different solar-only configurations.
Figure 5. LEC for different solar-only configurations.

3.2. Solar
3.2. Solar Hybrid
Hybrid MGT-T/C
MGT-T/C
3.2. Solar Hybrid MGT-T/C
The operation of the solar-only MGT T/C configuration, and thus its power output, is
The operation
The operation of theofsolar-only MGT MGT
the solar-only T/C configuration,
T/C configuration, and thusand its power
thus output,output,
its power is determined
is
determined by the solar power available. Power output is available while solar thermal input is
determined
by the solar power by the solar power
available. Power available.
output is Power output
available is available
while while solar
solar thermal inputthermal input is
is available.
available.
available.
Controlled power availability can be provided if a solar hybrid MGT T/C configuration is
Controlled power availability can be provided if a solar hybrid MGT T/C configuration is
employed. Controlled
In In power
thisthis availability
configuration, can be provided if a solar hybrid MGT T/C configuration is
employed. configuration, aa burner componentis isemployed
burner component employed after
after the the receiver
receiver (Figure(Figure
1). 1).
employed. In this configuration, a burner component is employed after the receiver (Figure 1).
During operation,
During operation, if the
if theavailable
availablesolar
solarpower
power is is not
notadequate
adequate toto heat
heat thethe
air air
to theto the desired
desired TIT, the
TIT, the
During operation, if the available solar power is not adequate to heat the air to the desired TIT, the
appropriate
appropriate amountamount of fuelof fuel is burned
is burned andandthethe desired
desired TIT TIT value
value is is achieved.For
achieved. Foroperating
operating hours
hours with
appropriate amount of fuel is burned and the desired TIT value is achieved. For operating hours
with
zero with zero
solarzero solar
thermal thermal power, the configuration operates as a usual fuel-only gas turbine, while for
solar power,
thermal the configuration
power, operates
the configuration as a usual
operates fuel-only
as a usual gasgas
fuel-only turbine,
turbine,while
whileforforhours
hours
with hours with high
high irradiation irradiation
for which the for which the
desiredtheTIT desired TIT
is achieved is achieved solely by the solar power, the
with high irradiation for which desired TIT is solely
achieved by solely
the solarby power,
the solarthe configuration
power, the
configuration operates without fuel as the solar-only one. In order to maximize the produced power,
operates without fuel as the solar-only one. In order to maximize the produced
configuration operates without fuel as the solar-only one. In order to maximize the produced power, power, the operating
the operating scenario is chosen to be continuous operation with constant TIT.
scenario is chosenscenario
the operating to be continuous
is chosen tooperation
be continuous withoperation
constantwith TIT.constant TIT.
Performance in terms of annual energy output on LEC of the hybrid configuration for TIT of
Performance
Performance in in terms
terms of of annual
annual energy
energy outputon
output onLECLECofofthe thehybrid
hybrid configuration
configuration for forTITTITofof 400,
400, 600, and 800 °C is depicted in Figures 6–8, as it was done for the solar only configuration above.
400,
600, and 600, ◦and 800 °C is depicted in Figures 6–8, as it was done for the solar only configuration above.
For 800 C is depicted
the hybrid in Figures
configuration, the 6–8, as it was
produced powerdone is for
almostthe solar
constantonlywhile
configuration
varying the above. For the
size of
Forconfiguration,
hybrid the hybrid configuration, thepower
produced powerconstant
is almostwhile constant whilethe varyingofthe size of
heliostat field. Thisthe is a produced
direct consequence istoalmost
the constant TIT. The needed varying
thermal sizepower to heliostat
achieve field.
heliostat field. This is a direct consequence to the constant TIT. The needed thermal power to achieve
This the
is a desired
direct consequence
TIT is continuously to the available
constant to TIT.theThe needed
engine fromthermal power toofachieve
the combination fuel andthe desired
solar
the desired TIT is continuously available to the engine from the combination of fuel and solar
TIT is continuously available to the engine from the combination of fuel and solar thermal power.
Furthermore, the increase of the maximum TIT is favorable for the produced energy and LEC because
the engine operates at higher efficiency and the fuel and solar thermal power are exploited more
effectively. Energy production and LEC for the three TITs are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively.
 Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14
thermal
Appl. Syst. power.
Innov. 2018, 1,Furthermore,
27 the increase of the maximum TIT is favorable for the produced energy 8 of 14
thermal
and LECpower.
because Furthermore, the increase
the engine operates of the efficiency
at higher maximumand TITthe
is favorable
fuel and forsolarthethermal
produced energy
power are
and LEC because
exploited the engine
more effectively. operates
Energy at higher
production efficiency
and LEC forand the fuel
the three and
TITs aresolar
shown thermal power
in Figures are
7 and
exploited
8, more
respectively. effectively.
Energy is Energy production
independent of the and LEC
number for
of the three
mirrors inTITs
all are shown
cases.
Energy is independent of the number of mirrors in all cases. LEC decreases with increasing TIT, LEC in Figures
decreases 7 and
with
8,itrespectively.
whileincreasing
showsTIT, Energy
while
a less is independent
it shows
pronounced a less
trend of the
pronounced
for number of mirrors
trend for
an optimum. in all Itcases.
anisoptimum.
It interesting is to LEC decreases
interesting
work out workwith
to that ofout
higher
increasing TIT, while it shows a less pronounced trend for an optimum.
that of higher temperature, LEC is more than the corresponding value for the solar-only It is interesting to work out
temperature, LEC is more than the corresponding value for the solar-only configuration (Figure 5).
that of higher(Figure
configuration temperature,
5). This LEC is more than
is a consequence corresponding
of the fact that in this value for the
case, most solar-only
of the energy
This is a consequence of the fact that in this case, most of the energy produced comes from the fuel
configuration
produced comes(Figure 5). fuel
from the This input,
is a consequence of the with
which is converted fact that in this low
a relatively case, most of the energy
efficiency.
input, which is converted with a relatively low efficiency.
produced comes from the fuel input, which is converted with a relatively low efficiency.
250 600
250 600
590
200
590
200
[MWh/y]

[USD/MWh]
580
[MWh/y]

[USD/MWh]
150 580
150 570
Energy

100 570
Energy

LECLEC
100 Energy 560
LEC
Energy 560
50 LEC 550
50
550
0 540
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 540
5 10 15
Number20 of Mirrors25 30 35
Number of Mirrors
Figure 6. Performance of hybrid configuration for TIT = 400 °C.
Figure 6. Performance of hybrid configuration for TIT = 400 ◦ C.
Figure 6. Performance of hybrid configuration for TIT = 400 °C.

1400
1400 TIT=800oC
1200 TIT=800oC
1200
1000
[MWh/y]

1000 TIT=600oC
[MWh/y]

800
TIT=600oC
800
Energy

600
Energy

600
400
400 TIT=400oC
200
TIT=400oC
200
0
0 0 30 40 10
50 20
60 70
0 30 of Mirrors
Number 40 10
50 20
60 70
Number of Mirrors
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
Figure 7. Yearly energy output from different hybrid configurations.
Figure 7. Yearly energy output from different hybrid configurations.
Figure 7. Yearly energy output from different hybrid configurations.
800
700
600 TIT=400oC
LEC [USD/MWh]

500
400
TIT=600oC
300 TIT=800oC
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of Mirrors

Figure 8. LEC for different hybrid configurations.

Figure 8. LEC for different hybrid configurations.

4. Discussion
As shown above, for a given TIT, there is an optimum number of mirrors, for which LEC is
minimized. The optimum LEC and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors in
function of TIT for solar-only and hybrid configurations are summarized in Figures 9 and 10,
respectively. The performance in the studied range (400–800 °C) is depicted with the solid line, while
 L
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 9 of 14
Number of Mirrors

4. Discussion Figure 8. LEC for different hybrid configurations.

4.As shown above, for a given TIT, there is an optimum number of mirrors, for which LEC is
Discussion
minimized. The optimum LEC and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors
As shown above, for a given TIT, there is an optimum number of mirrors, for which LEC is
in function of TIT for solar-only and hybrid configurations are summarized in Figures 9 and 10,
minimized. The optimum LEC and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors in
◦ C) is depicted with the solid line, while
respectively.
function of TheTITperformance
for solar-onlyin the
andstudied
hybrid range (400–800 are
configurations summarized in Figures 9 and 10,
the dotted line depicts
respectively. the performance
The performance of the studied
in the studied configurations
range (400–800 if theywith
°C) is depicted could theoperate with
solid line, higher
while
turbine inlet temperature.
the dotted line depicts the performance of the studied configurations if they could operate with
For the
higher solar-only
turbine configuration, it is observed that the produced power increases with the size of
inlet temperature.
heliostatFor field.theThis happens
solar-only because of it
configuration, theis fact that the
observed thatgiven thermal power
the produced is only from
power increases withthe
theSun,
size and
thusofbigger
heliostat field. This
heliostat happens
fields resultbecause
in higherof the fact that
amount the given
of given thermal
thermal powerFurthermore,
power. is only from the Sun, of
increase
and thus bigger
the maximum TIT isheliostat
favorable fields
becauseresult in higher
it results amount
in an of given
increased thermalIncrease
efficiency. power. of Furthermore,
the TIT results
increase
in energy of the maximum
increase and LEC TIT is favorable
decrease, because
but with it results
declining in an
rates increased
(Figure efficiency.
9) caused by Increase of the rate
the declining
TIT results in energy increase
of thermal efficiency augmentation (Figure 2). and LEC decrease, but with declining rates (Figure 9) caused by the
declining rate of thermal efficiency augmentation (Figure 2).
The comparison of solar-only and hybrid configurations shows that the solar-only configuration
The comparison of solar-only and hybrid configurations shows that the solar-only
is more favorable because it demonstrates lower LEC due to the relative low fuel thermal efficiency
configuration is more favorable because it demonstrates lower LEC due to the relative low fuel
of the hybrid
thermal configurations.
efficiency However,
of the hybrid this configuration
configurations. However, this hasconfiguration
the disadvantage has thethat the produced
disadvantage
power is dictated by the available solar power, while in the hybrid configuration,
that the produced power is dictated by the available solar power, while in the hybrid configuration, produced power is
available
produced at any powertime.is This disadvantage
available at any time. could
Thisbe overcome by
disadvantage using
could be energy
overcome storage configurations
by using energy
(e.g.,storage
batteries). Hybrid configuration could be set to operate as solar-only and
configurations (e.g., batteries). Hybrid configuration could be set to operate as solar-only set to hybrid/fuel
operation
and setonly when is mandatory.
to hybrid/fuel operation only when is mandatory.

60 700

600
LEC [$/MWh], Energy [MWh]
50
500
40
Nr. of Mirrors

400
30
300
20
200
10 100
Nr. Mirrors LEC Energy
0 0
300 500 700 900 1100
TIT [oC]

Figure 9. Optimum LEC value and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors for
Figure 9. Optimum LEC value and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors for
each TIT (solar-only configuration).
eachAppl.
TITSyst.
(solar-only
Innov. 2018,configuration).
2, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

70 1800
1600
60
LEC [$/MWh], Energy [MWh]

1400
50
1200
Nr. of Mirrors

40 1000

30 800
600
20
400
10
200
Nr. Mirrors LEC Energy
0 0
300 500 700 900 1100
TIT [oC]

Figure 10. Optimum LEC value and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors for
Figure 10. Optimum LEC value and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors for
each TIT (hybrid configuration).
each TIT (hybrid configuration).
As mentioned above, fuel cost value can vary, and thus the optimum LEC obtained for the
hybrid configurations may alter. In order to examine the effect of fuel cost on the performance of
hybrid configuration, the optimum LEC was obtained for three fuel cost values: the two extreme
ones for the period of 2012–2017 mentioned earlier and an intermediate one, the one of Table 3. The
values obtained together with the one for the solar-only configuration are shown in Figure 11. Fuel
cost has a strong impact on the economic performance of the plant. While solar-only LEC is
 400

LEC
10
200
Nr. Mirrors LEC Energy
0 0
300 500 700 900 1100
TIT [oC]
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 10 of 14
Figure 10. Optimum LEC value and the corresponding produced energy and number of mirrors for
each TIT (hybrid configuration).
As mentioned above, fuel cost value can vary, and thus the optimum LEC obtained for the hybrid
As mentioned
configurations above,
may alter. fuel cost
In order value can the
to examine vary, and of
effect thus thecost
fuel optimum
on theLEC obtained forofthe
performance hybrid
configuration, the optimum LEC was obtained for three fuel cost values: the two extreme ones of
hybrid configurations may alter. In order to examine the effect of fuel cost on the performance for the
hybrid configuration, the optimum LEC was obtained for three fuel cost values: the two extreme
period of 2012–2017 mentioned earlier and an intermediate one, the one of Table 3. The values obtained
ones for the period of 2012–2017 mentioned earlier and an intermediate one, the one of Table 3. The
together with the one for the solar-only configuration are shown in Figure 11. Fuel cost has a strong
values obtained together with the one for the solar-only configuration are shown in Figure 11. Fuel
impact on the economic performance of the plant. While solar-only LEC is altogether lower than that
cost has a strong impact on the economic performance of the plant. While solar-only LEC is
for hybrid, for “medium”
altogether and for
lower than that “high” fuelfor
hybrid, cost, the trend
“medium” reverses
and “high” for
fuel“low” fueltrend
cost, the cost. reverses
Furthermore,
for it
was found
“low” that for higher
fuel cost. cost, the
Furthermore, optimum
it was LECfor
found that is higher
obtainedcost,with a higher LEC
the optimum number of mirrors,
is obtained with asa can
be seen in Figure
higher number 12.
of mirrors, as can be seen in Figure 12.

1200

1000
High fuel cost
Medium fuel cost
LEC [USD/MWh]

800
Low fuel cost
Solar-only
600

400

200

0
300 500 700 900 1100
TIT [oC]
Figure 11. Hybrid configuration optimum LEC value for three fuel cost values.
Figure
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 11. Hybrid
2, x FOR PEERconfiguration
REVIEW optimum LEC value for three fuel cost values. 11 of 14

120
High fuel cost
Medium fuel cost
100
Low fuel cost
Solar-only
80
Nr. of Mirrors

60

40

20

0
300 500 700 900 1100
TIT [oC]
Figure 12. Corresponding number of mirrors for optimum LEC value for three fuel cost values
Figure 12. Corresponding number of mirrors for optimum LEC value for three fuel cost values
(hybrid configuration).
(hybrid configuration).
The results presented here show that such a configuration may be promising, as economic
The results
results presented
for solar hybrid here
MGTshow
of 100that
kWsuch
showathat
configuration mayinbethe
the LECs vary promising, as economic
range of 250–700 $/MWh results
(according
for solar hybridtoMGT
the chosen
of 100set
kWup)show
[10], while theLECs
that the LEC ofvary
a typical
in thediesel
rangegenerator is about
of 250–700 500 $/MWh
$/MWh (according
to the[10].
chosen set up) [10], while the LEC of a typical diesel generator is about 500 $/MWh [10].
We sawWe that
saw inthat
theinsolar-only
the solar-only configuration
configuration the heliostat
the heliostat field field size stronger
size has has stronger
effecteffect on
on produced
produced energy than on the LEC. In other words, a bigger heliostat field will result in increased
energy than on the LEC. In other words, a bigger heliostat field will result in increased produced
produced energy with a relative low penalty on LEC. Deviations of produced power and LEC from
energy with a relative low penalty on LEC. Deviations of produced power and LEC from the values for
the values for minimum LEC, as the result of augmenting the heliostat field size, are shown in Figure
minimum LEC, as theincrease
13. A significant result of
ofaugmenting the heliostat
energy production can be field size,with
achieved are shown in Figure
a relatively small13. A significant
increase of
LEC (e.g., a 9.5% increase in energy is achieved with 1.8% increase of LEC).

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
results for solar hybrid MGT of 100 kW show that the LECs vary in the range of 250–700 $/MWh
(according to the chosen set up) [10], while the LEC of a typical diesel generator is about 500 $/MWh
[10].
We saw that in the solar-only configuration the heliostat field size has stronger effect on
produced energy than on the LEC. In other words, a bigger heliostat field will result in increased
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 11 of 14
produced energy with a relative low penalty on LEC. Deviations of produced power and LEC from
the values for minimum LEC, as the result of augmenting the heliostat field size, are shown in Figure
13. A significant
increase of energy increase of energy
production production
can be can be
achieved with achieved with
a relatively smallaincrease
relatively
ofsmall increase
LEC (e.g., of
a 9.5%
LEC (e.g.,inaenergy
increase 9.5% increase in energy
is achieved is achieved
with 1.8% with
increase 1.8% increase of LEC).
of LEC).

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
ΔLEC [%]

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ΔΕnergy [%]

Figure 13.
Figure Influence of
13. Influence of changes
changes in
in size
size of
of the
the heliostat
heliostat field
field on
on electricity
electricity cost.
cost.

As thisconfiguration
As this configuration hashas
notnot related
related operational
operational cost tocost to consumed
consumed fuel, but fuel, butof the
the cost cost of
electricity is
electricity is mainly affected by the investment cost, the breakdown of LEC value is
mainly affected by the investment cost, the breakdown of LEC value is performed in order to point outperformed in
order to point out
the components thehave
that components thateffect
the highest haveonthe highest
LEC. Costeffect on LEC.ofCost
components LECcomponents
are shown inofFigure
LEC are14.
shown
The solarin part,
Figure 14. The solar
specifically part, specifically
the mirrors, is the mainthe
costmirrors, is theAsmain
contributor. cost contributor.
the turbocharger As cost
is a low the
turbocharger
component, itisrepresents
a low costacomponent, it represents
minute contribution a minute
to the overallcontribution to thebeoverall
cost (this should cost (this
compared with
should be compared with other estimates where power generation turbines have been
other estimates where power generation turbines have been used and the contribution to the total used and cost
the
contribution to the
could be as high astotal
50%cost could
[25]). The be as high asrole
dominating 50%of[25]).
solarThe dominating
components onrole
LEC,offor
solar components
a solar MGT, is
also mentioned in the literature [17]. Configurations running solely on solar energy are capital cost
intensive, the solar components being the main cost contributors [36]. As long as the cost of such
components remains high, the low cost T/C is not a significant cost contributor, even though it is of
lower cost than micro gas turbine. If the solar components cost reduces, however, then the relative
importance of the turbine cost will be higher and the low cost T/C solution is expected to offer an
advantage over more expensive micro gas turbine arrangements.
A reduction of the cost of solar parts would have a strong effect on the overall LEC. This reduction
could be achieved when such configurations are in commercial stage and the needed components
are mass-produced. In order to estimate the effect of investment cost reduction on LEC, the value
of LEC is computed for various reduction rates of investment cost of solar components (mirrors and
receiver). The decrease of LEC in function of the reduction of the solar components cost reduction, for
the case of TIT = 800 ◦ C, is shown in Figure 15. Mirror cost reduction has a more pronounced effect on
LEC, as it is its main cost component. Significant reduction of solar components cost, such as those
that the photovoltaics market has experienced, could make this option competitive to conventional
electricity sources.
the value of LEC is computed for various reduction rates of investment cost of solar components
(mirrorsand
(mirrors andreceiver).
receiver).The Thedecrease
decreaseof ofLECLECin infunction
functionof
ofthe
thereduction
reductionofofthe
thesolar
solarcomponents
componentscostcost
reduction, for
reduction, for the
the case
case ofof TIT
TIT == 800
800 °C,°C, isis shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 15.
15. Mirror
Mirror cost
cost reduction
reduction has
has aa more
more
pronounced effect
pronounced effect on on LEC,
LEC, asas itit isis its
its main
main cost
cost component.
component. Significant
Significant reduction
reduction of
of solar
solar
components cost,
components cost, such
such as as those
those that
that thethe photovoltaics
photovoltaics market
market has
has experienced,
experienced, could
could make
make this
this
Appl.
optionSyst. Innov. 2018, 1,to
competitive 27 conventional electricity sources. 12 of 14
option competitive to conventional electricity sources.

200 197.31
197.31
200
43.78
43.78 OperatingCost
Operating Cost
150
150
34.54
34.54 Tower/Receiver
Tower/Receiver

100
100

Mirrors
Mirrors
110.81
110.81
50
50
Generator
Generator
7.87
7.87 T/C
T/C
00 0.31
0.31
LEC
LEC

Figure14. Breakdownof
14. Breakdown ofminimum
minimumLEC
LEC for
for the solar-onlyconfiguration
the solar-only
solar-only configurationand
configuration andthe
and theTIT
the TIT===800
TIT ◦°C
800 °C Ccase.
case.
Figure

00

-10
-10

-20
-20
[%]
ΔLEC [%]

-30
-30
ΔLEC

-40
-40

-50
-50
Receiver
Receiver
-60
-60 Mirrors
Mirrors
Mirrors+Receiver
Mirrors+Receiver
-70
-70
00 20
20 40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100
-ΔCost[%]
-ΔCost [%]

Figure
Figure 15.
Figure15. Electricity
15.Electricity cost
Electricitycost reduction
costreduction in
reductionin function
infunction ofsolar
functionof
of solarcomponents
solar componentscost
components costreduction.
cost reduction.
reduction.

5. Conclusions
The performance of solar-only and hybrid micro gas turbine installations that could be built
using diesel engine turbochargers was investigated. Ease of integration and relatively low cost make
turbochargers a good candidate for materializing a solar hybrid Brayton cycle.
Solar-only and hybrid configuration performance was assessed and the effect of turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) and number of mirrors was investigated. While increasing TIT favors the
performance of one particular configuration, the heliostat size expressed in terms of number of mirrors
can be optimized for minimizing the cost of electricity produced (LEC). The hybrid configurations
lead to higher than the solar-only LEC, unless fuel prices are very low.
The cost of solar components is the major contributor to building up LEC. It is shown that if the
cost of those components is significantly reduced, electricity can be produced with a competitive cost.

Author Contributions: Investigation, C.K. and N.A.; Methodology, C.K. and K.M.; Software, C.K. and N.A.;
Supervision, K.M.; Validation, C.K.; Writing—original draft, C.K.; Writing—review & editing, N.A. and K.M.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2018, 1, 27 13 of 14

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