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Experiment No: 1 Measurements of Pressure and Pressure Head by Piezometer, U-Tube Manometer
Experiment No: 1 Measurements of Pressure and Pressure Head by Piezometer, U-Tube Manometer
Experiment No: 1 Measurements of Pressure and Pressure Head by Piezometer, U-Tube Manometer
Objective:
To calibrate a Bourdon type pressure gage and to establish the calibration curve of Bourdon
Gage. Also determine the gage errors.
1. Apparatus:
1.1 Introduction
Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument accuracy. It
is the process of configuring an instrument to provide results within an acceptable range.
Known weights have been applied on a Dead Weight Calibrator to apply pressure to a fluid for
checking the accuracy of readings from a pressure gage.
Various types of pressure measuring instrument have been used to measure the pressure
intensity at any point in static or moving fluid. One of these devices is the Bourdon tube
pressure gage. Bourdon-tube pressure gages are most widely used now-a-days because of their
reliability, compactness, low cost and ease of use. It consists of a curved tube (Figure 1) of
elliptical cross-section bent into a circular arc.
The bourdon gage is the most popular pressure measuring device for both liquids and gasses. It
can be connected to any source of pressure such as a pipe or vessel containing a pressurized
fluid.
I. Bourdon Gage:
The Bourdon Gauge (Figure 2) is fitted with a transparent dial, which lets you see the internal
workings of the gauge. The gauge consists of a thin walled closed ended tube which is oval in
cross section. This tube is bent through an angle of about 270 o along its long axis. The open end
of the tube is welded to a hollow mounting block which allows the pressurized fluid to reach
the tube. This causes the pressure from the source to be transmitted directly to the inside of
the bourdon tube. The applied pressure causes the oval tube to become rounder (since a round
cross section has the maximum area for a given circumference). As it becomes rounder, the
bourdon tube tends to uncurl which causes its free end to move. A system of linkages and
levers transmits this motion to the gauge needle which moves over the scale.
A Platen is attached to the piston which can be loaded with a series of accurate weights.
The pressure developed in the cylinder is transmitted via a transparent tube to the gauge under
test. The cylinder is mounted on a base board which is supported on leveling screws and fitted
with a spirit level.
The use of the piston and weights with the cylinder generates a measurable reference
pressure:
Where,
Position the calibrator without the piston on the hydraulic bench top and ensure that
the base is horizontal by adjusting the feet and using the spirit level. This is necessary to
ensure vertical transfer of the applied load and free rotation of the piston.
Open all cocks on the pressure gage base.
Connect the inflow cock to the bench flow connector and the outflow cock to the lower
tube from the calibrator cylinder.
Open slowly the bench valve to produce a flow, tilt the pressure gage to ensure that air
is driven out from the manifold and then close the middle cock on the manifold.
When there is no further air emerging and the calibrator cylinder is full, close the bench
valve and the inflow cock on the manifold.
1.5 Procedure:
2. Note down the weight of the piston and it’s cross sectional area.
3. Remove the piston and pour the water into the cylinder until it is full to overflow level.
Any air trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the apparatus.
4. Insert the piston carefully and spin it to minimize any friction effects.
6. Add the weights in convenient increments, and at each increment, observe the pressure
gage reading.
Note: If due to the slight leakage, piston reaches the cylinder bottom, more water must
be added to the cylinder.
1.6 Table of Observations and Calculations:
Note: Also, show the sample calculation to calculate the Relative Error and Percent Error.
2. The objective is to validate Bernoulli’s assumptions and theorem by experimentally proving that the
sum of the terms in the Bernoulli equation along a streamline always remains a constant.
Apparatus Required:
Apparatus for the verification of Bernoulli’s theorem and measuring tank with stop watch setup for
measuring the actual flow rate.
THEORY:
The Bernoulli theorem is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation,
and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible. The
equation is obtained when the Euler’s equation is integrated along the streamline for a constant
density (incompressible) fluid. The constant of integration (called the Bernoulli’s constant) varies from
one streamline to another but remains constant along a streamline in steady, frictionless,
incompressible flow. Despite its simplicity, it has been proven to be a very powerful tool for fluid
mechanics.
Bernoulli’s equation states that the “sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head), the pressure
energy (static head) and Potential energy (elevation head) per unit weight of the fluid at any point
remains constant” provided the flow is steady, irrotational, and frictionless and the fluid used is
incompressible. This is however, on the assumption that energy is neither added to nor taken away by
some external agency. The key approximation in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation is that viscous
effects are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. We can write the
theorem as
P V2
Pressure head ( )+ Velocity head ( )+ Elevation (Z) = a constant
g 2g
The Bernoulli’s equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow problems
such as jets issuing from an orifice, jet trajectory, flow under a gate and over a weir, flow
metering by obstruction meters, flow around submerged objects, flows associated with pumps
and turbines etc.
The equipment is designed as a self-sufficient unit it has a sump tank, measuring tank and a
pump for water circulation as shown in figure1. The apparatus consists of a supply tank, which is
connected to flow channel. The channel gradually contracts for a length and then gradually enlarges
for the remaining length. In this equipment the Z is constant and is not taken for calculation.
Fig: Bernoulli’s Apparatus
Procedure:
1. Keep the bypass valve open and start the pump and slowly start closing valve.
2. The water shall start flowing through the flow channel. The level in the Piezometer tubes
shall start rising.
3. Open the valve on the delivery tank side and adjust the head in the Piezometer tubes to
steady position.
4. Measure the heads at all the points and also discharge with help of diversion pan in the
measuring tank.
5. Varying the discharge and repeat the procedure.
Observations:
10
11
Sample Calculations:
P/w= ……………… cm
QUIZ:
REFERENCES:
OBJECTIVE:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
INTRODUCTON:
THEORY:
The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes namely
laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles moving in the
form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at any instant the velocity at all the points in
particular lamina is the same. The lamina near the flow boundary move at a slower rate as
compared to those near the center of the flow passage. This type of flow occurs in viscous
fluids, fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through narrow passages.
The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid particles
such that their velocity changes from point to point and even at the same point from time to
time. This type of flow occurs in low density Fluids flow through wide passage and in high
velocity flows.
Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of these regimes
of flow. By introducing a fine filament of dye in to the flow of water through the glass tube, at
its entrance he studied the different types of flow. At low velocities the dye filament appeared
as straight line through the length of the tube and parallel to its axis, characterizing laminar
flow. As the velocity is increased the dye filament becomes wavy throughout indicating
transition flow. On further increasing the velocity the filament breaks up and diffuses
completely in the water in the glass tube indicating the turbulent flow.
After conducting his experiment with pipes different diameters and with water at different
temperatures Reynolds concluded that the various parameters on which the regimes of flow
depend can be grouped together in a single non dimensional parameter called Reynolds
number. Reynolds number is defined as, the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force .Where
viscous force is shear stress multiplied area and inertia force is mass multiplied acceleration.
Re = VDρ/ µ =VD/v (v = )
Where
Re-Reynolds number
V - Velocity of flow
D - Characteristic length=diameter in case of pipe flow
Ρ - Mass density of fluid =1000
3. - dynamic viscosity of fluid = 0.55x v
Reynolds observed that in case of flow through pipe for values of Re<2000 the flow is
laminar while offer Re>40000 it is turbulent and for 2000<Re<4000 it is transition flow.
A stop watch, a graduated cylinder, and Reynolds apparatus which consists of water tank
having a glass tube leading out of it. The glass tube has a bell mouth at entrance and a
regulating valve at outlet, a dye container with an arrangement for injecting a fine filament of
dye at the entrance of the glass tube. Potassium permanganate ( to give brightly reddish color
streak),thermometer measuring tank.
OBSERVATIONS:
Discharge –Q =
Velocity of flow – V =
MANUAL:
Start the experiment by pressing start button with default values of temperature of water and
time taken and diameter of pipe. Then pass the experiment with few cycles and note the
observation.
Observation1:
6. Start the experiment and allow the water to flow in to the tank of the apparatus. Water level
in the pyrometer is slightly rising along with rise in tank. Control valve of the glass tube should
be slightly opened for removing air bubbles.
7. After the tank is filled outlet valve of the glass tube and inlet valve of the tank should be
closed, so that water should be at rest.
Observation2:
A. Keeping the velocity of flow is very small and inlet of the die injector is slightly opened, so
that the die stream moves at a straight line throughout the tube showing the flow is laminar.
B. Again measure the discharge and increase the velocity of flow.
Observation3:
A. Note the observations till the die stream in the glass tube breaks up and gets diffused in
water.
B. Repeat the experiment by decreasing the rate of flow and by changing the
temperature and diameter of pipe.
RESULT:
4) Reynolds number –Re = VD/ ν
5) Regime of flow =
QUIZ:
c. Flow to be laminar the Reynolds number should be greater than 2000.
True
False
d. For flow to be turbulent the flow should be more than 400.
True
False
e. Concept of Reynolds number is used in open channels.
True
False
8. The behavior of path lines is laminar flow.
True
False
9. If the Reynolds number is in between 2000 and 4000 then the flow is.
Turbulent
Transition
Laminar
REFERENCES:
5) WIKIPEDIA
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the friction factor for flow through different diameter of pipes over a wide
range of Reynolds number and compare with corresponding theoretical value.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Flow losses in pipe apparatus with flow control device and manometer
Collecting tank = 30 cm (L)*30 cm (W)* h cm
Stop watch
THEORY:
Various fluids are transported through pipes. When the fluid flows through pipes,
energy losses occur due to various reasons, among which friction loss is the predominant
one. Darcy-Weisbach equation relates the head loss due to frictional or turbulent through
a pipe to the velocity of the fluid and diameter of the pipe as
hf
4 flv2
2gD
Where hf = Loss of head due to friction
L=length of pipe between the sections used for measuring loss of
head D= Diameter of the pipe, 1”,3/4”,1/2”
f= Darcy coefficient of friction
FORMULAE USED:
1). Darcy coefficient of friction (Friction factor)
2gDh
f f
4Lv2
m
Where h f hm * 1 hm is differential level of manometer fluid measured in
meters)
Temperature(0C) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Viscosity () 13.08 10.03 7.978 6.531 5.471 4.668 4.044 3.550 3.150 2.822
Pa-s *10-4
PROCEDURE:
1. Note the pipe diameter „D‟, the density of the manometer fluid(mercury) „ m‟
Time Z1(m) Z0(m) hm(m) Collecting Volume(m3) Discharge Velocity hf(m) 2gDhf vD
T tank Act*hct Qact (8)/A m f 4Lv2
(3)-(4)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
5
B)FOR PIPE NO. 2:
Diameter of pipe „D‟= 0.019 m Area of pipe „A‟= m2 Length of Pipe „L‟= 1 m
2 0
Area of collecting tank Act=0.09 m Coefficient of dynamic viscosity at C= Pa.s.
3 3
Density of the manometer liquid m= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m Density of the flowing liquid =1000 kg/m
Tabulation 5.2- For pipe No. 2 .
Time Z1(m) Z0(m) hm(m) Collecting Volume(m3 Discharge Velocity hf(m) 2gDh vD
f
2
tank ) f 4Lv
T(sec) Qact (8)/A
m
hct(m) Act*hct (5)* 1
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)
5
Precautions:-
When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
There in some water in collecting tank.
Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
Viva Questions:-
Aim:- To determine the minor losses due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction and bend.
Apparatus Used:-
A flow circuit of G. I. pipes of different pipe fittings viz. Large bend, Small bend, Elbow, Sudden
enlargement from 25 mm dia to 50 mm dia, Sudden contraction from 50 mm dia to 25 mm dia, U-
tube differential manometer, collecting tank.
Theory:-
Minor Losses:-
The local or minor head losses are caused by certain local features or disturbances. The
disturbances may be caused in the size or shape of the pipe. This deformation affects the velocity
distribution and may result in eddy formation.
Sudden Enlargement:- Two pipe of cross-sectional area A1 and A2 flanged together with a
constant velocity fluid flowing from smaller diameter pipe. This flow breaks away from edges of
narrow edges section, eddies from and resulting turbulence cause dissipation of energy. The
initiations and onset of disturbances in turbulence is due to fluid momentum and its area. It is
given by:- h exit =V2/2g
Eddy loss:- Because the expansion loss is expended exclusively on eddy formation and continues
substance of rotational motion of fluid masses.
Sudden Contraction:- It represents a pipe line in which abrupt contraction occurs.
Inspection of the flow pattern reveals that it exists in two phases.
2
Procedure:-
1. Note down the relevant dimensions as diameter and length of pipe between the
pressure tapping, area of collecting tank etc.
2. Pressure tapping of a pipe a is kept open while for other pipe is closed.
3. The flow rate was adjusted to its maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount
of steady flow in the pipe.
4. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the
left and right limbs of manometer tube.
5. The flow rate is reduced in stages by means of flow control valve and the discharge
& reading of manometer are recorded.
6. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapping of this pipe, together
with other pipes and for opening of another pipe.
Observation:-
Diameter of pipe D =
Length of pipe between pressure tapping L =
Area of collecting tank =
Types of the fitting =
Precautions:-
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note
the mean position carefully.
2. There in some water in collecting tank.
3. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
Result:-
Viva Questions:-
Moody’ Diagram:
In engineering, the Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-dimensional form
that relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor fD, Reynolds number Re, and surface roughness for
fully developed flow in a circular pipe. It can be used to predict pressure drop or flow rate down
such a pipe. In 1944, Lewis Ferry Moody plotted the Darcy–Weisbach friction
factor against Reynolds number Re for various values of relative roughness. This chart became
commonly known as the Moody Chart or Moody Diagram. It adapts the work of Hunter
Rouse but uses the more practical choice of coordinates employed by R. J. S. Pigott, whose work
was based upon an analysis of some 10,000 experiments from various sources.[4] Measurements
of fluid flow in artificially roughened pipes by J. Nikuradse were at the time too recent to include
in Pigott's chart. The chart's purpose was to provide a graphical representation of the function of
C. F. Colebrook in collaboration with C. M. White, which provided a practical form of transition
curve to bridge the transition zone between smooth and rough pipes, the region of incomplete
turbulence.
Moody's team used the available data (including that of Nikuradse) to show that fluid flow
in rough pipes could be described by four dimensionless quantities (Reynolds number, pressure
loss coefficient, diameter ratio of the pipe and the relative roughness of the pipe). They then
produced a single plot which showed that all of these collapsed onto a series of lines, now known
as the Moody chart. This dimensionless chart is used to work out pressure drop, (or head loss)
and flow rate through pipes. Head loss can be calculated using the Darcy–Weisbach equation in
which the Darcy friction factor appears :
Experiment 8
Determination of Manning’s constant or Chezy’s constant for given rectangular channel section
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the Manning’s coefficient of the flume or bed of the channel with the flow
of water. It investigates the roughness of the bed as required design.
SCOPE:
Using the Manning’s formula, it can investigate the roughness Co the different types of
beds of the flume and the roughness of the river bed. It helps to know the roughness of the bed
when it constructers the open channel in the field as designed.
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Manning’s Coefficient
v = (1/n)(R^2/3)(S^1/2)
R=A=bxd
P = b + d+ d = b +2d
v= Velocity of flow
R = Hydraulics radius
S= Bed slope
n = Manning’s value or coefficient
A = Wetted area of flume
b= Width of flume
d= Wetted depth of flume
P = Wetted perimeter
Here, Q = A x v
v = (1/n)(R^2/3)(S^1/2)
Q = A x (1/n)(R^2/3)(S^1/2)
Note:
Here, A = wetted area of the channel that is, b x d
OBSERVATION:
Observation Table:
Area of Tank = B x D
Calculation Table :
Number of v b D A R S Q n Remarks
observations
1
2
3
4
5
PRECAUTIONS:
Experiment 9.
HYDRAULIC JUMP ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE:
To compare the experimental value of depth before a hydraulic jump to that calculated
from theory and calculate energy loss in a hydraulic jump.
SCOPE:
The formation of hydraulic jump is associated with a sudden rise in the water depth, large
scale turbulence and dissipation of energy. It is employed at the foot of spillways and other
hydraulic structures of dissipate energy for the protection of bed against scour. This experiment
helps to understand the features of hydraulic jump.
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
We have,
2(q^2)/g=y1.y2 (y1+y2)
Where, y1 = Depth before jump.
y2 = Depth after jump.
q= Discharge per unit width of the flume, Specific discharge
g = acceleration due to gravity
Energy loss,
EL = [(y2-y1)^3]/4y1.y2
(a) Start the pump and set the sluice gate to about 25mm
(b) Adjust the flow rate to give about 300 mm head above the sluice
(c) Raise the adjustable weir to form a hydraulic jump within the central portion of the flume.
(d) Note the depth before and after the jump
(e) Measure the flow rate and hand
(f) Repeat for a head 500 mm above the sluice and steps c, d & e.
Gate opening =
Channel width =
Area of Tank =
Number of Head in cm Depth y1 Cm Depth y2 cm Level Time Sec.
observations Difference (H2
- H1)cm
1
2
3
4
CALCULATIONS:
PRESENTATION:
COMMENTS:
Apparatus Used:-
Arrangement for finding the coefficient of discharge inclusive of supply tank, collecting tank,
pointer, scale & different type of notches
Theory:-
Notches are overflow structure where length of crest along the flow of water is accurately
shaped to calculate discharge.
Formula Used:-
5/2
8/15 √ 2g H tan θ / 2
For Rectangular notch
Cd = Q
2/3 √ 2g BH3/2
Procedure:-
The notch under test is positioned at the end of tank with vertical sharp edge on the
upstream side.
Open the inlet valve and fill water until the crest of notch.
Note down the height of crest level by pointer gauge.
Change the inlet supply and note the height of this level in the tank.
Note the volume of water collected in collecting tank for a particular time and find
out the discharge.
Height and discharge readings for different flow rate are noted.
Observations:-
BreaDth of tank =
Length of tank =
Height of water to crest level for rectangular notch is =
Height of water to crest level for V notch =
Height of water to crest level for Trapezoidal notch =
Angle of V notch =
Width of Rectangular notch =
Result:-
Precaution:-
Make the water level surface still, before takings the reading.
Reading noted should be free from parallax error.
The time of discharge is noted carefully.
Only the internal dimensions of collecting tank should be taken for consideration and
calculations.
Viva Questions:-
1. Differentiate between :-
Uniform and non uniform flow
Steady and unsteady flow
2. Define notch?
3. What is coefficient of discharge?
EXPERIMENT NO 11
Determination of coefficient of discharge for a given Venturimeter.
Apparatus Used:-
Venturimeter, installed on different diameter pipes, arrangement of varying flow rate, U-
tube manometer, collecting tube tank, vernier calliper tube etc.
Formula Used:-
Cd = Q √ A 2 - a2
Aa√2g h
Where
A = Cross section area of inlet
a = Cross section area of outlet
Δh = Head difference in manometer
Q = Discharge
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Theory:-
Procedure:-
1. Set the manometer pressure to the atmospheric pressure by opening the upper valve.
2. Now start the supply at water controlled by the stop valve.
3. One of the valves of any one of the pipe open and close all other of three.
4. Take the discharge reading for the particular flow.
5. Take the reading for the pressure head on from the u-tube manometer for
corresponding reading of discharge.
6. Now take three readings for this pipe and calculate the Cd for that instrument using
formula.
7. Now close the valve and open valve of other diameter pipe and take the three reading
for this.
8. Similarly take the reading for all other diameter pipe and calculate Cd for each.
Observations:-
Diameter of Venturimeter=
Area of cross section =
Venturimeter=
Area of collecting tank=
Cd=
Fin Differe
Initial al nce Time Q√A2 - a2
reading reading (sec) Q h1 h2 h2-h1 h2-h1 h=
Aa√2g∆h
13.6(h2-h1)
Result:-
Precautions:-
1.Keep the other valve closed while taking reading through one pipe.
2.The initial error in the manometer should be subtracted final reading.
3.The parallax error should be avoided.
4.Maintain a constant discharge for each reading.
5.The parallax error should be avoided while taking reading the manometer.
Viva Questions:-
The standard operation of the current meter is used in conjunction with a wading rod
and a current meter counter. This method requires observe the velocities of the flow at
different depths across the streams.
Accessories:
The wading rod can be used with current meter as well as ADCP as positioning system.
The water depth is displayed along with the % depth as the rod is moved up and down as well
as the ‘Point’ velocity through use current meter / ADCP.
Aim:
Apparatus:
Orifice meter,
Stop watch,
Collecting tank and
Differential U-tube manometer.
Description:
Orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe. Orificemeter works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter i.e. by reducing
the area of flow passage a pressure difference is developed between the two sections
and the measurement of pressure difference is used to find the discharge.
It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole called orifice,
which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the
diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
A mercury U-tube manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of about
1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section (2)
which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side
from the orifice plate to know the pressure head between the two tappings.
Procedure:
The pipe is selected for conducting experiment.
The motor is switched on; as a result water flows through pipes.
The readings of H1and H2 are noted.
The time taken for 10cm rise of water in collecting tank is noted.
The experiment is repeated for different discharges in the same pipe.
Coefficient of Discharge is calculated
Formulae
Actual Discharge: Q actual = Ah/t (m3/sec)
2gH