Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 79, No.
3, 2021
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Scientia Socialis, Ltd., a member of the Lithuanian Publishers Association and a member of
Publishers International Linking Association, Inc. (Crossref) in cooperation with SMC „Scientia
Educologica“, Lithuania, The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, European
Society for the History of Science (ESHS) and ICASE (International Council of Associations for
Science Education)
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed, listed, and abstracted in:
Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) (Web of Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals
Science | Clarivate Analytics) (MIAR)
ERIC Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources
Index Copernicus (ROAD)
EBSCO: Education Research Complete Eurasian Scientific Journal Index
Education Research Index Database Coverage List Crossref
“Core” coverage ProQuest (ProQuest Central; ProQuest Education
Central & Eastern European Academic Source Journals)
Database Coverage List (EBSCO-CEEAS) Europub: Academic and Scholarly Research
JournalSeek Publication Center
Ulrich`s Periodicals Directory The Scientific Literature Database (Scilit)
Contemporary Science Association/AAP databases QOAM
Open Academic Journals Index (OAJI) DOI
Zeitschriften Datenbank (ZDB) ResearchGate
GIGA Information Centre (Electronic Journals Dimensions
Library) SOBIAD
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) Scholar CEEOL (Central and Eastern European Online
Turkish Education Index Library)
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
338 Publisher
Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the Associated
Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian Serials, European Society
for the History of Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education
(ICASE)
Editors-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Vilnius University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr., Prof. Muammer Calik, Trabzon University, Turkey
Dr. Saša A. Horvat, University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
Dr., Prof. Margaret Chan Kit Yok, MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Malaysia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr., Prof. Lay Yoon Fah, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Solange W. Locatelli, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
Copyright of this issue is the property of Scientia Socialis, Ltd, Lithuania. By virtue of their appearance in this open
access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings
Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 120.63 (2019); ICDS (Secondary Composite Index Broadcasting): 9.5 (2018).
CGIJ OAJI: 0.350 (2018). H Index: 7 (2020)
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal,
issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd.
Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofeducation@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB page: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Contents 339
Editorial
SUBJECT DIDACTICS: RELEVANT ISSUES

Milan Kubiatko ........................................................................................................ 340
Articles
TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON STUDENT MISBEHAVIORS DURING ONLINE COURSES

Emine Akkaş Baysal, Gürbüz Ocak ............................................................................... 343
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Abdo Hasan AL-Qadri, Wei Zhao ..................................................................................360
INSTRUMENTS TO ACCESS THE CHEMISTRY PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE:

AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW
Rolién J. V. Cirilo, Elaine A. Colagrande .......................................................................... 381
EMERGING EDUCATIONAL DESIGN IN ONLINE TRAINING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

María Rosa Fernández-Sánchez, Juan Silva-Quiroz .............................................................397
INTERTWINING MATHEMATICAL MODELING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Ramazan Gürbüz, Muammer Çalık ..................................................................................412
CORRELATES OF SCIENCE CLASSROOM TEACHING WITH SOUTHEAST ASIAN AND

EAST ASIAN EIGHTH GRADERS’ SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT IN TIMSS 2015
Yoon Fah Lay, Khar Thoe Ng ....................................................................................... 425
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POOR LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS:

A CASE OF SELECTED SCHOOLS IN MPUMALANGA PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
Nomsa Mabena, Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi, Selina Serole Ramapela .................................... 451
EVALUATING DISTANCE EDUCATION IN SERBIA DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Suzana V. Marković Krstić, Lela R. Milošević Radulović ....................................................... 467
ACHIEVING ACTIVE LEARNING AND DEEP LEARNING WITH MEDIA USING

THE EXAMPLE OF TEACHING FINANCE
Alexander Zureck ......................................................................................................485
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 505

This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
340
SUBJECT DIDACTICS: RELEVANT ISSUES
Milan Kubiatko
J. E. Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic
E-mail: mkubiatko@gmail.com
I would like to thank the editor of the journal for the space to write some words about
actual problems of subject didactic. I would like to ask all readers to remember, this is not a
classic scientific text, it is only short reflection for the actual situation in subject didactic as it is
perceived by the author of this text.
Current subject or disciplinary didactic is a dynamic discipline, which is still changing
and is reporting to actual trends in the relative disciplines like pedagogy, psychology, sociology,
philosophy, and others, and also the newest findings from the scientific disciplines, which
are connected with subject didactic. The didactic is perceived in different ways by different
countries. For example, in the Middle Europe and former post-communist countries it is
possible to observe subject didactic, where every subject, has got its own didactic (e.g., didactic
of biology, didactic of history, …). For Anglo-Saxon countries it is typical disciplinary didactic
(e.g., science didactic). It can cause a little bit problematic view, but the nature of concept is
similar. In this text it is used the term “subject didactic”.
Nowadays, many models of didactic exist in scientific world. It is one of the basic
models, which is presented in every theoretical didactic publication. Central to didactics is the
triangulation among the student, the teacher, and the content (Hillen & Landis, 2014). Hence,
it is called the didactic triangle (Figure 1). This is a basic concept on which nature is building
all didactic. However, many didacticians are working only in the boundaries of this model,
where the visible terms are determining. It is a work with scientific content, which is through
teacher transmitted to pupils/students. It can be realized through different methods, forms, and
approaches. Some are working better; some are working worse.
Figure 1
Didactic Triangle
Student
Interaction and Experiencing,

relationship interaction,
learning
Contents
Teacher
Selection and presentation by
the reflective teacher
Above the mentioned model (didactic triangle) there is not only one. In the scientific
world of didactic minimally 13 different models exist, which are divided into several models and
concepts. Some of them are more theoretical, some more practical, and some more scientific.
For the correct understanding of didactic as the scientific discipline, it is necessary to know
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Milan KUBIATKO. Subject didactics: Relevant issues
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
every of them. Some models are appropriate for teachers, some for researchers in this field of 341
study (Gascon & Nicolas, 2017; Londal & Greve, 2015; Perig, 2018). It is important to realize,
that subject or disciplinary didactic is a scientific discipline, so academicians and researchers
in this field of study should focus on every aspect of this scientific discipline, not to aim only
on the presentation of new teaching and learning material, but also to focus on the research
activity, where all parts of didactic will be respected. So, the better model for understanding of
subject didactic in general is in figure 2 according Entwistle (2003).
Figure 2
Model of Didactic (subject and disciplinary) (according Entwistle 2003)
In the model (figure 2), all needed subdisciplines are taken into account, which created
didactic as it is in core understanding (see above). It is needed to mention one thing regarding
to subject didactic. The didactic is a discipline, which has got unclear goals, where to aim in
research purposes, if basic or applied research. And it is possible to meet with opinions, that
didactic (general or subject) is a theoretical discipline. As every discipline, also any subject
didactic has got theoretical and research part, which are connected, and this process of classic
view of research creates new knowledge in the discipline. And the common cooperation of
theoretical and research part of didactic leads to practical application of new knowledge in
the learning process. This basic problem creates the row of the other problematic situations,
which are deforming situation in the field of subject didactic. One problem (especially in Czech
Republic and Slovakia) is lack of professionals in subject didactic. Many academicians in the
field of subject didactic are not didacticians, but only experts in the other subjects, who have not
got the possibility to work on their field of study, so they are in the function of the didactician.
For example, it is possible to see, that expert in nuclear physics works in the field of didactic
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340

Milan KUBIATKO. Subject didactics: Relevant issues
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
342 of physics. So, if any person has not got any theoretical and empirical knowledge about the
subject, they cannot create adequate and required work environment, where all conditions will
be fulfilled for the professional function as a didactician. Other problem is in the mission of
subject didactic, many academicians in this field of study are focused on the preparation of
future teachers and work with curriculum. This activity creates a big gap in the formatting of
subject didactic as a scientific discipline, because the research level is missing and without
this, we cannot determine the effect of learning material, didactic methods, forms, approaches
on the pupils, if they have got permanent or ephemeral effect, if they have got the influence on
the motivation, values, attitudes, opinions on pupils and students. Without these things, it is
impossible to move subject didactic forward and some subjects will be still unpopular. Above
are described only some actual problems of subject didactic, many of other ones are possible to
find in the published articles (e.g., Ariza et al., 2016).
The problems described above are only the basic ones, the subject didactic in many
countries has to overcome a long way to be a scientific discipline without any misunderstandings
“what really subject didactic is”. We believe, that once subject didactic of any subject will be a
scientific discipline exempted from inauspicious influences.
References
Ariza, Y., Lorenzano, P., & Adúriz-Bravo, A. (2016). Meta-theoretical contributions to the
constitution of a model-based didactics of science. Science & Education, 25(7), 747-773.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-016-9845-3
Entwistle, N. (2003). Concepts and conceptual frameworks underpinning the ETL project. Occasional
Report 3. Universities of Edinburgh: Coventry and Durham.
Gascón, J., & Nicolás, P. (2017). Can didactics say how to teach? The beginning of a dialogue between
the anthropological theory of the didactic and other approaches. For the Learning of Mathematics,
37(3), 9-13. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1162121
Hillen, S. A., & Landis, M. (2014). Two perspectives on e-learning design: A synopsis of a US and a
European analysis. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(4),
209-225. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v15i4.1783
Londal, K., & Greve, A. (2015). Didactic approaches to child-managed play: Analyses of teacher’s
interaction styles in kindergartens and after-school programmes in Norway. International Journal
of Early Childhood, 47(3), 461-479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-015-0142-0
Perig, A. V. (2018). Didactic student-friendly approaches to more effective teaching of the fundamentals
of scientific research in a digital era of scientometrics. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science
and Technology Education, 14(12), Article em1632. https://doi.org/10.29333 /ejmste/97188
Received: May 31, 2021 Accepted: June 06, 2021
Cite as: Kubiatko, M. (2021). Subject didactics: Relevant issues. Problems of Education in
the 21st Century, 79(3), 340-342. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340
Milan Kubiatko PhD, Assistant Professor at Department of Preschool and Primary Education,
Faculty of Education, J. E. Purkyne University, Pasteurova 1, 400 96 Usti nad
Labem, Czech Republic.
E-mail: mkubiatko@gmail.com
Website: http://www.kubiatko.eu
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4343-9609

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON STUDENT 343
MISBEHAVIORS DURING
ONLINE COURSES
Emine Akkaş Baysal, Gürbüz Ocak
Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey
E-mail: ebaysal@aku.edu.tr, gocak@aku.edu.tr
Abstract
Student misbehaviors in the classroom both disrupt students’ attention and affect negatively teaching
and learning process. With the increase of online courses after Covid-19 pandemic, the type of student
misbehaviors changed a lot. The aim of research was to examine student misbehaviors encountered during
online courses, to identify the most common and disruptive student misbehaviors from teachers' perspective
and to put forth teachers’ suggestions about proper behaviors. The research was a phenomenological
study. Data were gathered from 71 teachers teaching different courses and working at various levels. For
data collection, a semi-structured interview form developed by the researchers was used. It was assessed
through descriptive analysis. According to findings, a list containing 27 different student misbehaviors
was generated. Results showed that the most common misbehaviors were indifference to course, not
attending course, turning off webcam and slanging. The most disruptive misbehaviors were making
noise, absenteeism, and distractibility. Findings revealed that teachers had some ideas to overcome these
misbehaviors such as taking attendance, getting family support, encouraging students to turn on webcam,
creating intrinsic motivation and organizing parent meetings. It can be concluded that some unwanted
student behaviors can be seen during online courses; however, it can be overcome with the help of some
precautions taken by teachers.
Keywords: classroom management, online courses, student misbehaviors, teachers’ views
Introduction
Nowadays, especially after the Covid-19 pandemic, digital communication often replaces
physical contacts such as online office meetings or online courses. The Covid-19 pandemic has
led to an inevitable surge in the use of digital technologies due to social distancing norms and
nationwide lockdowns. People and organizations all over the world have had to adjust to new
ways of work and life (De et al., 2020). One of the largest internet exchanges in the world, the
Amsterdam Internet Exchange, reported a 17% increase in volume during the first few months
of pandemic (AMS-IX, 2020). Another example stated that ZOOM saw its 10 million daily
video conferencing users exploding to 200 million. Internet services have seen rises in usage
from 40% to 100% compared to pre-lockdown levels (Yuan, 2020). One of the fields entirely
using digital communication in this time is, of course, education.
Research Problem
The form of digital communication in education is distance or online teaching and learning.
Online teaching and learning is the newest and most popular form of distance education today.
Within the past decade, it has had a major impact on online university education; however,
trend is rapidly increasing in all grades including kindergarten. Online teaching and learning

Emine AKKAŞ BAYSAL, Gürbüz OCAK. Teachers’ views on student misbehaviors during online courses
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
344 is an education type that takes place over internet. It is also often referred to as “e-learning”
or “online course”. Online course is a kind of education which is different from face-to-face
education. With this type of learning, most of things, as we are familiar within a classroom,
have changed such as school paradigm (Akkas Baysal & Ocak, 2020) or student misbehaviors.
In this regard, these concepts should be reconsidered in the light of online courses.
Internet has helped to overcome distance globally with the ease of sitting at home,
clicking a few buttons on computer and listening to a teacher who is thousands of kilometers
away. However, online classroom doesn’t offer the same value as teaching and learning in a
classroom (Shah, 2015). Most things which we are familiar to in a classroom are different in
online courses. One of the most important issues encountered in an online course is student
misbehaviors. It is inevitable that most teachers come across some sort of student misbehaviors
during online course. Student misbehaviors can threaten the effectiveness of online course.
In other words, student misbehaviors can interrupt the smooth functioning of teaching and
learning. So, misbehaviors in classroom are crucial for classroom atmosphere (Medina &
Reverte, 2019). They most probably cut off not only teachers but also students during course.
Thus, they can impact school satisfaction in a negative way.
Baúar (1999) claimed all sorts of behaviors that thwart education are called as unwanted
behaviors or misbehaviors. Their damaging effects are increasingly ranging from the least
destructive to the most destructive ones. Misbehaviors in courses could ruin class atmosphere.
They prevent both students and teachers from achieving their aims and lead to problems in
time management. Unfortunately, this is tough and unavoidable (Ozturk, 2015). They can
undermine teachers’ ability to establish and maintain effective learning experience. Moreover,
they generally require large amount of attention and time to overcome.
Kyriacou (1997) ranged student misbehaviors from simple non-compliance
(e.g., not paying attention) to overt disruptive behavior (e.g., throwing a missile
across the room). He also points out that serious misbehaviors, including direct
disobedience, physical aggression or damage, are much less frequent. They can take on several
different forms including fighting, bullying, talking back to teachers, vandalizing school property,
stealing, using or distributing of illegal substances, as well as a number of other behaviors that
disrupt overall positive flow of classroom and school activities (Finn et al., 2008). Sadly, the
negative effects of such misbehaviors have serious consequences for everyone. For example,
they take away from the valuable time of all students in class. In addition, they might challenge
teachers’ authority.
Learning needs a convenient teaching and learning environment. Mostly, teachers try to
organize classroom management in different ways in a classroom. They generally know or guess
what kind of behaviors can ruin teaching and learning (Brophy, 2006) and class authority is a
primary concern of teachers (Doyle, 1984). To create clear, consistent rules and expectations,
a necessary first step is to have rules made clearly visible for all students (Trussell, 2008).
However, it is sometimes difficult for most teachers during online courses. Since, it is usually
not easy to define what misbehavior is and how they can be prevented.
Student misbehavior is an obstacle for class authority and therefore of great
importance to understand what they are and how they are defined (Charles, 2008; Kulinna,
2008). Misbehavior often interrupts the smooth functioning of teaching and learning in both
traditional and online courses. This can disturb teachers or other students during teaching
and learning. Sevrika and Merina (2019) stated that student misbehaviors could undermine
teacher to establish and maintain effective learning. Unfortunately, some students intentionally
create this kind of disturbance which affects negatively class atmosphere. Therefore, student
misbehavior has been a major concern for teachers (Arbuckle & Little, 2004; Bushaw &
Lopez, 2010; Emmer & Stough, 2001; Harrison et al., 2012). Disruptive behaviors irritate
effective classroom management and can influence school satisfaction if teacher does not

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
have competencies to control them. Controlling classroom would axiomatically yield positive 345
learning outcomes. Relationship developed between teacher and students would facilitate a
collaborative understanding and thus provide more positive teaching and learning environment
(Komorowska, 2003).
Student misbehavior is an unavoidable situation, and it takes up considerable time to
deal with. Inevitably, it affects the quality of teaching and learning experience. Lots of research
studies about misbehaviors experienced during face-to-face education have been studied (Atici
& Merry, 2001; Kulinna et al., 2006; Turnuklu & Galton, 2001). These undisciplined behaviors
were defined and what kind of precautions should be taken were determined in these research
studies. However, situation experienced with the pandemic is new to define these kinds of
misbehaviors because most of teachers have been experiencing distance education for the first
time. Teachers mostly don’t know what kind of difficulties they fall upon during online courses.
In order to construct a convenient atmosphere for teaching and learning, teachers should know
every kind of obstacles effecting teaching and learning. To this extend, the aim of this paper was
to discuss and try to define what kind of student misbehaviors occur in online courses. After
describing student misbehaviors, it is not difficult to find how to cope with them effectively.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The results of this research could provide insights into teachers’ decision making and
classroom management strategies during online courses. Teachers’ attributions could also serve
as a point of reflection for other educators. By knowing what kind of misbehaviors occur during
online courses, teachers can take preventive precautions. Thus, they can create an effective
teaching and learning environment. Taking into account this significance, the main aim of
research was to understand student misbehaviors occurring during online courses with the light
of teachers’ views. Questions of this research were:
1. What are student misbehaviors encountered during online courses?
2. What are the most common student misbehaviors during online courses?
3. Which ones are the most disruptive for online courses?
4. What can be done to prevent student misbehaviors?
Research Methodology
General Background
The research was designed as a phenomenological research design, based on the

qualitative method. Qualitative studies aim to explore a problem, elaborately understand a key
phenomenon, and focus on relatively smaller samples compared to quantitative studies. This
kind of research shows five characteristics of qualitative research as naturalistic, descriptive data,
concern with process, inductive and meaning (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). In phenomenology,
the aim is to describe what all teachers participating in a study have in common while they
are experiencing a phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). In this research, all teachers experienced
distance education at the same time. In this regard, this research examined phenomenon of
student misbehaviors and focused on perceptions of individuals experiencing this phenomenon.
Sample
The maximum variation sampling method was used to determine research group. Maximum
variation sampling can be utilized to construct a holistic understanding of the phenomenon by
synthesizing studies that differ in their research designs on several dimensions (Suri, 2011). The

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
346 diversity in this research was provided in terms of school type, working experience, hours spent
in online courses, working place and branches of teachers. 43 participants (61%) of sample were
female and 28 (39%) of them were male. The total number of samples was 71 (100%). Based
on research conducted as qualitative, 30 seems to be a good number for most comprehensive
assessment. Glaser and Strauss (1967) recommended the concept of saturation for achieving an
appropriate sample size in qualitative studies. For phenomenological studies, Creswell (1998)
recommended 5–25 and Morse (1994) suggested at least six. In this research the number was
71, so, it would be enough to describe the phenomenon sufficiently. The participant teachers’
branches could be listed as: class, literature, Turkish, English, computer technologies, science,
guide, German, physical education, chemistry, special education, religion, geography, art, pre-
school, health, and mathematics. Other features of sample are presented in Table 1:
Table 1
Distribution of the Study Sample According to the Variables
Variables Category f %
School type Kindergarten 5 8
Primary School 26 36
Secondary School 25 35
High School 15 21
Working Experience 1-5 years 15 21
5-10 years 37 52
10-15 years 13 18
15-20 years 4 5
20 years and above 2 4
Hours spent in online
5-10 hours 19 27
courses (per week)
10-15 hours 10 14
15-20 hours 12 17
20-25 hours 30 42
Working Place Village 10 15
Town 19 21
Country 30 45
City Centre 12 19
Instrument and Procedures
Qualitative research methods require qualitative data and qualitative data analysis
(Ataseven, 2012). So, data were collected by semi-structured interview forms prepared by
researchers. In the formation of interview form, first of all, relevant literature was scanned,
and the key words and themes were formed. Sub-themes providing in-depth data to related
themes were created. Then, open-ended and large-scale questions were written about these sub-
themes. In order to ensure the construct validity of questions and to check their suitability for
language expression, they were corrected by two literature teachers working in a high school.
In order to examine relation between the themes and sub-themes with questions, necessary

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
examinations were made by a field specialist from Afyon Kocatepe University. Then necessary 347
corrections were made in terms of language and content. The interview form was ready for
pre-application. After pre-application, interview was finalized. The form was composed of
two parts: Demographic Information and Interview Questions. Interview form consisted of 5
questions related to 5 sub-themes. Questions are given below (Table 2):
Table 2
Interview Questions
Number Questions
What problematic student behaviors do you encounter during online courses? List as many as you
1
can.
2 Among these misbehaviors, which ones are the most common?
3 Among these misbehaviors, which ones are the most disturbing behaviors in online courses?
4 Among these misbehaviors, which ones are the most unacceptable?
5 How can these misbehaviors be controlled in your opinion? How can they be corrected?
Pilot interviews were conducted with three different participants to ensure validity and
reliability of questions and then interview form was finalized. The research was tried to ensure
the validity of the study by giving the same questions to the participants in the study group
(Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2013). Before data collection, voluntary participants were acknowledged.
Semi-structured interview was applied to the teachers in an online platform because the
data collection was carried out after Covid-19 in January and April 2021 when face-to-face
interviews were impossible.
Data Analysis

Data were analyzed by qualitative data analysis methods in accordance with the data
collection tool. Miles and Huberman (1984) examined data analysis as three steps. The first
step is to reduce data. All qualitative data do not consist of information researcher is searching.
Therefore, researcher analyzes data and chooses parts that are related to data. The second step
is visualization of data. Selected data obtained from the first step is made more meaningful
by establishing a relationship. The third step is to reach and confirm the result (Üzümcü,
2016). In the analysis of qualitative data, descriptive analysis was used. Descriptive analysis is
evaluated by identifying findings systematically. Descriptive analysis characterizes world or a
phenomenon answering questions about who, what, where, when, and to what extent. Whether
goal is to identify and describe trends and variation in populations, create new measures of key
phenomena, or describe samples in studies aimed at identifying causal effects, description plays
a critical role in the scientific process in general and education research in particular. Descriptive
analysis stands on its own as a research product, such as when it identifies socially important
phenomena that have not previously been recognized (Scott-Clayton, 2012). This research was
suitable for descriptive analysis. In the analysis of data, participants were coded as T1, T2,…
T71. Views of participants were coded. Frequencies were calculated. Sample expressions from
participants’ views were included to facilitate clarity of research questions.
Validity and Reliability
Qualitative research seeks to understand as completely as possible. Golafashani (2003)

described that qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach which seeks to understand

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
348 phenomena in context-specific settings. Stenbacka (2001) viewed reliability as “purpose of

explaining” in quantitative approach and “generating understanding” in qualitative approach to
research. Similarly, Guba and Lincoln (1982) stated that in qualitative research, such statements
as credibility, reliability, validity, and transferability should be included. In order to check the
accuracy of findings, it is appropriate to indicate one or more of these strategies (Creswell,
2007). There are many ways to increase credibility. These are long-term interaction, participant
confirmation, and expert review (Holloway & Wheeler, 1996). In this research, long-term
interactions have been established with participants during courses to ensure credibility.
Research Results
The aim of this research was to define student misbehaviors occurring during online
courses and to display teachers’ suggestions on the correction of misbehaviors. Therefore, data
obtained from teachers were analyzed in accordance with research questions. The results of the
first research question were presented in Table 3:
Table 3
Teachers’ Views on Student Misbehaviors During Online Courses
Number Student Misbehaviors Participants f %
T1,T2,T4,T5,T6,T7,T9,T13,T14,T15,T17,T19,T21,T25,
T26,T27,T28,T29,T31,T32,T33,T34,T35,T37,T38,T39,
1 Absenteeism 45 31
T40,T43,T45,T46,T47,T48,T49,T53,T54,T57,T59,T60,
T61,T63,T65,T68,T69,T70,T71
T1,T2,T3,T4,T7,T8,T11,T14,T16,T17,T18,T19,T20,T21,T23,
Watching TV and playing on
2 T27,T28,T29,T31,T33,T34,T38,T41,T42,T45,T47,T49,T50,T 36 25
the phone
51,T52,T53,T54,T55,T68,T69,T71
T2,T3,T4,T5,T7,T8,T10,T11,T12,T15,T16,T23,T27,T28,T33,
3 Disrespecting T37,T39,T44,T45,T47,T53,T54,T55,T56,T57,T58,T63,T64,T 33 23
65,T66,T67,T68,T70
T1,T3,T6,T11,T14,T16,T21,T24,T26,T27,T28,T29,T31,T34,
4 Distractibility T37,T43,T44,T45,T48,T50,T51,T52,T53,T55,T56, 30 21
T58,T59,T60,T61,T68
T8,T11,T14,T16,T21,T24,T26,T28,T31,T32,T33,T34,T35,T3
5 Being Late to class 27 19
6,T43,T44,T47,T48,T49,T50,T53,T56,T57,T58,T63,T66,T67
T4,T5,T10,T11,T14,T15,T23,T24,T25,T31,T32,T33,T34,T37
6 Chewing gum and eating 27 19
,T44,T46,T47,T48,T50,T51,T53,T55,T57,T62,T64,T68,T69
T1,T2,T7,T11,T18,T21,T24,T35,T36,T37,T38,T39,T40,T42,
7 Not doing homework 25 17
T43,T44,T47,T48,T54,T55,T56,T57,T58,T65,T66
Attending course, turning off
T3,T5,T7,T14,T16,T24,T26,T28,T29,T31,T32,T34,T35,T36,
8 webcam, and going to sleep 25 17
T49,T51,T52,T53,T54,T63,T64,T65,T69,T70,T71
mode
T2,T4,T5,T10,T19,T21,T23,T25,T36,T39,T42,T43,
9 Listening to lecture in bed 24 17
T46,T48,T52,T54,T57,T63,T65,T66,T67,T68,T69,T71
T6,T8,T13,T16,T19,T24,T26,T31,T33,T35,T36,T43,T45,T46
10 Excusing such as broken net 23 16
,T47,T48,T49,T51,T52,T53,T66,T68,T70

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
349
Sending messages to teacher
T3,T4,T8,T15,T17,T25,T27,T28,T29,T35,T38,T43,T46,T47,
11 and receiving information at 23 16
T48,T49,T53,T54,T59,T63,T67,T69,T69
any time
T5,T7,T12,T16,T17,T25,T26,T28,T29,T31,T33,T35,T45,T46
12 Changing participants’ name 19 13
,T56,T57,T59,T67,T8
T13,T14,T24,T27,T33,T35,T39,T45,T46,T48,T56,T57,T61,T
13 Indifference to course 18 12
65,T67,T68,T70,T71
T2,T5,T11,T16,T23,T26,T27,T31,T34,T46,T47,T50,T51,T55
14 Interrupting each other 18 12
,T58,T64,T67,T68
T1,T7,T14,T17,T19,T23,T33,T35,T43,T44,T47,T51,T52,T56
15 Making noise 18 12
,T62,T65,T67,T68
T2,T3,T12,T14,,T16,T24,T27,T32,T33,T34,T41,T45,T46,T4
16 Following instructions late 18 12
7,T56,T57,T62,T65
T5,T11,T13,T25,T26,T30,T31,T40,T43,T45,T46,T50,T54,T5
17 Avoiding responsibility 17 12
6,T58,T60,T65
Appearing in lesson and not T1,T7,T10,T14,T26,T28,T30,T35,T47,T48,T50,T52,T53,T60
18 17 12
answering questions ,T62,T67,T69
T3,T6,T16,T19,T25,T26,T29,T36,T40,T43,T46,T49,T54,T60
19 Coming unprepared for class 17 12
,T64,T67,T70
T8,T16,T19,T20,T26,T27,T30,T34,T41,T42,T50,T56,T58,T
20 Logging out at any time 15 10
60,T68
Dealing with other things T2,T14,T17,T19,T20,T26,T30,T37,T46,T49,T50,T52,T54,T
21 15 10
during course 58,T60
T6,T8,T11,T16,T27,T29,T38,T40,T46,T53,T58,T64,T65,T68
22 Listening to music 14 9
,T70,
Standing up and walking T13,T23,T27,T28,T35,T37,T40,T43,T51,T54,T60,T65,
23 14 9
around T70,T71
Speaking about irrelevant
24 T12,T20,T25,T30,T33,T44,T51,T55,T60,T61,T68,T69,T71 13 9
things and swearing
25 Scratching screen T15,T20,T25,T28,T36,T38,T39,T46,T58,T59,T69 11 7
26 Unauthorized conversation T26,T32,T37,T40,T49,T50,T58,T60,T66 9 6
Using calculator in
27 T22,T34,T59,T67,T71 5 3
mathematics
According to Table 3, teachers list twenty-seven misbehaviors. Most of the teachers

(31%) say students generally don’t attend the online courses. 36 of teachers (25%) say students
generally watch TV or play games on phone during the course. 33 of them (23%) focus students
behave in a disrespectful way. Another popular misbehavior is distractibility. 30 teachers (21%)
explain students usually aren’t interested in the lesson. Generally, students aren’t in class both
physically and mentally. Teachers also mostly (19%) stress students are usually late to course,
chewing gum and eating something during online courses. In addition to these, teachers express
some other misbehaviors (from mostly said to less) such as being late to class, chewing gum
and eating, not doing homework, attending course and turning off webcam, going to sleep
mode, listening to lecture in bed, excusing such as broken net, sending messages to teacher
and receiving information at any time, changing the participant’s name, indifference to course,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
350 interrupting each other, making noise, following instructions late, avoiding responsibility,
appearing in the course and not answering questions, coming unprepared for class, leaving
lesson at any time, dealing with other things during the lesson, opening the music, standing up
and walking around, speaking about irrelevant things from the course and swearing, scratching
the screen, unauthorized conversation and finally using calculator in math courses. Some
example expressions from the teachers’ views are given below:
“..Lack of interest, leaving class whenever you want, not following course regularly, not talking
about course..” (T16)
“..Students can find excuses like the internet is gone. They write different names and make jokes
among themselves. They draw on the screen. They are able to sabotage course by asking irrelevant
questions. When they are asked questions, they may not answer..” (T28)
The second research question was “Which ones are the most common student
misbehaviors during online course?”. The results of this were presented in Table 4:
Table 4
Teachers’ Views on the Students’ Most Common Misbehaviors
Number Student Misbehaviors Participants f %

1 Indifference to course T1,T2,T4,T13,T21,T27,T35,T41,T46,T63,T64,T71 12 8.5
2 Not attending course T3,T16,T17,T32,T36,T48,T50,T54,T65,T67 10 7.1
Turning off webcam and
3 T12,T18,T29,T30,T33,T38,T47,T53,T55,T70 10 7.1
slanging
4 Not concentrating T5,T7,T14,T15,T19,T37,T51,T56,T66 9 6.3
5 Being silent T6,T10,T11,T23,T34,T52,T60,T61 8 5.6
6 Technical problems T8,T9,T24,T28,T31,T40,T43,T69 8 5.6
7 Not doing homework T25,T44,T45,T58,T59,T62 6 4.2
8 Being late to class T20,T22,T49,T57 4 2.8
According to Table 4, teachers list eight common misbehaviors. Teachers mostly say
the most common misbehavior is indifference to course (7.1%). Ten teachers express that
not attending course, turning off webcam and slanging are common. In addition to these, not
concentrating (6.3%), being silent (5.6%), technical problems (5.6%), not doing homework
(4.2%) and being late to class (2.8%) are thought as common misbehaviors. Some example
expressions from teachers’ views are given below:
“Turn off camera and talk slang and abusive.” (T18)

“Distractions.” (T56)
“Making excuses for connection problems.” (T69)
The third research question was “Which ones are the most disruptive for online courses?”.
The results of this were presented in Table 5:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 5 351
Teachers’ Views on the Students’ Most Disruptive Misbehaviors
Number Students’ Misbehaviors Participants f %

T1,T4,T12,T13,T17,T18,T22,T24,T28,T31,T35,T39,
1 Making noise 20 14.2
T47,T48,T49,T52,T54,T56,T60,T63
2 Absenteeism T2,T3,T37,T40,T42,T53,T65,T68,T69,T70 10 7.1
T11,T14,T15,T16,T21,T33,T34,T41,T57,T61,T62
3 Distractibility 12 8.5
,T67
4 Leaving course at any time T5,T19,T29,T44,T50,T51,T64,T71 8 5.6
Attending course, turning off
5 T6,T7,T8,T9,T25,T36,T45,T46 8 5.6
webcam and going to sleep mode
6 Technical problems T10,T20,T30,T55,T58,T66 6 4.2
7 Turning off webcam and slanging T12,T26,T27,T32,T38,T59 6 4.2
According to Table 5, the most disruptive misbehavior during online courses is making
noise (14.2%). Teachers have expressed absenteeism (%7.1), distractibility (%8.5), leaving
course at any time (5.6%), attending course, turning off webcam and going to sleep mode
(5.6%), technical problems (4.2%) and turning off webcam and slanging (4.2%) are disruptive
misbehaviors. Some example expressions from teachers’ views are given below:
“Appearing attending course but not listening, turning screen on and off...” (T25)
“Those who turn off camera and talk slang and abusive.” (T59)
“Sounds that make unnecessary background noise.” (T63)
The last research question was “What can be done to prevent the student misbehaviors?”.
The results of this were presented in Table 6:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
352 Table 6
Teachers’ Solutions on Preventing Student Misbehaviors
Number Solutions Participants f %

T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T7,T9,T10,T12,T13,T14,T16,T17,T21,
1 Taking attendance T22,T25,T26,T27,T29,T30,T31,T32,T33,T34,T35,T37, 38 26.9
T44,T47,T49,T50,T52,T55,T57,T60,T62,T63,T67,T70
T1,T2,T4,T6,T8,T9,T10,T11,T14,T16,T17,T21,T22,T3
2 Getting family support 5,T36,T43,T47,T48,T49,T50,T52,T53,T55,T58,T59,T6 29 20.5
0,T63,T69,T71
T1,T4,T6,T11,T14,T16,T24,T27,T29,T34,T36,T38,T42
Convincing to turn on
3 ,T44,T45,T49,T50,T51,T54,T55,T56,T57,T63,T65,T66 28 19.8
webcam
,T69,T70,T71
T2,T5,T7,T8,T13,T17,T18,T19,T22,T24,T26,T33,T36
4 Creating intrinsic motivation ,T37,T38,T39,T40,T43,T44,T50,T55,T59,T60,T64,T6 27 19.1
9,T71
T2,T3,T4,T5,T6,T7,T16,T19,T21,T22,T23,T25,T27,T29
5 Organizing parent meetings 23 16.3
,T34,T37,T38,T40,T46,T52,T58,T67,T71
Providing students to attend T3,T5,T8,T14,T17,T18,T23,T27,T37,T45,T48,T52,T53,
6 23 16.3
courses on time T56,T58,T59,T60,T62,T63,T64,T66,T67,T71
Raising awareness of T7,T14,T16,T17,T20,T22,T26,T33,T35,T37,T38,T39,T 16.3
7 23
families 45,T47,T49,T52,T54,T55,T57,T59,T61,T62,T68
Improving infrastructure T2,T3,T6,T8,T10,T11,T23,T25,T27,T28,T29,T32,T35,T
8 21 14.9
system 37,T43,T46,T47,T50,T56,T59,T71
Providing internet
T4,T5,T6,T7,T13,T22,T26,T27,T30,T33,T35,T38,T45,T
9 connection and 21 14.9
47,T53,T56,T58,T61,T64,T65,T68
technological tools
Participating without T3,T9,T14,T16,T17,T22,T25,T33,T35,T41,T47,T48,T4
10 19 13.4
motivation 9,T50,T54,T58,T59,T66,T69
Increasing student T1,T4,T6,T10,T11,T14,T23,T26,T28,T32,T35,T37,T38,
11 18 12.7
motivation T44,T47,T53,T67,T70
T12,T15,T16,T23,T26,T28,T32,T35,T44,T46,T49,T51,
12 Following homework 17 12.0
T57,T58,T59,T67
T3,T5,T7,T11,T15,T23,T36,T39,T46,T47,T52,T54,T55,
13 Helping to get attention 17 12.0
T63,T67,T69,T71
T2,T17,T18,T22,T25,T32,T34,T43,T46,T47,T55,T56,T
14 Punishing students 16 11.3
58,T64,T66,T68
Providing psychological T6,T8,T10,T12,T14,T17,T20,T24,T27,T31,T32,T43,T4
15 15 10.6
support 6,T48,T57
Giving self-control to T14,T21,T26,T35,T38,T45,T46,T49,T53,T57,T61,T67
16 14 9.9
students ,T69,T71
Muting all voices and only
17 student's voice will be given T9,T18,T19,T31,T37,T44,T48,T49,T56,T59,T66 11 7.8
right to speak

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
353
18 Ensuring readiness of child T27,T32,T37,T39,T44,T49,T50,T56,T60 9 6.3
Informing students about
19 award and punishment T34,T37,T40,T42,T47,T55,T59,T63 8 5.6
regulations
Investigating reasons of
20 T35,T46,T48,T54,T55,T62,T66 7 4.9
student's misbehavior
21 Interviewing students in turn T44,T47,T55,T59,T60,T66,T70 7 4.9
Editing curriculum so that
22 only teachers can see T26,T35,T37,T55,T64,T68 6 4.2
images of students
As it is seen in Table 6, teachers have different suggestions about correction of student

misbehaviors. They (26.9%) say that attendance should be taken by teacher during online
courses. Teachers mostly (20.5%) express that getting family support is important. In addition
to these, most teachers (19.8%) say that if students are convinced to open webcam, they may
less misbehave. Apart from these, teachers’ suggestions can be listed as; creating intrinsic
motivation (19.1%), organizing parent meetings (16.3%), providing students to attend courses
on time (16.3%), raising awareness of families (16.3%), improving infrastructure system
(14.9%), providing internet connection and technological tools (14.9%), participating without
motivation (13.4%), increasing student motivation (12.7%), following homework (12%),
helping to get attention (12%), punishing students (11.3%), providing psychological support
(10.6%), giving self-control to students (9.9%), muting all voices and only the student’s voice
will be given right to speak (7.8%), ensuring readiness of child (6.3%), informing students
about award and punishment regulations (5.6%), investigating reasons underlying the student’s
misbehavior (4.9%), interviewing students in turns (4.9%), editing curriculum so that only
teachers can see images of students (4.2%). Some example expressions from teachers’ views
are given below:
“Taking attendance and turning on camera.”(T1)

“If a more reliable virtual environment is provided, which is difficult, webcams are open and level
of interaction with children can be increased.”(T71)
“Parents should be interviewed. Distractions should be removed. Tracking system should be
determined for homework.”(T46)
Discussion
The purpose of this qualitative research was to define student misbehaviors encountered
during online courses, evaluate teachers’ experiences and suggestions about modification of the
misbehaviors. In this part of research, findings obtained from teachers and tabled above were
discussed.
Online learning is the use of internet and some other important technologies to develop
materials for educational purposes, instructional delivery and management of curriculum
(Fry, 2001). After pandemic, online learning takes place nearly in all levels of education
including kindergarten. Like conventional classrooms, online courses have some elements
such as materials, teaching methods, student behaviors etc. However, the meaning of most of
these concepts changed after pandemic. One of them was student behaviors. Student behaviors
changed with a shift to distance learning.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
354 When students behave well in online courses, teachers are more likely to enjoy
teaching. In addition, not only teachers, all students undoubtedly, benefit from the course as
well. However, this is not always the case. In almost every course, teachers face unwanted
student behaviors. After pandemic, with distance education, most teachers began to express
difficulties they experienced in different platforms such as social media or other websites.
With this research, we tried to bring an academic point of view to this subject. Seventy- one
voluntary teachers, working in different levels and having different branches, were asked
what kind of student misbehaviors they encountered during online courses. They talked about
twenty-seven different misbehaviors. Teachers expressed that they came across some of these
misbehaviors in face-to-face education while some were seen newly. According to teachers,
for example, absenteeism was one of the most important problematic behaviors. Absenteeism
was also a common problem in face-to-face education. However, in face-to-face education
one or two students are absent while more than ten or fifteen students are absent at a time in
online classes. The California Department of Education (CDE) (2020) reached out to School
Innovations & Achievement (SI&A) for an early analysis on chronic absenteeism. They found
that absenteeism, from kindergarten to last grade in high school, became an alarming level
during online education after pandemic. For example, the ratio of absenteeism in the third
grade, which was %78 before pandemic, reached %255. Prior to the outbreak of COVID-19,
distance education was experiencing modest yet steady growth. According to the National
Center for Education Statistics, 34.7 percent of college students were enrolled in at least one
online course in 2018, compared to 33.1 percent in 2017. That was less than 2 percent increase
from 2016 to 2017, but it was still an upward trend (Lederman, 2019). Due to school closures
to prevent the spread of COVID-19, distance learning created a set of never-encountered
challenges for K-12 school district leaders, including high rates of absenteeism and lack of
participation resulting in lost learning time. As it is seen in this situation not only absenteeism,
but also various misbehaviors begin to be seen.
Student misbehaviors didn’t vanish during online courses. Moreover, imposing discipline
in a virtual environment is a complicated and often murky process, and current laws don’t
neatly apply to online misbehavior. For example, The California Department of Education
didn’t release suspension and expulsion data from 2019-2020. However, teachers interviewed
by EdSource say school discipline is still happening during distance learning, although less
frequently than when students attended school in person (Jones 2020). In this research, teachers
expressed that indifference to lesson was a common problem. Students could easily lose their
concentration. Sitting in front of the screen long time could sometimes cause other problems
such as less concentration or turning off webcam. So, misbehaviors in online courses are reality
which must be admitted.
In addition to these, being silent, technical problems, not doing homework and being
late to course were common problems. Rashid and Rashid (2012) said that the component
of homework is compulsory one in open distance education system. Its compulsion is due
to its significance and importance. It must be developed, planned carefully, guided properly
by the organization tutors, written seriously, evaluated critically and then students must be
informed. Written feedback by tutor on students’ assignment affects performance of learners.
Through this feedback they can enhance their learning. But, in distance education, in all over
the world, evaluation, correction, and feedback to the students are difficult. Lall and Singh
(2020) concluded that although students favor distance education, they are not satisfied due to
the lack of synchronous educational activity and lack of communication.
Student misbehaviors threat positive classroom atmosphere. According to teachers,
the most disruptive misbehaviors were making noise, absenteeism, distractibility, leaving
course at any time, turning off webcam and going to sleep mode, technical problems, and
slanging. Korkmaz (2013) listed most disruptive student misbehaviors as hindering learning,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
risking safety, giving damage to properties, and hindering socialization. Prescott (2012) said 355
that students are not visible in online courses as they are in the classroom and are therefore
emboldened, believing they can be anonymous behind the computer. However, most students
during online courses feel their teachers aren’t aware of them. As a result of this thought, they
sometimes behave in an unwanted way. So, these behaviors can be disruptive for many teachers.
After Covid-19 pandemic, in many countries in the world, most teachers started to teach
in an online course. While some of them experienced to teach in online class, most teachers
tried it for the first time. During teaching, they came across some student misbehaviors. In
the context of this research, teachers expressed how they dealt with these misbehaviors and
their class implications and offers. Teachers’ suggestions, taking attendance in every lesson
can minimize misbehaviors. If students feel that they are controlled by an authority, they can
tend to attend the course regularly and also on time. In addition to this, family support during
this time is so important. Teachers and parents should be always kept in touch with each other.
Their co-operation can help them deal with unwanted situations. There are lots of studies which
verify this fact. For example, in a research conducted by El Nokali et al. (2010) it was stressed
that parent involvement over elementary school years is associated with improved social skills
and decreased behavior problems. According to Addi-Raccah and Grinshtain (2016) regular
and meaningful communication with teachers could enable parents to access and monitor
school-based learning and home-based learning. Indeed, research conducted in developed
countries indicates that parental involvement is significantly associated with improving student
achievement and wellbeing (Jeynes, 2012; Thijs & Eilbracht, 2012).
Another suggestion is convincing the students to turn on webcam. Teachers considered
positive interaction with students as one of the most important sources of positive emotions
(Chen, 2016). Teacher’s gaze (i.e., what they look at) allowed teachers to differentiate their
interaction with students. According to teachers, eye contact with students (i.e., both gaze at
each other) was an element of good teacher-student interaction (Korthage et al., 2014). In online
courses, this is a big challenge. However, it can be dealt with “virtual eye contact” (Yuzer,
2007). Virtual eye contact concept can be helpful for teachers and students who meet in an
online class. So, if students turn on their cam it will be possible to enable eye contact and
control student misbehaviors.
Creating intrinsic motivation is another alternative to cope with student misbehaviors.
Research showed that students who were intrinsically motivated find more success in school
than students who were extrinsically motivated. When students are intrinsically motivated,
it perpetuates a positive cycle for future learning (Adamma et al., 2018). If students focus
on success, they most probably move away from misbehaviors. Teachers taking part in the
research expressed organizing parent meeting would be beneficial. Moreover, these meetings
will raise awareness of families about distance education and rules of online class. When
teachers and parents cooperate on these subjects, they can enable students to be in class on time.
There are some other suggestions related to distance education. Teachers thought that if some
solutions could be found to problems which were related to infrastructure system or internet
access, student misbehaviors can decrease. If system can be developed and detect automatically
problematic behaviors such as absenteeism, it will be useful for teachers. Besides, if all students
can access internet and technological devices such as tablet or PCs, their participation will
increase.

Conclusions and Implications
The purpose of this research was to define students’ misbehaviors occurring during
online courses and to display teachers’ suggestions on the modification of them. In order to
determine the misbehaviors, five different research questions were given to the participants.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
356 They listed the misbehaviors experienced during online courses. Moreover, they expressed the
most common, disturbing, and unacceptable ones. They tried to offer some solutions for them.
The findings of research showed that student misbehaviors changed when compared to face-
to-face education. However, according to teachers’ views they could be corrected by means of
some precautions.
Student misbehaviors in online courses strictly interrupted the smooth functioning of
teaching and learning. There were a large number of student misbehaviors taking place in
online courses. Dealing with student misbehaviors within classroom could be a major task for
teachers. It makes teachers to perceive reasons before correcting disruptive behaviors. There
aren't any stereotypes for resolving a problem, since each student is completely different from
one another, that makes teacher to offer completely different responses to each student. An
inappropriate reaction to student misbehavior in classes can make it worse and affect teaching
and learning. So, teachers could be alert to misbehaviors. It's vital to establish good relationships
with students and set up peaceful classroom atmosphere. Schools could focus time and resources
used during online courses. These can provide a safe and effective learning for all students.
References
Adamma, N. O., Ekwutosim, O. P., & Unamba, E. C. (2018). Influence of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
on pupils’ academic performance in mathematics. SJME (Supremum Journal of Mathematics
Education), 2(2), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1405857
Addi-Raccah, A., & Grinshtain, Y. (2016). Teachers' capital and relations with parents: A
comparison between Israeli Jewish and Arab teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education,
60, 44-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.08.004
Akkaş Baysal, E., & Ocak, G. (2020). Covid-19 salgını sonrasında okul kavramındaki paradigma
değişimine ve okulların yeniden açılmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. [Teachers’ views on the
paradigm change in the school concept and reopening of schools after covid-19 pandemic]. Türk
Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 18(2), 676-705. https://doi.org/10.37217/tebd.787504
AMS-IX. (2020). 17% traffic increase on the AMS-IX platform due to Corona/COVID-19 crisis, AMSIX
News (2020, March 20). www.ams-ix.net/ams/news/17-traffic-increase-on-the-ams-ix-platform-
due-tocorona-covid-19-crisis
Arbuckle, C., & Little, E. (2004). Teachers’ perceptions and management of disruptive classroom behavior
during the middle years (five to nine). Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental
Psychology, 4, 59-70. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ815553.pdf
Ataseven, B. (2012). Nitel bilimsel araştırmalarda veri kalitesinin önemi. [The importance of data quality
in qualitative scientific research]. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 33(2),
543-564. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3923
Atıcı, M., & Merry, R. (2001). Misbehavior in British and Turkish primary classrooms. Pastoral Care in
Education, 19(2), 32-39. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0122.00196
Baúar, H. (1999). Classroom management. National Education Ministry.
Bingham, S. G., Carlson, R. E., Dwyer, K. K., & Prisbell, M. (2009). Student misbehaviors, instructor
responses, and connected classroom climate: Implications for the basic course. Basic
Communication Course Annual, 21(1), 30-68. https://ecommons.udayton.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1369&context=bcca
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. K. (1998). Qualitative research for education an introduction to theories and
methods. Boston Allyn and Bacon.
Brophy, J. (2006). History of research on classroom management. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein
(Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp.
17- 43). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bushaw, W. J., & Lopez, S. J. (2010). A time for change: The 42nd annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup
Poll of the public’s attitudes toward the public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(1), 8–26.
https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171009200103
Charles, M. C. (2008). Building classroom discipline (9th ed.). Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Chen, X. (2016). Evaluating language-learning mobile apps for second-language learners. 357
Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange (JETDE), 9(2), 39-51.
https://doi.org/10.18785/jetde.0902.03
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions (2nd ed.)
Sage.
De, R., Pandey, N., & Pal, A. (2020). Impact of digital surge during Covid-19 pandemic: A
viewpoint on research and practice. International Journal of Information Management, 9,
1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102171
Doyle, W. (1984). How order is achieved in classrooms: An interim report. Journal of Curriculum Studies,
16, 259-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027840160305
El Nokali, N. E., Bachman, H. J., & Votruba‐Drzal, E. (2010). Parent involvement and children’s
academic and social development in elementary school. Child Development, 81(3), 988–1005.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01447.x
Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational
psychology: With implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–
112. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3602_5
Finn, J. D., Fish, R. M., & Scott, L. A. (2008). Educational sequelae of high school misbehavior. The Journal
of Educational Research, 101(5), 259-274. https://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOER.101.5.259-274
Fry, G. L. A. (2001). Multifunctional landscapes - towards trans-disciplinary research. Landscape and
urban planning, 57, 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00201-8
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research. Piscataway.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative
Report, 8(4), 597-607. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1870&context=tqr
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1982). Epistemological and methodological bases of naturalistic inquiry.
ECTJ, 30, 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02765185
Harrison, J. R., Vannest, K., Davis, J., & Reynolds, C. (2012). Common problem behaviors of children
and adolescents in general education classrooms in the United States. Journal of Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders, 20(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1063426611421157
Holloway, I., & Wheeler, S. (1996). Qualitative research in nursing (2nd ed.). Blackwell.
Jeynes, W. H. (2012). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of different types of parental involvement programs
for urban students. Urban Education, 47(4), 706-742. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085912445643
Jones, C. (2020). Key elements of effective distance learning. https://www.cambridge.org/elt/
blog/2020/09/25/key-elements-effective-distance-learning/
Komorowska, H. (2003). CEF in pre- and in-service teacher education. In K. Morrow (ed.). Insights into
the Common European Framework. Oxford University.
Korkmaz, A. (2013). Sınıf organizasyonu. [Organization of classroom]. In L. Küçükahmet (Ed.), Sınıf
Yönetimi. Nobel.
Korthagen, F., Attema-Noordewier, S., & Zwart, R. (2014). Teacher–student contact:
Exploring a basic but complicated concept. Teaching and Teacher Education, 40,
22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.01.006
Kulinna, P. H., Cothran, D., & Regualos, R. (2006). Teachers’ reports of student
misbehavior in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
77, 32-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2006.10599329
Kyriacou, C. (1997). Effective teaching in schools: Theory and practice. Nelson Thornes.
Lall, S., & Singh, N. (2020). COVID-19: Unmasking the new face of education. International Journal
of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences, 11(SPL1), 48-53. https://doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.
v11iSPL1.2122
Lederman, D. (2019). Online Enrollments Grow, but Pace Slows. https://www.insidehighered.com/
digital-learning/article/2019/12/11/more-students-study-online-rate-growth-slowed-2018
Medina J. A., & Reverte M. J. (2019). Incidencia de la práctica de actividad física y deportiva como
reguladora de la violencia escolar [Incidence of the practice of physical and sporting activities
as a regulator of school violence]. Retos, 35, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v0i35.64359
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A source- book of new methods.
Sage.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
358 Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage.

Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In Denizin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S., Handbook
of qualitative research (2nd ed). Sage.
Ozturk, A. (2015). Açık ve uzaktan öğrenme ortamlarında öğrenen bölümlendirmesi (segmentasyonu).
[Learner segmentation in open and distance learning environments]. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları
ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(3), 4-7.
Prescott, L. (2012). Using collaboration to foster academic integrity. Open Learning: The Journal of
Open, Distance and e-Learning, 31(2), 152-162. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02680513.2016.1169162
Rashid, N., & Rashid, M. (2012). Note for editor: issues and problems in distance education. Turkish
Online Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 20-26. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ976926.
pdf
Scott-Clayton, J. (2012). What explains trends in labor supply among U.S. undergraduates, 1970-2009?
NBER Working Paper No. 1774. National Bureau of Economic Research MA.
Sevrika, H., & Merina, Y. (2019). Metonymy: The way to convey information. Proceedings of the
Sixth International Conference on English Language and Teaching (ICOELT-6), 6, 140-148
http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/selt/article/view/100162
Shah, D. (2015). By the Numbers: MOOCS in 2015, 12. (2015, December 12). https://www.classcentral.
com/report/moocs-2015-stats/
Stenbacka, C. (2001). Qualitative research requires quality concepts of its own. Classroom Action
Research Network.
Suri, H. (2011). Purposeful sampling in qualitative research synthesis. Qualitative Research Journal,
11(2), 63-75. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ1102063
The California Department of Education (CDE). (2020). Special Education Guidance for COVID-19 (2020,
Seprember 20). https://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/he/hn/specialedcovid19guidance.asp
Thijs, J., & Eilbracht, L. (2012). Teachers’ perceptions of parent–teacher alliance and student–teacher
relational conflict: Examining the role of ethnic differences and “disruptive” behavior. Psychology
in the Schools, 49, 794–808. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21635
Trussell, R. P. (2008). Classroom universals to prevent problem behaviors. Intervention in School and
Clinic, 43, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451207311678
Türnüklü, A., & Galton, M. (2001). Students’ misbehaviors in Turkish and English primary classrooms.
Educational Studies, 27, 291-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690120076574
Üzümcü, Ö. (2019). Developing program design for computing skills and evaluating its effectiveness.
Unpublished PhD Thesis, Gaziantep University.
Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri [Qualitative research
methos in social sciences]. Seçkin.
Yuan, E. S. (2020). A message to our users. ZOOM Blog. https://blog.zoom.us/a-message-toour-users/
Yuzer, T. V. (2007). Generating virtual eye contacts through online synchronous communications in
virtual classrooms applications. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 8(1), 1-14.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED494835.pdf
Received: April 24, 2021 Accepted: June 04, 2021

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
359
Cite as: Akkaş Baysal, E., & Ocak, G. (2021). Teachers’ views on student misbehaviors
during online courses. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 79(3), 343-359.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343
Emine Akkaş Baysal PhD in Curriculum and Teaching, Lecturer, Afyon Kocatepe University, Sandıklı
(Corresponding author) School of Applied Sciences, Child Development Department, Turkey.
E-mail: ebaysal@aku.edu.tr
Gürbüz Ocak PhD, Professor in Curriculum and Teaching, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty
of Education, Turkey.
E-mail: gocak@aku.edu.tr

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
360
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND
STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Abdo Hasan AL-Qadri, Wei Zhao
Shaanxi Normal University, China
E-mail: lubna23112015@outlook.com, zhaowei@snnu.edu.cn
Abstract
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is essential attribution among school learners of today. In this respect,
determination and normalization of the measures to investigate and recognize dimensions levels help
educators have a successful intervention and increase students' academic achievement level. This research
aimed to explore the relationship between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the academic achievement of
Arabic basic school students in China. Further, it also sought to determine the level of students' emotional
intelligence and motivation to learn. The research aims are addressed through a tool that explores
emotional intelligence and motivation. A 60-item for initial emotional intelligence scale was utilized
and analyzed to test their psychometric properties by pilot testing. A final total of 303 students with
ages ranged between 12-16 years old participated in the research. The research findings suggested the
final formulation of items of the emotional intelligence scale that can measure the levels of emotional
intelligence of students along with a significantly positive relationship to academic achievement. There
were statistically significant differences in the respondents' level of emotional intelligence according to
the gender variable. In comparison, there were no statistically significant differences in the respondents'
level of emotional intelligence according to the grade variable. Recommendations of the research were
presented.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, academic achievement, factor analysis, development and relationship
Introduction
Since the 1990s, researchers come to study emotional intelligence in depth by examining
the possible outcomes of relating EI to the outcomes of psychology or education. Recently,
emotional intelligence (EI) has won an important place in the academic and scientific circles
(Mortan et al.,2014). Emotional Intelligence (EI) comes up with a new pattern which would
help educationalists to better understanding and corelating success and educational environment
(Coşkun & Öksüz, 2018). In the 2000s, Reuven Bar-On collaborated to describe the important
factors for success in life. The obtained results showed that a number of intelligences and
non-cognitive factors effectively affects the individual's success in life. At a later time in 1985,
Reuven Bar-On also created the term EQ (Emotional Quotient) to assess general intelligence.
Bar-On demonstrated that emotional intelligence is an effective predictor of an employee's
career and personal life. He suggested a 5-point scale of emotional intelligence, which looks at
the quality of each of the five components of emotional intelligence as follows: intrapersonal
skills, interpersonal skills, stress control, the ability to adapt and general mood (Yahaya et al.,
2012).
In general, Bar-On claims that, because both emotional and cognitive intelligence have
an equal relationship to general intelligence, both contribute equally to one's overall success in
life. It is claimed by Strenberg (1998) to say that cognitive capacity is insignificant to scientific
achievement would be ridiculous. Such skill requires a relatively high standard to be accepted
to a graduate science program at a university. However, once you are accepted, what matters is
less about having a lot of IQ and more about how you and your peers compare to one another.

Abdo Hasan AL-QADRI, Wei ZHAO. Emotional intelligence and students’ academic achievement
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Authors put forward the theory that intelligence is purpose-driven and requires a more efficient 361
processing. Intelligence is a social and cultural phenomenon, and behavior that is considered
adaptive in one culture may be considered maladaptive in another (Bar-On, 2006).
Good academic performance is undoubtedly having the same opinion of educational
psychologists (Vahedi & Nikde, 2011). In their attempt to investigate the key factors that
determine academic outcomes, the researchers have come to question many unanswered
questions. In recent years, it has been found that academic success is influenced by such
variables as family, school, society, and the environment (Khajehpour,2011). Also, Wood et
al. (2009), note that a majority of previous studies have focused on the impact of demographic
and socio- psychological variables on academic achievement. The emotional intelligence is
a critical quality for today's school students. In this regard, determining and normalizing the
measures used to investigate and understand dimension levels assist educators in having an
effective intervention and increasing students' academic achievement levels.
Literature Review
Emotional Intelligence is the ability to process information related to one's emotions

and the ability to use the information as a guide for understanding and acting. The concept of
Emotional Intelligence (EI) defined as "the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and
emotions., to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
actions” (Carolyn MacCann et al., 2011). To Bar-On, emotional intelligence deals with oneself,
others, and the environment. Therefore, it should be more adaptive to changing conditions and
to be more successful in meeting environmental demands. People who score high on the EQ-i,
tend to be better at understanding their own emotions and communicating them appropriately.
Intrapersonal: The ability to deal with and reflect one’s and others’ thoughts, feelings and
behaviors, as well as the competence to use the most suitable resources to face and interact with
every personal and specific social situation (Franco et al., 2017). It has been associated with:
quality of the relationships with classmates and teachers, academic performance, lower learning
difficulties, students’ motivation, their will to engage in scholar tasks and cooperate with others
(Henricsson & Rydell, 2006; Sternberg, 2015). Bar-On (1997) defined IQ communication to be
the ability to recognize and manage emotions. People who score high on the EQ-i, tend to be
better at understanding their own emotions and communicating them appropriately.
Interpersonal: In the Bar-On, 1997 study, the Interpersonal EQ-i was tested for the
interpersonal relationships factor. People with high interpersonal EQ tend to have positive
social interactions, pay attention to and understand others' feelings, and process them well.
They refer to the ability to recognize emotions in other's speech and interpret what people are
feeling. Empathy is the ability to recognize empathy and to generate empathy for others. A
capacity for dealing with others is necessary to remain emotionally balanced. It mainly involves
the ability to identify emotions and empathize with others (Shearer, 2004).
Stress management: Both flexibility and emotional control are expressed as the ability
to change how one feels in different situations. This component includes independent, internal,
and positive thinking (Bar-On & Parker, 2000). Individuals with high-stress management skills
tend to remain calm during stressful situations and usually respond calmly in stressful times.
Adaptability: The paper focuses on how one successfully copes with environmental
demands and how one's ability to size up and deal with problematic situations plays a role in
this. The adaptability threshold is high (Bar-On, 1997).
Scherer (2015) defined adaptability as a competency that allows the person to be flexible
and be able to alter one’s feelings. It refers to one's abilities in switching emotionally and
behaviorally from one state to another. Those who score highly in adaptability are flexible,
realistic, and able to deal with change well, especially in a good way.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
362 General mood: The Optimism and Happiness scales consist of two subcomponents.
These components of EI focus on one's overall outlook on life and one's emotional contentment.
High scores on these psychological attributes show a positive outlook, enabling people to face
challenges more positively. This research indicates how optimistic people tend to remain bright
and upbeat. Somatic characteristics, such as being nervous, help handle difficult or stressful
situations (Bar-On & Parker, 2000).
The Relationship between EI and Academic Achievement:
There has been a support for the assumed link between high EI and academic success
(Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004); however, some studies have not been able to clarify the
direction of relationships (Woitaszewski & Aalsma, 2004). An intensive meta-analysis by Van
Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004) found a significant evidence of positive associations of EI with
school performances.
Different researchers studying EI have used a variety of assessment instruments, providing
an array of results. Swart (1996) worked with nearly 500 students at traditional universities
using the emotional quotient inventory by Bar-On (1997). The results supported a positive
relationship between the variables for academically successful students who demonstrated
significant higher emotional intelligence compared to unsuccessful students (Parker et al.,
2004).
A study by Rode et al. (2007) revealed that emotional intelligence is connected to
academic achievement due to the connection between emotional intelligence and general
academic achievement. The most important reason is that academic performance involves a
wide range of potential difficulties. The primary reason for this is the high demand placed on
students to self-direct their academic work, requiring high self-management levels. Individuals
with high emotional intelligence understand the factors that will impact their success. That is
why individuals with high emotional intelligence would perform better academically.
Achievement is strongly connected to the development of humans in general in shaping
the child's cognitive, emotional, social and physical abilities (Preeti, 2013). People who are
considered emotionally intelligent are mostly able to achieve better whatever they do (Goleman,
1995). By teaching emotional and social skills in schools, the ability to succeed in academics
will be improved. Emotionally intelligent students would have improved academic achievement
and would be at a greater likelihood of academic success (Joibari & Mohammadtaheri, 2011).
The overall academic performances of pupils are not precisely assessed without
incorporating their emotional intelligence and overall intelligence. Further, students’ academic
achievement in the classroom is an indication of many factors, some of which are related
to EI, classroom management and the diverse factors are related to the peculiarities of the
surrounding. This study intends to develop comprehensive test materials for the Emotional
Intelligence aspects of learning. Therefore, assessing the links between EI and Arabic school
students' academic achievement is significant due to the lack of studies in this area and most
of the results on this issue have derived from the West. This research looks at the connection
between Emotional Intelligence and the influence of cultural differences on students' academic
achievement. Hence, this study serves as one of the most important studies that have explored
this area.
The main purpose of the research was to examine the psychometric properties and then
the relationship among emotional intelligence and academic achievement:
• Develop a diagnostic tool to be a standard for measuring the emotional intelligence
of Arabic school students.
• Determine the levels of emotional intelligence of Arabic school students.
• Identify whether there are any differences in the degree of Emotional Intelligence,
according to (Gender-Grade) variables.
Academic and emotional development are the primary goals of schools. It might be

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
disastrous if emotional intelligence is neglected as an important and necessary role for schools 363
and communities. An Emotional Intelligence (EI) helps create harmony among students, and
students will be more self-assured when they are having to deal with the problems and difficulties
or challenges of living and learning at educational institutions. Emotional Intelligence is
comprised of interrelated emotional and social competencies and skills that determine how
effectively people manage themselves, understand others, communicate with them and cope
with daily demands and pressures (Bar-On, 2003), provide tools to measure the emotional
intelligence that would help the academicians, researchers, educators and specialists in this field
(Khajehpour, 2011), predict the academic achievement through students' scores in emotional
intelligence (Zahed-Babelan & Moenikia, 2010), contribute to solve problems related to low
academic achievement (Zahed-Babelan & Moenikia, 2010), help educators develop programs to
raise the emotional intelligence of students (Zahed-Babelan & Moenikia, 2010), and contribute
to the adaption of new methods and strategies to improve the levels of academic achievement
of students (Carolyn MacCann et al., 2011).
Research Hypotheses
• A positive relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement

of students.
• There are multiple levels for emotional intelligence scores of students.
• There are significant differences between (male-female) gender variable.
• There are significant differences among grade variable groups.
Research Design
A correlational design was used to determine the relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic achievement of students according to developed measures with the
context of basic Arabian students in China. Gall and Borg in 1996 stated that correlational
research designs are highly useful for studying problems in education. The purpose of
correlational research is to discover relationships between/among variables through the use of
correlational statistics (Castellan, 2010).
Data Collection
The students met at their schools during October, November, and December of 2019.
Prior to meeting, preparations were made, and requests were sent to the school councils of
two schools in the district of Guangzhou and two schools in the Yiwu district in the southern
part of China. A number of two school boards granted a consent letter. Efforts continued by
coordinating with school principals over the phone to facilitate the pilot test.
Some steps were taken in advance to avoid sampling errors. Therefore, the random
sample was of an adequate size because the main concern was not the percentage of the sampled
research population. It was rather the total size of the sample selected relative to population
complexity. Whereas the larger the sample, the less likely the results will be biased, diminishing
returns can rapidly be identified when samples exceed a certain size that must be balanced
with the researcher’s resources (Taherdoost, 2016). Consequently, sampling error reduced at
a decreasing rate by larger sample sizes, and statistical formulas were available for defining
sample size.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
364 Researchers intended to use the statistical equation for sample selection and determined
the sample size of the research as follows:
S = X2 NP(1− P) ÷ d2 (N −1) + X2 P(1− P) (Zulkipli & Ali, 2018).
Participants
The research method revealed the necessary parameters for estimating the sample size and
the specified sample as a finite component or subset of participants from the target population.
Therefore, the target population refers to the whole set of subjects whose features are of interest
to the researcher. Following a technique known as statistical descriptive inferential, researchers
might draw conclusions about the target population with a high degree of confidence based
on the results of a sample. This study focused on (4) Arabic schools in China: Modern Arabic
School, Canton Global Academy, Canton Arabic School, and Arabic School. The Scholastic
year is (2019- 2020). This study covered 303 students (116 males (38.3%) and 187 females
(61.7%) for the 7th, 8th and 9th Grades. The participants ranged in age from 12 to 16 (M = 14.36,
SD = 1.11) years old. The sample study for final implementation and 50 students for pilot
testing were chosen using a random sampling technique.
Research Instruments
The instruments used in this study were based on various educational works of literature
and previous studies on this subject, such as those conducted by (Bar-On & Parker, 2000).
The validation and development had three steps: experts and specialists’ examination, a pilot
test, and a final application.
The initial instruments were provided to seven specialists and experts in this field to
verify the face validity. A pilot test of the instruments conducted with 50 students to verify the
psychometric properties (validity and reliability). The research’ instruments have been applied
twice within a two-week interval between applications.
Instruments were presented in the final formulation after they had been validated.
Furthermore, through the final application of the instruments over the things posed in
the instruments in 5- point Likert scale, the researcher determined the degrees of students'
agreement (always applicable, almost applicable, sometimes applicable, seldom applicable, and
not applicable at all). The instrument of emotional intelligence consists of 60 items as initial
formulation, 10 items in Intrapersonal Skills, 14 items in Interpersonal Skills, 12 items in Stress
Management, 10 items in Adaptability, and 14 items in General Mood. After implementing the
amendments proposed by the panel, it has been agreed to modify, replace, improve some words,
and exclude the six following items:
“I like my body”, “When I get angry, I act without thinking”, “I know when people are upset,
even when they say nothing” and “I like the way I look” from the Intrapersonal Skills dimension.
“I can tell when one of my close friends is unhappy” and “Even if things get hard, I do not give
up” from the Interpersonal Skills dimension.
Data Analysis
The research data were analyzed using several statistical methods to find out the research
outcomes and investigate the research instrument's psychometric properties, using that SPSS
24, Amos 22, and JASP.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Psychometric Properties of Emotional Intelligence Scale 365
The factorial validity was tested for the research tool. KMO value acquired in this study
was .89 greater than the values suggested in the literature. The significance of the Chi-squared
statistics obtained at the end of the BST displayed the normal distribution of the data with
multiple variables. BST was established to be significant (χ2=1035***; p≤ .001). These results
demonstrated that the EIS was appropriate for factor analysis (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson,
2014), indicating that factor analysis could be carried out when the KMO value was greater than
0.60 (Field, 2009). The most probable number of variables to match the data was five. Initial
EFA with Eigenvalues for 46 items revealed a five-factor structure, which was higher than 1
that could be extracted, explained 54.323% of the total variance. Eight items were excluded
(16,21,25,33,42,44,45 and 49) because their loadings were not high and had been loaded on
more than one factor (Jonker & Vosloo, 2008; Ki & Hon, 2008). Results showed that the first
factor consisted of 6 items whose factor loads ranged between .57 and .81, the second factor
consisted of 11 items whose factor loads ranged between .50 and .65, the third factor consisted
of 10 items whose factor loads ranged between .58 and .71, the fourth factor consisted of 9
items whose factor loads ranged between .47 and .84, and the fifth factor consisted of 10 items
whose factor loads ranged between .58 and .73. The communalities values of items ranged
between .43 and .68. The research instrument items have been confirmed by CFA. Figure (1)
shows the fit indices for the final measurement model. All fit indices were found to follow the
criterion, suggesting that the final five-factor model fit well. By using the following criteria:
(χ2/df =1.16, CFI= .91, TLI= .910, GFI = .923, AGFI=.905, RMSEA= .050) and the remaining
index was also close to a good fit (NFI = .897) (Heale & Twycross, 2015). The factor loadings
demonstrated that all items of each indicator in the measurement model showed relatively high
loadings (Deng & Chan, 2017; Watkins, 2017). All items were higher than .50 standardized
loadings. All factor loadings were statistically significant at p< .01. The measurement model
and fit indexes were presented in Figure (1).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
366 Figure 1
Five-factor Model of EIS Depending on CFA (46-Item)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Reliability 367
The reliability of EI subscale scores in the whole sample was .79, .81, .83, .86 and
.74 for Cronbach's Alpha, McDonald’s Omega, Test Re-Test, Composite Reliability (CR) and
Average Variance Extracted (AVE), respectively as mentioned in Table (1). In this regard,
researchers have chosen McDonald’s Omega to measure reliability as a new coefficient that is
recommended according to prior studies to be used for intelligence tests; hence, coefficient alpha
may not be an accurate reliability index for the multidimensional scales, which are frequently
referred to by researchers. On the contrary, the assumptions of model-based reliability estimate
of omega coefficients are usually fewer and more practical than alpha coefficients (Deng &
Chan, 2017; Watkins, 2017). Also, in this instrument, the reliability of each subscale was high
and acceptable. In order to examine the internal accuracy of this measure, the Test Re-Test
was validated by 50 students who responded to the scale items. Within a two-week interval
between applications, students responded twice. The accuracy was 0.831 based on re-testing.
This suggested that there was an appropriate stable coefficient predictor (Heale & Twycross,
2015). Most of the constructs in Table (1) agree with the AVE factor criterion, whereby the AVE
factors are always greater than the square correlation (R2).
Table 1
Matrix of Reliability Coefficients, AVE and Squared Correlation among EI Factors
Test
Factor α ώ Re- CR AVE 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Overall
Test
1st .78 .79 .77 .72 .60 _ .37* .30* .26 .28 .35*
2nd .82 .82 .85 .80 .63 .61*** _ .49** .45** .46** .47**
3rd .74 .75 .84 .79 .62 .55*** .70*** _ .48** .49** .45**
4th .71 .73 .79 .77 .60 .51*** .67*** .69*** _ .49** .43**
5th .81 .82 .80 .83 .68 .53*** .68*** .70*** .70*** _ .41**
Overall .79 .81 .83 .86 .74 .59*** .68*** .67*** .66*** .64*** _
Note: *** ρ≤ .001, ** ρ≤ .01, * ρ≤ .05, α= Cronbach’s Alpha, ώ = McDonald's Omega, CR= Composite
Reliability, Values below the diagonal are correlations among constructs, and values above diagonal are squared
correlations. All correlation values are statistically significant at ρ≤.001, AVE= Average Variance Extracted
Research Results
The descriptive statistics of EI models scores clarified that factor 5 scored the highest
mean (M=45.62, SD = 8.92) followed by factor 3 (M=31.80, SD= 6.84), factor 2 (M=31.79,
SD= 6.81), factor 4 (M= 27.07, SD= 5.98), and factor 1 (M= 27.07, SD= 5.99) and the overall of
EIS (M= 159.38, SD= 29.48). The mean score of academic achievement was (M= 78.92, SD=
9.14). Table (2) provides other descriptive statistics.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
368 Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of EI Scores
Dimension N Range Ʃ M SD σ2
Intrapersonal skills 303 20 4880 27.07 5.99 35.85
Interpersonal skills 303 34 9631 31.79 6.81 46.34
Stress management 303 34 9635 31.80 6.84 46.81
Adaptability 303 33 8201 27.07 5.98 35.76
General mood 303 40 12944 45.62 8.92 79.50
EI (Overall) 303 125 48291 159.38 29.48 869.28
Academic Achievement 303 35 23914 78.92 9.14 83.62

Note: Ʃ= Sum of scores, M= Mean, SD= Standard deviation, σ2= Variance
The first research hypothesis is: A positive relationship between emotional intelligence
factors and academic achievement of students for each factor model specifically and Overall. So,
the relationships were positive and agreed with the hypothesis. This hypothesis was accepted
as follows:
The regression analysis was used to predict academic achievement based on emotional
intelligence. Table (3) and Figure display the results of testing the five factors of EI models
(2). The findings showed that emotional intelligence and academic achievement have a
positive relationship that is statistically important. The significance of each factor of emotional
intelligence and the academic achievement of students has been defined by the F value in
addition to defining significance between the overall factor models of emotional intelligence
and the academic achievement. It was possible to predict the academic achievement scores
through the student’s emotional intelligence. The values of the first factor “Intrapersonal Skills”
are (R Square = .35), (β =.59) and (F value =4.47). The second factor “Interpersonal Skills” (R
Square = .50), (β = .71) and (F value =9.37). The third factor “Stress Management” (R Square =
.49), (β = .70) and (F value = 8.92). The fourth factor “Adaptability” (R Square = .56), (β = .75),
(F value = 7.01). The fifth factor “General Mood” (R Square= .64), (β =.80), (F value= 10.10).
and Overall (R Square= .64), (β =.80) and (F value= 7.91). So, there was a noticeable effect of
emotional intelligence with all its factor models on the academic achievement.
Table 3
Correlations and Regressions between EI Factors and Academic Achievement
Variables Β R2 Estimate F-Value p

Intrapersonal Skills → Academic Achievement .59 .35 1.89 4.47 **
.011
Interpersonal Skills → Academic Achievement .71 .50 2.94 9.37*** .0001
Stress Management → Academic Achievement .70 .49 2.89 8.92*** .0001
Adaptability → Academic Achievement .75 .56 2.51 7.01*** .0001
General Mood → Academic Achievement .80 .64 3.35 10,10*** .0001
Overall → Academic Achievement .80 .64 2.79 7.91*** .0001

Note: **ρ≤ .01; ***ρ≤ .001

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 2 369
The Relationship between EI and Academic Achievement
The second research hypothesis is determining the level of emotional intelligence of

students with five categories distributed among (very high – high – moderate – low – very low).
This hypothesis has been accepted as follows:
The level of each factor in the emotional intelligence scale of students in Arabic schools
was determined by calculating the range after calculating arithmetic observations mean for five
times.
Range = maximum (xi) – minimum(xi). It is worth mentioning that the EIS contains five
options. The range was divided by five to determine the length of the category (L1) =20/ 5 = 4 ,
(L2) =34/ 5=7, (L3) =34/ 5=7, (L4) =33/ 5=7, (L5) =40/ 5=8, and (L Overall) =125/ 5=25. (Al-Qadri,
Wei, Al-khresheh, Chen, & Hali, 2018).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
370 Table 4
The Levels of EI of Students
Very Very
Dimension High Moderate Low Range Ʃ M (SD) % σ2
High low
27 -
The category 22-26 17-21 12-16 7-11
above
No. of 27.07 54 35.85
13 60 101 90 39 20 4880
1st participants (5.99)
% 4 20 33 30 13
47 - 39-46 31-38 23-30 15-22
The category
above
31.79
2nd No. of 42 58 82 76 45 34 9631 58 46.34
(6.81)
students
% 14 19 27 25 15
46 - 38-45 30-37 22-29 14-21
The category
above
31.80
3rd No. of 35 63 84 70 51 34 9635 64 46.81
(6.84)
students
% 11 21 28 23 17
34-41 26-33 18-25 10-17
The category 42 -above
27.07
4th No. of 30 48 94 82 49 33 8201 60 35.76
(5.98)
students
% 10 16 31 27 16
The category 45-above 36-44 27-35 18-26 9-17
No. of 48.62
5th 56 131 89 15 12 40 12944 85 79.50
students (8.92)
% 19 43 29 5 4
182 156- 104-
The category 130-155 78-103
-above 181 129
159.38
Overall No. of 125 48291 69 869.28
43 69 103 57 31 (29.48)
students
% 14 23 34 19 10
The third research hypothesis: A statistically significant differences in the Emotional

Intelligence of students according to gender (males - females) variable. This hypothesis has
been accepted as follows: gender in emotional intelligence was accepted through the differences
between males and females and analyzed using an independent T-test. Results are presented in
table (5) and figure (3). As the means show, both males and females scored highly in the fifth
dimension, "General Mood," but female students scored highest in the entire EIS. There were
also statistically significant differences in motivation to learn based on gender, and statistically
significant differences in the academic achievement of students based on the same gender
variable, demonstrating the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and academic
achievement.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 5 371
Gender Difference of EI
No. of
Factor Gander M SD t-test df p
students
Male 116 15.49 3.75 .03
1st 2.12* 301
Female 187 19.49 4.09
Male 116 30.59 6.22
2nd 2.44* 301 .02
Female 187 34.53 7.06
Male 116 30.56 6.04 .01
3rd 2.50** 301
Female 187 35.57 7.21
Male 116 25.93 5.41
4th 2.63** 301 .01
Female 187 30.77 6.22
Male 116 50.24 8.68 .001
5th 3.03** 301
Female 187 57.10 11.88
Male 116 152.81 24.81
Overall 3.10** 301 .001
Female 187 163.45 31.42
Academic Male 116 76.00 8.50

2.13* 301 .02
Achievement Female 187 79.88 10.13
Note: ** p ≤ .01, * p ≤ .05, Ʃ= Sum of scores, M= Mean, SD= Standard deviation, σ2= Variance
Figure 3
EI Factors Means

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
372 The fourth research hypothesis: A statistically significant differences in Emotional

Intelligence of students according to grade (7th, 8th, and 9th) variable. This hypothesis was
rejected as follows: grade in emotional intelligence was rejected.
Table 6 displays the mean scores for each of the five dimensions, broken down by grade. No
statistically significant variations between the five factors models according to grade variable
were observed, highlighting the positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
student academic achievement. One way ANOVA has been used for this hypothesis test.
Table 6
The Differences among Students Score of EIS according to the Grade Variable
Mean
Factor Grade N M SD df F p
Square
Seventh 118 15.97 3.56 Between Groups 30.44 2

1 st
Eighth 93 15.63 4.32 Within Groups 15.81 300 1.93 .15
Ninth 92 16.75 4.12
Total 302
Total 303 16.11 3.99

2nd Eighth 93 31.40 6.61 Within Groups 46.43 300 .68 .51
Ninth 92 32.47 7.33
Total 302
Total 303 31.79 6.81

3rd Eighth 93 31.25 7.28 Within Groups 46.99 300 .44 .64
Ninth 92 31.98 6.87
Total 302
Total 303 31.80 6.84

4 th
Eighth 93 26.75 5.67 Within Groups 35.91 300 .35 .70
Ninth 92 27.48 6.38
Total 302
Total 303 27.07 5.98

5 th
Eighth 93 52.258 10.79 Within Groups 119.76 300 .243 .784
Ninth 92 52.282 11.46 Total 302
Total 303 52.620 10.92

Overall Eighth 93 157.29 29.60 Within Groups 872.89 300 .38 .69
Ninth 92 160.96 30.98
Total 302
Total 303 159.38 29.48
Academic
Eighth 93 80.39 9.69 Within Groups 83.22 300
Achievement
Ninth 92 78.23 8.94
302 1.73 .18
Total Total
303 78.92 9.14

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Discussion 373
The purpose of this study was to determine the possibility of a relationship between
Emotional Intelligence (EI) and the academic achievement of Arabic basic school students
in China. For reaching this goal, an additional study was to develop a diagnostic tool to be a
standard for measuring the Emotional Intelligence of students.
Positive Relationships between the Emotional Intelligence Factors and Academic

Achievement of Students for each Model Specifically and Overall
The acquisition of diverse emotional intelligence may be paramount in the success of a

student. Researchers including Cherniss (2001), Goleman (1995), and O'Neil (1996) posited that
putting a higher estimate upon emotional intelligence relative to its importance to intellectual
quotient (IQ) could be the key to procuring better academic output from students. Several studies
have left researchers convinced that there is an unquestionable connection between academic
success and emotional intelligence (Ebinagbome et al., 2011). This study aimed to analyze the
emotional intelligence of a select number of students. Thus, a comparative analysis of individual
students' academic results over an academic year was obtained (Franco et al., 2017; Meshkat
& Nejati, 2017). For statistical analysis, correlation and regression were the methods of choice.
The aim of this study was to look into the connection between EI and academic achievement.
According to the findings, students' EI was strongly related to their academic achievement.
The significant link discovered between EI and student academic achievement could pique
curriculum developers' interest in learning more about EI's impact on achievement. Many
studies have shown that emotional intelligence has a positive impact on academic performance
(Mustafa Ali Khalaf, 2016; Preeti, 2013; Rode et al., 2007). In other studies, the connection
between emotional intelligence and achievement was weak but important (Festus, 2012). On
the other hand, some studies found no connection between emotional intelligence and academic
achievement (Hansenne & Legrand, 2012; Kashani, Azimi, & Vaziri, 2012; Pope, Roper, &
Qualter, 2011). The strong link between EI and academic achievement can be explained by
the fact that EI encourages people to suppress negative emotions like frustration, self-doubt,
tension, and anxiety and instead concentrate on positive emotions like trust, empathy, and
congeniality (Sunil & Rooprai, 2009). For two reasons, Factor 5 (General Mood) was linked
to academic achievement. First, academic success necessitates a great deal of self-reliance
and strain. Second, the most scholarly study is self-directed, which necessitates a high degree
of self-control. As a result, people who are fully conscious of their feelings would do well
in school. Zarezadeh (2013) claimed that there is a significant correlation between students’
achievement and General Mood. The study of Payton et al. (2000), Parker et al. (2004), and
Fatum(2008) founded a positive moderate correlation between emotional intelligence and
academic achievement of students (Fatum, 2008). Also, a positive correlation between EI and
academic achievement proved by (Yahaya et al., 2012).
In general, the emotional intelligence domains studied in this research are related to
academic performance, student achievement, motivation, and matching study of Jennings (2011)
since positive emotions are associated with success, while negative emotions are associated
with failure. Emotions and priorities, according to Carver & Scheier (1998), predicted the
results as came in the study outcomes of Pekrun, Elliot & Maier (2009) and were supported by
this study (Georgia & Kourakou., 2018).
The researchers used regression analysis to see if EI is a good predictor of academic
success. Regression analysis revealed that all EI variables have a substantial impact on
academic achievement. These results are consistent with previous studies conducted by (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997; Nasir & Masrur, 2010).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
374 Emotional Intelligence of Students with Five Categories
From the previous results, students have better abilities at the mood states (the fifth
factor). Regarding the general mood state, it is the most important component of emotional
intelligence, according to Bar-On, since it is a motivating tool in problem-solving and stress
tolerance, in addition to being an integral aspect of interpersonal interaction (Amado-Alonso,
León-del-Barco, Mendo-Lázaro, Sánchez-Miguel, & Iglesias Gallego, 2019). An analysis of
the research findings has substantiated the overarching research hypothesis of the investigative
team. The findings, as depicted above, show the presence of positive emotional intelligence
among students in five domains.
Statistically Significant Differences of Emotional Intelligence of Students according to

Gender (males-females) Variable
Gender (male-female) differences in EIS were analyzed using the independent t-test,
and the means indicate statistically significant differences found in EIS. Females are more
conscious of their feelings, display more sensitivity, and have better interpersonal skills than
males. Alasmari (2014) discovered that females outperformed males in the following EI
constructs: stress control, intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, and general mood. They
are emotionally intelligent in various ways that males are not due to a specific combination
of the key components of EI. Males, on the other hand, are self –confident, optimistic, that
the superiority of females in the interpersonal factor confirms the results of previous research
(Perdomo et al., 2011; Santesso et al., 2006). Therefore, females show greater competences
and abilities than males. These differences between males and females may be due to cultural
influences and gender-specific family rearing practices, as other studies have suggested
(Conway, 2000; Joseph & Newman, 2010). Contrary to popular belief, some studies showed
that females were not more emotionally intelligent as compared to males (Ahmad, Bangash,
& Khan, 2009). The result contradicted those reported by (Cakan & Altun, 2005; Depape et
al., 2006; Meshkat & Nejati, 2017) that there was no significant gender differences in terms of
EIS. Goleman (1998) reported that there were no gender gaps in EI, stating that while males
and females could have different profiles of strengths and weaknesses in different areas of EL,
their overall EI levels were equal. However, research conducted by (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,
2000), and more recently (Mandell & Pherwani, 2003) discovered that in both occupational
and personal environments, females were more likely to score higher on measures of EI than
males (Stys & Brown, 2004). Males scored higher in the adaptability and general mood factors,
while females scored higher in the interpersonal and intrapersonal factors, as well as Total EQ,
according to studies that used the EQ-i as a measuring instrument of EI (Bar-On & Parker,
2000; Ferrándiz, Hernández, Bermejo, Ferrando, & Sáinz, 2012; Santesso et al., 2006).
These findings from this study confirmed the outcome of an earlier study by (Fida et
al.,2018). Both revealed that there was a notable statistical difference between learners from
either gender. Data from the mean scores demonstrated that females outperformed males in all
spheres of emotional intelligence. These results have been concretized by similar findings from
Fayombo (2012), who discovered an existent link between sex, academic output, and emotional
intelligence. The confirmation of a positive and notable association between managing emotions
and academic output was made(Fayombo, 2012). An analysis of how learners expressed their
feelings, coupled with findings from an independent t-test, showed a skewing of emotional
intelligence towards females. Thus, the findings confirmed the long-held view that females are
better at expressing their emotions. Studies by Fortin, Oreopoulos, & Phipps (2015) highlighted
the increasing evidential data that male students were becoming less participatory in the
education system and were being outperformed by their female counterparts when they become

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
participants (MacCann et al., 2020). Here, it can be that this study emphasized several previous 375
studies related to the emotional intelligence field. To clarify these differences, it is necessary
to emphasize the importance of going beyond the scope of sexual differences in EI and to
encourage non-stereotyped gender identity referents (Conway, 2000). Gender differences in EI
have been observed since childhood; this may be due to a difference in emotional instruction
between males and females (Brackett & Salovey, 2006).
Differences of Emotional Intelligence of Students according to Grade

(7th ,8th, and 9th) Variable
The findings of this study refute the widely held idea that higher grades lead to increased
social and emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 2006) since there was no noticeable correlation
between grades and emotional intelligence. The result is consistent with the findings of previous
research (Balci-Celik & Deniz, 2008; Birks, McKendree, & Watt, 2009; Harrod & Scheer,
2005).
According to (Genç, Kuluşaklı, & Aydın, 2016), grade has no effect on any of the sub-
dimensions of the Emotional Intelligence skills scale except problem-solving ability. However,
the relationship is quite weak. A meta-analysis study conducted by MacCann in 2020 scoured
nine databases, capturing 6139 citations for related emotional intelligence and found a few
things. It was revealed a few notable differences in emotional intelligence and resulting in
grade disparities between students in both past and present studies (Hermoso et al., 2020). The
indication from studies conducted as late as November 1, 2016, stressed the unavailability of
study data that showed a significant difference in grade variable based on students' emotional
intelligence (C. MacCann et al., 2020). These results reasoned the nature of each study and the
research instrument’s contents according to its hypotheses and goals.
Conclusions
This research purposed to calculate the relationship between emotional intelligence and
academic achievement of students based on the appropriate validation of emotional intelligence
measure. Here, researchers clarified the work, which was done in the whole sections of this
research.
First, our conceptualization and the research design included factors identified by Bar-
On. This dissertation illustrated the analysis of the factors of emotional intelligence through
some procedures: started with experts and specialists and pilot test for making sure the
face validity and reliability of EIS, then found out construction validity by exploratory and
conformity factor analysis for EIS items, which were reported 46 items distributed among 5
factors with appropriate loading for each item and factor as the final formulation of EIS which
are, intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, stress management, adaptability and general mood.
Second, the current research results confirmed the research hypotheses that the relationships
among main variables of this research and the factor models for each main variable as emotional
intelligence with the academic achievement of students based on the scholastic achievement
list which was taken by Arabic schools’ principles in China. Furthermore, there was a positive
relationship between students’ emotional intelligence and their academic achievements, with
a statistically significant difference at level 0.01. Third, the emotional intelligence of students
categorized into five levels (very high, high, moderate, low, and very low) for each factor
and overall. Fourth, the demographic variables were examined. The study showed that there
were statistically significant differences among students according to gender variable, and no
statistically significant differences among students according to grade variable.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
376 Limitations and Research Directions
The measures used in this research developed based on theoretical conceptions and
several factor models of emotional intelligence (EI) of Bar-On and Parker (2000). EIS had
a satisfactory construct validity through several stages started from the researchers reading,
revision by specialists and experts in this field, and then applying it for the pilot tests and the
emphasis that the scale items to be measured with the five aspects represented five models
of emotional intelligence with excluding 14 items for the final EIS formulation as follows
(Intrapersonal Skills, Interpersonal Skills, Stress Management, Adaptability, and General
mood). So, EIS reliability examined by Cronbach’s Alpha, McDonald's Omega, re-test
(stability coefficient), CR and AVE. Also, the levels of emotional intelligence were explained.
The relationships among the research variables were obtained by Structure Equation Molding
(SEM). Data were processed through statistical analysis by EFA and then CFA. Data only sought
from 303 students in different grades (7th, 8th, and 9th) in Arabic Schools in China and did
not demographically represent the context of students from other communities. Therefore, the
interpretation of the research results should be cautious in other contexts. The current research
illustrated the differences according to gender and grade variables but did not explain the
differences according to the school age, country, and years of living in China variables. Thus,
it is recommended that future research studies should explore how to expand the constructs in
measuring the characteristics of students diagnosed with EIS. So, developing the appropriate
programs of emotional intelligence to increase the academic achievement of students are
necessary. Besides, it is suggested that future research studies can adopt additional theoretical
conceptions for measuring the multiple intelligence, creative thinking, reflective thinking,
and critical thinking and their influences on the academic achievement of students in different
stages. In addition, this observed relationship between EI and academic achievement should
be investigated by considering emotional intelligence measures in future studies. Moreover,
ecological validity needs to be further tested by different samples. However, the results of
measures development were acceptable, and the hypotheses were accepted except for the grade
variable in emotional intelligence, which strengthens the findings of this research.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate the subsidy granted by the Cognitive and Behavior Research
Center for Special Needs at Shaanxi Normal University (SNNU) in Xi'an, China, for the study
presented here. The authors would like to thank the experts and specialists in this field, as well
as the principals and teachers of the four schools that actively participated in this research
project, for believing in our project and welcoming us into their daily work, and for allowing
us access to their classrooms and students. Additionally, the school of education at SNNU
represents the Dean, Vice dean and Professors for continue encouragement.
References
Ahmad, S., Bangash, H., & Khan, S. A. (2009). Emotional intelligence and gender differences. Sarhad
Journal of Agriculture, 25(1), 127-130.
Al-Qadri, H. A., Wei, Z., Al-khresheh, H. M., Chen, X., & Hali, U. A. (2018). Teaching competencies for
Arabic schools kindergarten teachers in China. The Journal of Social Sciences Research (Special
Issue 5), 834-841. https://doi.org/10.32861/jssr.spi5.834.841
Alasmari, A. (2014). Emotional intelligence and academic achievement: A comparative, gender-based
study of undergraduate English language learners in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Education and
Practice, 5(6), 178-190.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Amado-Alonso, D., León-del-Barco, B., Mendo-Lázaro, S., Sánchez-Miguel, P., & Iglesias Gallego, D. 377
(2019). Emotional intelligence and the practice of organized physical-sport activity in children.
Sustainability, 11(6), Article 1615. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061615
Balci-Celik, S., & Deniz, M. E. (2008). A comparison of Scouts’ Emotional Intelligence levels with
regards to age and gender variables: A cross-cultural study. Elementary Education Online, 7(2),
376-383. http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol7say2/v7s2m12.pdf
Bar-On. (1997). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A test of emotional intelligence. Toronto:
Multi-Health Systems.
Bar-On. (2003). How important is it to educate people to be emotionally and socially intelligent, and can
it be done? Perspectives in Education, 21(4), 3-13.
Bar-On. (2006). The Bar-On Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence (ESI). Psicothema, 18, 13-25
Bar-On, R., & Parker, J. D. A. (2000). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth version. Technical
manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Birks, Y., McKendree, J., & Watt, I. (2009). Emotional intelligence and perceived stress in healthcare
students: A multi-institutional, multi-professional survey. BMC Medical Education, 9, 61.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-9-61
Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K. (2000). Clustering competence in emotional intelligence:
Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.),
Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 343-362). Jossey-Bass, USA. http://www.eiconsortium.
org/
Brackett, M., & Salovey, P. (2006). Measuring emotional intelligence with the Mayer-Salovery-Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Psicothema, 18, 34-41.
Cakan, M., & Altun, S. A. (2005). Adaptation of an emotional intelligence scale for Turkish educators.
International Education Journal, 6(3), 367-372.
Castellan, C. M. (2010). Quantitative and qualitative research: A View for clarity. International Journal
of Education, 2(2), 1-14.
Conway, M. (2000). On sex roles and representations of emotional experience: Masculinity, femininity,
and emotional awareness. Plenum Publishing Corporation, 43, 687-698.
Coşkun, K., & Öksüz, Y. (2018). Impact of emotional literacy training on students’ emotional intelligence
performance in primary schools. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 36-47.
https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.503393
Deng, L., & Chan, W. (2017). Testing the difference between reliability coefficients
alpha and omega. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 77(2), 185-203.
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013164416658325
Depape, A.-M. R., Hakim-Larson, J., Voelker, S., Page, S., & Jackson, D. L. (2006). Self-talk and
emotional intelligence in university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue
canadienne des sciences du comportement, 38(3), 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/cjbs2006012
Ebinagbome, M. E., & Nizam, D. I. (2016). The impact of emotional intelligence on student’s academic
performance. International Journal of Accounting and Business Management, 4(1), 10-18.
http://www.ftms.edu.my/journals/IJABM/Apr2016/10-18.pdf
Fatum, B. A. (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement
in elementary-school children. (Doctoral), The University of San Francisco, San Francisco,
California.
Fayombo, G. A. (2012). Emotional intelligence and gender as predictors of academic achievement
among some university students in Barbados. International Journal of Higher Education, 1(1).
https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v1n1p102
Ferrándiz, C., Hernández, D., Bermejo, R., Ferrando, M., & Sáinz, M. (2012). Social and emotional
intelligence in childhood and adolescence: Spanish validation of a measurement instrument.
Journal of Psychodidactics, 17(2), 309-338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1387/Rev.Psicodidact.2814
Festus, A. (2012). The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement of senior
secondary students in the federal capital territory. Abuja. Journal of Education & Practice, 3,
13-19.
Fida, A., Ghaffar, A., Zaman, A., & Satti, N., A. (2018). Gender comparison of emotional intelligence of
university students. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 5(1), 172-188.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics using SPSS. SAGE.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
378 Franco, M. D. G., Beja, M. J., Candeias, A., & Santos, N. (2017). Emotion understanding, social
competence and school achievement in children from primary school in Portugal. Frontiers in
Psychology, 8, Article 1376. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2017.01376
Genç, G., Kuluşaklı, E., & Aydın, S. (2016). The relationship between emotional intelligence and
productive language skills. The Reading Matrix, 16(1), 91-105.
Georgia, P., & Kourakou. (2018). Trait emotional intelligence and achievement goals in EFL. Journal of
Contemporary Education, Theory & Research, 2(1), 27-37. https://www.jcetr.gr/vol2iss1/2-1-5.pdf
Goleman. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th Ed.).
Pearson.
Hansenne, M., & Legrand, J. (2012). Creativity, emotional intelligence, and school
performance in children. International Journal of Educational Research, 53, 264-
268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.015
Harrod, N. R., & Scheer, S. D. (2005). An explanation of adolescent emotional intelligence in relation to
demographic characteristics. Adolescence, 40(159), 503-512.
Heale, R., & Twycross, A. (2015). Validity and reliability in quantitative studies. Research Made Simple,
18(3), 66-67. https://doi.10.1136/eb-2015-102129
Henricsson, L., & Rydell, A.-M. (2006). Children with behaviour problems: The influence of
social competence and social relations on problem stability, school achievement and peer
acceptance across the first six years of school. Infant and Child Development, 15(4), 347-
366. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.448
Hermoso, M., D, T., Frutos, C., R., Rivera, J., F., Salgado, J., G., Iglesias, J., J, G., & Martín, M., R. (2020).
Emotional intelligence and its relationship with emotional well-being and academic performance:
The vision of high school students. Children, (7), 2-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7120310
Joibari, A., & Mohammadtaheri, N. (2011). The study of relation between emotional intelligence and
students’ academic achievement of high schools in Tehran City. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 29, 1334-1341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.371
Jonker, C., & Vosloo, C. (2008). The psychometric properties of the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale.
SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(2), 21-30.
Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-
analysis and cascading model. American Psychological Association, 95(1), 54-78.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017286
Kashani, F. L., Azimi, A. L., & Vaziri, S. (2012). Relationship between emotional intelligence
and educational achievement. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69, 1270-1275.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.061
Khajehpour, M. (2011). Relationship between emotional intelligence, parental involvement and academic
performance of high school students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 1081-1086.
Ki, E.-J., & Hon, L. C. (2008). A measure of relationship cultivation strategies. Journal of Public Relations
Research, 21(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627260802520488
MacCann, C., Fogarty, G. J., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2011). Coping mediates the relationship
between emotional intelligence (EI) and academic achievement. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36(1), 60-70. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.11.002
MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E. R., Double, K. S., Bucich, M., & Minbashian, A. (2020). Emotional
intelligence predicts academic performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(2),
150–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000219
Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational
leadership style: A gender comparison. Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(3), 387-404.
Mayer, & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence: In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional
development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators. Basic Books.
Mayer, Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In Handbook of Intelligence
(pp. 396–420). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807947.019
Meshkat, M., & Nejati, R. (2017). Does emotional intelligence depend on gender? A study
on undergraduate English majors of three Iranian universities. SAGE Open, 7(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244017725796

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Mortan, R. A., Ripoll, P., Carvalho, C., & Bernal, M. C. (2014). Effects of emotional intelligence 379
on entrepreneurial intention and self-efficacy. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las
Organizaciones, 30(3), 97-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2014.11.004
Mustafa Ali Khalaf, A. (2016). The relationship between emotional intelligence and academic
achievements in males and females in Egyptian context. Journal of Psychology Research, 6(10).
http://www.davidpublisher.org/index.php/Home/Article/index?id=28452.html
Nasir, M., & Masrur, R. (2010). An exploration of emotional intelligence of the students of IIUI in relation
to gender, age, and academic achievement. Bulletin of Education & Research, 32, 37-51.
Parker, J., Summerfeldt, L., Hogan, M., & Majeski, S. (2004). Emotional intelligence and academic
success: Examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual
Differences, 36, 163-172.
Perdomo, D. M. C., Pérez-Olmos, I., & Pinilla, M. I. (2011). Inteligencia emocional en adolescentes de dos
colegios de Bogotá* [Emotional Intelligence (EI) in Adolescents from Two Schools in Bogotá].
Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 40(1), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0034-7450(14)60104-
9
Pope, D., Roper, C., & Qualter, P. (2011). The influence of emotional intelligence on academic progress
and achievement in UK university students. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37(8),
907-918. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2011.583981
Preeti, B. (2013). Role of emotional intelligence for academic achievement for students. Research Journal
of Educational Sciences, 1(2), 8-12.
Rode, J. C., Mooney, C. H., Arthaud-Day, M. L., Near, J. P., Baldwin, T. T., Rubin, R. S., & Bommer, W.
H. (2007). Emotional intelligence and individual performance: Evidence of direct and moderated
effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(4), 399-421. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.429
Santesso, D., Reker, D. L., Schmidt, L. A., & Segalowitz, S. J. (2006). Frontal electroencephalogram
activation asymmetry, emotional intelligence, and externalizing behaviors in 10-year-old children.
Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 36(3), 311-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-005-
0005-2
Scherer, R. (2015). Is it time for a new measurement approach? A closer look at the assessment
of cognitive adaptability in complex problem solving. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1664.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01664
Shearer, C. (2004). Using a Multiple intelligences assessment to promote teacher
development and student achievement. Teachers College Record, 106(1), 147-162.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2004.00325.x
Sternberg, R. J. (2015). Successful intelligence: A model for testing intelligence beyond IQ tests. European
Journal of Education and Psychology, 8(2), 76-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejeps.2015.09.004
Stys, Y., & Brown, S. (2004). A review of the emotional intelligence literature and implications for
corrections. Correctional Service of Canada. https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/r150-eng.shtml
Sunil, K., & Rooprai, K. (2009). The role of emotional intelligence in managing stress and anxiety at
workplace. Paper presented at the ASBBS Annual Conference, Las Vegas.
Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique
for research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management (IJARM), 5(2), 18-27.
Vahedi, M., & Nikdel, H. (2011). Emotional intelligence, parental involvement and
academic achievement. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 331-335.
Van Rooy, D. L., & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation
of predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 71-95.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0001-8791(03)00076-9
Watkins, M. W. (2017). The reliability of multidimensional neuropsychological
measures: From alpha to omega. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 31(6-7), 1113-
1126. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1317364
Woitaszewski, S. A., & Aalsma, M. C. (2004). The contribution of emotional intelligence to the social and
academic success of gifted adolescents as measured by the multifactor emotional intelligence scale
‐ adolescent version. Roeper Review, 27(1), 25-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190409554285
Yahaya, A., Juriah, N., Bachok, D., Yahaya, N., Boon, Y., Hashim, S., & Le, G. (2012). The impact of
emotional intelligence element on academic achievement. Archives Des Sciences, 65(4), 2-17.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
380 Yazici, H., Seyis, S., & Altun, F. (2011). Emotional intelligence and self-efficacy beliefs as predictors of
academic achievement among high school students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
15, 2319-2323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.100
Zahed-Babelan, A., & Moenikia, M. (2010). The role of emotional intelligence in predicting students’
academic achievement in distance education system. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
2(2), 1158-1163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.164
Zarezadeh, T. (2013). The effect of emotional intelligence in English language learning. Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 1286-1289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.745
Zulkipli, I., & Ali, H. (2018). Strategic leadership: Realizing student aspiration outcomes. Partridage
publishing.
Received: March 18, 2021 Accepted: June 04, 2021
Cite as: Al-Qadri, A. B., & Zhao, W. (2021). Emotional intelligence and students`
academic achievement. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 360-380.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360
Abdo Hasan Al-Qadri PhD, School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University,

Xi’an, China.
E-mail: lubna23112015@outlook.com
Wei Zhao PhD, Department of Special Education, School of Education, Shaanxi Normal
(Corresponding author) University, 199 South Chang’an Road, Xi’an, 710062 Shaanxi, China.
Email: zhaowei@snnu.edu.cn

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
INSTRUMENTS TO ACCESS THE 381
CHEMISTRY PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW
Rolién J. V. Cirilo, Elaine A. Colagrande
Federal University of Alfenas, Brazil
E-mail: rolienvieira@gmail.com, elainecola@gmail.com
Abstract
This research presents an integrative review about the methodological procedures adopted in the research
of the Chemistry PCK, with the aim of identifying the data collection instruments used to explain the PCK
in this field, seeking to observe its frequency of use and also contribute to the advancement of knowledge
established by previous reviews. 89 articles published in magazines well evaluated by CAPES were
selected, indexed to the Scopus (Elsevier) database. The treatment of the data was based on the technique
of content analysis, resulting in six categories constructed a posteriori: a) period of publications; b)
country of origin of the research; c) relationship to a specific topic; d) the teaching experience of the
target audience; e) research approach and data collection instruments; and f) the use of PCK models
as a theoretical framework. The results suggest a methodological predominance of a qualitative nature,
with interviews, field diaries, observation of the practice, and questionnaires some of the most used
instruments. Besides, a trend related to the specification of topics in the Chemistry discipline can be
identified, as well as the lack of clarity regarding the variety of PCK models present in the literature and
the failure to adopt these as a theoretical basis in most of the research studies analysed. There is also
an express need to investigate the PCK of Chemistry teachers in practice in higher education since the
results reinforce the scarcity of papers for this specific audience.
Keywords: chemistry teaching, data collection instruments, professional knowledge, teacher training,
teacher’s knowledge

Introduction
“Teacher’s matter.” (Keller et al., 2016, p. 1). This quote was chosen to introduce the
theme addressed in this investigation: the importance of teacher professionalization and the
teachers' professional appreciation, which has become increasingly clear, more explicit in the
academic world. Shulman (1986), when theorizing about the Pedagogical Content Knowledge
construct, PCK, defended the need to establish a knowledge base that could influence the
teaching professionalization, in addition to specifying the domain of the specific disarticulated
content of general pedagogical knowledge.
The development of the PCK construct, in addition to assisting in the initial and continuing
training of teachers, as pointed out by Kind (2009) and Fraser (2015), also contributed to a
systematized view at the teaching performance, in the form of professionalization of these
teachers. Shulman (1986) considers the PCK as an amalgam between General Pedagogical
Knowledge (PK) and Content Knowledge (CK), a special form of knowledge that belongs
only to professionals in this class and that integrates the most powerful tools of pedagogical
performance to making a purely scientific concept pedagogically understandable for students.
The PCK construct is understood in different ways among researchers on the theme,
as pointed out by Kind (2009) and Goes (2014). Pena and Mesquita (2020), for example, are
based on Shulman's (1986) proposal to define the PCK as an amalgam of all categories of

Rolién J. V. CIRILO, Elaine A. COLAGRANDE. Instruments to access the chemistry pedagogical content knowledge: An integrative
review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
382 the professional knowledge base, in their Pedagogy Content Knowledge Chemistry (PCKC)
model. This definition differs from the initial ideas of Shulman (1986), because, according to
these authors, Shulman's PCK involves a special form of the teacher’s professional knowledge
between two knowledge bases (General Pedagogical Knowledge and Content Knowledge) for
a certain audience of students, but not to all types of students. This makes them conclude the
need to include all knowledge bases to define the PCKC.
PCK models, with different categories of knowledge bases, have been the subject of
discussions in the scientific literature (Fernandez, 2015a; Kind, 2009). Shulman (1987)
proposed a basis for this knowledge, which includes: content knowledge; general pedagogical
knowledge; curriculum knowledge; pedagogical content knowledge; knowledge of the learners
and their characteristics; knowledge of the educational contexts; and knowledge of educational
ends, purposes and values, and their philosophical and historical grounds. Grossman (1990),
Shulman's adviser, proposed a professional knowledge base different from that initially proposed
by Shulman. Magnunsson et al. (1999) proposed another basis for the Science Teachers' PCK
and, likewise, many other models and knowledge bases have been built over the years. There
was a meeting, held in 2012, by about 30 different research groups of PCK in Sciences, in an
attempt to define a concept and a consensual model of the PCK, known as the Summit Model.
Even so, other models continue to emerge in the scientific literature, such as that of Azam
(2019) and that of Pena and Mesquita (2020), for example.
Shulman (2007), in response to a criticism by Evans (2007) regarding the “existing
practice” as a way of molding education professionals, explained the importance of investigating
teaching practice and investing in teacher training through the “wisdom of practice” as a way
to improve professionalization, investigating and systematizing the variance of these practices
through PCK research. However, there is still much to clarify about the PCK's explicit
processes, which, according to Baxter and Lederman (1999), Kagan (1990), and Kind (2009),
appear as something latent, implicit. Loughran et al. (2004) report the difficulty of explaining
the teachers' PCK, as well as Fernandez (2015a). Loughran et al. (2004) propose instruments
(the CoRe; Content Representation, and the PaP-eRs, Pedagogical and Professional experience
Repertoires), to explain the teachers' PCK. These are not the only data collection instruments
that have been validated in the literature. Baxter and Lederman (1999) and, later, Kind (2009)
revised to compile the most used instruments, as well as to classify them - in the case of Kind -
in specific research categories. From this scenario, the interest arose in identifying the frequency
with which the instruments of data collection and explanation of the PCK are used, the variety,
and also updating on the instruments developed in the years after the mentioned revisions.
Research Problem
Given the context presented by Loughran et al. (2004), Fernandez and Goes (2014), and
Fernandez (2015a), it is possible to understand that the PCK, although widespread in research
worldwide, proves to be quite complex to investigate and make explicit in teaching practice.
As a result, there is still a lack of clarity about the diversity of instruments used to access and
document the PCK of teachers from different areas of knowledge, including Chemistry.
Research Focus
This study has a specific focus on the methodological part of the selected publications,
to synthesize the variety of data collection instruments used to access the Chemistry teachers'
PCK.

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Research Aim and Research Questions 383
The aim of this study was to systematize publications involving the Chemistry PCK,
from 2001 to 2020, specifying the data collection instruments used to explain the PCK, seeking
to identify the frequency of use of these instruments, and seeking to establish a panorama
contextualization of these research studies, to expand the results obtained in previous reviews,
in addition to enabling a methodological update for the academic community.
Thus, the research questions that guided the realization of this work were:
1. Which nationalities are involved in Chemistry PCK research?
2. Which specific Chemistry topics have been investigated the most in these
publications?
3. What is the target audience investigated in these surveys?
4. What are the instruments and how often have they been used to explain the Chemistry
teachers' PCK in the selected articles?
5. Which PCK models have been used the most in the selected articles?
General Background
This research adopts a qualitative methodological approach, in the perspective presented

by Creswell (2009), in which the questions and procedures emerging from the investigative
process are used. From a qualitative perspective, this study can be classified as an integrative
review, as Cooper (1982) pointed out:
The goal of an integrative review is to summarize the accumulated state of knowledge concerning
the relation(s) of interest and to highlight important issues that research has left unresolved
(Taveggia, 1974). From the reader’s viewpoint, an integrative research review is intended to
(a) replace papers that have fallen behind the research front (Price, 1965) and (b) direct future
research so that it yields a maximum amount of new information. (p. 292)
According to Cooper (1982) and Russel (2005), the integrative review research can be
consolidated based on results or procedures adopted in several empirical types of research
developed in the literature. As an example, it can be mentioned the variety of data collection
instruments used in research on the topic of Pedagogical Knowledge of Content in the
disciplinary field of Chemistry, a perspective of great interest in this investigation. The context
of this research, therefore, involves the theme of the Chemistry PCK so that the methodological
procedures used in the analysed articles can be synthesized.
As previously exposed, research on the PCK uses several data collection instruments
and there is an enormous difficulty in explaining the PCK of a given subject, as it is something
underlying, latent, or implicit for education professionals. It is necessary to clarify some ideas
in this field, addressing what they are and how often these instruments are used.
Not only the research instruments but also, as pointed out by Abell (2008), there are
discrepancies concerning the PCK concept itself, in which, in this case, the author suggests
that the construct is related to a specific topic, as well as the diversification of the PCK models
and professional knowledge bases proposed in the literature, which according to Goes (2014),
broaden the debates about the very professional teaching of Chemistry teachers. An integrative
review survey, therefore, can provide an overview in terms of the methodological variety that
has been applied to research on the topic in the selected period.

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
384 Sample
For the composition of the corpus of this research, 130 articles were selected in journals
relevant to the area of Education and Teaching. The search took place in the Scopus (Elsevier)
database using the terms “PCK” and “Chemical or Chemistry” that could be contained in the
title, abstract, or keywords of the articles, in the period from 2001 to 2020. It was chosen for
analysing only the articles published by journals with qualifications A1 or A2 in Education
or Teaching, according to the classification carried out by the Brazilian government agency
CAPES – Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Coordination for
the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), which resulted in 89 articles selected for
analysis.
Instrument and Procedures
The bibliographic survey was carried out between the months of August and October
2020. Based on a careful reading of the title, summary, keywords, and, when necessary, the full
text of the article, a set of information was elaborated, summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
Description of the Collected Data of the Papers Analysed
Collected data Objective

Year of publication Establish a temporal overview of the selected articles.
To verify which countries have contributed to the research in PCK of
Country of origin of the articles Chemistry, as well as the international partnerships established between the
researchers who sign as authors of these articles.
Identify the methodological approach of each article in qualitative,

Methodological Approach
quantitative, and mixed approaches.
Check the variety of instruments used in the articles, as well as their
Data collection instruments
frequency of use.
Investigated target audience Check which audiences have been investigated in the selected period.
Identify, in each publication, the use of one or more specific topics and, also,
Topic specifications
which specific topics are most investigated in this corpus.
Identify whether a PCK model was adopted as a theoretical framework in the

PCK model adopted
research analysed.
After data collection, the analysis was carried out, as described below.
Data Analysis

The data were processed using the Content Analysis technique, which, according to Bardin
(2011), consists of a technique for analysing the content manifested in the messages, aiming at
their objective, qualitative and quantitative description systematically, to later proceed to the
interpretation of these communications. Such a means of analysis, in the perspective presented
by Bardin, may allow a conception of the manifest content in an exploratory perspective as
well as to serve as proof, in a determined investigation, in addition to a merely superficial
and emptied understanding. It is at this point - the moment in which it is understood about the
manifest content after the analytical treatment - that the author considers the importance of the
inferences, made possible by the use of the technique.

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
The manifest content of the corpus was analysed from registration units, which are 385
fragments of the text that have been coded. It is understood as a unit of understanding for the
units of record, the units of context, which enabled the categorization process.
It is also understood that the categories constructed a posteriori are made up of
groupings, by differentiation, of the registration units. And, given the categorization process,
the explanation and discussion of the results obtained enabled a more critical, systematic,
and in-depth look at the productions that involve the theme of Pedagogical Knowledge of
the Chemistry Disciplinary Content, mainly, for the variety and frequency of use of the data
collection instruments contained in the corpus.

Research Results
The analysis of the data started with the fragmentation of the corpus to constitute
registration units and, in the case of the present investigation, it can be mentioned, for example,
the year of publications as registration units in the “Period of publications” category; the
methodological approach and data collection instruments as recording units of the category
“Methodological approach and data collection instruments”; and the PCK models, which were
adopted or not in the investigations, as registration units of the category “The use of PCK
models as a theoretical reference”.
This analysis brought out the following categories: a) period of publications; b) country
of origin of the research; c) the relationship with a specific topic; d) the teaching experience of
the target audience; e) research and data collection approach; and f) the use of PCK models as
a theoretical framework.
a) Period of publications
The distribution of the articles selected by the year of publication is shown in Figure
1. It is possible to notice the absence of publications in the first two years of this time frame, as
well as in the years 2006 and 2007. Also noteworthy is the expressive increase in publications
in the decade 2011 -2020, this number (n = 69) being more than triple the first decade of this
cut (n = 20), the period 2001-2010.
Figure 1
The Number of Papers per Year

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
386 b) Country of origin of the research
In this category, the origin of the publications was extracted from the corpus. With that, it
was necessary to define two criteria in the categorization: the studies produced by authors from
a single country and the consolidated international partnerships between the authors of the same
article, which can be seen in Figure 2; and the frequency of contributions from each country, as
well as the partnerships established at the international level, shown in Table 2.
Figure 2
International Partnership and Individual Country Contributions
Table 2
The Number of Papers by Country
Country N %
International Partnership 18 20.2
USA 10 11.2
Turkey 9 10.1
South Africa 7 7.9
Brazil 7 7.9
Germany 5 5.6
Finland 4 4.5
Israel 4 4.5
Netherlands 3 3.4
Sweden 3 3.4
Taiwan 2 2.2
Australia 2 2.2
China 2 2.2
Others 13 14.6

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
The subcategory “Others”, shown in Table 2, included thirteen countries (Ireland, Spain, 387
Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, United Kingdom, Thailand, Slovakia, Switzerland, Canada,
Slovenia, Indonesia, and Portugal) that contributed individually with 1 paper each. It is also
important to note that Croatia and New Zealand participate in the established international
partnerships and, in the selected corpus, no individual contribution from these countries to the
research in PCK in Chemistry was identified.
It is noted, from these results, that the category with the highest frequency corresponds to
the publications developed through international partnerships between researchers of different
nationalities (n = 18) that make up Table 2. It is also possible to note the significant contribution
by part of the USA (n = 10), whose construct of the PCK has its origin, and, finally, the worldwide
dissemination of these research studies, which has 25 different countries in this corpus.
c) Relation to a specific topic
The systematization of the PCK of specific topics can approximate Shulman's initial view,
in which he considers that the PCK is the pedagogical knowledge referring to specific content.
Through the analysis, it was possible to systematize the results obtained from the corpus into
two criteria, which can be seen in Figure 3, so that 65% of the publications (n = 58) are related
to a specific topic, from which the following topics emerge: chemistry organic; chemical bonds;
models, modelling and chemical language; nature of science; chemical balance; nature of the
matter; and electrochemistry as the most recurrent among studies.
Figure 3
Topic-Specific Related Papers on the Corpus
Other topics, less recurring, were also found, such as biochemistry, amount of matter
and stoichiometry, chemical reactions, mixtures, solutions and solubility, acids and bases, green
chemistry and environmental chemistry, gases, analytical techniques, the periodic table, space,
chemistry quantum, nuclear reactions, chemical kinetics, and speed of sound. There are 35% of
the papers in this corpus (n = 31) that do not refer to any specific Chemistry topic, addressing
broader aspects such as epistemological beliefs, technological knowledge, and the identity of
Chemistry teachers, for example.

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
388 d) The teaching experience of the target audience

To evaluate how systematization and documentation of Pedagogical Knowledge of
the Content of Chemistry teachers occurs, this category was elaborated, having four defined
criteria: teachers in training; teachers working in basic education; in-service teachers in higher
education; and mixed audience (of teachers in training and/or in exercise), as shown in Table 3.
It is possible to verify that the highest frequency of publications involves teachers in exercise
in basic education (n = 38), followed by the public in training (n = 32) and, finally, the teachers
working in higher education (n = 9). There are also few publications aimed at studies of a mixed
target audience (n = 7).
It should also be noted that, based on the corpus, it was not possible to identify the target
audience of 3 published articles, one of which was a review article.
Table 3
Teaching Experience
Subjects N
Beginners 3
High school teachers 38
Experienced 35
Pre-service teachers 32
Beginners 1
College professors 9
Experienced 8
High school teachers and college professors 2
Mixed subjects Pre-service and high school teachers 2 7
Pre-service and college professors 3
Not mentioned / Not identified 3
e) Research approach and data collection instruments
The research approach was extracted from the corpus, obtaining the classifications in
qualitative research, quantitative research, and mixed research, as shown in Figure 4. There was
also an analysis related to the most used data collection instruments in all publications, as well
as the most recurrent instruments in each research approach adopted by the authors.
It can be seen, according to Figure 4, that purely qualitative methods are the most used in
the investigations (n = 66), followed by mixed methods (n = 18) and a low frequency of purely
quantitative methods (n = 5).

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 4 389
Methodological Approach Used in the Publications

The most recurrent collection instruments identified in the corpus are interviews
(open or semi-structured), questionnaires, observation of the practice (observation, audio-
visual recording of classes, notes, and field records), Content Representation (CoRe), school
documents (plans classes, teachers' artifacts, textbooks, meeting minutes and posters) and field
diaries (narratives, experience reports, essays, and reflective records).
According to Table 4, among studies of a qualitative nature, the same previous pattern
can be observed, in which interviews are adopted in most publications. It is possible to notice
that there are articles that use a single collection instrument and others that use multiple data
collection instruments.
Table 4
Instruments Used According to the Nature of the Research
Most papers (n = 45) use interviews as an

Multiple instruments (n = 57)
instrument.
Interviews (n = 4)
Qualitative approach (n = 66) Content Representation (n = 2)
Single instrument (n = 9)
Questionnaires (n = 2)
Reflective Journals (n = 1)
Multiple instrument (n = 1)
Quantitative approach (n = 5) Questionnaires (n = 3)
Card sorting (n = 1)
Most papers use questionnaires (n = 5) or

Multiple instrument (n = 7)
interviews (n = 5) as an instrument.
Mixed Methods approach (n Questionnaires (n = 7)

= 18)
Tests (n = 2)
Q-methodology (n = 1)
Interview (n = 1)

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
390 As for studies of a quantitative nature, the majority used a questionnaire as an

instrument of data collection. Three publications present the questionnaire as the only data
collection instrument, one publication uses a card classification activity as the only instrument
and in another publication, the use of multiple instruments (Questionnaires, Tests and Video
Recording) is perceived.
In studies of a mixed nature, the use of questionnaires and tests as a data collection
instrument prevails (n = 16). Eleven publications use only a single collection instrument, among
which questionnaires, tests, interviews, and Q Methodology are identified. Another 7 articles
use multiple instruments for data collection.
f) the use of PCK models as a theoretical framework
Regarding the adoption of specific PCK models, among those available in the scientific
literature, it was possible to observe that there is a high frequency (n = 46) of publications
that did not specifically adopt a PCK model as the theoretical framework of the research, as
illustrated in Table 5:
Table 5
PCK Models Adopted in the Corpus
PCK model n
Does not adopt 46
Magnunsson et al. (1999) 16
Topic-Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge 8
Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge 7
Park and Oliver (2008) 3
Consensus Model 2
Grossman (1990) 1
Rollnick et al. (2008) 1
Hanuscin et al. (2011) and Faikhamta (2013) 1
Shulman (1986) 1
Gess-Newsome (1999) 1
Friedrichsen et al. (2011) 1
Pedagogical-Visual-Content-Knowledge 1
Among the articles that explicitly adopted a PCK model, those with the highest frequency
were those by Magnunsson et al. (1999), followed by the TSPCK (Topic-Specific Pedagogical
Content Knowledge) model, and TPACK (Technological and Pedagogical Content Knowledge).
Discussion
As seen, research on PCK has increased substantially since the term was proposed by Lee
Shulman in 1986 and several researchers have already demonstrated this perception (Aydin &
Boz, 2013; De Jong et al., 2005; Fernandez, 2015b; Kleickmann et al., 2013). The results point
to a significant increase in publications involving PCK research in Chemistry, especially in the
last decade and this is in line with the results obtained by Almeida et al. (2019) in the perception
of greater dissemination in the ideas initially discussed by Shulman from the last decade. The

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
USA, as the country of origin of the construct, still leads the publications, according to the 391
results exposed by this research, agreeing with the research carried out by Goes and Fernandez
(2018), but, it can be observed that its dissemination is worldwide, especially in the case of
partnerships established at an international level, which make up a considerable frequency of
the analysed publications. This is another indication of the importance that the construct has
acquired and, specifically, of how it has been widely investigated for the disciplinary field of
Chemistry.
Regarding the use of a specific topic, the results indicate a tendency to link the specificity
of the topics to PCK research, following the same trend pointed out by Almeida et al. (2019).
The initial ideas of Shulman (1986), the study developed by Abell (2008), the model and
knowledge base proposed by Azam (2019), and the very concept of the PCK proposed by
Pena and Mesquita (2020) pointed to the nature of topic-specific for the PCK and the results
confirm this trend. From the articles selected for analysis, a gap is identified in the scientific
literature demonstrated by the lack of studies developed for the same specific topic, as well as
the exploration of the most varied specific topics found in the teaching and learning processes
of Chemistry. The results suggest that PCK studies on specific topics are still not enough to
discuss its systematization and, therefore, it is considered an important issue to be investigated
in later studies.
Regarding the diversity of specific topics present in the analysed corpus, more frequent
research is recognized for the topics of electrochemistry, chemical bonds, nature of science, and
chemical equilibrium, for example, and, otherwise, there are fewer occurrences for the topics
of chemistry quantum, the periodic table, chemical kinetics, nuclear reactions, and analytical
techniques. In the present research, no results were found from previous research in the scientific
literature that addressed what are the specific topics that have been researched in the studies of
the disciplinary Chemistry PCK, a fact that also offers a field for future investigations.
In addition to the topic-specific nature of the PCK, the results show that the most
investigated public when dealing with PCK are teachers in practice in basic education and
teachers in training, which is in line with the results obtained by Almeida et al. (2019) for PCK
research, in general, in Brazil, and with the results of the research by Goes and Fernandez
(2018) for PCK research in Chemistry, although, in the latter case, the authors report a scarcity
of publications for the high school. Barnett and Hodson (2001) argued that experienced
teachers tend to have a more organized PCK and, therefore, more open to explanation and
documentation so that the teacher training process can be reflected and redesigned. It is also
possible to conclude that, for the PCK in Chemistry, the results suggest the same trend pointed
out by Padilla and Van Driel (2011), Padilla and Garritz (2015), Goes and Fernandez (2018),
and Almeida et al. (2019), in which there is still little clarity in the PCK research in Chemistry
of professors in higher education, which may reflect a barrier to both the acceptance of the
construct as a potential tool for the development of the PCK in higher education and to design
curriculum for training teachers at this level of education. About this fact, Shulman et al. (2006)
criticize the PhDs in Education, culminating in a proposal defined by the term "Professional
Practice Doctorate", the PPD, in the sense of pointing out ways for the discussion on the training
of teachers to work in higher education.
There is still uncertainty regarding the use of PCK models already published in the
scientific literature since the results obtained in the investigated corpus show that most of the
analysed publications do not adopt a specific PCK model, confirming the same trend identified
by Goes and Fernandez (2018), but with one difference: greater adherence by the academic
community can be observed for the TSPCK, TPACK models and the one proposed by Park and
Oliver (2008) in detriment to that of Grossman (1990) in this corpus. At this point, it should be
noted that some PCK models were specifically designed to investigate science teachers (Abell,
2008; Consensus Model, created in the first PCK Summit in 2012; Magnunsson et al., 1999;

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
392 Park & Oliver, 2008) and which are widely used, but it can be recognized that, in the case of
Chemistry teachers, a PCK model that is specific to this audience could be of a broad interest
in the world academic community. Pena and Mesquita (2020) made this proposal, which is still
recent, which should be considered by the academic community in the development of future
studies.
As a central part of this research, the results demonstrate that among the most used
instruments to explain the PCK of Chemistry in the investigations, are the interviews, the CoRe,
and the field diaries, which carry with them the latent, implicit, or tacit connotation of the
construct, as previously mentioned (Fernandez, 2015a ; Goes & Fernandez, 2014; Loughran
et al., 2004) and which make the qualitative character of PCK research prevail, and may also
explain the lower occurrence of purely quantitative research for the thematic. On the other
hand, it is necessary to consider what Kind (2009) mentions, regarding the observations of
teaching practice, widely used in the publications analysed in this corpus, in which the PCK can
be considered explicit, at least partially, in the practice of teachers.
The results also demonstrate that there are other instruments used to explain the PCK of
Chemistry teachers, which advance the research initially carried out by Baxter and Lederman
(1999) and Kind (2009), such as the use of Wiki, Q methodology, the Curricular and Professional
Thinking (Martínez-Aznar et al., 2017) and the Mortimer Conceptual Profile Model (Mortimer,
1995), for example, that although they have unique occurrences in the analysed corpus, they
expand the variety of available instruments for use by the academic community. Although they
did not consider the methodological approaches used in the publications, the research developed
by Almeida et al. (2019) and Goes and Fernandez (2018) identify the same general trend
exposed in the results of this research, namely: interviews, questionnaires, CoRe, observations
of the practice and reflective records were the most used instruments.
This research, through the specification of the methodological approaches, managed to
advance in the understanding that the questionnaires and tests are more recurrent in the mixed
research, the interviews in the qualitative research, and the questionnaires in the quantitative
research. In other words, there are slight differences between the instruments that tend to be
used according to the methodological approach that the research adopts.
This study enabled the establishment of a methodological overview of the research
involving the investigation of the PCK of teachers in the specific disciplinary field of Chemistry.
Other reviews (Almeida et al., 2019; Baxter & Lederman, 1999; Goes & Fernandez, 2018;
Kind, 2009) sought to discuss the access methods and documentation of the PCK, but not
specifically in this disciplinary field, which reveals a contribution to this research theme, in
addition to being an update of the access and documentation methods already synthesized in
the aforementioned reviews.
This integrative review research proved to be important to establish a systematization

of the methodological panorama of research on the PCK of Chemistry teachers, specifically.
This study intended to contribute to the update on the theme, both for researchers in the area
and for those who want to have their first contact with investigations of the Chemistry PCK,
to know about its use, instruments of collection and explanation of the PCK, its worldwide
dissemination, among other aspects discussed above.
In an attempt to answer the questions initially proposed, it is possible to conclude that
there are predominant data collection instruments in PCK research in Chemistry, but that, from
the perspective of the methodological approach adopted, the frequency of use of the instruments
and the instruments themselves suffer significant variations. This can contribute to a new reading
for the academic public that has or will develop an interest in this area of research.


review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
The investigation reinforces the need to debate about the epistemological and conceptual 393
nature of the PCK, as well as the models and knowledge bases proposed in the scientific
literature, since the results indicate that most of the research studies developed do not adopt a
specific PCK model as a theoretical framework and, on the other hand, there are so many other
conceptions, knowledge bases and models being proposed. In this perspective, there is the idea
that a specific model for the discipline of Chemistry can bring together specific contexts for the
professional training of these teachers, and, perhaps, this explains the variety of models and
concepts proposed for the theme.
Considering the analysed articles, the results suggest topics most frequently addressed in
investigations, such as electrochemistry, chemical balance, and chemical bonds, for example,
as well as a variety of other topics. Discussions about the nature of a specific topic are still
quite premature because although the articles investigating the PCK of a given topic show
results, there is no knowledge produced that can be considered substantial for the construction
of proposals for initial and continuing teacher training and, on the other hand, there are topics
that have not even been investigated in this corpus. It is also possible to notice a tendency for
the investigations of the disciplinary PCK in Chemistry to be of a topic-specific character,
which may have influenced, even, a specific definition of the PCKC and a specific model and
knowledge base for the disciplinary field.
The investigations involving professors in practice in higher education are still little
explored, which certainly reflects a lesser intensity in the discussions - highly necessary - about
the development of the PCK and the professionalization of teachers of Chemistry in practice
at this level of education. On the other hand, the investigations carried out in the context of the
training of chemistry teachers are quite widespread and equally necessary, since they make it
possible to reformulate undergraduate courses.
There is no doubt that the recognition of the teacher’s value is possible, necessary, and
that the Pedagogical Content Knowledge has contributed significantly to its ends, but, this is
an ongoing process that should be persecuted mainly because of the scientific community’s
contributions made.
Declaration of Interest
Authors declare no competing interest.
Acknowledgments
CAPES – Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior [Coordination

for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel].
References
Abell, S. K. (2008). Twenty years later: Does pedagogical content knowledge remain
a useful idea? International Journal of Science Education, 30(10), 1405-1416.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802187041
Almeida, P. C. A. de, Davis, C. L. F., Calil, A. M. G. C., & Vilalva, A. M. (2019). Shulman’s theoretical
categories: An integrative review in the field of teacher education. Cadernos de Pesquisa, 49(174),
130-149. https://doi.org/10.1590/198053146654
Aydin, S., & Boz, Y. (2013). The nature of integration among PCK components: A case study of two
experienced chemistry teachers. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 14(4), 615–624.
Azam, S. (2019). Distinguishing topic-specific professional knowledge from topic-specific PCK: A
conceptual framework. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 14(5),
281-296. http://www.ijese.net/makale/2122.html

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
394 Bardin, L. (2011). Content Analysis. Edições, 70.

Barnett, J., & Hodson, D. (2001). Pedagogical content knowledge: Toward a fuller understanding of what
good science teachers know. Science Education, 85, 426-453. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.1017
Baxter J.A., & Lederman N. G. (1999). Assessment and measurement of pedagogical
content knowledge. In Gess-Newsome J., & Lederman N. G. (Eds). Examining
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Vol. 6, pp. 147-161). Kluwer Academic
Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47217-1
Cooper, H. M. (1982). Scientific guidelines for conducting integrative research reviews. Review of
Educational Research, 52(2), 291–302. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543052002291
Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method approaches. Sage
Publications.
Evans, R. (2007). Comments on Shulman, Golde, Bueschel, and Garabedian: Existing practice is not the
template. Educational Researcher, 36(9), 553–559. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07313149
Faikhamta, C. (2013). The development of in-service science teachers’ understandings of and orientations
to teaching the nature of science within a PCK-based NOS course. Research in Science
Education 43, 847–869. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-012-9283-4
Fernandez, C. (2015a). Revisitando a base de conhecimentos e o conhecimento pedagógico do
conteúdo (PCK) de professores de Ciências [Revisiting the knowledge base and science
teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge]. Ensaio Pesquisa em Educação em Ciências, 17(2),
500-528. https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1983-21172015170211
Fernandez, C. (2015b). Knowledge base for teaching and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): Some
useful models and implications for teachers’ training. Problems of education in the 21st century,
60, 79-100. http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/node/906
Fernandez, C., & Goes, L. F. (2014). Conhecimento pedagógico do conteúdo: Estado da arte no ensino de
ciências e matemática [Pedagogical content knowledge: State-of-art in science and mathematics
teaching]. In: Garritz, A., Lorenzo, M. G., & Daza Rosales, S. (Org.). Conocimiento didáctico del
contenido: Una perspectiva iberoamericana (pp. 65-99). Editorial Académica Española.
Fraser, S. P. (2016). Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): Exploring its usefulness for science lecturers
in higher education. Research in Science Education, 46, 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-
014-9459-1
Friedrichsen, P., Driel, J. H. V., & Abell, S.K. (2011). Taking a closer look at science teaching orientations.
Science Education, 95, 358-376. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20428
Gess-Newsome, J. (1999). Pedagogical content knowledge: An introduction and orientation. In Gess-
Newsome, J., & Lederman, N. G. (Eds.), Examining pedagogical content knowledge (pp. 3-17).
Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47217-1
Goes, L. F. (2014). Conhecimento pedagógico do conteúdo: Estado da arte no campo da educação e
no ensino de química. [Pedagogical Content Knowledge: State-of-art in educational field and
chemistry teaching.] Dissertation, Science Teaching (Physics, Chemistry and Biology), University
of São Paulo, São Paulo. https://doi.org/10.11606/D.81.2014.tde-30042015-154835
Goes, L. F., & Fernandez, C. (2018). Reflexões metodológicas sobre pesquisas do tipo estado da arte:
Investigando o conhecimento pedagógico do conteúdo [Methodologial reflections about research
type state-of-the-art: Investigating the pedagogical content knowledge]. Revista electrónica de
Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 17(1), 94-118.
Grossman, P. L. (1990). The making of a teacher: Teacher knowledge and teacher education. Columbia
University. Teachers’ college press.
Hanuscin, D. L., Lee, M. H., & Akerson, V. L. (2011). Elementary teachers' pedagogical
content knowledge for teaching the nature of science. Science Education, 95, 145-
167. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20404
Jong, O. D., Van Driel, J. H., & Verloop, N. (2005), Preservice teachers' pedagogical content knowledge
of using particle models in teaching chemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, 947-
964. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20078
Ka ga n, D. M. (1990). Ways of evaluating teacher cognition: Inferences concer n i n g
t he Gol di l oc ks Principle. Review of Educational Res earch, 60(3), 419 - 4 6 9 .
ht t ps: / / doi .org/ 10. 3102%2F 00346543060003419

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Keller, M. M., Neumann, K., & Fischer, H. E. (2017). The impact of physics teachers’ pedagogical content 395
knowledge and motivation on students’ achievement and interest. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 54, 586-614. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21378
Kind, V. (2009). Pedagogical content knowledge in science education: Perspectives and potential for
progress. Studies in Science Education, 45(2), 169-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057260903142285
Kleickmann, T., Richter, D., Kunter, M., Elsner, J., Besser, M., Krauss, S., & Baumert, J.
(2013). Teachers’ Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge: The role
of structural differences in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 64(1),
90–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487112460398
Loughran, J., Mulhall, P., & Berry, A. (2004). In search of pedagogical content knowledge in science:
Developing ways of articulating and documenting professional practice. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 41, 370-391. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20007
Magnusson S., Krajcik J., & Borko H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of Pedagogical
Content Knowledge for science teaching. In Gess-Newsome, J., & Lederman, N. G. (Eds)
Examining Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Vol. 6, pp. 95-132). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-47217-1
Martínez-Aznar, M. M., Rodríguez-Arteche, I., & Gómez-Lesarri, P. (2017). La resolución de
problemas professionales como referente para la formación inicial del professorado de física
y química [The professional problem solving as a framework to initial teacher’s training
of Physics and Chemistry teachers]. Revista Eureka sobre Enseñanza y Divulgación de las
Ciencias, 14(1), 162-180. https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/eureka/article/view/3017
Mortimer, E.F. (1995). Conceptual change or conceptual profile change? Science Education, 4, 267–285.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00486624
Padilla, K., & Van Driel, J. (2011). The relationships between PCK components: The case of
quantum chemistry professors. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 12, 367-378.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C1RP90043A
Padilla, K., & Garritz, A. (2015). Tracing a research trajectory on PCK and chemistry university
professors’ beliefs. In A. Berry, P. Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran (Eds.), Re-examining
Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Education (1st edition, pp. 75-87). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315735665
Park, S., & Oliver, J.S. (2008). Revisiting the Conceptualisation of Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(PCK): PCK as a conceptual tool to understand teachers as professionals. Research in Science
Education 38, 261–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-007-9049-6
Pena, G. B. O., & Mesquita, N. S. A. (2020). Conhecimento pedagógico do conteúdo de química (PCKC):
Conhecimento profissional específico para a docência em química [Chemistry Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (PCKC): Professional specific knowledge for teaching chemistry]. In Faleiro,
W., Vigário, A. F., & Felicio, C. M. (Orgs.), Entre fios e tramas da formação inicial e continuada
de professores (vol. 3, pp. 304-329). KELPS.
Rollnick, M., Bennett, J., Rhemtula, M., Dharsey, N., & Ndlovu, T. (2008). The place of subject
matter knowledge in PCK – A case study of South African teachers teaching the amount of
substance and equilibrium. International Journal of Science Education, 30(10), 1365-1387.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802187025
Russell, C. L. (2005). An overview of the integrative research review. Progress in Transplantation, 15(1), 8–13.
https://doi.org/10.1177/152692480501500102
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher,
4-14. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002205741319300302
Shulman, L. S. (1987), Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the New Reform. Harvard Educational
Review, 57 (1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
Shulman, L., Golde, C., Bueschel, A., & Garabedian, K. (2006). Reclaiming education's doctorates: A critique
and a proposal. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 25-32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3700104
Shulman, L. S. (2007). Response to comments: Practical wisdom in the service of professional practice.
Educational Researcher, 36(9), 560–563. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07313150

review
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
396
Cite as: Cirilo, R. J. V., & Colagrande, E. A. (2021). Instruments to access the chemistry
pedagogical content knowledge: An integrative review. Problems of Education in the 21st
Century, 79(3), 381-396. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.381
Rolién J. V. Cirilo Master’s Degree Student, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro
(Corresponding author) da Silva, 700 Centro – Alfenas/MG – Brazil.
E-mail: rolienvieira@gmail.com
Elaine A. Colagrande PhD, Professor, Federal University of Alfenas, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva,
700 Centro – Alfenas/MG – Brazil.
E-mail: elainecola@gmail.com

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
EMERGING EDUCATIONAL DESIGN 397
IN ONLINE TRAINING IN HIGHER

EDUCATION
María Rosa Fernández-Sánchez
University of Extremadura, Spain
E-mail: rofersan@unex.es
Juan Silva-Quiroz
University of Santiago, Chile
E-mail: juan.silva@usach.cl
Abstract
Universities are living in a time of major transitions regarding the challenge of rethinking and transforming
the current pedagogical models so they can respond to the needs of the global knowmad society. In this
study, the Design-Based Research (DBR) approach is used to address the improvements of two emerging
pedagogical designs in e-learning in the university context: the model of the Center for Research in
Education and ICT (CIIET) of the University of Santiago de Chile (Chile) and the model developed
by the Education Node research group of University of Extremadura (Spain). The main focus of these
models is the student, who by developing activities based on the resolution of a contextualized problem
and using new strategies, accompanied by open resources for resolution, resulting in a learning outcome
that can be achieved and measured through assessment. This work aims to advance in identifying of some
pedagogical keys for the design of online training scenarios that promote environments of production,
research, and open dissemination of best practices, to experience new creative forms and collaborative
learning, which have emerged within the hyper connected society and the net-culture.
Keywords: instructional design, higher education, open educational resources, research-based design
Introduction
In the world of education, particularly in Universities, there is a pressing challenge of

responding to a hyper-connected social reality. To a large extent, as Potyrala (2020) points out,
new trends in educational research stem from the processes of technological development, an
issue that particularly affects higher education. These are times of exponential changes and a
liquid reality (Bauman, 2013), full of uncertain problems, where the relationships established
through technology extend our sociability to the point of being considered by some authors as
the third evolutionary force of humanity (Nowak & Highfield, 2011). The challenge faced is of
forming students who can perform adequately, as active, and participating citizens in a global
knowmad society (Barak, 2017; Moravec, 2008, 2013). Studies argue that in two years, half
of the professionals entering the world of work will be knowmads (Roca, 2016). These are
professionals with high capacities for creativity, collaborative work, informal learning, critical
thinking, among others, and are potential executors of a social change that will bring on new
ways of participating and collaborating in all sectors of society (Cobo, 2011). Universities have
an essential challenge in transforming teaching models that respond to unique social needs.
They have to break traditional teaching models and address new pedagogies based on learning
by doing, meaningful learning and experience-based learning (Tapscott, 2009). To extend their
learning opportunities only beyond the university stage to lifelong learning, university students
need to develop digital competence (European Commission, 2015). The current challenge of

María Rosa FERNÁNDEZ-SÁNCHEZ, Juan SILVA-QUIROZ. Emerging educational design in online training in higher education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
398 higher education institutions should point to a more meaningful practice, integrating the use of
ICTs in convergence, in a way that the traditional roles between learners and experts may be
hidden (Goodfellow, 2011). Teaching practice should convey the ability to learn by creating,
reconfiguring, unlearning, and re-learning, connecting classroom learning with that which
occurs outside school (Cobo, 2016).
Online Training Models in the University Environment
To renew higher education implies a change of roles of all participants involved in the
teaching-learning process, where students become managers of their learning, being autonomous
and self-regulated (Prendes & Roman, 2017). It is necessary to rethink the different elements
and actors that give life to training: teachers, students, materials, evaluation, contents, activities,
technologies, and methodologies. Those that favor the active role of the student, meaningful
learning, collaboration, and autonomy, in which digital technologies to deliver added value
are especially relevant (Silva & Maturana, 2017). It is necessary to seek a model of university
in digital times, to account for the digital transformation of education in which teachers are
supposed to include new methodologies in the classroom that make teaching more attractive by
deflecting or minimizing students’ disconnection (Duart, 2019).
One aspect of consideration is the digital world in which university students are involved.
The literature shows that there is no homogeneous digital generation; different profiles derive
from access to technological devices, the hours of exposure to them, and the types of use
(Kennedy et al., 2009). There is an emphasis on the differentiated use of technologies of young
people. They have technological skills they use in leisure and social activities but are not able
to transfer these skills directly to their learning and knowledge construction processes (Escofet
et al., 2012).
The relationship between the new generations and the digital world can be sorted
by the emphasis into three categories: the widespread use of ICT, the impact of the digital
immersion particularly in learning, the personal characteristics and characteristic behavior of
this generation (Bullen et al., 2011). The last two categories have particular relevance in the
implementation modalities of open distance and flexible learning, such as those offered on online
platforms, MOOC, M-learning, Serious Game, among other technologies that are instrumental
to e-learning. Thus, the innovative use of ICTS first needs to make students the leading players
of their own learning, allowing them to voice their opinion, interact and contribute knowledge
to the network (Pedró, 2006).
In some universities, new pedagogical designs are emerging that attempt to respond
to the training needs of the young university students of today. These models break with the
traditional approach of information transfer. They are resorting to models focused on learning in
which teachers guide and direct a process of knowledge construction in active and collaborative
learning, seeking practical understanding of knowledge (Sawyer, 2014), thus considered
disruptive models (Acaso & Manzanera, 2015). The main focus of these models is the student,
who by developing activities based on the resolution of a contextualized problem and using
new strategies, resulting in a learning outcome that can be achieved and measured through
assessment. Characteristically, these models use and provide open educational resources, from
the conception that knowledge should be free and open for use and reuse, fostering collaboration,
sharing experiences and knowledge, and the development of communities of practice from
the principles of the movement of "Open Education" (Valverde, 2010). From this perspective
of open teaching, the pedagogical emphasis lies in the learning network and connections of
students within and through their networks (Weller, 2014). In students, this generates a greater
sense of belonging toward what they learn.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
These new emerging learning experiences expand beyond the institutional realm, 399
understanding that knowledge is distributed in an interdependent network, according to
connectivist conceptions (Siemens, 2005). One of the keys to connectivism is the array of
possibilities of technologies to collaborate and share within a community (Downes, 2013). In
this context, it refers to the concept of expanded education, which relates to education outside
educational institutions and formal processes, which shatters the borders between the more
academic field and the informal context (Freire, 2012). Education is also ubiquitous, assumed as
that which occurs in any place and at any time thanks to the use of new technologies (Barragán
Sánchez et al., 2013; Burbules, 2014; Yahya et al., 2010). Thus, the idea of transparency,
production, and dissemination of information is vital to promote the creation of collective
knowledge from a perspective of free access and the momentum of innovation from higher
education.
This contextual perspective raises questions such as: What characterizes online
pedagogical designs that are being implemented in Higher Education institutions at an
international level? Based on what theoretical models? What improvements can be incorporated
into the pedagogical design of online training? To answer these questions, two pedagogical
proposals from two international institutions with different contexts have been selected.
The pedagogical designs of two different modalities of online training (Diploma and Master
programs) have been selected and contrasted, one offered by the Universidad de Santiago de
Chile through the virtual campus of the CIIET (Center for Research and Innovation in Education
and ICT) and the other, by Universidad de Extremadura through its virtual campus (CVUEx).
The design proposed by Universidad de Extremadura is part of the Educational Node research
group and the University Master's Degree in Digital Education. The model of the CIIET relates
to the research team of this center developed through its virtual campus in the qualifications
of diploma and continuing education programs. This research of two proposals will allow us
to identify some pedagogical keys for the design of online training scenarios in the context
of higher education. These settings should promote production environments, research, and
dissemination of best practices, to experience the creative new ways and collaborative learning
that have emerged within the hyper-connected society and culture-network, from an expanded
and open education perspective.
General Background
Design-Based Research (DBR) model related to Brown (1992) is the base of our
methodological approach. Brown is considered the pioneering author of this approach with her
article published in the Journal of the Learning Sciences on the introduction of innovations from
the field of educational technology from a theoretical-practical perspective of experiencing
a theoretical design in instructional practice. The Design-Based Research (DBR) model in
the field of educational technology is to develop design of artifacts, technological tools, and
pedagogical designs from existing theories or to develop new theoretical frameworks that
support and lead to a deeper understanding of learning processes (Barab et al., 2007; Barab &
Squire, 2004; Fishman et al., 2004). The DBR is a type of exploratory research that highlights
the value of novelty and supports non-conventional and creative approaches (Kelly, 2006).
Richey et al. (2003) promote the use of this type of research to contrast theoretical
instructional models and to undertake innovation processes that improve practice. This study
addresses both interpretations. The research process is through continuous cycles of design,
validation, analysis, and redesign, leading the different iterations toward improving the body
of theory and perfecting the intervention. From this point of view, the DBR in this research

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
400 aims to identify variables to characterize the situation and improve the implemented design by
generating guidelines for the implementation of educational designs for online training in the
two selected contexts.
This DBR contributes to the generation of knowledge to improve the quality of the
pedagogical model for online training in both contexts and to understand how innovations can
work in practice.
Case Selection
Two case studies were selected taking into account the two e-learning pedagogical
designs as the unit of analysis. The selection considered the scientific trajectory in research
and innovation projects related to pedagogical models in digital education at the University.
Both cases seek the continuous improvement of the pedagogical designs they propose oriented
towards the quality of teaching in the implementation of the design and the development of
innovative educational practices that produce deep learning.
The first case corresponds to the pedagogical model of the Master’s Degree in Digital
Education proposed by the Nodo Educativo research group (SEJ095) of the University of
Extremadura (Spain). This group has been working since 2001 on the integration of technologies
in educational contexts and pedagogical models in e-learning and blended learning environments
at national and international level. As of 2014, this Group has been working on the continuous
improvement of the pedagogical model of the Master in Digital Education, an official online
degree of the group’s reference University.
The CIIET (Center for Research and Innovation in Education and ICT) of Universidad
de Santiago de Chile (Chile) has been working on the implementation of training solutions
with technologies at national and international level for over 20 years. They are specialists in
instructional design with digital technologies and work in the design of online training for the
University and for many public and private entities.
Procedures, Task and Data Analysis
The DBR model has three phases, within a flexible and iterative structure: analysis-
exploration, design-construction, and evaluation-reflection. It has a dual focus on theory and
practice and oriented toward teaching practice: planning the implementation and dissemination,
context-sensitive, and in interaction with the educational practices (Hathaway & Norton, 2018;
Huang et al., 2019; Plomp & Nieveen, 2010). According to Bell (2004), studies from the DBR
approach focus on the research, exploration, and design of educational innovations at the
didactic and organizational level, improving the designs.
After the first exploratory phase, during which the theoretical review and the definition of
contexts, pedagogical models and planning of data collection with the design and development
of research instruments are carried out, the implementation phase is conducted. The latter
includes microcycles in which design problem conjectures are formulated based on the
instructive context of each case. Data sources are then accessed, compiling all the available
information. The final phase is of reflection, in which a retrospective analysis is carried out and
the design is reconstructed with the methodological strategies for improvement. The phases
followed in the study and the tasks performed are presented below.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 1 401
Phases and Tasks
01 Definition of goals
02 Description of base contexts and situation
Phase 1. Analysis and exploration. 03 Definition of theoretical intentions

Preparing the design.
Design of the intervention
04
Definition of data sources
Microcycle of design (problematics)
Microcycle of analysis
Phase 2. Design and construction. 05
Implementation. Review of learning documentation and products (recording of
document analysis)
06 Data analysis (qualitative content analysis)
Phase 3. Analysis and reflection. 07 Suggested indications

Retrospective analysis.
08 Reconstruction of designs: pedagogical models
09 Elaboration of conclusion and recommendations (Redesign)
The process of analyzing the data obtained in the process of collecting information was
carried out through qualitative content analysis by means of a process of coding and categorization
of data through three stages (Hernández-Sampieri et al., 2010): (1) open coding: emerging
categories were identified from reading the data, shaping and reviewing these categories from
new approaches to the data, comparing them, and consulting them, and the consultation of
specialized literature; (2) selective coding: a process that enables reducing the initial set of
categories, from the intensive analysis of the relationships between the central category and the
rest; (3) theoretical coding: allowing for deliberation on the properties, dimensions, elements
contained in the central category, reaching an increasingly higher level of explanation for the
research problem.
From data analysis, the redesign of the pedagogical models is proposed with the
improvement of methodological strategies in each of the selected proposals.
Research Results
Analysis and Exploration of the Online Learning Models
At first, the selected designs are explored and analyzed in the context of the digital
campuses in which they are implemented: pedagogical model of CIIET and Master in Digital
Education -MDE- (Educational Node RG) teaching model.
The pedagogical model of CIIET is based on the generic ADDIE (Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation and Evaluation) model of instructional design supplemented with
elements of the ASSURE model and the Kemp model (Muñoz, 2011). Its overall instructional
design is based on an interactive process where the results of the formative evaluation of each
phase can go back to the previous stages in the process of continuous quality and improvement.
The underlying theoretical approach is based on the model of Community of Inquiry (CoI) by
Garrison and Anderson (2005) with its three components: social presence, cognitive presence,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
402 and teaching presence. Active and collaborative methodologies are at the core of this pedagogical
model based on e-activities (Salmon, 2004) to achieve the learning objectives. They start with
the first definition of the characteristics of the participants, previous knowledge of the course,
level of use of digital technologies, and elements of andragogy. Other aspects of the course are
articulated from the e-activities, such as communication, content, tools of the platform, learning
resources, evaluation, etc. However, contents do not disappear, but they are at the service of the
activity to aid in resolving the proposed tasks. This condition forces the teacher to think of the
activities as the main element and the content as a quality resource for the tasks set out. Tutoring
uses the model of e-moderating (Salmon, 2000), which defines the presence of teachers.
Figure 1
The Pedagogical Model of CIIET by Silva (2017)
The MDE pedagogical model is based on three approaches derived of constructivist

learning theories. One is the instructional principles of Merril (2002), another the TPACK
model (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) (Koehler & Mishra, 2006), and finally,
the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model by Garrison and Anderson (2005). The five principles
of Merrill (2002, is an effective teaching model established for problem-oriented, involving
the student in four phases through the proposed activities. It applies (A) activation of previous
experiences; (b) demonstration of competencies and skills; (c) application of competencies
and skills, and (d) integration of these skills in real-world activities. From the TPACK model
(Koehler & Mishra, 2006, 2008) articulated in the MED pedagogical, the relationships between
curricular content, technology and pedagogy are articulated, allowing for reflection within
multiple domains of knowledge. There are three types of knowledge that are involved in this
mode: declarative (knowing what, which includes definitions, terms, facts and descriptions),
procedural (knowing how, i.e., sequences of steps for completing a task or subtask), schematic
(knowing why; drawn from the two previous knowledge types, creates principles and mental
models), and strategic (knowing when and where to use a particular piece of knowledge and
strategies such as planning and troubleshooting along with control of the progress toward a
goal). The CoI model (Garrison et al., 2001) argued that knowledge in virtual teaching-learning
environments is constructed through developing a community of inquiry characterized by three
presences: teaching, social and cognitive. In lieu of face-to-face interaction, participants in
virtual learning environments must strive to recreate social processes of knowledge construction
that take place in the negotiation of meaning within the classroom.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
On the other hand, this model exercises student's motivation for achieving deep 403
programming through the model of Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction
(ARCS) by Keller and Suzuki (2004) and Keller (2010). The ARCS model is used to design
open educational resources that foster motivation toward learning from the four categories
mentioned above. The starting point is at the “Attention” category, which holds motivational
variables related to stimulus and keeping up the curiosity and interest of the learner. The
next step is to ensure that the student believes that learning is relevant at a personal level,
i.e., related to meaningful personal goals. Subsequently, it is necessary to generate adequate
expectations of success, so the users of the open educational resource are not afraid or do not
have misconceptions about their abilities to achieve the learning. It is also essential, so they do
not overestimate their skills concerning the demands of the knowledge. Finally, to keep up their
desire to learn, they must experience personal satisfaction due to the processes carried out or
the results obtained through extrinsic or intrinsic reinforcements. To conclude, some guidelines
of the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) by Rose and Meyer (2002) are used to provide
multiple forms of involvement, representation, action, and expression.
Figure 2
Pedagogical Model of MDE by Valverde (2019)
Contrast of Pedagogical Models
The design of online training developed at CIIET focuses its vision for learning on
the student and the e-activities (Salmon, 2004) under the principles of active methodologies,
seeking to form collaborative learning communities (Downes, 2012; Garrison & Anderson,
2005). The second model focuses on the pedagogical design of the Master in Digital Education
of the UEx, developed based on Merrill’s Instructional Design Principles (2002), the model of
TPACK by Koehler and Mishra (2008), the Community of Inquiry (CoI) by Garrison, Anderson
and Archer (2010), the model Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction (ARCS) by
Keller and Suzuki (2004) and Keller (2010) and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) by Rose
and Meyer (2002). In both designs, the learning activities are the framework that links the
other elements of the environment. Both models respond to current trends in methodologies for
active learning, from the approach of new ecologies of learning in virtual environments, where
technology is used to enrich the work environment, to enhance communication and interaction,
and to manage knowledge. As pillars of the virtual environment, active methodologies, activities
(using problem-based learning), and learning assessment, along with resources, collaboration,
and the presence of teachers are articulated. Learning strategies that are used to motivate

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
404 students respond to emerging models related to activities based on real cases and problems,
digital narratives, gamification systems, among others. In the case of the Master’s, activities
are proposed as webquest integrated as tasks to be achieved in the development of a research
project or case study. In the case of the CIIET, the approach responds to case of study or is
based on practical problems that the student must resolve as a challenge. In both cases, the open
learning resources and communicative spaces are transversal axes in achieving learning goals.
Design-construction: Implementation of the Pedagogical Models in Virtual Environments.
The study of the implementation of the pedagogical models in virtual learning environments
is performed in the LMS platforms of both models, which in both cases is Moodle. The results
of both applications over four years respond to disruptive models that lead to satisfaction and
student motivation, which has an impact on the development of deep learning.
a. Implementation of the pedagogical model of CIIET in virtual environments.
This model is technically structured through a virtual classroom in Moodle, organized

through icons that show a visual environment that is accessible through multiple devices (PC,
tablet, or smart phone). This visual representation (ad hoc interface with the theme of each training)
is related and hyperlinked to each other, allowing the student to explore the pedagogical design
without a predefined route. The permanent elements of each formation represented in icons are
guidance, social and doubts, the course program, a video that introduces the course hosted by
each teacher, and the synthetic view that shows the learning path. The rest of the training modules
are accessed through these elements. Each module contains a group icon arranged in the form of
a network that includes e-activities as the center of the graphic representation, from where the
student accesses the tasks, objectives, documentation, evaluation and resources of each topic
worked on. Each e-activity consists of the name, description, objectives, competencies or results
of the learning process, time, and appropriation, evaluation and supporting activities. They are
developed from the model by Salmon (2004), initially proposing activities for the student to
adjust to the environment, for familiarizing and to collect enough initial information to make
progress in learning, and activities that enable the construction of a positive work environment,
stressing social presence to conform to the learning community. Subsequently, activities are
proposed that relate to the progress and monitoring of student learning from the work of the
teaching presence. The e-events consider a variety of actions or productions that involve using
different web resources, such as collaborative construction of documents, conceptual maps,
preparing presentations, generating infographics, video design, etc. All of this is proposed to
promote practical work, in teams, related to specific situations aimed at problem solving or the
development of higher-order skills in students, responding to the cognitive dimension of the
CoI model.
The implementation of the CIIET design has been evaluated by assessing student
satisfaction with the knowledge attained through this model in online training (Silva, 2017).
Students showed general satisfaction (over 90%) with the learning developed by the model of
the implemented and experienced e-activities. As an improvement, students suggest (10%) to
insist on the coherence between activities and content through open educational resources that
act as a support in the e-activities.
b. Implementation of the pedagogical model of MDE in virtual environments.
The MDE model is technically structured locating activities in the first phase, followed
by communication tools, content and multimedia resources. The subjects are developed through

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
a webquest type activity that requires the resolution of a problem situation, which involves the 405
implementation of a variety of coordinated skills, knowledge, and attitudes. This requires the use
of new tools (software), the implementation of high-level cognitive skills (synthesis, argument,
integration, creation) and the development of self-regulatory behaviors. It includes a rubric
to inform students of the assessment criteria in the process. The learning activity starts with a
problem situation of an educational phenomenon on which the student has a direct or indirect
experience, an initial point of view, and knowledge (personal theories) to categorize, analyze
and describe its causes-effects. All activities involve developing a product to be distributed in
open mode afterward, which implies the application of inquiry, synthesis, and integration of
information, fieldwork, among others. From a starting point that is close to students' experience,
a "cognitive dissonance" is triggered to generate curiosity and encourage the attitude of inquiry.
This dissonance occurs assuming roles indicated by the webquest (an educational consultant,
journalist, a member of a tribunal, etc.) and in posing the task in which divergence, divergence,
reflection, and reformulation of pre-conceptions are sought. The pedagogical design of the
Master’s program prevents the simultaneity of learning activities. The purpose of this is so that
the student only has to deal with one task in a given period, thus controlling the compulsory
cognitive load to carry out the webquest. The evaluation offers feedback for the student to know
their progress and enables establishing consensus in cases of discrepancy in the evaluative
process. In this Master's, the virtual environment for teaching-learning is not considered merely
a tool for distance education. It is, in itself, a learning object, because it is imperative for students
to practically and personally experience everything that is assumed in learning in training in
digital education, through telematics networks. The figure of “social-emotional attention” in
the development of the Master's, which aims to identify the emotional states of the students in
the process, guiding them, promoting effective communication and integration into the learning
community, and ensuring positive emotional development of the virtual student.
In the case of the MDE pedagogical model, the study assessed whether the approach had
an impact on the achievement of deep programming (Valverde et al., 2018). For this purpose,
we used the SOLO Taxonomy by Biggs and Collis (1982). Their results showed that students
perceived, on the one hand, an initial uncertainty in the development of online training courses
that do not follow the traditionally established order. On the other hand, they faced the activity
with greater confidence in their own abilities, with the expectation of achieving results of deep
learning at the end. They concluded that the approach of this model through the development of
complex activities using webquest fit the development of deep learning.
Evaluation, Proposal and Pedagogical Guidelines
The study and contrast of these two pedagogical models, through an iterative process and
application software, allows three possible fundamental developments that help improve the
dimensions less developed in both approaches.
- In the first place, new approaches should integrate the current design in the two models. In
both cases the model of Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) may be the right approach
to obtain student commitment and increased motivation. Both designs need to delve deeper
into developing an affective-emotional dimension based on robust theoretical approaches that
demonstrate the effectiveness of the pedagogical practices in developing student commitment
and motivation in online training. This approach takes from the work of Prensky (2001) as a
pedagogical model to achieve student engagement with the conjunction of serious learning and
entertainment in a new environment in which they seek excitement to learn as the motivational
element. Many later studies have demonstrated the potential of the Digital Game-Based
Learning (DGBL) in educational environments, showing a positive correlation between the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
406 activities of play and learning (Backlund & Hendrix, 2013; Connolly et al., 2011; Sung et al.,
2013).
- In the case of the CIIET model, a motivational model of reference should be added for the
development of open educational resources. The model of Attention, Relevance, Confidence,
and Satisfaction (ARCS) by Keller (2010) is suggested, implemented on the model of the MED
with positive results. This model allows for the development of open educational resources from
motivational variables that generate relevant expectations of success. This maintains students’
desire to learn throughout the process and reduces the fear or misperception of their own ability
to meet the learning achievements. Maintaining students’ desire to learn with confidence, in
turn, improves the coherence between activities and content, suggested by students, through the
development and selection of these open educational resources.
- In the case of the model of the MDE, it is recommended to study and improve the graphic
designs of the online environments to fit the activities proposed for each model and theoretical
approaches adopted. If the intention is to immerse the student in the environment to improve
motivation and commitment to learning, it is necessary to work in graphic designs that
accompany the pedagogical designs proposed and rethink from a Universal Design for Learning
(Rose & Meyer, 2002).
After analyzing and elaborating the improvement considerations for the models analyzed,
three preliminary pedagogical guidelines were identified to advance the study of pedagogical
models for a more groundbreaking approach in online training from an open and flexible
perspective:
1. Multiple theoretical approaches for a complex pedagogical design. The option to

think of a model of online training must respond to multiple theoretical approaches
that constitute a solid pedagogical model. Each model must respond to the needs of the
offered learning environments, the applied strategies, the addressed topics, etc.
2. Proactive pedagogical design for online training to promote the use of active and
interactive teaching. From a proactive approach, pedagogical designs focus on the activity
of the student. Through activity design, student commitment with the key elements of the
training content and with available open educational resources must be sought to attain
deep learning. Communication design should focus on active learning experiences and
dynamic interactivity.
3. The approach of pedagogical models must rethink the roles of teachers and students
in online training. It is necessary to rethink, reshape, and redefine what it means to teach
and learn in the online world from perspectives of open education.
Discussion
With the generalization of digital education, especially in higher education, it is

necessary to know the pedagogical models and effectively implemented underlying strategies.
Systematically studying the process of design, development, and implementation of pedagogical
models in online training may guide the understanding on how to apply theoretical approaches
to the process of development. The pedagogical designs analyzed respond to emerging learning
proposals that allow for models of distributed learning (Acaso & Manzanera, 2015). These
designs include the participants as co-builders of shared learning (Reig, 2010), and promote
the generation of new forms of cooperation and collaboration, encouraged, and implemented

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
from epistemological positions that are experimental and applied (Pisticelli, 2009). The study 407
focused on the DBR model enables improving the presented online pedagogical designs by
incorporating new theories that will allow implementing a more disruptive design. It also has
allowed us to begin to raise a few pedagogical guidelines in the design of online training from a
perspective of open education that will lead us to the practice of dialog creation, deconstruction
and rethinking of student-teacher roles from a critical approach that should always characterize
these educational prospects (Farrow, 2015). Research on their impact on student learning
will provide evidence that can verify the fundamental keys of these emerging online learning
environments and understand and enrich the designs of these environments under the perspective
of emerging pedagogies that adapt better to the demands of society in the 21st century.
In recent years, research shows outstanding interest in the design and development of
pedagogical models in online training that respond to the needs of teachers and students in
the new teaching-learning environments. There is a demand for the creation of a theoretical
corpus or pedagogy of e-learning that can provide a solid foundation on which to support the
design of training environments effectively, as well as the need for explanatory theories about
this modality based on empirical evidence (Graham et al., 2014). Although most studies on
e-learning usually identify their underlying theoretical framework, how this theory translates
into actual design principles is often not clearly defined. Research on these online learning
environments should be more explicit about their design, as well as introduce more rigor into the
pedagogical justification of teaching practices that take place in online learning environments.
E-learning has been shown to be a potentially effective learning modality if the pedagogical
design is carefully carried out prior to implementation (Ustun & Tracey, 2020). The work of
the faculty and the coordination that is established in the planning of the design is crucial in
this matter. In fact, as early as 2010 the research by McAnally-Salas et al., concluded that
interpersonal relationships among teachers can play a fundamental role in the approach to the
pedagogical design of e-learning. Recent research concludes with the need to increase research
in this area since educational institutions have problems conceptualizing and implementing
effective online training environments (Drysdale et al., 2013; Dziuban et al., 2011). Salinas, De
Benito and Gisbert (2018) point to the need to influence from research in:
1. Identifying key elements of pedagogical design and the influence on learning and
desired effects.
2. Developing studies focused on digital learning, with more detailed practical experience
reports that allow the understanding of nuances of “blended learning” beyond blended delivery,
focusing research on the interaction between learning processes.
3. Structuring an e-learning pedagogy: hypermediality, synchrony and asynchrony,
personalized scaffolding and collective scaffolding, accessibility of materials and interaction.
4. Studying the integration of constructivist and collaborative models in e-learning
environments and fostering the formation of creative and curious students with these formative
models.
After having applied the DBR to the CIIET and MDE cases, it is concluded that both
proposals are valid, innovative, and up to date for online training, although it is necessary
to encourage two key components of the pedagogical designs: communication and student
motivation. From this point of view several challenges are identified that should be considered
in these and in any pedagogical design in online training in relation to these two components:
(a) student self-regulation skills and engagement with learning, keeping in mind strategies to
encourage both issues in the pedagogical design; (b) digital literacy and competence of students
and faculty: teacher training, resistance to technologies or lack of training in the use of digital

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
408 technologies by students; (c) strategies to avoid isolation and feelings of loneliness or problems
with synchronous communication, which can cause students to abandon training; (d) access to
technologies, especially by students: lack of technological devices and infrastructure, obsolete
technologies, poor access to the Internet; and finally (e) technological complexity: use of
interfaces, distraction derived from excessive technological complexity.
With the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic, the adoption of e-learning models has
grown exponentially in universities. From the institutional and organizational point of view,
they highlight the importance of the support of university institutions for the implementation of
pedagogical designs that meet the training needs of the contexts in which they are developed and
that address the new training challenges that are coming in the post-pandemic society. To this
end, there is a need to formulate university educational policies aimed at developing evidence-
based e-learning pedagogical models supported by didactic guidelines for their implementation.
References
Acaso, M., & Manzanera, P. (2015). Esto no es una clase. Investigando la educación disruptiva en los
contextos educativos formales [This is not a classroom. Investigating disruptive education in
formal educational contexts]. Ariel, Fundación Telefónica.
Backlund, P., & Hendrix, M. (2013). Educational Games – Are They Worth the Effort? A literature
survey of the effectiveness of serious games [Paper presentation]. 5th International
Conference on Games and Virtual Worlds for Serious Applications (VS-GAMES), Poole,
UK. http://doi.org/10.1109/VS-GAMES.2013.6624226
Barak, M. (2017). Science teacher education in the twenty-first century: A pedagogical framework for
technology-integrated social constructivism. Research in Science Education, 47(2), 283-303.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-015-9501-y
Barab, S. A., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground. Journal of the
Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14.
Barab, S. A., Dodge, T., Thomas, M. K., Jackson, C., & Tuzun, H. (2007). Our designs and the social
agendas they carry. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(2), 263-305.
Barragán Sánchez, R., Mimbrero Mallado, C., & Pacheco González-Piñal, R. (2013). Cambios
pedagógicos y sociales en el uso de las TIC U-learning y U-portafolio [Pedagogical and social
changes in the use of ICTs U-learning and U-portfolio]. Revista Electrónica de Investigación y
Docencia (REID), 10, 7-20.
Bauman, Z. (2013). Sobre la educación en un mundo líquido [On education in a liquid world]. Paidós.
Burbules, N. (2014). Los significados de “aprendizaje ubicuo” [The meanings of “ubiquitous learning”].
Education Policy Analysis Archives/Archivos Analíticos de Políticas Educativas, 22, 1-10.
Bell, P. (2004). On the theoretical breadth of design-based research in education. Educational Psychologist,
39(4), 23-253.
Biggs, J. B., & Collis, K. F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy (structure of
the observed learning outcome). Academic Press.
Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex
interventions in classroom settings. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178.
Bullen, M., Morgan, T. & Qayyum, A. (2011). Digital learners in higher education: Generation is not the
issue. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(1), 1-24. http://www.cjlt.ca/index.
php/cjlt/article/viewFile/550/298
Cobo, C. (2011). Uso invisible de las tecnologías y competencias para la globalidad [The invisible use of
technologies and competencies for globality]. In C. Cobo & J.W. Moravec (2011). Aprendizaje
Invisible. Hacia una nueva ecología de la educación [Invisible Learning. Toward a new ecology
of education]. Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona.
Cobo, C. (2016) La Innovación Pendiente. Reflexiones (y Provocaciones) sobre educación, tecnología y
conocimiento [Pending Innovation. Reflections (and Triggers) about education, technology, and
knowledge]. Colección Fundación Ceibal/Debate: Montevideo. http://innovacionpendiente.
com/descargas/la-innovacion-pendiente

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Connolly, T. M., Stansfield, M., & Hainey, T. (2011). An alternate reality game for language 409
learning: ARGuing for multilingual motivation. Computers & Education, 57, 1389-1415.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.01.009
Dziuban, C., Graham, C.R., Moskal, P.D., Borberg, A., & Sicilia, N. (2018). Blended learning: The new
normal and emerging technologies. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher
Education, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0087-5
Downes, S. (2012). Connectivism and Connective Knowledge. Essays on meaning and learning networks.
http://www.downes.ca/files/Connective_Knowledge-19May2012.pdf
Downes, S. (2013). The Role of Open Educational Resources in Personal Learning. In McGreal, R.,
Kinuthia, W., & Marshall, S. (Ed.), Open educational resources: innovation, research and
practice (pp. 203-226). Commonwealth of Learning and Athabasca University. https://goo.gl/
cdv8Lg
Drysdale, J. S., Graham, C. R., Spring, K. J., & Halverson, L. R. (2013). An analysis of research trends
in dissertations and theses studying blended learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 17,
90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.11.003
Duart, J. (2019). Prologue. In: Castañeda, L., & Selwyn, N. (Ed.), Reiniciando la Universidad: Buscando
un modelo de universidad en los tiempos digitales [Restarting University: Seeking a university
model in digital times]. Editorial UOC.
European Commission (2015). 2015 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation
of the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020) —
New priorities for European cooperation in education and training http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.C_.2015.417.01.0025.01.ENG&toc=OJ:C:2015:417:TOC
Farrow, R. (2015). Open education and critical pedagogy. Learning, Media and Technology, 42(2), 130–
146. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2016.1113991
Fishman, B., Marx, R. W., Blumenfeld, P., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (2004). Creating a framework for
research on systemic technology innovations. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 43-76.
Freire, J. (2012). Educación expandida y nuevas instituciones: ¿Es posible la transformación? [Expanded
education and new institutions: Is transformation possible? In R. Díaz; J. Freire (Eds.),
Educación expandida (pp. 67‐84). Zemos98 Editions.
García. I., Gros, B., & Escofet, A. (2012). La influencia del género en la cultura digital del
estudiantado Universitario [The influence of gender in the digital culture of the university
studend body]. Athenea Digital: Revista de pensamiento e investigación social 12(3), 95-
114. http://atheneadigital.net/article/viewFile/Garcia/pdf
Garrison, D. R., & Anderson, T., (2005). El e-learning en el siglo XXI. Investigación y práctica [E-learning
in the 21st Century. Research and practice]. Octaedro.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence and computer
conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 7-23.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010). The first decade of the community of
inquiry framework: A retrospective. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(1-2), 5-9.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003
Goodfellow, R. (2011). Literacy, literacies, and the digital in higher education. Teaching in Higher
Education, 16(1), 131-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2011.544125
Graham, C., Henrie, C., & Gibbons, A. (2014) Developing models and theory for «blended learning»
research. In Picciano, A.G., Dziuban, C., Graham, C.R. (Eds.), Blended learning: Research
Perspectives, vol. 2 (pp. 13–33). Routledge.
Hwang, G.-J., Sung, H.-Y., Hung, C.-M., Yang, L.-H., & Huang, I. (2013). A knowledge
engineering approach to developing educational computer games for improving students'
differentiating knowledge. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(2), 183-196.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01285.x
Hathaway, D., & Norton, P. (2018). Understanding problems of practice. A case study in design research.
Springer International Publishing.
Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández, C., & Baptista, P. (2010). Metodología de la Investigación [Research
Methodology]. McGraw Hill.
Huang, R., Spector, J. M., & Yang, J. (2019). Design-based research. En R. Huang, J. M. Spector, y
J. Yang (Eds.), Educational Technology (pp. 179-188). Springer.
Keller, J. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance: the ARCS model approach. Springer.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
410 Keller, J., & Suzuki, K. (2004). Learner motivation and E-learning design: A
multinationally validated process. Journal of Educational Media, 29(3), 229-
239. http://doi.org/10.1080/1358165042000283084
Kelly, A. E. (2006). Quality criteria for design research: Evidence and commitments. In Van den Akker,
J., Gravemeijer, K., McKenney, S., & Nieveen, N. (Eds.) (2006), Educational design research
(pp 107-18). Routledge.
Kennedy, G., Judd, T. S., Churchward, A., Gray, K., & Krause, K.-L. (2008). First year students’
experiences with technology: Are they really digital natives? Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology, 24(1), 108-122. http://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.v24i1.1233
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Handbook of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)
for educators. Routledge for the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.
McAnally-Salas, L., Lavigne, G., & de Vega, C.A. (2010). Online course instructional design. From the
professor´pedagogic knowledge and technological skills. Problems of Education in the 21st
Century, 19, 84-93. http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/node/360
Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development,
50(3), 43-59. http://doi.org/10.1007/BF02505024
Moravec, J. W. (2008). Knowmads in society 3.0. Education Futures. http://www.educationfutures.
com/2008/11/20/knowmads-in-society-30/
Moravec, J. W. (2013). Knowmad society: The “new” work and education. On the Horizon, 21(2), 79-83,
https://doi.org/10.1108/10748121311322978
Muñoz, P (2011). Modelos de diseño instruccional utilizados en ambientes teleformativos [Instructional
design models used in tele-training environments]. Revista Digital de Investigación Educativa
Conect@2, 2(1). http://www.revistaconecta2.com.mx/archivos/revistas/revista2/2_2.pdf
Nowak, M. A., & Highfield, R. (2011). SuperCooperators: Altruism, evolution, and why we need each
other to succeed. FreePress.
Potyrała, K. (2020). A few reflections on comtemporary sciencie education and educational research.
Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(1), 4-8. http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/
node/1260
Pedró, F. (2006). The new millennium learners: Challenging our views on ICT and learning. http://www.
oecd.org/edu/ceri/38358359.pdf
Piscitelli, A. (2009). Nativos digitales: dieta cognitiva, inteligencia colectiva y arquitecturas de la
participación [Digital natives: cognitive diet, collective intelligence and architectures of
participation]. Santillana.
Plomp, T., & Nieveen, N. M. (2010). An introduction to educational design research. Enschede: SLO-
Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development. http://www.slo.nl/downloads/2009/
Introduction_20to_20education_20design_20research.pdf
Prendes, M. P., & Román, M. (2017). Entornos personales de aprendizaje: Una visión actual de cómo
aprender con tecnologías [Personal learning environments: A current vision of how to learn
with technologies]. Barcelona: Octaedro.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game Based Learning. McGraw-Hill.
Reig, D. (2010). Un mundo de medios sin fin. Cambios en aprendizaje, Facebook y la apoteosis de las
aplicaciones expresivas [A world of endless media. Changes in learning, Facebook and the
apotheosis of expressive applications]. In A. Piscitelli, I. Adaime. & I. Binder (Comps.), El
proyecto Facebook y la Posuniversidad. Sistemas operativos sociales y entornos abiertos de
aprendizaje [The Facebook project and the Post-University. Social operating systems and open
learning environments] (pp. 183‐ 202). Fundación Telefónica/Ariel.
Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., & Nelson, W. (2004). Developmental research: Studies of instructional design
and development. En Jonassen, D. (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational Communications
and technology, (p. 1099–1130). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Roca, R. (2016). Knowmads. Los trabajadores del futuro [Knowmads. The workers of the future] Lid
Editorial.
Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the Digital Age: universal design for learning.
Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Salinas, J., De Benito, B., Pérez, A., & Gisbert, M. (2018). «Blended learning», más allá de la clase
presencial [Blended learning, beyond the on-site class]. RIED, Revista Iberoamericana de
Educación a Distancia, 21(1), 195-213. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/ried.21.1.18859

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Salmon, G. (2000). E-Moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. Kogan Page. 411
Salmon, G. (2004). E-Actividades, El factor clave para una formación en línea activa [E-Activities, The
key factor for active online education]. Editorial UOC.
Sawyer, R. K. (2014). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences. Cambridge University Press.
Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for a digital age. International Journal of
Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1). http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/
article01.htm
Silva, J. (2017). Un modelo pedagógico virtual centrado en las E-actividades [A virtual pedagogical model based
on E-activities]. RED, Revista de Educación a Distancia, 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/red/53/10
Silva, J., & Maturana, D. (2017). Un modelo para introducir metodologías activas en educación superior
[A model to introduce active methodologies in higher education]. Innovación Educativa, 17(73),
117-131. http://bit.ly/2QcsIxh
Tapscott, D. (2009). The impeding demise of the university. Edge, The Third Culture. http://www.edge.
org/3rd_culture/tapscott09/tapscott09_index.html
Ustun, A.B., & Tracey, M.W. (2020). An effective way of designing blended learning: A three phase
design-based research approach. Education and Information Technologies, 25, 1529-1552.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09999-9
Valverde, J. (2010). El movimiento de 'educación abierta' y la 'universidad expandida' [The ‘open
education’ and ‘expanded university’ model]. Tendencias pedagógicas, 16, 157-180. https://
revistas.uam.es/tendenciaspedagogicas/article/view/1948/2059
Valverde, J. (2019). Guía académica del Máster en Educación Digital [Academic Guide of the Master in
Digital Education]. Universidad de Extremadura. https://mastereducaciondigital.unex.es/guias-
med
Valverde, J., Fernández, M.R., & Garrido, M. (2018). Aprendizaje Basado en Problemas (ABP-PBL)
en la formación online de estudiantes de posgrado universitario: un análisis de los niveles
de comprensión (taxonomía SOLO) [Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in online training of
university students: an analysis of comprehension levels (taxonomy SOLO)]. VIII Congreso
Iberoamericano de Pedagogía [VIII Iberoamerican Congress of Pedagogy]. Buenos Aires,
Argentina, August 14-17.
Received: February 17, 2021 Accepted: May 30, 2021
Cite as: Fernández-Sánchez, M. R., & Silva-Quiroz, J. (2021). Emerging educational design
in online training in higher education. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 397-
411. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.397
María Rosa Fernández- PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, University
Sánchez of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, C.P. 10.003, Cáceres, Spain.
(Corresponding author) E-mail: rofersan@unex.es
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maria_Fernandez_Sanchez2
Juan Silva Quiroz PhD, Associate Professor, University of Santiago de Chile, Avenida Libertador
Bernardo O'Higgins nº 3363. Estación Central, Santiago, Chile.
E-mail: juan.silva@usach.cl
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan_Silva38
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9817-402X

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
412
INTERTWINING MATHEMATICAL
MODELING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
Ramazan Gürbüz
Adıyaman University, Turkey
E-mail: rgurbuz@outlook.com
Muammer Çalık
Trabzon University, Turkey
E-mail: muammer38@hotmail.com
Abstract
Since contemporary learning theories, strategies and models offer the interdisciplinary approach,
educators need new pedagogical alternative ways to attain it in practicum. For this reason, the
current research aimed to illustrate how to intertwine mathematical modeling with an environmental
issue that recruits waste management (e.g., reuse-recycle-reduce) to live an environmentally friendly
lifestyle. Through a case study research, 6 seventh-grade students (3 females and 3 males; aged 13-14)
voluntarily participated in the research. The researchers videotaped and analyzed all interactive learning
processes to elicit the students’ environmental dialogues. The results indicated that the interdisciplinary
mathematical modeling afforded the students to acquire the targeted environmental concepts/issues and
somewhat supported their arguments. Since the current research illustrates an alternative pedagogy to
integrate science/environmental education into mathematics, it may be used to facilitate dissemination
and applicability of the STEM education.
Keywords: environmental issues, interdisciplinary approach, mathematical modeling
Introduction
Population growth and scientific/technological advances have globally influenced food

production, energy use, climate, land use, air, and water quality. Imbalanced interactions
between humans and their environments have yielded to anthropogenic environmental
problems (e.g., Atmaca et al., 2020; Er Nas & Çalık, 2018) that threaten the restorative capacity
of natural ecosystems. For example, people, who are unaware of their own environmental and
social responsibilities, use environmental resources as if they were infinite (Çalık & Eames,
2012). Such anthropogenic activities and environmental degradation pose a major ecologic
threat for sustainable development (Montgomery, 2007) and natural ecosystems (e.g., forestry
ecosystems) (e.g., Er Nas & Çalık, 2018). These concerns need to be resolved through the
recognition of the interconnections amongst environment, social behavior, cultural histories,
and economic processes (Çalık & Eames, 2012).
To minimize environmental damage, people need to be informed and educated about
environmental problems. This calls for their active participation in developing solutions to
environmental issues. Thus, they can behave responsibly towards the environment in which
they live. Given the enormous publicity associated with environmental issues such as global
warming, environmental education can be employed to change people’s perceptions, attitudes,
and habits (Bilianska & Yaroshenko, 2020; Çalık, 2009). This means that formal and informal

Ramazan GÜRBÜZ, Muammer ÇALIK. Intertwining mathematical modeling with environmental issues
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
education plays a significant role at accomplishing environmental education, environmental 413

sustainability, and sustainable development (e.g., Deveci & Karteri, 2021). For example, in
Turkey, newly released curricula, which integrate environmental education into relevant issues,
purpose to educate well-qualified and responsible citizens for environmental education by means
of student-centered learning strategies (e.g., Çalık, 2009; Deveci & Karteri, 2021). In fact, such
a learning strategy/environment necessitates having well-qualified teachers with knowledge of
pedagogical strategies for environmental education (e.g., Çalık, 2009). That is, teachers, who
have a good level of environmental literacy and pedagogical content knowledge, think about
how to teach environmental concepts/issues effectively (Çalık & Aytar, 2013; Deveci & Karteri,
2021).
Research Problem
Even though contemporary learning theories, strategies and models offer the
interdisciplinary approaches, educators have still possessed some educational problems
at collaboratively working with each other and reflecting various disciplines. For example,
although Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education asks for
intertwining different disciplines with each other, the STEM studies have generally had some
deficiencies at correlating subjects/disciplines (Doğan et al., 2019; Gürbüz et al., 2018; Herdem
& Ünal, 2018; Ormancı, 2020). Moreover, since the interdisciplinary approach covers different
subjects, skills and collaborations, educators need higher-order thinking and management/
leadership skills. For this reason, mathematics and science teachers/educators have still had
some pitfalls at practically implementing STEM education and/or interdisciplinary approach
into their classes (Gürbüz et al., 2018). Therefore, educators, teachers and researchers need new
pedagogical alternative ways to attain the interdisciplinary approach in practicum (Gürbüz et
al., 2018; Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, 2016). In that case, intertwining mathematical modeling with
environmental issues may act as a catalyst that facilitates applicability and feasibility of the
interdisciplinary approach and/or STEM education (Doğan et al., 2019; Gürbüz et al., 2018).
Research Focus
Because Turkey does not possess a teacher education program in environmental

education and STEM education, teachers need to see how to integrate environmental issues
and mathematical modeling into their classes and/or lesson plans. For example, science
teachers, who are generally familiar with environmental issues, can easily interpret related
goals of science curriculum and integrate environmental issues into their classes and/or lesson
plans. But this may be difficult for mathematics teachers. Likewise, science teachers may have
difficulties at using mathematical modeling in science learning. For this reason, they need
to be informed about how to intertwine mathematical modeling with environmental issues.
Phrased differently, integration of environmental issues into mathematics education may be an
alternative pedagogical way to achieve a better interdisciplinary approach.
Interdisciplinary Mathematical Modeling
Mathematical modeling, as one of the 21st century mathematics competencies (Dewanti

et al., 2020), involves real-life problems and concentrates on contextually minds-on activities
that stimulate students’ mental models or cognitive scaffolds (e.g., Berry & Houston, 1995;
Doğan et al., 2019; Gürbüz et al., 2019; Lesh & Doerr, 2003). Taking related literature into
consideration, Doğan et al. (2019) has released a theoretical framework for the interdisciplinary
mathematical modeling (see Figure 1).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
414 Figure 1
Interdisciplinary Mathematical Modeling Process of Mathematics and Science (adopted
from Doğan et al., 2019, p.634)
As seen from Figure 1, the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling, as a theoretical

framework, firstly asks students to understand relevant problem, which embeds science (e.g.,
chemistry, physics, biology, environmental sciences) within mathematics. Then, they are
encouraged to differentiate necessary variables from unnecessary ones by identifying their own
problem(s). Given the nature of relevant problem, the “mental modeling” stage calls them for
denoting their own hypothesis and appropriate plans. Thus, they are able to classify simplified
concepts under “science and mathematical world” (called decomposition/grouping) and
generate a context for the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling (named context forming).
After noticing the context, students are expected to create their own mathematical model(s)
(called model forming). Later, they need to provide their own mathematical solutions by means
of their existing mathematical knowledge (named model solving). Given their (possible)
results, students are requested to associate their models/solutions with real-life issues/problems/
contexts (called transformation) and test the validity and applicability of their solutions (named
evaluation). If students are satisfied with their created models that functionally respond real-
life issues/problems/contexts under investigation, they summarize their own problem-solving
processes/results and prepare their own reports (called reporting). Meanwhile, the foregoing
theoretical framework flexibly allows any proper transition between the interdisciplinary
mathematical modeling processes. For example, students may jump into the “mental modeling”
stage without grouping the related concepts in science (e.g., chemistry, physics, biology,
environmental sciences) and mathematical world. Likewise, if they contextually find their
models inappropriate or inapplicable for the real world, they may return to the “model forming”
or “context forming” stage (Doğan et al., 2019).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Research Aim 415
Given the aforementioned issues, the current research aimed to illustrate how to
intertwine mathematical modeling with an environmental issue that recruits waste management
(e.g., reuse-recycle-reduce) to live an environmentally friendly lifestyle (Iliopoulou, 2018a,b).
The following research questions guided the current research:
1. How can the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling be conducted with seventh-
grade students?
2. Which environmental themes and categories appear during the implementation of the
interdisciplinary mathematical modeling?
General Background
Through a case study research, the current research deeply examined the participants’
dialogues of environmental issues while they were engaging the interdisciplinary mathematical
modeling in their small groups. That is, the current research, which viewed each group (3 by 3)
as a case study, strived to critically handle the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling within
a clear set of propositions, e.g., environmental issues/education (Yin, 2003).
Participants
6 seventh-grade students (3 females and 3 males; aged 13-14), who were purposefully
drawn from a state middle school in the city of Adıyaman, Turkey, voluntarily participated in
the research during the fall semester of the 2018-2019 academic year. All participants’ previous
mathematics and science performances/scores fell into the average level.
Data Collection and Analysis
All interactive learning processes were videotaped to elicit the students’ environmental
dialogues. Then, the researchers independently identified environmental categories and themes
by means of verbatim transcriptions (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003). Interrater consistency value
was found to be .71, which is slightly higher than the acceptable reliability coefficient (.70)
suggested by Hair et al. 2006). Any disagreement was solved through negotiation.
Procedure
A mathematics teacher and a science teacher, who participated in a 36-hour in-service

education on the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling (this is of interest in another paper),
collaboratively worked and then carried out the activity “Plastic Bottle.” Prior to the activity,
the teachers asked the students to create their own small groups of 3. Later, they handed out
the news entitled “plastic bottle instead of brick” to the students and requested them to read it
very carefully. Then, the mathematics teacher asked provocative questions (e.g., What science
and mathematics concepts do you think the news emphasize? Why is the house in the news
environmentally friendly? What do you think about Andreas Froese’s waste management?)
to stimulate their learning curiosity and activate their pre-existing knowledge. Hence, such a
procedure not only created a “need-to-know” basis for advanced concepts but also promoted
the students to learn related fundamental concepts prior to solving the problem.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
416 Figure 2
The News Entitled “Plastic bottle instead of brick”
The teachers passed out the problem sheet entitled “Building environmentally friendly
constructions with plastic bottles” to the students and asked them to read it very carefully to
comprehend the problem.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 3 417
The Problem Sheet Entitled “Building environmentally friendly constructions with plastic
bottles”
In the stage “Understanding the problem,” the teachers encouraged the students to
notice the problem called “plastic bottles instead of bricks,” and think about how to design
an effective playhouse. Thus, the students could grasp related concepts (i.e., reuse, recycle,
reduce) of waste management and comprehend how such constructions result in a better waste
management to save the Earth. The stage “Mental modeling” required them to look for the
relevant reports about plastic bottles (e.g., some countries throw away 2.5 million plastic bottles
per hour) and duration of decomposition of any plastic bottle in nature (e.g., 500 years). Hence,
the students could perceive that leaving plastic bottles to the environment mainly damages
the nature. Further, they could create their own mental models to design their playhouses and
consider how to effectively minimize the number of plastic bottles in nature (e.g., the use of
0.5-liter plastic bottles in their own playhouses). Also, the teachers fostered the students to
realize environmental (e.g., environment, environmental pollution, environmentally friendly
living constructions, recycling, reuse and reduce) and mathematical concepts/terms (e.g.,
mathematically length measurement, field measurement units and transformations, properties
of geometric objects, calculation of areas of geometric shapes) for the stage “decomposition
(grouping).” Further, the stage “context forming,” which called the students for calculating
the number of plastic bottles to design the playhouse, generated an environmental context
through the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling. That is, the students could notice related
concepts of waste management (e.g., reuse) and prioritize building environmentally friendly

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
418 constructions. Thus, they could see how to reduce any negative effect of the use of plastic
bottles on nature, soil, and water (as the context).
The teachers asked the students to design their own playhouse models (the stage “model
forming”). For instance, the students could design a 3m x 3m floor to enable several students
to play in the playhouse at the same time. Further, they could set the height of the playhouse at
2.5 m given the average height of a room (2.60 m). A sample house design (with a door and one
window for each of three identical facades) and its sizes are shown in Figure 4A.
Figure 4
Sample Mathematical Models
The students planned to collect 0.5-liter plastic bottles of water, which are mostly used
in daily life and easily accessible. Then, they measured the size and base diameter of a plastic
bottle and thought about directions of mouth and base of the plastic bottle. For instance, they
placed mouth of the plastic bottle towards inside and its base to outside when bonding the
walls (see Figure 4B). Further, they inquired how to increase thermal insulation and viewed
Figure 4C as a proper construction that increases thermal insulation and reduces heat-loss. After
completing the design of the playhouse, they initially calculated the number of plastic bottles as
if there were no doors and windows. Later, they subtracted areas of the door and windows from
the total number (see Figure 5 for a sample calculation).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 5 419
A Sample Calculation for the Problem
The students planned to collect an average of 9000 plastic bottles in case some of
them might be unusable. Hence, they could differentiate the concept “recycle” from the one
“reuse.” Moreover, the teachers fostered the students to discuss about the questions “How
does such a playhouse made of plastic bottles impede environmental pollution?”, “How does
it make a contribution to public health, natural life and national economy?”, “How does it
minimize microplastics that threaten water creatures and human lives?” and “Which type (e.g.,
reuse, recycle, reuse) of waste management is more feasible for us and natural life cycles?”
Hence, they had an opportunity to generate their own arguments and defend their reasons of
environmental issues, i.e., environmental pollution, waste management, microplastics.
The stage “transformation” guided the students to pose their advanced and transformable
thinking skills of real-life issues. For example, the teachers used the following questions “How
do environmentally friendly houses built by Andreas Froese or your designed playhouses protect
nature?”, “How do they bring new insights and/or bright ideas for people?” and “Do you think
your model has any minimal calculation deviation?”. Hence, the students could notice any
difference/deviation between a theoretical calculation (that neglects such issues as flexibility of
the plastic bottle and mortar thickness) and a real case.
During the stage “evaluation,” the teachers encouraged the students to consider their
learning processes of the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling and make their self-
assessments. Thereby, the students could evaluate many different designs and re-think about
how the playhouse made of plastic bottles would contribute to environmental education/waste
management. Finally, the teachers required the students to concisely outline their own problem-
solving processes/results and prepare their own reports (the stage “reporting”).
Research Results
As seen from Table 1, the students’ dialogues appeared in 11 categories under three
themes (protecting environment/nature, waste/save and informing society about environmental
issues). Both of the groups emphasized the categories “pollution, protecting soil/livings,
making a contribution to environmental protection, reusing, preferring a large-size plastic
bottle, reducing consumption, and energy saving” while solving the problem “Building
environmentally friendly constructions with plastic bottles.” Also, while Group 1 only referred
to the categories “reducing the use of oil and global warming,” Group 2 solely dealt with the
categories “giving a message and raising environmental awareness.”

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
420 Table 1
A Summary of Environmental Categories and Themes Based on the Students’ Statements
Themes Categories Sample statements Group 1 Group 2

By reducing the production amount of plastic, we
are able to decrease the consumption of oil-based
Reducing the use products/goods. For example, if half-liter of oil
of oil is used to produce a plastic bottle, a decrease 
in the production of plastic bottles reduces the
consumption of oil.
…throwing away these plastic bottles randomly
to the environment/nature, we result in visual
Pollution
pollution. By picking them up, we are able to  
prevent visual pollution.
Given the news of plastic bottles, their
decomposition process takes about 4000 years. In
this period, they damage soil and livings in the soil.
Protecting soil/livings
By building a playhouse made of plastic bottles, we  
Protecting environment/nature
can minimize their negative effects/damages on

nature and animals.
…the more plastic production decreases, the more
Global warming
global warming reduces too. 
By building a playhouse made of plastic bottles at
Making a contribution
our own school, we will not only do a good job for
to environmental
protection
younger children but also make a great contribution  
to environmental protection.
…when we build a playhouse made of plastic
bottles for little children, we re-use them instead of
Reusing throwing them into the bin. Thus, we can not only
clean our environment/nature but also impede their
 
adverse effect(s) on the nature.
…if we use large-size plastic bottles, they can
hinder the effect of hot air on the house [thermal
insulation]. Thus, the houses will not be very hot
Preferring a large-size
plastic bottle
alike those in African countries. Phrased differently,
the climate and air of the houses [made of large-
 
size plastic bottles] will be better [than those with
small-size plastic bottles].
…we can decrease the number of plastic bottles
that pollute the nature. Further, we can contribute
Reducing to save the nature by reducing the consumption of
consumption plastic bottles. Moreover, reducing the number of  
plastics bottles, which will be decomposed into the
soil, will also increase the fertility of the soil.
…building the playhouse made of plastics bottles

Waste/Save
Energy saving enables us to use minimal energy. That is, it results  

in energy saving.
This building gives an environmental message to


Informing society about
Giving a message
the people, who see it.
environmental issues
…if we build this playhouse made of plastic bottles

to social areas [playland, garden, park], which
Raising environmental
awareness
people often visit, this building informs them
about environmental issues and stimulates their

environmental awareness of waste management.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Discussion 421
As seen from Table 1, the students employed mathematical modeling and relevant
environmental concepts/issues together while solving the problem. This means that the current
research afforded them to intertwine mathematics with science/environmental education. This
may be seen as an indicator of its applicability for seventh-grade students. Phrased differently,
the research results indicated that the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling tended to support
contextual learning (context-based learning) and higher-order thinking skills (e.g., problem
solving, 21st century skills, mathematical thinking, reasoning abilities, creative thinking,
and scientific literacy). Further, it challenged the abstractness and rote learning of school
mathematics and science (Cedere et al., 2020; Davison et al. 1995; Doğan et al., 2019; Ültay
& Çalik, 2016). Hence, it attempted to enhance the seventh-grade students’ familiarity with
the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling and environmental issues. Since conventional/
procedural problem-solving habits are not enough to produce effective solutions for real-
life issues, the students seem to have noticed this inability during the implementation of the
interdisciplinary mathematical modeling. This means that such an implementation cultivates
the need, motivation, enthusiasm and curiosity of science and mathematics learning.
Because the students actively engaged in a real-life problem (as the context), the
interdisciplinary mathematical modeling not only stimulated their awareness of environmental
issues but also encouraged them to behave responsibly towards their close environments.
Moreover, through a “need-to-know” basis, it seems to have empowered their conceptual
understanding/meaningful learning levels (Lesh et al., 2000; Özgen, 2013; Remijan, 2017). For
example, the students had learned the concepts “re-use, pollution, environmental protection,
energy saving, global warming and reducing” to think about their mathematical models
and problem-solving strategies. That is, the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling not
only afforded them to acquire the targeted environmental concepts/issues but also somewhat
supported their arguments (see Table 1). Moreover, given the themes and related categories
(see Table 1), the students acted as responsible citizens for the environmental issue under
investigation (e.g., Çalık, 2009; Çalik et al., 2014; Deveci & Karteri, 2021) and strived to
use their learning capacities of scientific investigation, scientific communication, and scientific
conceptualization (Çalik et al., 2014, 2015; Doğan et al., 2019). To sum up, interdisciplinary
mathematical modeling, which purposes to intertwine different disciplines with each other,
equips students with the 21st century skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, and innovative
thinking. Further, because it enables students to associate content knowledge/conceptual
understanding of any discipline with daily life issues, it also stimulates their interest in STEM
career/education (Özgen, 2013; Remijan, 2017).
In light of the research results, it can be concluded that the interdisciplinary mathematical
modeling, as an alternative pedagogical approach, is applicable for embedding relevant
environmental concepts/issues within mathematical modeling. Further, it has a great potential
at dealing with a common belief “science and mathematics come in useful at schools” since
it advocates meaningful/context-based learning via real-life problems. Furthermore, the
seventh-grade students’ awareness of the environmental issue (e.g., plastic bottles) and possible
solutions can be viewed as an indicator of their environmental responsibilities. Lastly, it can
be deduced that engaging in real-life problems through the interdisciplinary mathematical
modeling challenges conventional/procedural problem-solving habits only concentrating on
clear-cut, intangible and unrealistic solutions.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
422 Even though the present research is part of an extensive project, it only presents the
preliminary results of the problem “Building environmentally friendly constructions with
plastic bottles.” This may be seen as a limitation of the current research. Further research
should be undertaken to conduct the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling of such
environmental issues as waste of water, wastepaper, thermal insulation. Similarly, although
the students modeled their mathematical/mental solutions, they did not build a playhouse in
their schools. This may be viewed as another limitation of the current research. For this reason,
future research should enable students to build their own playhouses in their schools or social
areas. Such a follow-up research may provide invaluable insights about their environmental
awareness and environmental management. Because 6 students and 2 teachers participated in
the current research, the interdisciplinary mathematical modeling ought to be tested with a
larger sample or pre/post experimental research design. Since the current research illustrates an
alternative pedagogy to integrate science/environmental education into mathematics, it may be
used to facilitate dissemination and applicability of the STEM education.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Turkey (TUBITAK) (Grant No: 117K169). The authors would like to thank the project team,
participants, and teachers for their kind efforts.
References
Atmaca, A. C., Kiray, S. A., & Colakoglu, M. H. (2020). An examination of teachers’ sustainable
development awareness in terms of branches, genders, ages, and years of service. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 78(3), 342-358. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.342
Berry, J., & Houston, K. (1995). Students using posters as a means of communication and assessment.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 29(1), 21-27.
Bilianska, M., & Yaroshenko, O. (2020). Ability to foster schoolchildren’s ecological literacy as a result
of prospective biology teachers’ professional training. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
78(6), 907-919. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.907
Cedere, D., Birzina, R., Pigozne, T., & Vasilevskaya, E. (2020). Perceptions of today’s young generation
about meaningful learning of STEM. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 920-932.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.920
Çalık, M. (2009). An integrated model for environmental education in Turkey. In N. Taylor, R. K. Coll, M.
Littledyke & C. Eames (Eds.), Environmental education in context: An international perspective
of the development and implementation of environmental education and its impact on student
knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (pp. 109-122). Sense Publishers.
Çalık, M. & Aytar, A. (2013). Investigating prospective primary teachers' pedagogical content knowledge
of "effect of human on environment" subject in the process of teaching practice. Educational
Sciences: Theory & Practice, 13(3), 1599-1605. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2013.3.1649
Çalık, M., & Eames, C. (2012). The significance of national context: A comparison of environmental
education in Turkey and New Zealand. Asia Pacific Education Researcher, 21(3), 423-433.
Çalik, M., Ebenezer, J., Özsevgeç, T., Küçük, Z. & Artun, H. (2015). Improving science student teachers'
self-perceptions of fluency with innovative technologies and scientific inquiry abilities. Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 24(4), 448-460. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-014-9529-1
Çalik, M., Özsevgeç, T., Ebenezer, J., Artun, H., & Küçük, Z. (2014). Effects of 'environmental chemistry'
elective course via technology embedded scientific inquiry model on some variables. Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 23(3), 412-430. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-013-9473-5

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Çalik, M., Turan, B. & Coll, R.K. (2014). A cross-age study of elementary student teachers’ scientific 423
habits of mind concerning socioscientific issues. International Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 12, 1315-1340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-013-9458-0
Davison, D. M., Miller, K. W., & Metheny, D. L. (1995). What does integration of science and mathematics
really mean? School Science and Mathematics, 95(5), 226-230.
Dewanti, S. S., Kartowagiran, B., Jailani, & Retnawati, H. (2020). Lecturers’ experience in assessing
21st-century mathematics competency in Indonesia. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
78(4), 500-515. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.500
Deveci, İ. & Karteri, İ. (2021). Context-based learning supported by environmental measurement
devices in science teacher education: A mixed method research. Journal of Biological Education.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2020.1821083
Doğan, M.F., Gürbüz, R., Çavuş-Erdem, Z. & Şahin, S. (2019). Using mathematical modeling for
integrating stem disciplines: A theoretical framework. Turkish Journal of Computer and
Mathematics Education, 10(3), 628-653. https://doi.org/10.16949/turkbilmat.502007
Er Nas, S., & Çalık, M. (2018). A cross-age study of science student teachers’ conceptual
understanding of soil erosion. Problems of Education in the 21st century, 76(5), 601-619.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/18.76.601
Gürbüz, R., Çavuş Erdem, Z., Şahin, S., Temurtaş, A., Doğan, C., Doğan, M.F., Çalık, M. & Çelik,
D. (2018). Bir disiplinler arası matematiksel modelleme etkinliğinden yansımalar [Reflections
from an interdisciplinary mathematical modeling activity]. Adiyaman University Journal of
Educational Sciences, Special Issue, 1-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17984/adyuebd.463270
Gürbüz, R., Temurtaş, A., Doğan, M.F., Çalık, M. & Çelik, D. (2019). Matematik ve fen bilimleri
öğretmenlerinin matematiksel modelleme anlayışlarındaki değişimin incelenmesi [Investigating
changes in mathematics and science teachers’ understanding of mathematical modelling]. Paper
presented at 4th International Symposium of Turkish Computer and Mathematics Education, 26-
28 September, İzmir, Turkey.
Hair, J. F. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data
analysis (6th ed.). Prentice-Hall International.
Herdem, K. & Ünal, İ. (2018). STEM eğitimi üzerine yapılan çalışmaların analizi: Bir meta-sentez
çalışması [Analysis of studies on STEM education: A meta-synthesis study]. Marmara
University Atatürk Education Faculty Journal of Educational Sciences, 48(48), 145-163.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15285/maruaebd.345486
Iliopoulou, I. (2018a). Children’s thinking about environmental issues. Educational Research, 60(2), 241-
254. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2018.1453753
Iliopoulou, I. (2018b). How young children think they can act for the environment: The case of forest and
waste. Education 3-13, 46(3), 249-263. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2016.1236829
Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case study research in education. Jossey-Bass.
Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (2016). STEM eğitimi raporu [A report of STEM Education]. Ankara: Milli Eğitim
Bakanlığı Yayınları.
Montgomery, D. R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(33), 13268-13272.
Lesh, R., & Doerr, H. M. (2003). Foundations of a models and modeling perspective on mathematics
teaching, learning, and problem solving. In R. Lesh, & H. M. Doerr (Eds.), Beyond constructivism:
Models and modeling perspectives on mathematics problem solving, learning, and teaching (pp.
3-33). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ormancı, Ü. (2020). Thematic content analysis of doctoral theses in STEM education: Turkey context.
Journal of Turkish Science Education, 17(1),126-146. https://dx.doi.org/10.36681/tused.2020.17
Özgen, K. (2013). Mathematical connection skill in the context of problem solving: The case of pre-
service teachers. Education Sciences, 8(3), 323-345.
Remijan, K. W. (2017). Project-based learning and design-focused projects to motivate secondary
mathematics students. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 11(1), 1-14.
Ültay, N., & Çalik, M. (2016). A comparison of different teaching designs of ‘acids and bases’
subject. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 12(1), 57-86.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1422a
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Sage publications.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
424
Cite as: Gürbüz, R., & Çalık, M. (2021). Intertwining mathematical modeling with
environmental issues. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 412-424.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.412
Ramazan Gürbüz Professor of Mathematics Education, Department of Mathematics and

Science Education, Faculty of Education, Adıyaman University, Adıyaman/
Turkey.
E-mail: rgurbuz@outlook.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ramazan_Guerbuez
Muammer Çalık Professor of Chemistry Education, Department of Elementary Teacher

(Corresponding author) Education, Fatih Faculty of Education, Trabzon University, Trabzon/Turkey
E-mail: muammer38@hotmail.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muammer-Calik

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
CORRELATES OF SCIENCE CLASSROOM 425
TEACHING WITH SOUTHEAST ASIAN AND

EAST ASIAN EIGHTH GRADERS’ SCIENCE
ACHIEVEMENT IN TIMSS 2015
Yoon Fah Lay
University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: layyf@ums.edu.my
Khar Thoe Ng
Asia e-University, Malaysia
E-mail: ng.kharthoe@aeu.edu.my
Abstract
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is an international comparative study
that has been implemented by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achieve-
ment (IEA) since 1995. This proposed study is aimed to identify the correlations of science classroom
teachings with eighth graders' science achievement in TIMSS among Southeast Asian and East Asian
countries. The freely downloadable secondary data were analyzed using IEA's International Database
(IDB) Analyzer (version 4.0) for TIMSS, a plug-in for SPSS. TIMSS uses an imputation methodology,
involving plausible values, to report student performance. This study found that countries with higher
average science achievement allocated higher percentage of educational hours for science teaching,
students were taught the TIMSS science topics, students attended schools with science laboratories and
have assistance available when conducting experiments, computer availability during science lessons,
with science teachings were not limited by student needs, and less frequency of student absences. Based
on the research findings, policy recommendations were made to the Malaysian Ministry of Education to
boost Malaysian eighth graders' science performance in the forthcoming TIMSS assessments.
Keywords: TIMSS, comparative study, classroom teachings, science achievement
Introduction

Students’ home and school environments, as well as science teachers’ preparation, can
significantly affect science teaching effectiveness. However, the classroom environment where
students’ daily learning activities are directed, and in which students are motivated and develop
skills as they interact with their peers, is more likely to have a direct effect on student learning,
i.e., the core of classroom teachings. Hence, classroom teaching that provides a good learning
environment for the students can be a significant factor for students’ academic achievement.
There are many factors that affect science classroom teaching. Students’ attitudes toward
science, time allocation for science teaching, students’ readiness to engage in the science
teaching and the resources used by the science teachers can all influence classroom teachings.
In the Philippines, localization of the K-12 enhanced basic curriculum has been reflected
in language usage and the medium of instruction (Morales, 2016). Besides that, senior high
school curriculum is now more reflective of local and responsive curriculum. Since student
motivation is an important factor of students’ achievement in science subjects, it is vital to

Yoon Fah LAY, Khar Thoe NG. Correlates of science classroom teaching with Southeast Asian and East Asian eighth graders’
science achievement in TIMSS 2015
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
426 create a positive outlook in students. Students’ attitude towards science is not only formed in
their school setting but carried over to their home setting where their culture, practices and
native language facilitate their learning (Morales, 2016). In Portugal, Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL), a language-aware and content-directed educational approach
which integrates different curricular fields, is proposed as a possible solution to provide an
authentic learning of both English and Science (Piacentini et al., 2019). Therefore, classroom
teaching also needs to be culturally sensitive and as close to the students’ natural language as
possible in order to facilitate the students to make meaning of their learning (Piacentini et al.,
2019). In Malaysia, language is still an issue of debate and the government is urged to seriously
think about revert to English as a medium of teaching for teaching science and mathematics to
avoid children being left behind internationally (Sonia, 2021).
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
The International Association for the Assessment of Educational Achievement (hereafter

abbreviated as IEA) pioneered international comparative evaluation of educational achieve-
ments in the 1960s as an attempt to get a deeper understanding of the impact of educational
policies and procedures across various school systems. Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study (hereafter abbreviated as TIMSS) as one of the international comparative as-
sessments, is directed by IEA's TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center at Boston College.
TIMSS seeks to help the participating countries make better decisions on how to im-
prove mathematics and science by teaching and learning. Since 1995, TIMSS is a regular stu-
dent assessment program in grades four and eight which has been administered every four
years. TIMSS provides participating countries with a wealth of information about trends in the
science as well as mathematics knowledge and skills of their respective students. At the heart of
TIMSS is a wide-ranging state-of-the-art assessment of how well students master the essential
science and mathematics content, concepts, as well as procedures that countries expect them
to learn as they progress through primary and lower secondary school. Numerous studies were
conducted, e.g., in making comparison of eighth graders of East Asian countries in TIMSS 2011
(Lay et al., 2015) but the correlates of science classroom teachings with Southeast Asian and
East Asian in TIMSS 2015 has not yet been studied.
Problem Statement
Science education, which transcends the pervasive divide between natural sciences and
social sciences, is potentially unique in its ability to promote the awareness and participation of
new generations as well as to address the social, economic, and environmental aspects of global
challenges. Therefore, addressing diversity and equity-related priorities of science education is
of vital significance in the light of the global picture of a rapidly evolving world. This study is
unique due to the fact that this is an international comparative study to compare and contrast
the correlates of science classroom teaching with Southeast Asian and East Asian eighth grade
students’ science achievement in TIMSS 2015. Policy recommendations to the Malaysian Min-
istry of Education will be made based on the success stories of TIMSS top performing countries
in Southeast Asia and East Asia in an effort to boost Malaysian eighth graders’ science perfor-
mance in the forthcoming TIMSS assessments.
Malaysia joined TIMSS studies since 1999 at the eighth-grade level. Malaysia with a
mean score of 492 was ranked 22nd place in 1999 among 38 participating countries, 21st place
in 2003 among 46 participating countries with a mean score of 510, 21st place in 2007 among
59 participating countries with a mean score of 471, 32nd place in 2011 among 63 participating
countries with a mean score of 426, and 24th place in 2015 among 63 participating countries
with a mean score of 471 (Table 1).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 1 427
TIMSS (Grade 8) Science Scores for Southeast Asian and East Asian Countries (1995 –
2015)
TIMSS science scores of grade 8 students

Malaysia
Singapore
Thailand
Japan
Korea
SAR
Hong Kong,
Chinese Taipei
Average
No. of participating
Year countries
1995 45 - 580 - 554 546 510 - N.A.

1999 38 492 568 482 550 549 530 569 488
2003 46 510 578 - 552 558 556 571 474
2007 59 471 567 471 554 553 530 561 500
2011 63 426 590 451 558 560 535 564 500
2015 63 471 597 456 571 556 546 569 500
Source: Martin et al. (2016a); Mullis, 2013; Mullis et al. (2016)
The results of the latest TIMSS 2015 cycle indicated that at the fourth and eighth grades,
Singapore, Korea, and Japan are the best ranked nations in science and mathematics education.
Table 1 shows the TIMSS science scores for Southeast Asian and East Asian eighth grade stu-
dents from 1995 to 2015.
Literature Review
Time Spent on Science Teaching
Class time for science teaching is a key indicator of opportunity to learn (Blank, 2012).
In the study by Blank (2012), educational factors in elementary science were examined
alongside teaching time including types of teaching practices, curriculum emphasis, and teacher
preparation, and time using hands-on science activities which showed a positive correlation
to National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) science scores in America. However,
average classroom teaching time was the strongest educational factor related to achievement
at the state level (Blank, 2012). In addition to physical resources, the education system’s
human resources also play a crucial role in students’ academic outcomes (Trinidad, 2020). In
developing countries teachers may be absent or do not devote enough time on teaching tasks
and may be encouraged with incentives and accountability structures (Duflo et al., 2012).
Percentages of Students Taught the TIMSS Science Topics
The most prominent teaching challenge concerns topics to include in the curriculum
(Linn et al., 2016). According to Linn et al. (2016) students face a difficulty to make meaning of
their learning when confronted with many distinct topics in a single year. Science teachers also
face the challenge of sequencing science topics in the curriculum to ensure that students have
the prerequisite knowledge, are developmentally ready to learn the material, and can integrate
new ideas with prior knowledge (Linn et al., 2016). Moreover, curriculum topics in science
might also be taught or omitted based on the available natural resources, topography, or climate
in a specific country (Daus & Braeken, 2018).
However, fair comparisons of educational systems in large-scale assessments can be
made only if the differences in curricula have little impact on the outcomes (Daus & Braeken,
2018). The assessment framework in TIMSS is centered around a shared curriculum across the

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
428 participating countries (Mullis, 2013). From this perspective, curriculum implementation, focus,
and sequencing would be crucial for valid and contextualized interpretations of correlations
between educational inputs and outcomes. With more than 40 countries participating in TIMSS,
it is normal that most countries deviate from the commonly agreed-upon curriculum-based
assessment framework. For instance, only half of the participating countries have covered
reproduction, heredity and genetics, and human health by grade 8 (Mullis et al., 2016, p. 13).
In the study by Daus and Braeken (2018), no support was found for a positive relationship
between opportunity to learn and science achievement.
Teachers Emphasize Science Experiment
Engaging students in inquiry teaching and learning featuring interactive models

and collaborative activities is vital in assisting average achievers to improve their goals
and perceptions of their learning environment (Kuo et al., 2019). Inquiry projects allow
the exploration of student ideas while encouraging learners to consider alternatives (Liu et
al., 2014). Students can take advantage of scientific visualizations and generate their own
explanations and other scientific artifacts. Hands- on activities and conceptual understanding
increased average students’ motivation while teachers and peers’ assistance helped improve
low achievers’ motivation (Kuo et al., 2019). Thus, inquiry-based teaching offers opportunities
for continuous, embedded assessment and personalized guidance. Inquiry projects can also
promote collaboration in small groups or among whole classes (Piacentini et al., 2019). They
can focus on societal issues in local communities and on global problems that resonate with
students' interests and experience (Liu et al., 2014).
Resources for Conducting Science Experiments
A non-statistical relationship between per-pupil expenditure (PPE) and pupils’

achievement is reported in (Hedges et al., 2016) based on a meta-analytic review. However, the
statistical models used to examine the relationship between school inputs and student outcomes
are not consistent across studies and do not support causal inferences. The researchers conclude
that PPE may not be related to academic achievement (Hedges et al., 2016). In a study by Connor
et al. (2017) researchers found that improving academic knowledge, also improved students’
oral and reading comprehension. The Content-Area Literacy Instruction (CALI) Science unit
was developed using the 5-E learning cycle: Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration
and Evaluation (Bybee, 1997 in Connor et al., 2017). During the CALI program pupils used the
scientist notebook to keep their written work including graphic organizers. Researchers used
hands-on experiments and trade science texts and encouraged students to work in groups to read
the book or conduct their experiments. Students then completed their worksheets by responding
to questions and recording observations (Connor et al., 2017). Connor et al. (2017) found that
students randomly assigned to CALI improved in their achievement for social studies and
science post-tests. The availability of contextual support also facilitates student independence
in their inquiry science work and science learning (Rappolt-Schlichtmann et al., 2013).
Lay and Chandrasegaran (2016) reported that in Malaysia, on average, 69% of the
eighth-grade students attended schools where teaching was Somewhat Affected by resource
shortages, 18% attended schools where teaching was Not Affected, and 14% attended schools
where teaching was affected a lot by resource shortages. According to Lay and Chandrasegaran
(2016) students in schools that were affected a lot by science resource shortages had lower
science achievement (n = 422) than students in schools that were Not Affected (n = 454).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Computer Activities during Science Lessons 429
Use of ICT tools and computer in science lessons has become quite common in the digital
era since the starting of 21st century and the frameworks for ICT policy was developed with
exemplars reported by scholars and researchers (Adomi, 2011). In Rappolt-Schlichtmann et al.
(2013)but the tasks of recording, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data create barriers
that impede science learning for many students. This study (a a web-based science notebook
designed using the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework was tested among 621
fourth grade students in the United States. Teachers observed that students experienced less
anxiety when dealing with science experiments as they were provided with all the contextual
resources necessary in the web-based notebook. As students complete each part of a science
activity, they are reminded through the navigational structure of the UDL science notebook
(UDSN) that they are moving through a process of ‘plan, get data, explain’. Once students
begin to build an explanation for their inquiry experience, they are provided with contextual
supports to facilitate, guide, and then reinforce the process behaviors necessary for effective
science notebook use. Students and teachers reported overall quite positive experiences with the
notebook, emphasizing high levels of interest, feelings of competence, and autonomy (Rappolt-
Schlichtmann et al., 2013)but the tasks of recording, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
data create barriers that impede science learning for many students. This study (a. Thus it can
be concluded that appropriate use of computers in science education can improve science
content learning outcomes compared with traditional paper-and-pencil science notebooks,
and positively impacted student performance (Rappolt-Schlichtmann et al., 2013)but the tasks
of recording, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data create barriers that impede science
learning for many students. This study (a. In the advent of digital era, the integration of
technology-enhanced learning will also promote values-based sustainable education (Ng, 2007)
and enhance the awareness of Sustainable Development Goals (Chin et al., 2018) pertinent in
producing quality science related professionals with moral values. Research (e.g., Corrienna
et al., 2017; Loganathan et al., 2019) showed that technology-enhanced fun science learning
approaches enhanced students’ motivation in science learning.
Student Use of Internet for Schoolwork
Starting in the mid-1990 when the cost of information and communication devices became
more affordable, and Internet use grew, technology was no longer accessible only to wealthy
school districts (Linn et al., 2016). By 2008, there was an average of one computer for every
3.1 public school students in the United States (NCES, 2014). Since then, increasing attention
was seen in educational settings in which online learning through Internet was used widely to
enhance science learning as reported by Ng and Nyunt (2010). To support science practices,
designers created powerful resources rather than adapting tools of scientists, and technology
moved from an accessory to an integral partner in science inquiry, enhancing teachers’ roles
and guiding students’ autonomous learning (Linn et al., 2016). Design-based research methods
led to exciting refinements of technologies for education (Linn et al., 2016). Today Internet
connectivity is a necessary school resource and reflects the quality of educational resources
provided in school (Tan, 2018).
Internet connection is also a vital measure of home resources that help to create a conducive
environment of learning for children (Visser et al., 2015; Gelmez-Burakgazi & Yildirim, 2014).
A study among 735 Turkish parents revealed that most children did not have basic science
materials at home (Cobanuglu & Yurttas-Kumlu, 2020). Parental support for children’s science
learning was examined across three different grade levels including preschool, elementary
school and middle school grades in Cobanuglu and Yurttas-Kumlu (2020)(b. Results indicate
varying levels of parental support and science materials that can support children’s science
learning in their home environment. More than half of the middle school children (51.8%)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
430 had access to science-related computer applications at home unlike preschool (36.5%) and
elementary school (41.3%) children (Cobanuglu & Yurttas-Kumlu, 2020).
In a survey by Sullivan et al. (2013) Australian school principals reported that the
mean number of computers available to 15-year-old students within year 10, across school
communities, closely matched the mean number of students within that range. Data also
indicates that almost all school computers have Internet access (Sullivan et al., 2013). The
analysis includes 353 schools across eight community types that range in size of less than 1,000
people in small country towns to more than 18 million people in large capital cities. Principals
reported varying levels of resources including qualified teaching staff, teaching materials and
equipment across various geographical locations and these variances were also reflected in
students’ academic performance (Sullivan et al., 2013).
Weekly Time Student Spend on Assigned Science Homework
The relationship between academic results and homework time is negative at the
individual level but positive at school level (Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017). An increase in
the amount of homework a school assigns is associated with an increase in the differences in
student time spent on homework. In Fernández-Alonso et al. (2017) data indicates that in year 8
of compulsory education, 60–70 min of homework a day is the optimum amount of homework
proposed which schools should assign to maximize gains in achievement. Assigning large
volumes of homework increases inequality between students in pursuit of minimal gains in
achievement for those who least need it (Fernández-Alonso et al., 2017). Assigning an excessive
volume of homework at school levels which offer compulsory education could accentuate
differences, affecting students who are slower, have more gaps in their knowledge, or are less
privileged, and can make them feel overwhelmed by the amount of homework assigned to them
(Suárez et al., 2016).
Teaching Limited by Student Needs
Students value the fact that teachers should be alert to their needs, such as being
sensitive to students’ reactions and preparing additional learning materials (Halim et al., 2014).
Students of different achieving abilities would be able to indicate the components of teachers’
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) needed according to their needs. Halim et al. (2014)
suggests that teachers need to think about students’ difficulties and focus on teaching strategies
that enable the students to comprehend the content of science through various modes of concept
representational. A student’s culture, traditions, practice and native language is his primal need
and utility (Tan, 2018). When learning is facilitated with these needs and utilities, the students’
attitude may improve while preserving his culture and native language as has been researched
by Ng and Ng (2006) on factors contributing to science learning using mother tongue language.
Thus, learning should be differentiated according to the learners’ needs (Morales, 2016).
In the study by Paufler and Amrein-Beardsley (2014), 1265 principals from Arizona
participated in an online survey to explore the decisions principals make when assigning
students into classrooms and principals' opinions about randomly assigning students into
classrooms. Despite advanced training and prior administrative experience, most principal
respondents noted that the assignment of students was not discussed during their professional or
administrative coursework. More than 60.0% of students enrolled in almost half (n = 161/367,
43.9%) of the schools represented by the participating principals were from racial or ethnic
minority backgrounds (Paufler & Amrein-Beardsley, 2014). Most respondents noted that during
the assignment process, placement decisions were made based on (i) students' special education
needs, (ii) academic achievement or abilities, (iii) gender, and (iv) giftedness, in that order.
Principals purported that interactions among students, whether positive or negative, significantly
impacted the learning environment in classrooms (Paufler & Amrein-Beardsley, 2014). Results

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
indicate that principals expected to match students’ needs with teacher characteristics such as 431
teaching style, personality and other pedagogical strengths to improve students’ achievement
(Paufler & Amrein-Beardsley, 2014).
Frequency of Student Absences
Trinidad (2020) found that in terms of school climate deficits, attendance problems were
a concern of public and low-SES schools. The attendance problem was more of a problem in
urban schools compared to rural schools (Trinidad, 2020). Urban schools also encounter more
student discipline problems as compared to rural schools. The study was carried out using 2018
Philippine PISA data (n = 7233). More than 40 percent of Philippine schools have problems
with student absenteeism to some extent and this could be more strategically addressed in a
climate where students know what are expected of them and discipline is applied consistently
and appropriately (Trinidad, 2020). According to Andrew and Hauser (2011), there are no
adequate tests to prove that students’ educational expectations are influenced by their academic
achievement and weak evidence of students’ educational expectations as static mental drives.
Family endowments, and social contexts and influences are more important foundational
sources of students' expectations (Andrew & Hauser, 2011).
Research Aim and Objectives
This study aimed to explore the correlations of science classroom teaching with South-
east Asian and East Asian eighth graders' science achievement in TIMSS 2015. The study em-
barked on the following objectives:
i) To identify the correlates of science classroom teachings with Grade 8 students' science
achievement in TIMSS among Southeast Asian and East Asian countries:
● time spent on science teaching;
● percentage of students taught the TIMSS science topics;
● teacher emphasize science experiment
● resources for conducting science experiments;
● computer activities during science lessons;
● students use of Internet for schoolwork;
● weekly time student spend on assigned science homework;
● teaching limited by student needs;
● frequency of student absences.
ii) To make policy recommendations to the Ministry of Education to boost Malaysian Grade
8 students' science performance in the forthcoming TIMSS assessments.
General Background
Data for the study were drawn from the TIMSS 2015 database (http://timssandpirls.
bc.edu/timss2015/international-database/). TIMSS employs a two-stage stratified sampling ap-
proach. First, schools were selected based on the probability proportional to the school’s size.
The classrooms within the selected schools are randomly chosen afterward. Due to the TIMSS
sampling scheme, the surveyed samples can represent the whole population in the participating
countries. More information regarding data and sampling procedures of TIMSS can be found in
the technical reports by Martin et al. (2016b).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
432 Science Achievement
The science achievement scale of TIMSS 2015 was focused on science subjects like
information (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Earth Science) and cognitive (Knowing, Implement-
ing, Reasoning) domains. To report student results, TIMSS uses a synthetic data approach,
which requires plausible values. Realistic values are natural factors from either the set of rat-
ings, consists of a process proposed by Mislevy and Sheehan (1987, 1989) and based on Rubin's
principle of imputation (1987) (i.e., random draws from the marginal posterior of the latent dis-
tribution used as a measure of science achievement). A plug-in for SPSS, the IEA International
Database (IDB) Analyzer for TIMSS, had been used to aggregate the five plausible values and
to generate their weighted average and to address standard errors.
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, the total instructional hours per year
and hours per year for science instruction were calculated based on the information provided by
school principals and teachers.
Percentages of Students Taught the TIMSS Science Topics
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, percentages of students taught the
TIMSS science topics (seven Biology topics, six Chemistry topics, five Physics topics, and four
Earth Science topics) were calculated based on teachers’ reports.
Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, students were scored according to their
teachers’ responses to how often they used each of eight instructional activities (BTBS18B,
BTBS18C, BTBS18D, BTBS18E, BTBS18F, BTBS18G, BTBS18H, BTBS18L) on the Em-
phasis Science Investigation scale. Students with teachers who emphasized science investi-
gation in “About Half the Lessons or More” had a score on the scale of at least 11.3, which
corresponds to their teachers using all eight activities in “about half the lessons” on average. All
other students had teachers who emphasized science investigation in “Less than Half the Les-
sons”. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficients for the Emphasize Science Investigation scale were
reliably high [Malaysia, .871; Singapore, .850; Thailand, .885; Japan, .802; Korea, .893; Hong
Kong SAR, .841; Chinese Taipei, .883].
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, students were categorized according
to their principals’ responses concerning availability of resources for conducting science
experiments: “Schools Have a Science Laboratory” and “Teachers Have Assistance Available
when Students are Conducting Experiments”.
Computer Activities During Science Lessons
to their teachers’ responses concerning computer activities during science lessons: “To Practice
Skills and Procedures”, “To Look Up Ideas and Information”, “To Do Scientific Procedures
or Experiments”, “To Study Natural Phenomena Through Simulations”, or “To Process and
Analyze Data”.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Student Use of Internet for Schoolwork 433
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, students were categorized according to
their use of Internet for schoolwork: “Access the Textbook or Other Course Materials”, “Access
Assignments Posted Online by the Teacher”, “Collaborate with Classmates on Assignments or
Projects”, “Communicate with the Teacher”, or “Find Information, Articles, or Tutorials to Aid
in Understanding Science”.
to their weekly time spend on assigned science homework: “3 Hours or More”, “More than 45
Minutes but Less than 3 Hours”, or “45 Minutes or Less”.
In TIMSS 2015 eighth grade science assessment, students were scored according to their
teachers’ responses concerning six needs on the Teaching Limited by Student Needs scale (BT-
BG15A, BTBG15B, BTBG15C, BTBG15D, BTBG15E, BTBG15G) Students with teachers
who felt “Not Limited” by student needs had a score on the scale of at least 11.4, which cor-
responds to their teachers feeling “not at all” limited by three of the six needs and to “some”
extent limited by the other three needs, on average. Students with teachers who felt “Very
Limited” by student needs had a score no higher than 7.4, which corresponds to their teachers
reporting feeling limited “a lot” by three of the six needs and to “some” extent limited by the
other three needs, on average. All other students had teachers who felt “Somewhat Limited” by
student needs. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficients for the Emphasize Science Investigation scale
were reliably high [Malaysia, .720; Singapore, .732; Thailand, .733; Japan, .716; Korea, .799;
Hong Kong SAR, .686; Chinese Taipei, .760].
Frequency of Student Absences
to their frequency of absences: “Never or Almost Never”, “Once a Month”, “Once Every Two
Weeks”, or “Once a Week or More”.
Research Results
Part 1: Analysis of Data in Response to Research Objective 1
(a) Time Spent of Science Teaching
Table 2 summarizes the time spent on science teaching as reported by the school
principals in Southeast Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. Based on
the analysis, Thailand has the highest total teaching hours per year (1,209.38), followed by
Malaysia (1,172.19), Chinese Taipei (1,132.33), and Singapore (1,065.02). In terms of the
number of hours (per year) for science teaching, Chinese Taipei has allocated 213.37 hours per
year (18.84%) for science teaching. This is followed by Japan (18.61%) and Hong Kong SAR
(17.13%). However, Malaysia has only allocated 193.25 hours (16.49%) for science teaching.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
434 Table 2
Total teaching hours Hours per year for science Percentage

Country
per year teaching (%)
Malaysia 1,172.19 (15.64) 193.25 (5.62) 16.49

Singapore 1,065.02 (0.00) 171.82 (2.20) 16.13
Thailand 1,209.38 (6.84) 163.89 (2.56) 13.55
Japan 1,036.18 (6.05) 192.79 (2.19) 18.61
Korea 946.60 (6.00) 147.05 (3.33) 15.53
Hong Kong, SAR 995.31 (11.74) 170.47 (4.19) 17.13
Chinese Taipei 1,132.33 (9.70) 213.37 (3.07)) 18.84
International Average 1,021 (2.1) 144 (0.7)
Note. Reported by principals; standard errors appear in parentheses.
(b) Percentages of Students Taught the TIMSS Science Topics
Table 3 illustrates the percent of students taught the TIMSS science topics as reported by
the teachers in Southeast Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. Thailand has the
highest percentage of students taught the TIMSS science topics (73%), followed by Singapore
(68%), and Chinese Taipei (67%). Chinese Taipei has the highest percentage of students taught
the Biology and Chemistry topics (89%, respectively). This is followed by Singapore (69%)
and Thailand (67%) for Biology as well as Thailand (85%) and Singapore (78%) for Chemistry,
respectively. Singapore has the highest (85) percentage of students taught the TIMSS Physic
topics (85%), followed by Korea (76%), Japan (73%) as well as Malaysia and Hong Kong SAR
with 72%, respectively. Earth Science topics was given the most emphasis by Thailand with
72% of the Thai students have been taught the Earth Science topics, followed by Korea (64%),
and Japan (40%). However, there is only 5% of Taiwanese students taught the TIMSS Earth
Science topics.
Table 3
Students Taught the TIMSS Science Topics
Percent of students taught the TIMSS science topics

Country
All science Biology Chemistry Physics Earth science
(22 topics) (7 topics) (6 topics) (5 topics) (4 topics)
Malaysia 61 (1.5) 64 (1.6) 64 (1.8) 72 (1.7) 37 (2.6)
Singapore 68 (0.9) 69 (1.4) 78 (1.3) 85 (1.0) 28 (2.1)
Thailand 73 (1.1) 67 (2.0) 85 (1.5) 69 (1.5) 72 (1.6)
Japan 60 (0.8) 56 (1.2) 67 (1.1) 73 (1.4) 40 (1.7)
Korea 60 (1.0) 49 (1.6) 59 (1.4) 76 (1.1) 64 (1.5)
Hong Kong,
55 (1.3) 64 (2.2) 46 (1.9) 72 (1.6) 34 (3.1)
SAR
Chinese Taipei 67 (1.0) 89 (2.6) 89 (0.7) 61 (1.1) 5 (1.5)

Intern. Avg 73 (0.2) 73 (0.2) 76 (0.2) 72 (0.3) 68 (0.3)
Note. Reported by teachers; standard errors appear in parentheses.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
(c) Teachers Emphasize Science Experiment 435
Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics (weighted) with average scale scores for Southeast
Asian teachers emphasizing science investigation as reported by science teachers.
Generally, Malaysia has the highest average scale score of 10.38, followed by Thailand
(10.12), and Singapore (9.00) in emphasizing science investigation. Malaysia has the highest
mean scores for ‘observe natural phenomena and describe what they see’ (M = 3.16), ‘conduct
experiment or investigation’ (M = 2.92), ‘use evidence from experiments or investigations’
(M = 2.91), ‘interpret data from experiments or investigations’ (M = 2.79), and ‘watch me
demonstrate an experiment or investigation’ (M = 2.66).
Thailand has the highest mean scores for ‘present data from experiments or investigations’
(M = 2.80), ‘design or plan experiments or investigations’ (M = 2.73) and ‘do field work outside
the class’ (M = 2.32).
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics (Weighted) with Average Scale Scores for Southeast Asian Teachers
Emphasizing Science Investigation (Teachers’ Reports)
Southeast Asian countries

Statement
Statement Malaysia Singapore Thailand
code
M SD M SD M SD
Teachers emphasize science investigation (teachers’ reports)
Observe natural phenomena and describe what
BTBS18B 3.16 0.75 2.62 0.71 2.79 0.68
they see
Watch me demonstrate an experiment or
BTBS18C 2.66 0.80 2.47 0.64 2.48 0.70
investigation
BTBS18D Design or plan experiments or investigations 2.61 0.78 1.93 0.69 2.73 0.73
BTBS18E Conduct experiments or investigations 2.92 0.73 2.37 0.58 2.82 0.72
BTBS18F Present data from experiments or investigations 2.74 0.72 2.16 0.62 2.80 0.72
BTBS18G Interpret data from experiments or investigations 2.79 0.69 2.27 0.63 2.77 0.72
Use evidence from experiments or investigations to
BTBS18H 2.91 0.74 2.47 0.72 2.84 0.75
support conclusions
BTBS18L Do field work outside the class 2.06 0.76 1.48 0.59 2.32 0.65
Average scale score 10.38 (0.16) 9.00 (0.09) 10.12 (0.16)
Note. 1 = Never, 4 = Every or Almost Every Lesson; standard errors appear in parentheses.
Table 5 shows the descriptive statistics (weighted) with average scale scores for East
Asian teachers emphasizing science investigation as reported by science teachers.
Generally, Hong Kong SAR has the highest average scale score of 10.13, followed by
Japan (9.88), Korea (9.35), and Chinese Taipei (8.93) in emphasizing science investigation.
Hong Kong SAR has the highest mean scores for ‘conduct experiments or investigations’
(M = 3.07), ‘use evidence from experiments or investigations’ (M = 2.82), ‘interpret data from
experiments or investigations’ (M = 2.75), ‘observe natural phenomena and describe what they
see’ (M = 2.73), ‘watch me demonstrate an experiment or investigation’ (M = 2.62), and ‘design
or plan experiments or investigations’ (M = 2.28).
On the other hand, Japan has the highest mean scores for ‘observe natural phenomena
and describe what they see’ (M = 2.73), and ‘present data from experiments or investigations’
(M = 2.68). Korea has the highest mean score for ‘do field work outside the class’ (M =
1.74), whereas Chinese Taipei has the highest mean score for ‘design or plan experiments or
investigations’ (M = 2.28).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
436 Table 5
Descriptive Statistics (Weighted) with Average Scale Scores for East Asian Teachers
Emphasizing Science Investigation (Teachers’ Reports)
East Asian countries

Statement Hong Kong, Chinese
Statement Japan Korea
code SAR Taipei
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Teachers emphasize science investigation (teachers’ reports)
Observe natural phenomena and
BTBS18B 2.73 0.70 2.44 0.80 2.73 0.73 2.67 0.78
describe what they see
Watch me demonstrate an experiment
BTBS18C 2.46 0.68 2.54 0.66 2.62 0.65 2.43 0.66
or investigation
Design or plan experiments or
BTBS18D 2.10 0.63 2.22 0.73 2.28 0.74 2.28 0.71
investigations
BTBS18E Conduct experiments or investigations 2.91 0.69 2.35 0.67 3.07 0.74 2.30 0.57
Present data from experiments or
BTBS18F 2.68 0.69 2.49 0.70 2.65 0.77 2.23 0.59
investigations
Interpret data from experiments or
BTBS18G 2.72 0.68 2.59 0.75 2.75 0.74 2.36 0.65
investigations
Use evidence from experiments or
BTBS18H 2.69 0.72 2.65 0.80 2.82 0.75 2.41 0.64
investigations to support conclusions
BTBS18L Do field work outside the class 1.50 0.58 1.74 0.75 1.63 0.61 1.59 0.65
Average scale score 9.88 (0.13) 9.35 (0.15) 10.13 (0.13) 8.93 (0.14)
Note. 1 = Never, 4 = Every or Almost Every Lesson; standard errors appear in parentheses.
Table 6 shows the emphasis on science investigation reported by teachers. Malaysia

has the highest average scale score of 10.38 followed by Hong Kong SAR (10.13), Thailand
(10.12), Japan (9.88), Korea (9.35), Singapore (9.00), and Chinese Taipei (8.93).
Ironically, Singapore has the lowest percentage of students (7.65) in which teachers em-
phasize science investigation about half the lesson or more, with the highest average achieve-
ment of 617.24. However, Singapore has the highest percentage of students (92.35) in which
teachers emphasize science investigation less than half the lesson, with the highest average
achievement 594.94.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 6 437
Teachers Emphasize Science Investigation (Teachers’ Reports)
About half the lesson or more Less than half the lesson
Average
Country Percent of Average Percent of
Average achievement scale score
students achievement Students
30.05 477.63 69.95 464.94
Malaysia 10.38 (0.16)
(3.44) (8.93) (3.44) (5.72)
7.65 617.24 92.35 594.94
Singapore 9.00 (0.09)
(1.55) (15.13) (1.55) (3.45)
30.95 469.10 69.05 449.91
Thailand 10.12 (0.16)
(4.00) (8.89) (4.00) (5.15)
17.85 567.38 82.15 571.78
Japan 9.88 (0.13)
(3.24) (3.71) (3.24) (2.00)
15.95 555.35 84.05 555.64
Korea 9.35 (0.15)
(2.67) (3.31) (2.67) (2.45)
Hong Kong, 24.89 565.12 75.11 538.87
10.13 (0.13)
SAR (3.56) (6.58) (3.56) (5.00)
Chinese 11.13 580.60 88.87 568.08
8.93 (0.14)
Taipei (2.55) (6.26) (2.55) (2.31)
Intern. Avg. 27 (0.5) 490 (1.3) 7.3 (0.5) 485 (0.7)
(d) Resources for Conducting Science Experiments
Table 7 illustrates the resources for conducting science experiments as reported by

principals in Southeast Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. Singapore and
Hong Kong SAR (with average science achievement of 596.98 and 544.81, respectively) both
reported 100% of students attended schools with science laboratories. This is followed by
Japan (99.43%) and Korea (99.14%) with average science achievement of 571.04 and 555.68,
respectively.
Table 7
Schools have a science laboratory

Yes No
Country
Percent of Percent of
Average achievement Average achievement
students students
Malaysia 98.70 (0.86) 471.32 (4.21) 1.30 (0.86) 432.63 (19.58)
Singapore 100.00 (0.00) 596.98 (3.18) ~ ~
Thailand 92.75 (1.91) 456.90 (4.42) 7.25 (1.91) 442.31 (11.03)
Japan 99.43 (0.57) 571.04 (1,81) .57 (0.57) 546.88 (4.57)
Korea 99.14 (0.70) 555.68 (2.24) .86 (0.70) 546.17 (12.11)
Hong Kong, SAR 100.00 (0.00) 544.81 (4.16) ~ ~
Chinese Taipei 97.62 (1.03) 570.81 (2.09) 2.38 (1.03) 514.60 (27.35)
Intern. Avg. 85 (0.4) 489 (0.7) 15 (0.4) 450 (2.0)
Note. Reported by principals; standard errors appear in parentheses; ~ insufficient data to report achievement.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
438 The analysis results in Table 8 reveals that Hong Kong SAR (98.37%) and Singapore
(98.22%) have the highest percentage of students whose teachers have assistance available
when students are conducting experiments. Eighth grade students’ average science achievement
were reported as 544.42 and 597.36, respectively. It is noteworthy that 62.48% and 50.54% of
the Japanese and Korean eighth grade students whose teachers have no assistance available
when students are conducting experiments, however, students’ average science achievement
were relatively high at 565.82 and 55.145, respectively.
Table 8
Teachers have assistance available when students are conducting experiments

Country Yes No
Percent of students Average achievement Percent of students Average achievement
Malaysia 88.78 (2.88) 472.19 (4.39) 11.22 (2.88) 459.99 (14.17)
Singapore 98.22 (0.00) 597.36 (3.24) 1.78 (0.00) 575.72 (21.27)
Thailand 21.92 (3.27) 471.78 (10.77) 78.08 (3.27) 451.37 (4.61)
Japan 37.52 (3.94) 579.44 (3.96) 62.48 (3.94) 565.82 (2.34)
Korea 49.46 (3.76) 559.83 (2.92) 50.54 (3.76) 551.45 (3.14)
Hong Kong, SAR 98.37 (1.17) 544.42 (4.18) 1.63 (1.17) 543.37 (11.13)
Chinese Taipei 88.25 (2.32) 571.67 (2.40) 11.75 (2.32) 553.61 (9.50)
Intern. Avg. 58 (0.5) 489 (1.1) 42 (.5) 481 (1.5)
(e) Computer Activities during Science Lessons
Table 9 summarizes the availability of computer for students to use in science lessons as
reported by principals in the Southeast and East Asian TIMSS participating counties. As shown
in Table 9, Japan (55.45%) and Singapore (51.83%) have the highest percentage of students with
computer availability in science lessons. Eighth grade students’ average science achievement
were reported as 571.37 and 592.04, respectively. On the contrary, Malaysia (90.39%) has the
highest percentage of students who responded ‘No’ on the availability of computer for them to
use during science lessons with an average science achievement of 466.70.
Table 9
Computer Activities during Science Lessons
Country Computer available for students to use in science lessons

Yes No
Percent of students Average achievement Percent of students Average achievement
Malaysia 9.61 (1.80) 493.48 (8.74) 90.39 (1.80) 466.70 (4.85)
Singapore 51.83 (2.32) 592.04 (4.94) 48.17 (2.32) 601.59 (4.40)
Thailand 49.03 (4.12) 467.51 (6.36) 50.97 (4.12) 444.63 (5.82)
Japan 55.45 (4.16) 571.37 (2.95) 44.55 (4.16) 570.35 (3.23)
Korea 50.39 (3.92) 553.97 (3.26) 49.61 (3.92) 557.25 (2.71)
Hong Kong, SAR 21.27 (3.61) 554.97 (8.88) 78.73 (3.61) 541.93 (4.64)
Chinese Taipei 44.21 (3.75) 573.86 (4.09) 55.79 (3.75) 566.00 (2.83)
Intern. Avg. 42 (0.5) 493 (1.0) 483 (0.8)

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
In terms of the computer activities during science lessons, Thailand has the highest 439
percentage of students whose teachers have them use computers at least monthly ‘to practice
skills and procedures’ (40%), ‘to look up for ideas and information’ (47%), ‘to do scientific
procedures and experiments’ (42%), ‘to study natural phenomena through simulations’ (45%),
and ‘to process and analyze data’ (40%). This is followed by Singapore: ‘to practice skills and
procedures’ (31%), ‘to look up for ideas and information’ (41%), ‘to do scientific procedures and
experiments’ (27%), ‘to study natural phenomena through simulations’ (34%), and ‘to process
and analyze data’ (27%). On the contrary, Malaysia has the lowest percentage of students whose
teachers have them use computers at least monthly ‘to practice skills and procedures’ (5%), ‘to
look up for ideas and information’ (9%), ‘to do scientific procedures and experiments’ (3%), ‘to
study natural phenomena through simulations’ (7%), and ‘to process and analyze data’ (4%).
Table 10
Computer Activities during Science Lessons
Percent of students whose teachers have them use computers

at least monthly
Country To do scientific To study natural
To practice skills To look up ideas To process and
procedures or phenomena through
and procedures and information analyze data
experiments simulations
Malaysia 5 (1.3) 9 (1.8) 3 (0.9) 7 (1.4) 4 (1.2)
Singapore 31 (2.2) 41 (2.2) 27 (1.8) 34 (2.2) 27 (1.9)
Thailand 40 (4.2) 47 (4.2) 42 (4.0) 45 (4.3) 40 (4.3)
Japan 8 (2.1) 19 (3.2) 11 (2.4) 18 (3.1) 12 (2.2)
Korea 25 (3.2) 30 (3.4) 28 (3.5) 28 (3.3) 26 (3.2)
Hong Kong,
12 (2.9) 17 (3.4) 12 (3.1) 15 (3.1) 14 (2.8)
SAR
Chinese
17 (2.7) 23 (3.0) 26 (3.4) 19 (2.8) 19 (2.6)
Taipei
Intern. Avg. 30 (0.5) 37 (0.5) 28 (0.5) 29 (0.5) 29 (0.5)
(f) Student Use of Internet for Schoolwork
Table 11 shows the student use of Internet for schoolwork as reported by the eighth-
grade students in Southeast Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. The analysis
of revealed that Thailand has the highest percentage of students who use Internet to ‘access the
textbooks or other course materials’ (81.05%), ‘collaborate with classmates on assignments
or projects’ (88.21%), and ‘find information, articles, or tutorials to aid in understanding
science’ (75.51%). Singapore has the highest percentage of students who use Internet to ‘access
assignments posted online by the teacher’ (90.10%) and ‘communicate with the teacher’
(49.37%). Unexpectedly, Japan has the lowest percentage of students who use Internet to
‘access the textbooks or other course materials’ (22.50%), ‘access assignments posted online
by the teacher’ (15.86%), ‘collaborate with classmates on assignments or projects’ (28.45%),
‘communicate with the teacher’ (5.14%), and ‘find information, articles, or tutorials to aid in
understanding science’ (32.06%).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
440 Table 11
Student Use of Internet for Schoolwork
Percent of students who use Internet to do the following tasks
Access the Access Collaborate with Find information,

Country textbooks or assignments classmates on Communicate articles, or tutorials to
other course posted online by assignments or with the teacher aid in understanding
materials the teacher projects science
60.00 27.31 79.61 45.20 72.51

Malaysia
(1.14) (1.06) (0.98) (1.21) (1.21)
56.67 90.10 84.36 49.37 71.39

Singapore
(0.72) (0.52) (0.66) (0.64) (0.73)
81.05 56.12 88.21 46.50 75.51

Thailand
(0.95) (1.66) (0.72) (1.47) (0.92)
22.50 15.86 28.45 5.14 32.06

Japan
(0.84) (0.88) (0.99) (0.46) (0.84)
50.77 43.40 68.55 12.82 49.20

Korea
(1.02) (1.26) (1.07) (0.67) (0.93)
Hong Kong, 51.00 63.54 76.43 32.82 64.65

SAR (1.32) (1.88) (1.31) (1.19) (1.12)
Chinese 73.65 49.77 71.67 28.34 45.80

Taipei (0.87) (1.14) (0.99) (1.00) (0.84)
Intern. Avg. 56 (0.2) 53 (0.2) 69 (0.2) 36 (0.2) 61 (0.2)
Note. Reported by students; standard errors appear in parentheses.
(g) Weekly Time Student Spend on Assigned Science Homework
Table 12 summarizes the weekly time spent by students on assigned science homework.
As illustrated in Table 12, Thailand (11.40%) and Malaysia (11.28%) have the highest percentage
of students who spent three hours or more on assigned science homework with average science
achievement of 462.80 and 468.20, respectively. 51.97% of the Singaporean students spent
more than 45 minutes but less than 3 hours on assigned science homework with an average
science achievement of 609.32. This is followed by Thailand (48.08%) and Malaysia (47.18%).
On the contrary, East Asian eighth grade students spent less weekly time on assigned science
homework. For instance, 91.26% of the Korean students and 84.21% of the Japanese students
spent 45 minutes or less on assigned science homework with average science achievement of
556.84 and 576.36, respectively.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 12 441
More than 45 minutes but less

3 hours or more 45 minutes or less
than 3 hours
Country
Percent of Average Percent of Average Percent of Average
students achievement students achievement students achievement
11.28 468.20 47.18 486.42 41.54 463.37
Malaysia
(0.55) (4.85) (0.95) (3.70) (0.99) (5.37)
9.35 606.39 51.97 609.32 38.69 578.82
Singapore
(0.51) (3.80) (0.91) (2.60) (1.17) (4.86)
11.40 462.80 48.08 464.70 40.52 445.89
Thailand
(0.77) (5.82) (1.04) (4.31) (1.22) (4.85)
1.03 538.80 14.77 560.50 84.21 576.36
Japan
(0.14) (11.92) (1.41) (3.93) (1.45) (1.97)
0.89 521.32 7.85 546.44 91.26 556.84
Korea
(0.16) (13.32) (0.71) (5.42) (0.79) (2.31)
Hong Kong, 3.76 533.10 33.95 549.10 62.29 545.57
SAR (0.40) (7.36) (1.29) (3.44) (1.43) (4.63)
Chinese 6.06 582.14 36.38 584.46 57.55 559.36
Taipei (0.49) (6.17) (1.17) (2.81) (1.36) (2.23)
Intern. Avg. 5 (0.1) 466 (1.5) 28 (0.2) 491 (0.9) 67 (0.2) 485 (0.7)
(h) Teaching Limited by Student Needs
Table 13 summarizes science teaching limited by student needs as reported by teachers

in the Southeast Asian TIMSS participating countries. As shown in Table 13, Singapore has the
highest average scale scores (10.99) for teaching limited by student needs. This is followed by
Thailand (10.01) and Malaysia (9.77). Malaysian teachers’ teachings were limited by ‘students
lacking prerequisite knowledge and skills’ (M = 1.69), ‘uninterested students’ (M = 1.92),
‘disruptive students’ (M = 1.98), and ‘students suffering from lack of basic nutrition’ (M =
2.61). Thai teachers’ teachings were limited by ‘students suffering from not enough sleep’ (M =
2.20) and ‘students with mental, emotional, or psychological disabilities’ (M = 2.42).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
442 Table 13
Descriptive Statistics (Weighted) with Average Scale Scores for Teaching Limited by Student
Needs in Southeast Asian Countries (Teachers’ Reports)
Southeast Asian countries

Statement Statement Malaysia Singapore Thailand
code
M SD M SD M SD
Teaching limited by student needs (teachers’ reports)
In your view, to what extent do the following limit how you teach this class?
BTBG15A Students lacking prerequisite knowledge or skills 1.69 0.60 2.13 0.53 1.84 0.47
BTBG15B Students suffering from lack of basic nutrition 2.61 0.54 2.85 0.36 2.64 0.51
BTBG15C Students suffering from not enough sleep 2.24 0.64 2.28 0.59 2.20 0.54
BTBG15D Discruptive students 1.98 0.61 2.17 0.58 2.11 0.56
BTBG15E Uninterested students 1.92 0.61 2.12 0.51 1.93 0.48
BTBG15G Students with mental, emotional, or psychological 2.79 0.46 2.57 0.52 2.42 0.56
disabilities
Average scale score 9.77 (0.11) 10.99 (0.09) 10.01 (0.12)
Note. 1 = A lot, 3 = Not at all [higher average scale score indicates teaching not limited by student needs];
standard errors appear in parentheses.
Table 14 illustrates science teaching limited by student needs as reported by teachers

in East Asian countries. As illustrated in Table 14, Japan has the highest average scale scores
(12.50) for teaching limited by student needs. This is followed by Hong Kong SAR (10.58),
Chinese Taipei (9.95), and Korea (9.78). Korean teachers’ teachings were limited by ‘disruptive
students’ (M = 1.73), ‘uninterested students’ (M = 1.82), and ‘students with mental, emotional, or
psychological disabilities’ (M = 2.20). Taiwanese teachers’ teachings were limited by ‘students
lacking prerequisite knowledge and skills’ (M = 1.89) and ‘students suffering from lack of basic
nutrition’ (M = 2.58). Teachers’ teachings were limited by ‘students suffering from not enough
sleep’ (M = 2.01) in Hong Kong SAR.
Table 14
Descriptive Statistics (Weighted) with Average Scale Scores for Teaching Limited by Student
Needs in East Asian Countries (Teachers’ Reports)
East Asian countries

Statement Statement Japan Korea Hong Kong, SAR Chinese Taipei
code
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Teaching limited by student needs (teachers’ reports)
In your view, to what extent do the following limit how you teach this class?
BTBG15A Students lacking prerequisite knowledge 2.26 0.63 2.14 0.63 1.99 0.56 1.89 0.62
or skills
BTBG15B Students suffering from lack of basic 2.99 0.11 2.68 0.51 2.79 0.47 2.58 0.58
nutrition
BTBG15C Students suffering from not enough sleep 2.52 0.51 2.04 0.57 2.01 0.60 2.15 0.61
BTBG15D Discruptive students 2.76 0.44 1.73 0.66 2.34 0.58 2.14 0.73
BTBG15E Uninterested students 2.42 0.55 1.82 0.59 2.07 0.46 1.83 0.63
BTBG15G Students with mental, emotional, or 2.78 0.43 2.20 0.68 2.47 0.59 2.54 0.64
psychological disabilities
Average scale score 12.50 (0.15) 9.78 (0.17) 10.58 (0.17) 9.95 (0.15)
Note. 1 = A lot, 3 = Not at all [higher average scale score indicates teaching not limited by student needs];
standard errors appear in parentheses.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 15 illustrates science teaching limited by student needs as reported by teachers in 443
Southeast Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. As shown in Table 15, Japan
(76.09%) has the highest percentage of students whose teachers’ teaching were not limited by
student needs with an average science achievement of 575.07. This is followed by Singapore
(44.41%) and Hong Kong SAR (38.28%) with average science achievement of 628.95 and
564.94, respectively. On the contrary, Korea (13.52%) has the highest percentage of students
whose teachers’ teaching were limited by student needs with an average science achievement
of 548.22. This is followed by Chinese Taipei (10.17%) and Malaysia (7.54%) with average
science achievement of 547.03 and 414.34, respectively.
Table 15
Not limited Somewhat limited Very limited Avg.

Country Percent of Average Percent of Average Percent of Average scale
students achievement students achievement students achievement score
20.10 521.51 72.37 459.76 7.54 414.34 9.77
Malaysia
(2.57) (7.05) (2.97) (5.50) (2.08) (21.64) (0.11)
44.41 628.95 54.61 572.24 0.98 504.07 10.99
Singapore
(2.65) (4.07) (2.64) (5.78) (0.50) (48.25) (0.09)
20.86 484.93 73.70 449.99 5.44 423.62 10.01
Thailand
(3.08) (7.96) (2.89) (5.05) (1.79) (16.99) (0.12)
76.09 575.07 23.91 558.04 0 12.50
Japan ~
(3.40) (2.09) (3.40) (2.98) (0.00) (0.15)
22.13 560.55 64.35 555.28 13.52 548.22 9.78
Korea
(3.62) (5.22) (3.72) (2.51) (2.53) (4.00) (0.17)
Hong Kong, 38.28 564.94 57.63 533.15 4.10 530.71 10.58
SAR (5.00) (5.46) (4.93) (5.28) (1.73) (31.35) (0.17)
Chinese 29.60 592.80 60.23 561.80 10.17 547.03 9.95
Taipei (3.45) (4.73) (3.83) (2.73) (2.32) (7.28) (0.15)
Intern. Avg. 28 (0.5) 511 (1.4) 62 (0.5) 480 (0.7) 10 (0.3) 454 (2.2)
Note. Reported by teachers; standard errors appear in parentheses; ~ insufficient data to report achievement.
(i) Frequency of Student Absences
Table 16 summarizes frequency of student absences as reported by students in Southeast

Asian and East Asian TIMSS participating countries. As shown in Table 6, Malaysia (17.54)
has the highest percentage of students who absent once a week or more with an average
science achievement of 420.04. This is followed by Thailand (9.07%) with an average science
achievement of 394.85.
Malaysia also shows the highest percentage of students who absent once every two
weeks (11.40%) and once a month (26.46%) with average science achievement of 445.22 and
473.50, respectively. This is followed by Thailand (6.32% and 13.46%) with average science
achievement of 420.69 and 435.90, respectively. On the contrary, East Asian countries show
lesser frequency of student absences. Korea (96.36%) and Japan (87.19%) have the highest
percentage of students who have never or almost never absent with average science achievement
of 558.35 and 575.36, respectively.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
444 Table 16
Frequency of Student Absences – Students’ Reports
Once a week or more Once every two weeks Once a month Never or almost never
Country Percent
Percent of Average Percent of Average Average Percent of Average
of
students achievement students achievement achievement students achievement
students
17.54 420.04 11.40 445.22 26.46 473.50 44.59 497.76
Malaysia
(0.79) (5.56) (0.56) (6.30) (0.64) (4.77) (1.24) (4.00)
3.03 471.50 2.74 517.70 11.93 568.04 82.31 608.52
Singapore
(0.28) (10.00) (0.25) (8.90) (0.50) (5.31) (0.70) (2.75)
9.07 394.85 6.32 420.69 13.46 435.90 71.14 470.65
Thailand
(0.64) (5.31) (0.38) (6.12) (0.58) (5.10) (1.04) (4.39)
1.98 511.74 3.07 526.43 7.76 557.81 87.19 575.36
Japan
(0.21) (10.84) (0.32) (9.19) (0.48) (3.98) (0.60) (1.77)
.47 453.97 0.66 497.87 2.52 486.49 96.36 558.35
Korea
(0.11) (21.11) (0.13) (20.44) (0.24) (8.74) (0.32) (2.22)
Hong
1.71 450.42 2.36 513.11 9.26 538.40 86.68 549.54
Kong,
(0.28) (13.26) (0.30) (10.60) (0.50) (4.53) (0.80) (3.84)
SAR
Chinese 1.62 468.82 1.27 503.37 7.79 550.91 89.32 574.08
Taipei (0.19) (11.47) (0.17) (15.61) (0.45) (5.91) (0.55) (1.90)
Intern.
61 (0.2) 502 (0.6) 23 (0.1) 477 (0.7) 8 (0.1) 447(1.1) 8 (0.1) 407(1.3)
Avg.
Part 2: Interpretation of Data in Response to Research Objective 2
The followings are summaries of some key findings that may be considered for policy
recommendations to the Malaysian Ministry of Education to boost Grade 8 students’ science
performance in the forthcoming TIMSS assessments.:
i. Malaysia has the second highest total teaching hours per year (1,172.19). However,
in terms of the number of hours per year for science teaching, Malaysia has only
allocated 193.25 hours (16.49%) for science teaching as compared to TIMSS top
performing countries such as Chinese Taipei (18.84%), Japan (18.61%), and Hong
Kong SAR (17.13%). Hence, more hours should be allocated for science teaching
to ensure higher percentage of students taught the TIMSS science topics.

ii. TIMSS top performing countries such as Singapore and Chinese Taipei have higher
percentages of students taught all science topics, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics
as compared to Malaysia (61% for all science topics, 64% for Biology and Chem-
istry). Singapore has the second highest percentage of students taught all science
topics (68%), the second highest percentage for Biology (69%), third highest for
Chemistry (78%), and the highest percentage of students taught the TIMSS Physics
topics (85%). Chinese Taipei has the third highest percentage of students taught all
science topics, the highest percentage for Biology (89%), and Chemistry (89%).
Hence, a science curriculum revamp and/or integration of TIMSS science topics
should be considered to ensure higher percentage of Malaysian eighth grade stu-
dents taught the TIMSS science topics to better prepare them for the forthcoming
TIMSS assessments.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
iii. Generally, Malaysia has the highest average scale score of 10.38, followed by Hong 445
Kong SAR (10.13), Thailand (10.12), Japan (9.88), Korea (9.35), Singapore (9.00),
and Chinese Taipei (8.93) in emphasizing science investigation. Ironically, Singa-
pore has the lowest percentage of students (7.65) in which teachers emphasize sci-
ence investigation about half the lesson or more, with the highest average achieve-
ment of 617.24. Singapore also has the highest percentage of students (92.35) in
which teachers emphasize science investigation less than half the lesson, with the
highest average achievement 594.94. The emphasis of science investigation in Ma-
laysian secondary schools should not merely focus on basic/integrated scientific
skills but also needs to highlight open-ended contextual problem-solving activities
or problem-based learning that enhance higher order thinking skills.
iv. Malaysia has reported 98.70% of students attended schools with science laboratories
and 88.78% of students whose teachers have assistance available when students are
conducting experiments with average science achievement of 471.32 and 472.19,
respectively. In contrast, Singapore and Hong Kong SAR (with average science
achievement of 596.98 and 544.81, respectively) have reported 100% of students
attended schools with science laboratories. This is followed by Japan (99.43%)
and Korea (99.14%) with average science achievement of 571.04 and 555.68, re-
spectively. Hong Kong SAR (98.37%) and Singapore (98.22%) have the highest
percentage of students whose teachers have assistance available when students are
conducting experiments. Eighth grade students’ average science achievement were
reported as 544.42 and 597.36, respectively. Resources for conducting science ex-
periments (science laboratories and assistance available) should be equally and ade-
quately distributed to all Malaysian schools to enhance science learning.
v. Malaysia (90.39%) has the highest percentage of students who responded ‘No’ on
the availability of computer for them to use during science lessons with an average
science achievement of 466.70. On the contrary, Japan (55.45%) and Singapore
(51.83%) have the highest percentage of students with computer availability in
science lessons. Eighth grade students’ average science achievement were reported
as 571.37 and 592.04, respectively. The use of computers should be made available
in Malaysian secondary schools. Based on literatures, the importance of computers
in science learning is undeniable.
vi. Malaysia has the lowest percentage of students whose teachers have them use
computers at least monthly ‘to practice skills and procedures’ (5%), ‘to look up
for ideas and information’ (9%), ‘to do scientific procedures and experiments’
(3%), ‘to study natural phenomena through simulations’ (7%), and ‘to process and
analyze data’ (4%). On the contrary, Singapore has the second highest percentage
of students whose teachers have them use computers at least monthly ‘to practice
skills and procedures’ (31%), ‘to look up for ideas and information’ (41%), ‘to do
scientific procedures and experiments’ (27%), ‘to study natural phenomena through
simulations’ (34%), and ‘to process and analyze data’ (27%). The allocated time for
science teachings in Malaysian schools should encourage and integrate the use of
computer to further support science learning. However, this is only possible with
computer availability for science lessons.
vii. Singapore has the highest percentage of students who use Internet to ‘access
assignments posted online by the teacher’ (90.10%) and ‘communicate with the
teacher’ (49.37%) as compared to 27.31% and 45.20% for Malaysian eighth
grade students, respectively. Hence, the use of Internet for schoolwork should be
encouraged among Malaysian students especially for them to access assignments

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
446 posted online by their teachers and to communicate with their teachers. However,
this is only possible with a satisfying Internet connectivity and accessibility.
viii. Malaysia (11.28%) has the second highest percentage of students who spent three
hours or more on assigned science homework with an average science achievement
of 468.20. Ironically, on the contrary, East Asian countries eighth grade students spent
less weekly time on assigned science homework. 91.26% of the Korean students
and 84.21% of the Japanese students spent 45 minutes or less on assigned science
homework with average science achievement of 556.84 and 576.36, respectively.
Instead of assigning plenty of science homework to Malaysian students, perhaps,
the quality and type of science homework assigned to the students should be re-
examined as an effort to boost Malaysian students’ science achievement via science
homework.
ix. Malaysia has the lowest average scale scores (9.77) for teaching limited by student
needs as compared to Singapore, Japan, and Hong Kong SAR. Malaysian teachers’
teachings were limited by ‘students lacking prerequisite knowledge and skills’ (M
= 1.69), ‘uninterested students’ (M = 1.92), ‘disruptive students’ (M = 1.98), and
‘students suffering from lack of basic nutrition’ (M = 2.61). Malaysian science
teachers should be given training on psychology, communication and/or counselling
skills so to ensure all psycho-social factors that affect science learning are taken care
of. Perhaps, in the era of new normal, student-teacher interaction should be more
frequent and enhanced through social learning platforms.
x. Malaysia (17.54) has the highest percentage of students who absent once a week or
more with an average science achievement of 420.04. Malaysia also shows the highest
percentage of students who absent once every two weeks (11.40%) and once a month
(26.46%) with average science achievement of 445.22 and 473.50, respectively. On
the contrary, East Asian countries show lesser frequency of student absences. Korea
(96.36%) and Japan (87.19%) have the highest percentage of students who have
never or almost never absent with average science achievement of 558.35 and 575.36,
respectively. Intentional efforts should be made by the Malaysian school management
boards, Parent Teacher Association (PTAs) and schoolteachers to ensure students are
interested and motivated to attend science classes.
Conclusions
Summary and Implications
This study provides a comprehensive overview on the correlates of science classroom

teachings with science achievement in TIMSS, not only on the common aspects of classroom
instructions (i.e., teaching time spent on science, science topics taught, emphasis of science
investigation, resources for conducting science experiments, computer activities during sci-
ence lessons, use of Internet for schoolwork, weekly time spent on science homework) but
also related to psycho-sociological factors (e.g., teaching limited by student needs, and student
absences) that affect eighth graders’ science achievement in TIMSS. This study also revealed
one very important factor that was found to be crucial to enhance science achievement possibly
supported by technology, i.e., teacher-student interaction. Due to large class size and lack of
integration in pedagogical content knowledge and resources available, traditional lecture-based
teacher-centered approaches were quite commonly found in the classroom activities of Malay-
sian schools. The implication is that more in-service training programs need to be conducted
to introduce interactive teaching and learning pedagogies through blended learning platforms.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Significance and Future Direction 447
In addition, with comparison made not only among three Southeast Asian countries but
also with four East Asian countries (out of which including countries with top achievement in
TIMSS), better interpretation of data can be made with conclusion drawn though not explicitly
stated. It is expected that this study could make significant contribution with suggestions of pol-
icy recommendations to the Ministry of Education to boost Malaysian Grade 8 students’ science
performance in the forthcoming TIMSS assessments.
For example, the crucial factor found to be contributing much to the students’ science
achievement in high performing country such as Singapore, that is student-teacher interaction
should be more frequently conducted. Although there is a big class size in Malaysian schools
that are scattered in wider geographical areas as compared to Singapore, students’ interaction
could be enhanced through digital tools as well as blended-mode social learning platforms
available, e.g., Edmodo, Google Classroom, Facebook, Telegram, Zoom, to name a few. Efforts
should also be made to ensure students are not absent from class, are interested and motivated
to science learning. The Ministry of Education should also ensure higher percentage of students
taught the TIMSS science topics with integrated approaches that enhance higher thinking skills
supported by digital tools and e-platforms, e.g., Project-based Activities (PBA), Problem-based
Learning (PBL), Inquiry-based Science Education (IBSE), to name a few.
Based on the discussions made in response to Research Question 2, more actions should
be taken by the Ministry of Education to ensure that the hours allocated for science teaching
should include the integration of use of computer and Internet to support learning. Resources
for conducting science experiments should be equally and adequately distributed. In the new
normal, there is also possibility to demonstrate and facilitate the conduct of online science
experiment, e.g., through YouTube or Tik Tok to ensure reach out to wider audience, hence the
problem to ensure equal distribution could be solved.
References
Adomi, E.E. (2011). Frameworks for ICT policy: Government, social and legal
issues.https://books.google.com.my/books?hl=en&lr=&id=MSaEC_
qkTJYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=info:fI70FwNuIVEJ:scholar.google.com&ots=LDzkT9gzYP&s
ig=NaUKHGOVpL-5K-bsdUFgerfldOU&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
Andrew, M., & Hauser, R. M. (2011). Adoption? Adaptation? Evaluating the formation of educational
expectations. Social Forces, 90(2), 497-520.
Blank, R. K. (2012). What Is the Impact of Decline in Science Instructional Time in Elementary School.
In Paper prepared for the Noyce Foundation.
Chin, C.K., Munip, H., Miyadera, R., Ng, K.T., Ch’ng, Y.S., & Promsing, N. (2018). Promoting education
for sustainable development in teacher education integrating blended learning and digital tools:
An evaluation with exemplary cases. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 15(1), em1653. https://www.ejmste.com/article/promoting-education-for-sustainable-
development-in-teacher-education-integrating-blended-learning-5613
Cobanuglu, R., & Yurttas-Kumlu, G. D. (2020). Children’s science learning outside school: Parental
support. Turkish Journal of Education, 9(1), 46–63. https://doi.org/10.19128/turje.613091
Connor, C. M. D., Dombek, J., Crowe, E. C., Spencer, M., Tighe, E. L., Coffinger, S., Zargar, E., Wood,
T., & Petscher, Y. (2017). Acquiring science and social studies knowledge in kindergarten
through fourth grade: Conceptualization, design, implementation, and efficacy testing of
content-area literacy instruction (CALI). Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(3), 301–320.
https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000128

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
448 Corrienna, A.T., M. Ali, R. Zawadzki, N.S. Babaruddin, NK Thoe, H. Aliyu (2017). Video-based learning
in Chemistry education: Exemplars, issues and challenges. Learning Science and Mathematics
(LSM) Online Journal, 12, 35-51. http://www.recsam.edu.my/sub_LSMJournal/images/
docs/2017/(4)CAT%20p35-51_final.pdf
Daus, S., & Braeken, J. (2018). The sensitivity of TIMSS country rankings in science achievement to
differences in opportunity to learn at classroom level. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 6(1),
1-31.
Duflo, E., Hanna, R., & Ryan, S.P. (2012). Incentive work: Getting teachers to come to school. American
Economic Review, 102(4): 1241- 1278.
Fernández-Alonso, R., álvarez-Díaz, M., Suárez-álvarez, J., & Muñiz, J. (2017). Students’
achievement and homework assignment strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 286.
Gelmez-Burakgazi, S., & Yildirim, A. (2014). Accessing science through media: Uses and gratifications
among fourth and fifth graders for science learning. Science Communication, 36(2), 168-193.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547013505847
Halim, L., Abdullah, S. I. S. S., & Meerah, T. S. M. (2014). Students’ perceptions of their science teachers’
pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 23(2), 227–237.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-013-9484-2
Hedges, L. V., Pigott, T. D., Polanin, J. R., Ryan, A. M., Tocci, C., & Williams, R. T. (2016). The question
of school resources and student achievement: A history and reconsideration. Review of Research
in Education, 40(1), 143–168. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16667070
Kuo, Y. R., Tuan, H. L., & Chin, C. C. (2019). Examining low and non-low achievers’ motivation
towards science learning under inquiry-based instruction. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 17(5), 845–862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-018-9908-9
Lay, Y. F., Areepattamannil, S., Ng, K. T., & Khoo, C. H. (2015). Dispositions towards science and sci-
ence achievement in TIMSS 2011: A comparison of eighth graders in Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei,
Japan, Korea, and Singapore. In Science Education in East Asia (pp. 591-605). Springer, Cham.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-16390-1_24
Lay, Y. F., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. (2016). Availability of school resources and TIMSS grade
8 students’ science achievement: A comparative study between Malaysia and Singapore.
International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11(9), 3065–3080.
https://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2016.907a
Linn, M. C., Gerard, L., Matuk, C., & McElhaney, K. W. (2016). Science education:
From separation to integration. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 529–587.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16680788
Liu, O. L., Brew, C, Blackmore, J., Gerard, L. F., Madhok, J. J., & Linn, M. C. (2014). Automated scoring
of constructed-response science items: Prospects and obstacles. Educational Measurement, 33(2),
19-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip. 12028
Loganathan, P., C. Talib, N. Thoe, F. Aliyu & R Zawadski (2019). Implementing technology infused
gamification in science classroom: A systematic review and suggestions for future research.
Learning Science and Mathematics (LSM) Online Journal, 14, 60-73. http://recsam.edu.my/sub_
lsmjournal/images/docs/2019/2019_5_PL_6073_Final.pdf
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016a). TIMSS 2015 International Results in Sci-
ence. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center website: http://
timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2015/international-results/
Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., & Hooper, M. (Eds.). (2016b). Methods and Procedures in TIMSS
2015. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/
publications/timss/2015-methods.html
Mislevy, R. J., & Sheehan, K. M. (1987). Marginal estimation procedures. In A. E. Beaton (Ed.), The
NAEP 1983/84 Technical Report (NAEP Report 15-TR-20, pp. 121–211) Princeton, NJ: Educa-
tional Testing Service.
Mislevy, R. J., & Sheehan, K. M. (1989). Information matrices in latent-variable models. Journal of Ed-
ucational and Behavioral Statistics, 14(4), 335-350.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Morales, M. (2016). Exploring the impact of culture- and language-influenced physics on 449
science attitude enhancement. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 25(1), 34-
49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43867730
Mullis, I. V. S. (2013). TIMSS 2015 assessment frameworks. Chestnut Hill: TIMSS and PIRLS
International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., & Hooper, M. (2016). TIMSS 2015 International Results in
Mathematics. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center
website: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2015/international-results/
National Center for Education Statistics. (2014). Digest of education statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/
digest/d14/tables/dt14_218.10.asp?current
Ng, K.T. (2007). Integration of human values in HVWSHE curriculum incorporating teaching strategies/
approaches and assessment/evaluation techniques. In P.Pannen, Ng, K.T., J. Ikhsan, D. Mustafa &
Herawati (Eds.)(2007). SEAMEO resource package: Human Values-based Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene Education (HVWSHE). SEAMEO SEAMOLEC and UN-HABITAT.
Ng, K.T. & Ng, S.B. (2006). Exploring factors contributing to science learning via Chinese language.
Kalbu Studijos, 8, 50-57. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=196182
Ng, K.T. & Nyunt, K.A.K. (2010). The development of an on-line learning hub in SEARCH for youth
science and mathematics researchers. In Z. Abas, I. Jung & J. Luca (Eds.), Proceedings of Global
Learn Asia Pacific 2010--Global Conference on Learning and Technology (pp. 1158-1167).
Penang, Malaysia: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://
www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/34320/
Paufler, N. A., & Amrein-Beardsley, A. (2014). The random assignment of students into elementary
classrooms: Implications for value-added analyses and interpretations. American Educational
Research Journal, 51(2), 328–362. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831213508299
Piacentini, V., Simões, A. R., & Vieira, R. M. (2019). Teachers’ view of language(s) in (Clil)
science education: A case study in Portugal. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
77(5). https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.636
Rappolt-Schlichtmann, G., Daley, S. G., Lim, S., Lapinski, S., Robinson, K. H., & Johnson, M. (2013).
Universal design for learning and elementary school science: Exploring the efficacy, use, and
perceptions of a web-based science notebook. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(4), 1210–
1225. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033217
Rubin, D. B. (1987). The calculation of posterior distributions by data augmentation: Comment: A nonit-
erative sampling/importance resampling alternative to the data augmentation algorithm for cre-
ating a few imputations when fractions of missing information are modest: The SIR algorithm.
Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82(398), 543-546.
Sonia Ramachandran. (2021). Not a surprise that our students are weak in Science and Maths.
https://www.studyinchina.com.my/web/page/our-students-are-weak-in-science-and-maths/
Suárez, N., Regueiro, B., Epstein, J. L., Piñeiro, I., Díaz, S. M., & Valle, A. (2016). Homework involvement
and academic achievement of native and immigrant students. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–8.
Sullivan, K., Perry, L. B., & McConney, A. (2013). How do school resources and academic performance
differ across Australia’s rural, regional and metropolitan communities? Australian Educational
Researcher, 40(3), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-013-0100-5
Tan, C. Y. (2018). Examining school leadership effects on student achievement: The role of
contextual challenges and constraints. Cambridge Journal of Education, 48(1), 21–45.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2016.1221885
Trinidad, J. E. (2020). Material resources, school climate, and achievement variations in the Philippines:
Insights from PISA 2018. International Journal of Educational Development, 75, 102174.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102174
Visser, M., Juan, A., & Feza, N. (2015). Home and school resources as predictors of
mathematics performance in South Africa. South African Journal of Education, 35(1),
1–10. https://doi.org/10.15700/201503062354

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
450
Cite as: Lay, Y. F., & Ng, K.T. (2021). Correlates of science classroom teaching with Sou-
theast Asian and East Asian eighth graders’ science achievement in TIMSS 2015. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 425-450. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.425
Yoon Fah Lay PhD, Professor, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University Malaysia
(Corresponding author) Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
E-mail: layyf@ums.edu.my
Khar Thoe Ng PhD, Asia e-University, Wisma Subang Jaya, No. 106, Jalan SS 15/4, 47500
Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail: ng.kharthoe@aeu.edu.my

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO 451
POOR LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN

MATHEMATICS: A CASE OF SELECTED
SCHOOLS IN MPUMALANGA PROVINCE,
SOUTH AFRICA
Nomsa Mabena, Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi,
Selina Serole Ramapela
Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa
E-mail: mokgosipn@tut.ac.za, ramapelass@tut.ac.za
Abstract
Learners’ mathematics performance globally and locally has been a major concern. Learners are generally
not performing well in mathematics. This is also true of learners in Kwagga West Circuit, Nkangala
district in Mpumalanga province of South Africa. Performing badly in the subject negatively affects them,
preventing them from progressing to the next grades. This research employed a qualitative case study
design with observation and semi-structured interviews with a sample of three school management team
(SMT) members, six teachers, nine learners, and three parent component members of the school governing
body (SGB) to determine factors affecting learner performance in mathematics in the senior phase. The
results showed that numerous factors influenced learners’ confidence and performance. The factors found
to have an impact on mathematics performance were learner related, such as ill-discipline, language
barriers and learner attitudes. Teachers’ factors included lack of pedagogical content knowledge and
skill, and lack of appropriate professional training. Finally, the study offers suggestions for further
research and recommendations regarding learners, teachers, schools, school management teams, the
parents, as well as for the national education ministry.
Keywords: poor performance, senior phase, qualitative research, case study design
Introduction
Poor learner performance in mathematics has been a global concern that has prompted
developing countries to participate in initiatives to bring positive change in their communities
(Sinyosi, 2015). Mathematics excellence can bring positive change in developing countries
to develop their education systems for shaping the future and prospects of young people; to
develop infrastructure; and to improve economic knowledge, culture and morality, as well as
the living standards of their people (Roohi, 2012). However, mathematics underperformance
has become a perennial concern which can prevent these developing countries from achieving
their developmental goals. The reports of various national and international bodies such as
the International Mathematics Union (IMU) indicate that “primary and secondary level
mathematics education is weak in most African countries, reducing the potential population of
talented students who choose mathematics majors at university level” (IMU, 2020).
Deficient performance of Grade 9 learners in mathematics has also been a concern in one
district in Mpumalanga province in South Africa. Most learners do not perform at a level that
would allow them to progress to the next grades, which significantly impacts on the Grade 12
results. Proper solutions to improve learner performance in mathematics depend on knowing

Nomsa MABENA, Patricia Namayammu MOKGOSI, Selina Serole RAMAPELA. Factors contributing to poor learner performance in
mathematics: A case of selected schools in Mpumalanga province, South Africa
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
452 the causes of poor performance in the subject. As a result, it has become evident that this area
needs examination. The study examined the factors that contribute to inferior performance by
Grade 9 learners in mathematics in Kwagga Circuit.
In South Africa, the low learner achievement levels revealed by regional assessments
such as the Southern and Eastern Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ),
and international assessments such as the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)
corroborate the state of affairs in mathematics performance. The TIMSS reported that between
68 per cent and 90 per cent of African boys and girls in Grade 8 failed to reach the low
international benchmark in mathematics (Mullis et al. 2012), and unfortunately no significant
progress was registered in TIMSS 2007 or TIMSS 2011. The 2015 TIMMS reported that Grade
9 South African learners’ performance in mathematics had improved compared to the 2011
results; however, South Africa remains a low performing country in mathematics (Reddy et
al., 2016). According to the report, the national average score for the country is 372 points for
mathematics, ranking South Africa 38th out of 39 countries. Generally, learners at independent
schools performed very well, followed by fee-paying public schools. The worst affected learners
are those from no-fee public schools (Reddy et al., 2016).
Grade 9 learners at Kwagga circuit, the focus of this research, are included among
those from the no-fee paying schools, as indicated above. The results of Grade 9 mathematics
performance achieved by the respective schools in Kwagga West Circuit indicate that in 2016,
the overall performance of learners in the subject in school A was 25 %, B with 31.3% and C
with 36.2%. The 2017 results showed only a slight improvement when compared to 2016. For
instance, in 2017 school A achieved 31.5 and school B achieved 31.8. In 2018, the average
for school A was 46.2 and B 50.1, while C obtained 50.9. The results show that mathematics
performance remains poor and is not yet stable and the schools have not yet reached the
target of the circuit, which is 70%. These underperforming schools are cause for concern. The
performance in mathematics has a significant impact because once a learner fails mathematics,
the learner automatically fails the grade, and therefore the subject contributes to a high rate of
poor performance.
Much has been written on learner performance in mathematics in different contexts.
Previous studies identified a range of factors responsible for poor performance in primary
and secondary schools in various countries. The factors that affect quality and ultimately poor
performance in the teaching and learning of mathematics vary from those that are teacher
centred, learner centred, school centred, to family and environmental factors, among others.
Studies conducted internationally have revealed that learner-centred factors that cause poor
performance in mathematics among senior secondary schools include learners’ misconceptions
about mathematics as a difficult subject, and fear and anxiety (Asikhia, 2010). Hlalele (2012)
have stated that “students often develop mathematical anxiety in schools, often as a result of
learning from teachers who are themselves anxious about their mathematical abilities in certain
areas”. In the South African context, research by Khatoon and Mahmoud (2010) indicated that
learners’ inferior performance in mathematics is influenced by their negative attitudes towards
the subject that emanate from societal views that it is a difficult subject (Khatoon & Mahmood,
2010; Makhubele & Luneta, 2014).
International studies by Asikhia (2010) found that, in Britain, the reasons for poor
performance in mathematics are a lack of learning support; principal teachers’ dissatisfaction
with the in-career training of teachers in mathematics; and learners taught by teachers who
have not participated in career professional development. In the South African context, the
research by Cascio (2013, p. 152) found that educators play a significant role in learners’ school
performance; for example, if the educator lacks experience or passion about teaching, the
learners might not be able to develop comprehensive understanding of the subject material. It
is further assumed that, if the educator does not have effective classroom management skills

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
and applies extreme authoritarianism, the classroom environment might hinder fruitful class 453
discussions and collaborative learning from learners. It can also deter learners from applying
themselves to the best of their abilities.
It is therefore clear from the existing research that educators have an impact on the
deficient performance in mathematics because if the teacher does not have a good subject
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge s/he might deliver incorrect content or even
skip content, which could also lead to poor performance (Asikhia, 2010). Another factor is
the language of teaching and learning. Educators tend to use learners’ home language during
teaching and learning so that learners often fail to understand the language used in the official
examination papers and consequently fail to answer correctly (Asikhia, 2010).
Barber et al. (2010, cited in Forrest et al. 2019) argue that in South Africa the quality of
teachers, influences learners in learning mathematics. According to Chen, et al. (2017) strong
evidence exists showing that teacher diligence, dedication, and adherence to basic educational
policies and processes can lead to good teaching and learning. Chen, et al. (2017) further assert
that issues around the maximisation of contact time with learners in class, and the presence of
both learners and teachers at school and in class, have a positive impact on performance. In
South Africa, the instructional time in the senior phase for mathematics is four to five hours
(270 minutes) a week. However, a study by Makhubele and Luneta (2014) found that schools
in their study allocated 110 minutes per week to senior phase mathematics. This means about
an hour of mathematics teaching is lost per week. This is a significant amount of time lost per
term and per year, which results in a chronic and systemic reduction of teaching and learning in
class that affects performance in the subject (Makhubele & Luneta, 2014).
In addition, international studies by Attwood (2014 cited in Sa’ad, et al., 2014) attribute
poor performance in mathematics to parental attitude and interrupted teaching. Karue and
Amukowa (2013) found that home environmental factors and family backgrounds as well as
little participation of parents in the education of their children were the main causes of poor
performance in mathematics in Kenya. In South Africa (Cascio, 2013), family-related factors
also play a critical role in learners’ performance. Parents who are too occupied to care about
their children’s performance contribute to children losing their academic focus. Poverty-stricken
families were found to negatively affect their children’s academic performance. Some parents
were found to be abusive, which caused learners’ school performance to decline dramatically.
Learners who come from abusive families tend to perform badly at school (Cascio, 2013).
From what research has already established as factors contributing to poor learner
performance, there is strong evidence to suggest that these factors vary from context to context.
The recommendations offered to each context also differ (Sinyosi, 2015). As this study was
conducted in a unique context, the factors might have a different effect on learner performance
in mathematics. There are few studies on poor learner performance in mathematics in Kwagga
district of Mpumalanga Province, hence little is known about the contributing factors affecting
performance in mathematics for the senior phase in this district. It was therefore imperative to
investigate factors contributing to poor learner performance in mathematics at Kwagga West
Circuit to make recommendations that will enhance performance.
Theoretical Framework
This research was framed within cognitive (Piaget, 1971) and social (Vygotsky, 1978)
constructivism theory in order to understand the teacher and learner factors that contribute
to poor performance by learners in mathematics at Kwagga West. A constructivism theory
places the child in an active role in the learning process. Learning is not “swallowed whole”
but lesson material is modified and transformed based on the child’s cognitive structures,
social interaction, previous learning, and environment. Interaction with, and manipulation of,

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
454 mathematical programmes is seen as critical to the development of mathematical knowledge,

which is in a state of development and modification (Kuhn, 1974).
The rationale for the adoption of constructivist learning theory in this study rests on
the notion that teaching should begin with content and experiences familiar to the students,
so they can make connections to their existing knowledge structures. New knowledge should
be presented in the context of real-life rather than abstract applications. Knowledge should be
presented in a manner that does not change learners’ cognitive models drastically (Biggs &
Tang, 2011, p. 77).
Furthermore, the adoption of constructivist learning theory was motivated by the idea
of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), a principle of constructivism that emphasises a
learner’s ability to perform simple tasks when working with a teacher, parent, or capable peers,
but which is frustrated when performing the task alone without support (Wass & Golding,
2014). Teaching should enable students to fill the gaps and extrapolate information and materials
presented by the teacher. The goal should be to empower learners with skills to be independent,
and access relevant information from various sources to answer their problems and challenges
(Vygotsky, 1978).
Teaching should involve students working in small groups interacting and arguing to
find solutions to the learning activities. This attribute of cooperative learning supports the
forms and approaches of constructivism essential in social constructivism. The communication
between the teacher and the learner is enhanced when it involves learners working together,
where learners are helping one another to create more meaning for mathematical content.
Social constructivism applied in mathematics teaching implies that mathematics is taught
by emphasizing problem solving, where the interaction will take place among teachers and
learners and learners themselves. Learners must be encouraged to create their own strategies for
problem solving (Vygotsky, 1978).
This is consistent with how South African teachers are expected to teach. Their roles
include facilitation, mediation, and support of learning. As facilitators they should always view
learners as active participants in the learning process. Should learners experience barriers in
this process, teachers are expected to mediate through learning support processes. The above
discussion is relevant for the teaching and learning of mathematics within the senior phase in
this research.
Teachers who are not very competent in using constructivist methods and principles in the
teaching and learning of mathematics are likely to have a negative influence on the performance
of learners in the subject (Makgato, 2012). Since the concern is the poor performance of learners
in mathematics and the fact that contributing factors to this situation are less known, examining
and understanding these factors from the constructivist perspective hoped to bring solutions
to improve the effective teaching and learning of mathematics in line with the principles of
constructivism.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The aim of this research was to examine factors contributing to poor learner performance in
mathematics at Kwagga West Circuit to make recommendations that will enhance performance.
This research addressed the following questions:
What are the teacher factors that contribute to poor performance by Grade 9 learners in
mathematics in Kwagga Circuit?
Which learner factors contribute to poor performance by Grade 9 learners in mathematics in
Kwagga Circuit?

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Research Methodology 455
General Background
This study adopted a qualitative case study design with the aim of providing an in-depth
understanding about poor mathematics performance in the senior primary phase in a particular
district (Creswell, 2014, cited in Harrison, et al., 2017). The study was also qualitative in
nature, aimed at assessing what people say to search for evidence, to confirm interpretations
and to assess internal consistency in the data (Neuman 2006, cited in White, 2018). Hence,
participants’ viewpoints on the factors contributing to poor learner performance in mathematics
were interrogated in this study.
The study adopted an interpretive paradigm for the researchers to enter the understanding
of the subject being studied, in order to speak about, understand and interpret the subject and
the meaning of the context. The interpretive paradigm allowed the researchers to understand
the viewpoints and experiences of mathematics teachers rather than their own viewpoints in this
study. The aim was to understand the individual mathematics teachers and their interpretation
of the world around them (Cohen et al., 2007). The interpretive paradigm also enabled the
researchers to remain within the boundaries of the “frame” to cover the key features of the
research design (Henning et al., 2004, cited in Du Plessis & Mestry, 2019).
Research Sample
Non-probability sampling in the form of purposive sampling was used in this study as it
is appropriate to research where the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight
and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned (Merriam, 2009, cited
in Harrison et al., 2017). The participants for the interviews were selected as described below.
The judgement, to select three senior primary schools as cases for this study was based on how
badly these schools have performed. All cases were from a multi-religious and multicultural
setting in townships. All schools belonged to quintile 1, where school fees are not paid.
The participants had to be from learning, teaching, and management staff and the parent
component of the SGB. These were important selection criteria as the aim of this study was
to explore the role of learners, educators, SMT and SGB in improving the performance of
mathematics. The interview sample involved six teachers, three heads of department, nine
learners, three SMT members and three SGB members. In response to written requests,
permission was obtained in writing from the Gauteng Department of Education (GDE), as
well as from the SMT and SGB members of the three schools to conduct the study there. In
addition, the university where the researchers were conducting their research granted ethical
clearance for the study. Written consent was obtained from all participants including parents of
learners who participated in this research. The confidentiality and privacy and personal rights
of learners, educators, principals, and parents who participated in the study were also protected
(Welman et al., 2010).
Data collection Instruments and procedures
Data collection instruments involved semi-structured interviews and classroom

observations. Teachers, learners, and SMT and SGB members were asked to participate in
the interviews after they had been given information about the study. Probing was used in
order to provide a better understanding and obtain deeper information about challenges that
mathematics learners and teachers experience. Probing questions were not included in the
interview schedule.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
456 Interviews were conducted over a period of two weeks. Teachers and SMT members were
invited for interviews, which were conducted with each teacher and SMT member in their free
time. Learners were interviewed after school; SGB members were invited to come to school
during their free time. All participants were assured of the strictest confidentiality and that the
information they provided would not be divulged to anyone. Each interview lasted from 30 to
40 minutes.
In addition, lesson observation was used to observe learners’ conduct and participation
and observed educators on the teaching strategies that they employed during teaching and
learning of mathematics. An observation schedule to identify how learners and teachers
interacted and how the classrooms and resources were organized and prioritized in that setting
was employed. The aim was to learn what was important to the participants in the social setting
of mathematics learning and teaching, to become known to participants, and to learn what
constituted appropriate questions, how to ask them, and which questions might best help to
answer the research questions (Schensul et al., 1999). One had to consciously remain aware of
own biases and preconceptions, and how they might impact on what one is trying to observe
and understand (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994).
Data analysis
In this study data was analysed as prescribed by Creswell (2012, p. 1) as follows:

• Reading through the transcripts of the interviews (to assess for accuracy),
• Reading through the transcripts several times while highlighting comments or phrases
that were representative of the participants’ attitudes and thoughts,
• Clustering/categorising highlighted statements,
• Organizing the summary and emerging themes in the data.
Participants in the study were given pseudonyms according to their schools. The three
schools were named as A, B and C. The six teachers from the three schools were named as TA1
and TA2; TB1 and TB2; TC1 and TC2. Learners from school A were named as LA1, LA2 and
LA3; school B: LB1, LB2 and LB3; and school C: LC1, LC2 and LC3. Heads of department
in the SMTs in the three schools were named as SMTA, SMTB and SMTC respectively. The
parent component of the SGB in the three schools were named as SGBA, SGBB and SGBC,
respectively.
Research Results
Teacher Related Factors
Fulfilment and motivation in teaching mathematics
When participating teachers were asked opinions regarding being fulfilled and motivated
to teach mathematics, categories such as early involvement with numbers, encouragement by
reflective learners, and passion for the subject were identified. Both respondents from school
A indicated that they were fulfilled and motivated to teach mathematics. In the first category,
participants said that they enjoyed teaching mathematics because they had started learning
mathematics at an early age and loved dealing with numbers. One teacher mentioned that she
taught what she was taught in school and what she knows. In the second category the respondents
felt that not all learners would work with the teacher but only those few who reflected on what
was taught and they kept teachers motivated. The following comment was noted:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
“I do enjoy teaching mathematics. When I was still at school, I love to deal with numbers so I 457
do enjoy teaching mathematics and at the same time the motivation lies on, I teach what I was
taught and I teach what I know and I really enjoy teaching maths and I’m highly motivated in
that, despite that not all learners walk with us but those few that reflect what we teach they keep
us going and motivated”. (TA1)
In the third category, respondents from schools B and C expressed their passion for
mathematics. The respondents indicated that the subject instilled the passion and enthusiasm
in them to teach with confidence and excellence. The passion for teaching the subject also
drove them to go the extra mile and bring innovative learning materials to improve learners’
understanding of mathematics. Teachers TB2, TC2 and TC1 commented respectively as follows:
“Mathematics gives an edge to excel as a teacher and to impart the knowledge with pride and
confidence to the learners and explained that mathematics is a lifelong experience whereby one
gets a sense of becoming a better and more excelling teacher on daily basis”. (TB2)
“Maths is about solving life problems, my enjoyment stems from the fact that it enriches one’s
mental horizon. Maths encourages me as an individual to reach out my learners to produce the
best for better things in life.” (TC1)
“I am highly motivated to be involved in science and mathematics gives me the edge to excel as
a teacher and to impart knowledge with pride and confidence while learning maths is a lifelong
experience one gets the sense that I am becoming a better and more excelling teacher daily”.
(TC2)
The above responses show the general trend that all participating teachers in the three
schools were motivated and passionate about teaching mathematics.
The literature describes passion as simply showing a strong tendency and willingness through
spending time and energy on an activity that someone likes or believes is important. Teachers’
passion for learning and teaching mathematics has a positive impact on learners’ performance.
Passionate teachers are always exerting an effort to increase learners’ performance in
mathematics.
Challenges in the teaching of mathematics
 Lack of pedagogical content knowledge
In this category, the participating teachers indicated inadequate mathematical content

knowledge and skills to be their greatest challenge. According to one of the respondents, the
challenge was the content on algebraic expressions and geometry of 2D shapes. The respondents
mentioned that they were not confident in these topics and needed assistance. Teaching skills
such as the introduction of the lesson also seemed to be a challenge. TC1 commented as follows:
“Another challenge that I have is the content which is algebraic expressions and Geometry of 2D
shapes I’m not good at these topics I need assistance”. (TC1)
TB2 commented: “The challenge is that I don’t know all the topics since I’m new in the field.”
TC1 said: “I have difficulty to do the introduction of the topic, and to involve learners in the
lesson”.
The above findings were confirmed by both learners and SMTs. Learners indicated their
inability to solve most of the mathematical equations, which led to poor performance in the
subject. According to learners the inability was due to lack of understanding in most aspects of
mathematical learning content. The following comments were made by learners:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
458
“I don’t understand word problems, it becomes difficult for me to change word problem
to mathematical form, and I also find mathematics difficult in geometry whereby I must give
statements and reasons. I fail to understand and confused when the teacher teaches”. (LA2)
“Another challenge is that I find things that they have not taught us well in the classroom then I
become confused and frustrated”. (LC2)
In addition, the SMTs said:
“Learners are taught by the teachers who did not specialise with mathematics at tertiary level due
to lack of personnel, hence poor be the learner’s performance”. (SMT B)
The observation results also confirmed that teachers had inadequate mathematical
pedagogical content knowledge and they lacked the skill to deliver good introductions for
the topics in the subject. Teachers in all schools were using direct teaching methods in their
lessons, which are teacher-centred methods where learners listen to the teacher and question-
and-answer is used.
 Lack of professional development and training in mathematics
The respondents from all schools reported that they had received training from the DoE
known as a 1 + 4 workshop and from the Association for Mathematics Education of South
Africa (AMESA) for maths teachers. They had also received prepared lesson plans in the 1
+ 4 workshop. The respondents said they met to deal with all types of mathematics problems
and helped one another with presentations to show how to present and introduce a new topic
to learners. For self-development, the respondents said they learnt from peers or colleagues
about teaching methods and how to introduce topics. According to the respondents, this kind of
support is not sufficient as it is not an on-going process.
TC2 commented as follows:
“The development we get from the DoE is quarterly workshops whereby mathematics teachers
meet to deal with all types of mathematics problems and help one another. Presentations are made
to show how to present and introduce a new topic to your learners”. (TC2)
According to the findings, teachers in all schools were not supported enough through
continuing professional development to develop initiatives to refine their skills and knowledge
in mathematics. The professional development attended by the teachers was held only once per
quarter and was insufficient.
Learner Factors
Teachers’ beliefs in the ability of their learners to learn mathematics
Teachers were asked about their learners’ abilities to learn mathematics and three
categories were identified: the difficulty and ease of mathematics, importance and practicality
of mathematics, and learners’ attitudes towards mathematics.
In the first category, respondents from School A indicated that learners have the ability to
learn mathematics, but mathematics is not a subject suitable for all learners. It is the subject for
learners who are good at dealing with numbers. This happens to be a minority group of learners
because dealing with numbers is challenging and at times it depends on their background in
mathematics. The respondent added that if the mathematics foundation were not laid properly

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
the child would not perform well in the subject, but if the child comprehended the foundation 459
very well and acquired the love of dealing with numbers, they really enjoyed mathematics.
One respondent said mathematics was an interesting subject on its own and learners enjoyed
learning the subject and ultimately, they were highly motivated on their own to work with
mathematics and not only at school but also in their daily lives.
The teacher (TA1) commented as follows:
“Mathematics is not the subject of all, [it] is the subject of learners that are good in dealing with
numbers and happen to be minority group because dealing with numbers is a bit of challenge and
at the time it depends on their background mathematics. Start in Grade R if the foundation is not
laid properly or the child is not very good in numbers, but those who grabbed the foundation very
well and got the love of dealing with numbers, they really enjoy mathematics. Mathematics is the
interesting subject on its own, they really enjoy mathematics and at the end of the day they are
highly motivated on their own to work with mathematics not only at school, but at home”.
In the second category, respondents from all schools revealed that learners had the
ability to learn mathematics. The only barrier that prevented them from learning mathematics
was that learners were programmed to believe that mathematics is a difficult subject, and that
mathematics is for the smart learners only. They were not that much troubled by the subject,
they just needed to change their mind-set and regard mathematics as a game, then they would
enjoy and even come to love the subject.
The following comment supports the above-mentioned assertions:
“Learners have the ability to learn mathematics, the only thing that hinder them from learning
mathematics is that learners programmed their minds that mathematics is difficult, they believe
that mathematics is for the smart learners only, they are intelligent they just need to re-programme
their mind and take mathematics as a game so if they can have that mentality that mathematics
is a game then they can enjoy and learn mathematics and even become more in love with the
subject". (TC2)
The way the attitudes are learned is established by the connection between teachers’
and learners’ attitudes and attitudes and performance. The literature suggests that excellent
performance in the subject is related to teachers’ positive attitudes. Teachers have the ability to
instil courage and determination in their learners. In contrast, it was worrying that even though
teachers in the study displayed positive attitudes towards the subject and their learners, learners
still performed poorly.
Teachers’ views on learners as a cause of their poor performance in mathematics
When asked to comment on learner factors as a cause of their poor performance in

mathematics, several categories were distinguished: learners’ poor foundational knowledge of
basic concepts in mathematics, learners’ lack of motivation, ill-discipline due to lack of parental
support, and language barriers.
The respondents in all schools indicated the poor foundation in mathematics content as a
challenge which made it difficult for learners to perform well. They argued that if the learners’
foundational knowledge for mathematics was solid, they would be more motivated to learn
mathematics, even in their daily lives. The following comments were made:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
460 “If the foundation of mathematical knowledge was not laid properly learners tend to fear
mathematics. They view it as a very difficult subject because they are not very good in numbers.
Those who grabbed the foundation very well and have got the love of dealing with numbers
really enjoy mathematics. It is the interesting subject on its own and if learners really enjoy
mathematics, they become highly motivated on their own to work with mathematics not only at
school but to their daily lives”. (TA 2)
“It is not good; you will find that learners don’t have the basic understanding of different types of
fractions, for example a half, a quarter and eighth, which lead to failure.” (TC1)
In the second category, respondents believed that learners were not performing well
because they lacked motivation due to fear of mathematics and the perception that it is a difficult
subject. TC1 said: “My challenge is that learners do not participate in class because they lack
motivation and have fear of the subject because they think it is difficult”.
Furthermore, the SMTs commented as follows:
“Learners show no interest in learning mathematics, learners are not writing the informal
activities given to them and when they are given formal activities like assignments they don’t
submit, or they copy one another’s work and submit”. (SMT C).
The next category was the language barrier. Teachers highlighted that code-switching to
clarify certain mathematical concepts in the learners’ language was a challenge. The medium
of instruction is English; however, certain concepts need to be clarified to learners in their own
language. It is therefore important that teachers understand learners’ home language. TC2 made
this statement:
“I also have language barrier since I’m teaching learners who speak Sepedi while I’m a Zulu, I
have a problem where I’m supposed to explain further or giving clarity to the learners because I
don’t know their home language Sepedi.”
Lastly, learners’ misbehaviour posed a challenge to Grade 9 mathematics teachers in all

three schools. According to participating teachers, overcrowded classrooms made it difficult for
them to have proper control of the classroom and maintain discipline, which affected effective
teaching and learning. TC1 and TB2 made these comments respectively:
“I have a challenge in classroom. Learners are overcrowded in the classroom which delays the
effective teaching and learning to take place, learners misbehave in the classroom and they are
not writing the formal and informal tasks given to them”. (TC1)
“The challenge that I also experience when teaching mathematics is the behaviour of learners,
they misbehave and disturb, and most of learners don’t submit the activities given to them and it
becomes difficult for me to understand whether learners understand or not, and when learners
start to misbehave, I stop the lesson and discipline the learners and lot of time is wasted”. (TB2)
The SMTs added that: “Learners show no interest in learning mathematics, learners are
not writing the informal activities given to them and when they are given formal activities like
assignments they don’t submit, or they copy one another’s work and submit”. (SMT C).
The parent component of the SGB also confirmed that ill-discipline was influenced by factors
such as social media, peer pressure and bunking of classes.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
“Learners spend lot of time on social media and television. They use short time to study”. (SGB A) 461
“Learners don’t study their books and practise mathematics; they are always on television and
social media”. (SGB B)
SGB members from school A mentioned that “Learners are influencing one another to
cause trouble at school”.
SGB members from school A and school C indicated that learners did not attend classes
and spent time in the company of bad friends.
In discussing the learners as the cause of their poor performance in mathematics
above, learner-related factors such as lack of motivation to learn mathematics, ill-discipline,
and language barriers were identified. The literature indicates that Learners’ positive attitude
towards mathematics is enhanced by teacher-related factors such as teachers’ enthusiasm,
teachers’ resourcefulness, helpful behaviour, teachers’ thorough knowledge of the subject-
matter and their ability to make mathematics interesting Furthermore, when learners are taught
in a language that is not their mother tongue, learning becomes more difficult for them.
Discussion
The Teacher-related Factors that Influence the Teaching of Grade 9 Mathematics
The study found that the teacher-related factors that contributed to poor learner
performance in Kwagga West District in Mpumalanga province of South Africa were teachers’
inadequate experience in teaching the subject and lack of pedagogical content knowledge and
skills to teach mathematics.
Teachers’ experience and knowledge of mathematics are the important requirements
to involve learners in meaningful and effective mathematical practices in the classroom. As
a result of teachers’ expertise and experience in the subject, learners are enabled to develop
deep understanding of mathematics (Chapman, 2015). Teachers in the observed schools
lacked mathematical pedagogical content knowledge and they lacked the skill to deliver
good introductions for the topics in the subject. Pedagogical content knowledge in learning
mathematics is the teacher’s ability to use his or her knowledge of mathematics to discuss
mathematics topics and find the methods to present mathematics content and topics effectively
to facilitate successful learning (Loughran et al., 2011).
Teachers in all schools were using direct teaching methods in their lessons, which are
teacher-centred methods where learners listen to the teacher and question-and-answer is used.
This is contrary to the thinking of Vygotsky (1978), namely that the communication between
teacher and learner should involve learners working together and helping one another to solve
mathematical problems. Social constructivism in mathematics implies that mathematics should
be taught by emphasizing problem solving, where the interaction will take place among teachers
and learners and learners themselves. Learners must be encouraged to create their own strategies
for problem solving. Van de Walle (2007) advocated a learner-centred approach during teaching
and learning of mathematics and moving away from a teacher-centred approach.
The literature also indicates that learners’ positive attitude towards mathematics is
enhanced by teacher-related factors such as teachers’ enthusiasm, teachers’ resourcefulness,
helpful behaviour and teachers’ thorough knowledge of the subject-matter and their making
mathematics interesting (Mensah et al., 2013). Lack of pedagogical knowledge in the subject
has a great impact on learner performance because the teacher who lacks knowledge is more
likely not to teach the topic that he or she does not understand. Teacher-centred methods have
a role in the low performance of the learners because the teachers teach learners by using a
question-and-answer method without allowing learners to solve mathematical problems with
their peers and find solutions on their own.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
462 The professional development attended by the teachers was the 1 + 4 intervention
programme and they also attended subject committee meetings that were held once per quarter
by the subject advisors. This kind of professional development is a once-off event and ineffective
since it is not continuous and thus cannot provide teachers with adequate pedagogical content
knowledge (Chapman, 2015).
Learner-related Factors that Contribute to Poor Performance of

Grade 9 Learners in Mathematics
The study found that lack of motivation to learn mathematics, ill-discipline, and language
barriers were the learner-related factors contributing to poor performance in mathematics. It
was clear from the findings that learners bunked classes. In addition, the use of social media
also contributed to poor performance, because learners were using the internet for WhatsApp
and Facebook, but not to Google their assignments and other relevant information based on
mathematics. Misuse of cell phones leads to disappointing mathematics performance and
disruption in lessons.
In the findings mentioned above, the behaviour of parents and their lack of involvement
caused learners not to see the importance of learning and attending mathematics lessons because
they were not motivated from home. By not assisting learners with homework and assignments,
parents have a negative impact because learners assume that mathematics is difficult because
their parents are not good at it. Parents are the role models for their children. They have a
significant impact on the performance of learners. The media exposure and lack of resources
are further responsible for poor learner performance.
In addition, the language has a huge impact in the performance of learners. Learners
use their home language during the learning and teaching of mathematics, and they participate
in their mother tongue. This leads to poor performance because they fail to read questions
with understanding during formal assessment. The literature confirmed that a significant factor
that affects learners’ performance in mathematics is the medium of instruction or language
of learning and teaching in the subject and the learners’ home language. It is difficult for the
learner to read the questions with understanding and interpret the questions in the correct way
since the language used in the question paper is English. This leads to poor performance,
because learners will give incorrect answers because they do not understand the language.
The literature also confirms that when learners are taught in a language that is not their mother
tongue, learning becomes more difficult for them (Baker & Jones, 2011).
Mathematics is believed to be a critical school subject in most regions of the world and
hence is a compulsory subject in most education systems. There are common factors that affect
learner performance in mathematics worldwide, which include teacher content knowledge:
teachers are struggling with some of the topics in the subject, which has a significant impact on
the performance of the learners. A study in Lesotho based on learner mathematics performance
revealed that some teachers had majored in disciplines other than mathematics but were
employed to teach mathematics. This means that most of the mathematics teachers may not
have enough mathematics knowledge and skills, which affects their teaching methods and leads
to learners’ deficient performance in mathematics (Mogari et al., 2009, cited in Mampane,
2018). Similarly, in Tanzania, learners’ performance in mathematics was mainly affected by
poor teaching methods.
The results of this study revealed that learners show no interest in the learning of
mathematics. They believe that mathematics is a difficult subject, an attitude often transferred
from their parents and society. Similar to South Africa, in other countries, for example in
Kenya, learners’ performance in mathematics has consistently been poor, and their inferior
performance has been caused by various factors: learners are not motivated, and their behaviour

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
leads them to perform poorly. Parents are not actively involved in the academic matters of 463
their children and most of the parents did not progress to the secondary school, which makes it
difficult for them to be role models for their children in academic matters (Mbugua et al., 2012).
Resources, in addition to teacher and learner factors, remain a major concern in almost
all countries. The textbook is the resource that is used more often than any other resources
(Michael, 2017). There is also a lack of physical resources for demonstrating concepts to
learners. Consequently, teachers are using the question-and-answer method, which does not
fully engage learners in lessons.
Comparing the results of this study with international studies adds significance in the
understanding of problems affecting mathematics teaching and learning. Teacher factors
contributing to poor learner performance of mathematics as revealed by this research are also
encountered by international countries. In Pakistan teachers’ rigid teaching styles while teaching
mathematics and students’ lack of commitment and concentration in learning mathematics were
identified as the major causes of poor achievement in mathematics (Hafiz & Hina, 2016). In
West Indies similar to the results of this research, the contributors to poor learners’ performance
in mathematics were factors such as ineffective teacher-centred methods that are employed
in the classrooms (Harries & Bourne, 2017). It is clear that traditional approach to teaching
and learning is still dominant in these countries and has a negative impact on the teaching and
learning of mathematics. Constructivist approach to teaching is still not fully embraced.
Comparable to the results of this study, learners’ attitude towards mathematics and
conceptual understanding in mathematics were found to be the contributory factor affecting
students’ performance in mathematics in Phillipine (Andamon & Tan, 2018). Furthermore, in
Phillipine the results from the study by Imam (2016) showed that ineffective reading skills have
a huge influence on learners’ performance in mathematics. Similarly, the results in this research
identified language barrier as a factor influencing poor learner performance in mathematics.
Language barrier has been found to have a negative effect on reading comprehension, which
also affects academic performance (Howie et al., 2017). Home environment also influences
student poor performance in West Indies (Harries & Bourne, 2017).
From a comparison of the factors that contribute to poor performance in the
abovementioned countries, it is clear that mathematics achievement is an issue that is universal
and poses a great challenge mostly to developing countries in Africa as well as other parts of
the world. As it is in the nature of research that it always gives rise to more questions, further
research is recommended to examine and compare the programmes that can be implemented
in schools and communities globally to assist learners and teachers for the improvement of
learning and teaching in mathematics.
As indicated in the introduction, poor learner performance in mathematics has been a

global concern that has prompted developing countries to participate in initiatives to bring
positive change in their communities. Mathematics can bring positive change to communities
in the developing countries to develop their education systems for shaping the future and
prospects of young people; to develop infrastructure, economic knowledge, culture and
morality as well as the living standards of their people. However, the vision and mission of
the developing countries seem to be a pipe dream as evidenced from the results of this study.
Although this study represents a particular case within South Africa, other countries can learn
and draw valuable lessons from it.
To enable positive changes to global communities, it is recommended that infusing
ethics and moral education within the mathematics curriculum in schools should be a common
practice in both developed and developing countries. Continuous development of teachers on

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
464 constructivist teaching methods and principles, school managers and parents on mathematics
teaching and support should be consistently intensified and prioritised by global communities.
Collaboration of mathematics researchers should be encouraged and funded globally by
governments to bring improvement to the teaching and learning of mathematics. Further
research on teacher continuous development programs based on effective models relevant for
mathematics teaching is needed.
To this end the research provided evidence to respond to the research question which
investigated the factors that contribute to inferior performance by Grade 9 learners in
mathematics in Kwagga Circuit, South Africa. It has been established that the factors that have
an impact on mathematics performance are related to aspects of the learners, the teachers, the
school, and the environment. The results presented should help teachers and those with an
interest in improving the teaching and learning of mathematics and ultimately good student
performance in the subject. The responsibility lies with the Mpumalanga Department of
Education, Mpumalanga Province of South Africa, which needs to provide unique solutions
that are relevant to the identified challenges.
References
Andamon, J.C., & Tan, D.A. (2018). Conceptual understanding, attitude and performance in mathematics
of Grade 7 Students. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research Volume 7, Issue 8.
Asikhia, O. A. (2010). Students and teachers’ perception of the causes of poor academic. European
Journal of Social Sciences, 13(2), 229-242.
Baker, R., & Jones, A. (2011). How can international studies such as the international mathematics and
science study and the programme for international student assessment be used to inform practice,
policy and future research in science education in New Zealand? International Journal of Science
Education, 27(2), 145-157. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069042000276695
Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does. McGraw-
Hill Education.
Cascio, W. S. (2013). Global performance management systems. In G. K. Stahl & I. Bjorkman (Eds),
Handbook of research in international human resource management (pp. 176-196). Edward Elgar.
Chapman, O. (2015). Reflective awareness in mathematics teachers’ learning and teaching.
Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 11(2), 313-324.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1334a
Chen, X. Wei, G. & Jiang, S. (2017). The ethical dimension of teacher practical knowledge: a narrative
inquiry into Chinese teachers’ thinking and actions in dilemmatic spaces. Journal of Curriculum
Studies, 49(4), 518-541. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2016.1263895
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Qualitative approach to research, a review of advantages
and disadvantages of three paradigms: Positivism, interpretivism and critical inquiry. University
of Adelaide.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Sage Publications.
Du Plessis, P., & Mestry, R. (2019). Teachers for rural schools: A challenge for South Africa. South
African Journal of Education 39(1), s1-s9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39ns1a1774
Forrest, R., Lowe, R., Potts, M., & Poyser, C. (2019). Identifying the factors that influence
practice change in a single case study. Educational Psychology in Practice, 35(4), 395-
410. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2019.1623761
Hafiz, T. J., & Hina, H. A. (2016). Causes of poor performance in mathematics from the perspective of
students, teachers and parents. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology,
and Sciences (ASRJETS), 15(1), 122-136.
Harries, J., & Bourne, P. A. (2017). Perceptions of teachers and pupils on factors influencing academic
performance in mathematics among a group of fifth and sixth graders in Jamaica. An International
Journal of Young Scientist Research & Innovation, 1(1), http://www.technology.eurekajournals.
com/index.php/Young_Scientist/article/view/194

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Harrison, H., Birks, M., Franklin, R., & Mills, J. (2017). Case study research: Foundations 465
and methodological orientations. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 18(1), Article 19.
https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-18.1.2655
Hlalele, D. (2012). Exploring rural high school learner ’s experience of mathematics
anxiety in academic settings. South African Journal of Education, 32(3), 267-278.
http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v32n3a623
Howie, S. J., Combrinck, C., Roux, K., Tshele, M., Mokoena, G. M., & McLeod, P. N. (2017). PIRLS
literacy 2016 progress in international reading. University of Pretoria. https://www.up.ac.za/
media/shared/164/ZP_Files/pirls-literacy-2016_grade-4_15-dec-2017_low-quality.zp137684.pdf
Imam, O. A. (2016). Effects of reading skills on students’ performance in science and mathematics
in public and private secondary schools. Journal of Education and Learning, 10(2), 177-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v10i2.3430
International Mathematics Union (IMU). (2020). International non-governmental and non-profit scientific
organization. Retrieved from http://www.mathunion.org
Karue, N., & Amukowa, W. (2013). Analysis of factors that lead to poor performance in Kenya certificate
of secondary examination in Embu District in Kenya. http://www.tijoss.com/TIJOSS%2013th%20
Volume/Amukowa.pdf
Khatoon, T., & Mahmood, S. (2010). Mathematics anxiety among secondary school students in India
and its relationship to achievement in mathematics. European Journal of Social Sciences, 16(1),
75-86.
Kuhn, T. S. (1974). Second thoughts on paradigms. In Suppe, F. (ed.), The structure of scientific theories
(pp. 459-482). University of Illinois Press.
Loughran, J., Berry, A., & Mulhall, P. (2012). Understanding and developing science teachers’
pedagogical content knowledge (2nd ed.). Sense Publishers.
Makgato, M. (2012). Identifying constructivist methodologies and pedagogic content knowledge in the
teaching and learning of technology. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 1398-1402.
Makhubele, Y., & Luneta, K. (2014). Factors attributed to poor performance in grade 9 mathematics
learners. Secondary analysis of Annual National Assessments (ANA). Proceedings: Towards
effective teaching and meaningful learning in mathematics, science and technology. ISTE
International Conference on Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19-23 October,
Mopani Camp in Kruger National Park, Limpopo, South Africa. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/22925
Mampane, T. J. (2018). School heads of department’s role in ensuring teacher professional development in
mathematics: The South African context. Bulgarian Comparative Education Society Conference
Books, 16, 189-195. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED586164.pdf
Maykut, P., & Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning qualitative research: A philosophical and practical
guide. Falmer Press.
Mbugua, Z. K., Kibet, K., Muthaa, G. M., & Nkonke, G. R. (2012). Factors contributing to students’ poor
performance in mathematics at Kenya: Certificate of secondary education in Kenya: A case of
Baringo County, Kenya. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(6), 87-91.
Mensah, J. K., Okyere, M., & Kuranchie, A. (2013). Student attitude towards mathematics and
performance: Does the teacher attitude matter. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(3), 132-139.
Michael, M. (2017). Assessing the effect of in-service training on teachers’ performance in secondary
schools – Kasulu District, Tanzania (M.Ed. dissertation). Open University of Tanzania.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Foy, P., & Arora, A. (2012). TIMSS 2011: International results in
mathematics. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS and PIRLS International Study Center and Lynch
School of Education, Boston College. Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement, IEA secretariat.
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development. McGraw-Hill.
Reddy, V., Visser, M., Winnaar, L., Arends, F., Juan, A., Prinsloo, C. H., & Isdale, K. (2016). TIMSS
2015: Highlights of mathematics and science achievement of Grade 9 South African learners.
Commissioned by the Department of Basic Education, December. HSRC. http://hdl.handle.
net/20.500.11910/10673
Roohi, F. (2012). Role of mathematics in the development of society. National meeting on celebration of
national year of mathematics, organized by NCERT, New Delhi, December 20–22.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
466 Sa’ad, T.U., Adamu, A. & Sadiq, A.M. 2014, The causes of poor performance in mathematics
among public senior secondary school students in Azare Metropolis of Bauchi State,
Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME), 4(6), 32-40.
https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-04633240
Schensul, S., Schensul, J., & LeCompte, M. D. (1999). Essential ethnographic methods. In J. J. Schensul
& M. D. LeCompte. (Eds), The ethnographer’s toolkit – Book 2. Altamira Press.
Sinyosi, L. B. (2015). Factors affecting grade 12 learners’ performance in mathematics at Nzhelele east
circuit: Vhembe district in Limpopo [M.Ed. dissertation]. University of South Africa. http://hdl.
handle.net/10500/20245
Van de Walle, J. A. (2007). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally.
Pearson Allyn & Bacon.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Harvard University Press.
Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for teaching: The zone of proximal development.
Teaching in Higher Education, 19(6), 671 684. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2014.901958
Welman, J. C., Kruger, F., & Mitchell, B. (2010). Research methodology (3rd Ed.). Oxford University
Press.
White, L. (2018). Combining qualitative and quantitative research: Semiotics, structuralism and content
analysis. In R. Nunkoo (Ed.), Handbook of research methods for tourism and hospitality
management (pp. 373-383). Edward Elgar. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785366284
Cite as: Mabena, N., Mokgosi, P. N., & Ramapela, S. S. (2021). Factors contributing to
poor learner performance in mathematics: A case of selected schools in Mpumalanga
province, South Africa. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 79(3), 451-466.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.451
Nomsa Mabena Post Graduate Student, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve

North Campus, Aubrey Road, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: getrudenomsa@yahoo.com
Patricia Namayammu Mokgosi PhD, Lecturer, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
(Corresponding author) E-mail: mokgosipn@tut.ac.za
Selina Serole Ramapela PhD, Lecturer, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve North
Campus, Aubrey Road, Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: ramapelass@tut.ac.za

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
EVALUATING DISTANCE EDUCATION 467
IN SERBIA DURING THE COVID-19

PANDEMIC
Suzana V. Marković Krstić, Lela R. Milošević Radulović
University of Niš, Republic of Serbia
E-mail: suzana.markovic.krstic@filfak.ni.ac.rs,
lela.milosevic.radulovic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Abstract
Education is a significant factor which contributes to overcoming social, economic, health, ecological
and other challenges. During a pandemic, formal education adapts to ongoing circumstances, and the
learning-teaching process transitions to distance education. A study of the advantages and disadvantages
of the realization of certain modalities of distance education is significant as it contributes to the
improvement of its quality. The aim was to determine how the citizens of Serbia evaluated the quality
of distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research questions focused on how they
evaluated: distance education based on modality (via Radio Television of Serbia, Google Classroom,
Google Meet, Zoom, Viber groups, WhatsApp), the level of involvement of the learners/students during
distance learning classes, the quality and extent of their acquired knowledge, and the level of skills
that teachers need to effectively teach in distance education. The study presents the results of a survey
carried out in 2020 on a sample of 602 adult Serbian citizens. The results confirm the initial hypothesis
that certain modalities of distance education received a highly positive evaluation (Google Classroom,
Google Meet, Zoom), and that teachers, learners/students, and other citizens provided statistically
significant different evaluations of their quality (classes for primary and secondary school students
broadcast on the Radio Television of Serbia; classes via Viber groups, on WhatsApp). Citizens feel that
distance education enables efficient learning-teaching during the pandemic, confirming the importance
of modern technologies for the learning-teaching process in Serbia, and the need for their continued
intense development and application in education.
Keywords: learners/students, distance education, Serbia, teachers’ skills, the COVID-19 pandemic
Introduction
Globalization as a planetary process which creates a network of technological, economic,

political and cultural connections also brings an increasingly greater mutual dependence in
contemporary society (Gidens, 2003; Held, 1999, 2003; Wallernstein, 2000). It essentially
changes the way an individual thinks about themselves and their relationship with other people
(Gidens, 2003, p. 66). Considering that communication is increasingly more often taking place
by means of new technologies (the internet, mobile phones), the implications of using these
technologies are very complex. Their development has enabled us to connect with the entire
world (in terms of work, education, entertainment, etc.), while at the same time, any new
communication system radically transforms space and time, the fundamental dimensions of
human life.
The COVID-19 pandemic introduced far-reaching changes into our social life and led
to consequences which are difficult to foresee and control. Considering that the risk for human
health increased, the number of attempts of numerous researchers and scientists to study the
etiology and epidemiology of this virus also increased. This decreased the possibility of the
virus spreading and had an impact on the treatment of those who contracted it. Beck has pointed

Suzana V. MARKOVIĆ KRSTIĆ, Lela R. MILOŠEVIĆ RADULOVIĆ. Evaluating distance education in Serbia during the Covid-19
pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
468 out that living at a time when numerous values are clashing with our contemporary way of life
is accompanied by many risks. Life in a “risk society” (Beck, 1992) in the era of globalization
requires an individual and society to react adequately and make decisions regarding the causes
and effects of certain risks. A risk society is not limited solely to the risks to one’s health and
the environment. It includes an entire range of mutually connected changes in contemporary
social life: changes in work patterns, lack of job security, lower impact of tradition and customs
related to self-identity, the erosion of traditional forms of the family, the democratization of
personal relationships. In addition, making decisions regarding education is also risky, since
it is very difficult to predict which skills and abilities will be considered vital in an economy
and society which are rapidly changing (Gidens, 2003). Life at a time of globalization and
informatization presents man with a new set of requirements and new tasks which also need to
be addressed in the education system (Marković, 2008). In such altered social circumstances,
this system is presented with a set of demands, including the need for its adaptation to changes
in the sphere of work and employment.
During a pandemic, global social processes acquire their own specific manifestation in
all spheres of social life, and especially in the sphere of education. The corona virus pandemic
posed numerous challenges to theoretical and practical approaches, clearly pointing out the
connection between the social context, the quality of education, and the modality of the practical
realization of curricula (Defining quality in education, 2000). The modification and adaptation
of the learning-teaching process during the pandemic requires new practical solutions. We can
identify three basic challenges to distance education during the pandemic. The first refers to
technical requirements, which can be overcome by purchasing better technical equipment,
provided one is financially able to do so. The second refers to the inability of “direct transfer”
from the physical to the virtual classroom due to a lack of contact with other learners/students and
teachers, which is very complex and difficult to overcome. The third requires the involvement
of the learners/students themselves, as well as their teachers, to find the best possible method to
acquire and understand the teaching material in the digital environment. Ćamilović has pointed
out that the quality of this kind of work does not depend solely on technical equipment, but
also on the involvement of the teachers and learners/students. As a result, offering appropriate
training to both participants in the process is very important as it is providing technical support
during their work (see Ćamilović, 2012). In the era of digitalization, distance education is seen
as one of the possible solutions to the problem of ensuring that both learners and students
remain healthy on the one hand (physical distance), and that the curricula on all levels of
education is realized successfully (the quality of education) on the other. This provides the
successful adaptation of individuals to ongoing circumstances and is an adequate response to
the challenges of a risk society in the form of developing appropriate skills and competences.
The Government of the Republic of Serbia, due to the epidemiological situation
(COVID-19), passed the Decision on suspension of teaching in higher education institutions and
primary and secondary schools, and the regular work of institutions for pre-school education1.
Under such circumstances, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development
has since March 17, 2020 organized distance education and made an Operational plan for
the continuation of schools’ work in difficult conditions. Priority in distance education for
primary and secondary schools was given to program content pertaining to general education
courses, and courses with a greater number of classes. The Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development passed the Rulebook on the requirements for achieving quality
and the manner of quality assurance and evaluation of distance learning in primary schools (in
Serbian: Pravilnik o bližim uslovima za ostvarivanje i način osiguranja kvaliteta i vrednovanje
nastave na daljinu u osnovnoj školi)2. Classes in the new schoolyear in schools/at universities
took the form of distance learning (combined learning-teaching) for both primary and secondary
school students, as well as university students.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Accordingly, the study analyzes and interprets the results of the empirical study 469
“Changes in the social life of the citizens of Serbia during the pandemic” (in Serbian: Promene
u društvenom životu građana Srbije u doba pandemije), which refers to distance education and
its modalities, as well as the level of participation and involvement of the learners/students in
distance learning, the quality and extent of their acquired knowledge, and the level of skills that
teachers need to effectively teach in distance education. Theoretical approaches and previous
research carried out locally and abroad (Barrett, 2020; Ćamilović, 2012; Stepanović, 2020;
Stojanović, 2020) provided the basis for the interpretation and comparison of the results which
indicate differences, but also similar experiences when it comes to the quality of education and
distance education during the pandemic. The results of previous studies refer to the advantages
and disadvantages of distance education as seen by teachers, teaching associates/assistants,
school managers, and parents. The current study began with the aim of analyzing the quality of
specific modalities of this type of education based on noted shortcomings in its realization. The
evaluation was provided by the participants in the educational process (the teachers/students)
and other citizens of Serbia.
Research Questions
The main research question refers to how adult citizens of Serbia evaluated the quality of
distance education in Serbia during the pandemic. This research question includes the responses
to the following questions:
1. What were the results of the evaluation of the quality of distance education provided
for primary and secondary school students, broadcast on Radio Television of Serbia?
2. What were the results of the evaluation of the quality of online education taking place
on platforms such as Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom and the like?
3. What were the results of the evaluation of the quality of online education taking place
via Viber groups and on WhatsApp?
4. What were the results of the evaluation of the level of participation and involvement
of the learners/students in distance learning classes?
5. What were the results of the evaluation of the quality and extent of the knowledge
acquired by learners/students during their distance learning classes?
6. What were the results of the evaluation of the level of skills that teachers need to
effectively teach in distance education?
General Background
In accordance with the epidemiological situation in Serbia, classes organized on all

levels of education have temporarily been suspended with the aim of preserving and protecting
the health of all citizens. After a state of emergency was declared in Serbia (March 16, 2020),
distance education began on March 17, 2020. For primary and secondary school students, the
broadcast of educational content began on the channels of the Radio Television of Serbia (RTS),
while university students began online classes on various platforms (Google Meet, Google
Classroom, Zoom), and through various groups (Viber, WhatsApp) etc. At the same time,
workshops were organized for both students and teachers, and technical support was provided
for universities.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia, in cooperation with RTS, organized the recording and broadcasting of educational
content meant for distance education via the RTS 2, RTS 3 and RTS Planeta channels (all

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
470 channels with a national frequency). The educational programs which followed the curricula
of selected general education courses, specially tailored to meet the needs of primary and
secondary school students and in accordance with the annual work plan, are broadcast daily
from 8am, which is congruent with the hours when the school activities of students begin under
regular circumstances. The teachers were instructed on how to record educational material in
their homes, and the school principals and home-room teachers use text messages or social
networking sites (Viber, Facebook, and the like) to inform their students about the programming
schedule, i.e., when classes are being broadcast on RTS channels. Thus, the learning-teaching
process also includes those students who do not have access to the internet. The schools regularly
update their websites and set up links with notifications regarding the programming schedule for
classes broadcast on RTS channels. In addition, all the lessons which are broadcast on national
television are also available on the RTS website, as well as on the RTS Planeta platform, so that
the students can view them even after the broadcast. All of the educational content is available
via the free app “RTS Moja škola” for mobile phones and tablets. This is also helpful for the
students as it makes it easier for them to follow their lessons while at home. In addition, the
teachers also prepare lessons in the form of presentations which contain guidelines on how to
study and send them to the learners/students via email or via social networking sites. Based on
the learners/students’ homework assignments, completed exercises, essays, their presentations,
the feedback they give after class, and the distribution of material, the teachers monitor the
progress of their students, their workload, and their motivation to learn.
The initial hypothesis was that the citizens of Serbia give a positive evaluation of distance
education and that there are statistically significant differences in their evaluations depending
on whether they are directly and actively (teachers and learners/students) or indirectly (parents
or observers) taking part in the learning-teaching process.
Sample
The study of the evaluation of the quality of distance education is part of a more extensive
empirical research “Changes in the social life of the citizens of Serbia during the pandemic”.
The research was carried out by a group of researchers3 of the Center for Sociological Research
of the Faculty of Philosophy of Niš, in collaboration with the Sociological Society of Serbia,
from April to June 2020. The research was carried out anonymously, through an online survey,
and included a sample of 602 adult citizens of Serbia (the number of citizens who responded
for the duration of the study), 235 of whom were active participants in the learning-teaching
process (123 teachers – 20.4% and 112 learners/students – 18.6%) and 367 of whom were other
citizens (61.0%).
Since a convenience sample was used, generalized conclusions cannot be drawn, but
the research results can be a useful indicator of the quality of distance education and can be
used for further research, and for planning the development and improvement of the quality of
distance education. The respondents voluntarily agreed to fill out the online questionnaire, and
the anonymity and confidentiality of their personal data was guaranteed.
Instruments and Procedure
The instrument was a survey questionnaire which was distributed via email and social
media from various access points from April 23 to June 13, 2020. The questionnaire was
designed by the researchers of the Center for Sociological Research of the Faculty of Philosophy
of Niš and consisted of 52 closed and open-ended items. A set of questions was used in this
study, which referred to the quality of distance education during the pandemic. The evaluations
of the citizens were given on a scale of 1 to 5 (unsatisfactory – excellent). Cronbach’s alpha

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the instruments. Its value was determined 471
to be .90, which indicated that the instrument was reliable for use in this study. The study
was a quantitative sociological study, based on a descriptive and exploratory approach, which
included the implementation of a comparative-analytical and statistical method. Spearman's
rank correlation coefficient calculated for all the items mutually evaluated the reliability of
the survey. It proved that the survey was reliable as its values ranged from .4 to .7, which is a
medium strong correlation.
The respondents were divided into three groups: the teachers (who directly and actively
took part in preparing and teaching distance classes), the learners/students4 (who were also
direct participants in the learning-teaching process, during which they acquired knowledge and
develop abilities), and the other citizens of Serbia (who indirectly, as parents or observers,
evaluated the performance of distance education classes).
Data Analysis
In accordance with the aim of the research, suitable statistical procedures were used to
analyze the research results. The analysis included descriptive statistics and the determination of
basic statistical indicators (frequency distribution and percentages). The statistical significance
of the differences between certain groups was tested using the χ2. The data were processed
through the SPSS program for statistical data analysis.
Research Results

How the citizens of Serbia evaluated the quality of distance education during the
pandemic was viewed through six indicators: 1) the evaluation of distance education meant for
primary and secondary school students, broadcast on RTS; 2) the evaluation of online education
via the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom platforms; 3) the evaluation of the quality of
online education via groups on Viber, WhatsApp; 4) the evaluation of the level of participation
and involvement of the students in distance education; 5) the evaluation of the quality and
extent of knowledge acquired by the students during their distance learning classes; 6) the
evaluation of the quality of work of the teachers and the level of skills that teachers need to
effectively teach in distance education during the pandemic. Table 1 shows the research results
which refer to the evaluation of the quality of distance education in Serbia during the pandemic.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
472 Table 1
An Evaluation of the Quality of Distance Education: The Citizens of the Republic of Serbia
(%)

Evaluation of quality Unsatisfactory Sufficient Good Very good Excellent Total5
The quality of distance education
meant for primary and secondary
7.2 12.3 27.5 33.2 19.8 100.0
school students, broadcast on RTS
The quality of online education via
the Google Classroom, Google Meet,
5.4 9.7 25.1 36.2 23.6 100.0
Zoom platforms
9.3 12.3 29.8 30.6 18.1 100.0
groups on Viber, WhatsApp
The level of participation and
involvement of the students in
5.6 15.4 28.3 30.8 19.9 100.0
distance education
The quality and extent of knowledge
acquired by the students during their
8.8 20.1 34.8 25.8 10.5 100.0
distance learning classes
The level of skills that teachers
need to effectively teach in distance 6.2 1.49 25.8 34.2 18.9 100.0
education

The research results indicated a predominantly positive evaluation of distance education,
the participation and involvement of students during distance education, and the level of skills
that teachers need to effectively teach in distance education. In general, the grade 4 (very good)
was most prevalent, and it was most frequently (36.2%) awarded to the following modality –
the quality of online education via the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom platforms. This
modality also received the highest mark (23.6%) more often than the others. On the other hand,
the lowest overall score compared to the other modalities was determined for the quality of
online education via groups on Viber, WhatsApp (9.3%).
In order to compare the research results and the perceived differences in the perceptions
and evaluations of certain dimensions of the quality of distance education made by the direct
participants in the learning-teaching process (the teachers and the students), and the other
citizens of the Republic of Serbia included in the study, Tables 2 and 3 present the results of
their evaluation of the quality of distance education.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Table 2 473
An Evaluation of the Quality of Distance Education: The Teachers (%)
Evaluation of quality Unsatisfactory Sufficient Good Very good Excellent Total

meant for primary and secondary
2.0 10.2 31.6 30.6 25.5 100.0

the Google Classroom, Google
2.2 7.6 30.4 28.3 31.5 100.0
Meet, Zoom platforms

6.5 12.0 28.3 25.0 28.3 100.0
involvement of the students in
4.2 11.5 29.2 36.5 18.8 100.0
distance education
acquired by the students during their 5.3 19.1 42.6 23.4 9.6 100.0
education

The analysis of the research results which refer to how the teachers evaluated certain
dimensions of the quality of distance education indicated that the positive evaluations
predominantly ranged from “good” to “excellent” (3–5). The highest scores were determined
for the quality of online education carried out via the Google Classroom, Google Meet,
Zoom platforms (31.5%), and the quality of online education carried out via groups on Viber,
WhatsApp (23.8%). What was also interesting was the evaluation of the work of the teachers
themselves, that is, the evaluation of the level of skills that teachers need to effectively teach in
distance education. Even though it was expected that they would evaluate their work with high
marks, the most frequently occurring grade was still 3 (35.4%).
When it comes to how the students themselves evaluated the quality of distance education
(Table 3), the analysis of the results indicated the dominant prevalence of “good” and “very
good” (grades 3 and 4). The highest score was determined for online education via the Google
Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom platforms (27.8% grade 5 and 37.1% grade 4).

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
474 Table 3
An Evaluation of the Quality of Distance Education: The Students (%)
Evaluation of quality Unsatisfactory Sufficient Good Very good Excellent Total

meant for primary and secondary 12.4 18.0 29.2 24.7 15.7 100.0
the Google Classroom, Google Meet, 7.2 8.2 19.6 37.1 27.8 100.0
Zoom platforms
16.5 17.6 27.1 25.9 12.9 100.0
involvement of the students in 8.2 19.4 25.5 25.5 21.4 100.0
distance education
acquired by the students during their 13.4 19.6 32.0 21.6 13.4 100.0
education
Following the analysis and comparison of the research results, the highest scores were
determined for online classes via the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom platforms. In this
case, high grades were given by the students in particular (as many as 64.9% of the students
awarded it grades 4 and 5). On the other hand, the other citizens awarded the quality of online
education carried out via groups on Viber, WhatsApp the lowest grades.
Differences in the Perception of the Quality of Distance Education Among the Teachers,
the Students, and the Other Citizens of Serbia
The statistical analysis (χ2) of the differences in how the teachers, the students, and the
other citizens of Serbia evaluated the quality of distance education for primary and secondary
school students broadcast on RTS (Radio Television of Serbia) indicated statistically significant
differences among the three groups (χ2=17.24, df=8, p=.03). The teachers mostly evaluated the
lessons broadcast on RTS with 3 (31.6%), as did the students (29.2%), while among the other
citizens of Serbia the dominant grade was 4 (38.1%). At the same time, the teachers, compared
to the other respondents, awarded the quality of lessons broadcast on RTS with the highest
grades. That is, 25.5% of the teachers considered this type of teaching to be excellent (Figure 1).


pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 1 475
An Evaluation of the Quality of Lessons Being Broadcast on RTS: The Teachers, the
Students, and the Other Citizens of Serbia (%)
The research results which refer to the evaluation of the quality of online education via
the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom platforms (Figure 2) indicated that this modality
was awarded the highest grades by all the respondents included in the study (the teachers, the
students, and the other citizens of Serbia). The results of the Chi-square analysis indicated that
there were no statistically significant differences in the evaluation of the quality of this modality
of teaching among the three groups.
Figure 2
An Evaluation of the Quality of Lessons via the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom
Platforms: The Teachers, the Students, and the Other Citizens of Serbia (%)

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
476 When it comes to how the teachers, the students, and the other citizens of Serbia
evaluated online education via groups on Viber, WhatsApp, a statistically significant difference
was noted (Figure 3). A comparison of the empirical findings indicated that the highest grades
for this kind of learning-teaching were awarded by the teachers (28.3%), while the key actors
in the learning-teaching process, the students, mostly awarded it with the grade 3 (27.1%). The
other citizens of Serbia mostly awarded this modality of the learning-teaching process with the
grade 4 (35.2%). The results of the Chi-square test (χ2=19.58, df=8, p=.01) confirmed that there
were statistically significant differences in the evaluation of the quality of this type of online
education.

Figure 3
An Evaluation of the Quality of the Lessons via Groups on Viber, WhatsApp: The Teachers,
the Students, and the Other Citizens of Serbia (%)
A special segment in the research refers to how the other citizens of Serbia evaluated
the levels of participation and involvement of the students during distance learning classes.
The empirical findings indicated that there were no statistically significant differences among
the respondents in their evaluations (the most frequently awarded grade was 4). In addition,
the analysis of the research results regarding the quality and extent of the knowledge acquired
by the students during distance education indicated that there were no statistically significant
differences among the teachers, the students, and the other citizens of Serbia (the most frequently
awarded grade was 3).
Statistically significant differences were noted for how the teachers, the students, and
the other citizens of Serbia evaluated the level of skills that teachers need to effectively teach
in distance education (χ2=20.87, df=8, p=.01). Even though the dominant grade given by the
students was 4 (31.6%), as was the case with the other citizens of Serbia (35.4%), the teachers
themselves, whose skills were being evaluated, were more critical in their evaluation than the
other respondents, and most frequently awarded their work with the grade 3 (35.4%) (Figure 4).

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 4 477
An Evaluation of the Quality of the Level of Skills That Teachers Need to Effectively Teach
in Distance Education: The Teachers, the Students, and the Other Citizens of Serbia (%)
Discussion
The research results regarding the perceptions on and evaluation of distance education
made by the citizens of Serbia, that is, the teachers and the students (direct participants in the
learning-teaching process), and the other citizens of Serbia (parents and observers indirectly
monitoring distance learning classes) confirmed the initial hypothesis on the existence of
significant differences in their evaluations of the modalities of distance education, and the
evaluation of the level of skills that teachers need to effectively teach in distance education.
Positive evaluations of the quality of distance learning classes broadcast via RTS, as
well as differences regarding how the teachers and the students on the one hand, and the other
citizens on the other, evaluated distance education can in part be explained by how quickly the
transition was made to distance education following the declaration of the state of emergency.
They can also be explained by the availability of this type of education to both the participants
in the learning-teaching process (based on ownership of a television set), and those not directly
participating in it. This has made it possible to overcome the issue of social inequality among
the students in terms of access to certain resources and to contemporary educational technology.
In addition, the very few requirements regarding the digital competences of the teachers and
learners render the classes broadcast via RTS suitable for all the participants in the learning-
teaching process. However, the results of previous studies (Stepanović, 2018) have also
indicated certain shortcomings of this type of education. These include a focus on average
learners in the learning-teaching process, the inability to interact with others and receive
feedback based on which the teacher could gain insight into whether the learner has understood
the material in order to continue with the curriculum. The teachers are limited in their ability to
work individually with students in order to adapt the material to the content that was broadcast
on television, the learners are given too much material for independent work, and there is
insufficient time for practice.
An explanation of the prevalence of high grades awarded to quality of education via
platforms such as Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom is based on both the availability
of these platforms for learning, and the fact that it was relatively easy to quickly organize and
educate teachers and students on how to use them in class. The constant focus of the students

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
478 on the electronic media as a means of communication, leisure time entertainment, independent
study, and the search for information made it possible for the students to adapt to these media
and the platforms used in distance education. On the other hand, teachers successfully used
the advantages offered by these media for the presentation of material in an original and
contemporary way, which had a positive effect on the students and led them to actively participate
in distance learning classes. These results are in line with the results of previous studies carried
out in Serbia and Europe (School Education Gateway, 2020; Stojanović, 2020; Institute for
the Improvement of Education of the Republic of Serbia, 2020), which have indicated that the
predominant responses to questions regarding distance education during the pandemic were to
a great extent identical (the implementation of this type of education, positive characteristics,
and problems). Most teachers in Serbia have experience using the Google Classroom platform
(52.3%) and have pointed out the advantages of distance education in terms of efficiency,
creativity when preparing for and teaching classes, flexibility, and the like. The main problems
regarding distance education do not vary: the (un)availability of resources and technology to
stress.
The significant differences in terms of the evaluations of online education (on Viber
groups, WhatsApp) made by the direct participants in the learning-teaching process (the
teachers and the students) can be explained by the different roles they have within it. The role
of the teacher in this case included the preparation and distribution of material to students
for independent work at home, along with guidelines on how to do the work, as well as the
timely communication, and evaluation of the achieved results. This type of education is not
synchronous and the students, after receiving the material and tasks for independent work, can
contact their teachers for additional explanations (King et al., 2001; Kung-Ming & Khoon-
Seng, 2009). This process of individual learning takes place at a pace that is either slower or
quicker than that expected by the students, which can be considered one of the disadvantages
of this type of education, and thus can explain the lower grades awarded for the quality of this
modality of distance education by the students. Besides, additional disadvantages can also refer
to the lack of supervision, and a special approach to students who are above average or below
average in terms of their progress, as well as students with special needs.
The research results, which confirmed the differences in how the teachers and the students
evaluated the quality of online education on Viber groups, WhatsApp, whereby the teachers
evaluated this type of education with higher marks than the students did, were congruent with
the “seven principles” model of online education. The basic components of the “seven principles
of good practice” for online education include: 1) encouraging contact as part of the student-
teacher relationship, 2) encouraging cooperation among the students, 3) encouraging active
learning, 4) providing timely feedback, 5) clearly pointing out the time needed to perform a
task, 6) communication at a higher level, and 7) respect of diverse talents and various types
of learning. Student motivation, their involvement and intellectual commitment all depend
on the quality of communication between the student and teacher, both within and outside
the educational institution. Cooperation in the learning process increases participation in the
learning process on the part of the students and improves the exchange of ideas (Orellana et al.,
2009). In that respect, the significant differences in how the teachers and the students evaluated
the quality of this type of distance education can be explained by the prominent role of the
teacher as communicator and motivator in the learning-teaching process. Higher grades were
awarded by the teachers than by the students for the quality of this type of education, as a result
of a more positive evaluation of their active role in the process of distance education.
When it comes to how the teachers, the students, and the other citizens of Serbia
evaluated the level of participation and involvement of the students in distance learning
classes, no statistically significant differences were determined. The most frequently awarded
grade was 4 (“very good quality”), which can also be a confirmation of the fact that the

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
students were showing interest, commitment, participation, and motivation to, even in these 479
extraordinary circumstances, complete their assignments. On the other hand, the inability
to regularly attend classes in an academic setting, which also includes socializing with their
peers, direct communication with their teachers during distance learning classes can in part
be compensation for any activities carried out at home during distance education. In addition,
most of the respondents recognized that the students were attempting to adequately respond to
the challenges they find themselves facing in the pandemic caused by the corona virus through
their participation in the educational process and evaluated that effort with high grades. These
findings are congruent with the research of the quality of distance education carried out by
the Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia. The research results have
indicated that the opinions of teachers were divided when it comes to the activities of the
students during distance education and their activities in the classroom – 58% of the teachers
believed that the students are more active in school, while 42% were of the opinion that they are
more active during distance learning classes (Action plan for the implementation of the distance
education, 2020).
The research results on how the teachers, the students, and the other citizens of Serbia
evaluated the quality and extent of the knowledge acquired by the students indicated similar
evaluations across all three groups. The prevalence of the grade 3 was recorded among all three
groups of respondents, the teachers, the students, and the other citizens. On the other hand, the
students more than everyone else gave both the lowest and highest grade (13.4% each). This
kind of evaluation of the quality and extent of acquired knowledge can in part be explained by
their positive and negative experiences during distance education, and their critical relationship
to and (dis)satisfaction with the achieved results in the learning-teaching process.
When it comes to the evaluation of the level of skills that teachers need to effectively
teach in distance education, the research results indicated that there were statistically significant
differences among the teachers, the students, and the other citizens. Even though the skills of the
teachers were awarded high grades by the students and the other citizens (4 and 5), the teachers
themselves were more critical of their work (the dominant grade was 3), which can in part be
explained by their insufficient preparation for this type of education (see Allen et al., 2017).
Some of them were forced to, over a very short period of time, learn how to use the most modern
educational technology for distance education, to use tools to design educational material (Word,
Excel, PowerPoint), and to under inadequate circumstances (problems regarding the availability
of technology) prepare educational material which was electronically sent to their students. In
addition, in some cases there was a lack of support from the educational environment, and the
teachers were often, due to an increased workload and problems pertaining to the preparation
of educational material, exposed to stress (Ballova Mikuškova & Verešova, 2020; Lautenbach
& Randell, 2020; Wilson & Christopher, 2008). This was also confirmed by the research results
of the Institute for the Improvement of Education of the Republic of Serbia. Namely, education
workers have indicated that their main problems when realizing distance education were the
following: the availability of resources and technology to the students (52.3%) and the teachers
(37.4%), increased workload and stress during work from home (51.6%), evaluations of the
progress made by the students (41.5%), as well as the low level of digital competences of the
students (33.5%) and the teachers (25.3%) (Institute for the Improvement of Education of the
Republic of Serbia, 2020). In that respect, it is very important to provide the conditions needed
to acquire the necessary competences on the part of the teachers, so that they could adequately
be involved in the process of planning, shaping, realizing and evaluating distance education at
various levels of education, and in various institutions. Thus, the teachers can be prepared to
face the challenges of distance education and to perform their professional role without burden
or stress.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
480 It is difficult to measure the quality of distance education, as it depends on the motivation
of the students and their abilities on the one hand, and their family living conditions, socio-
economic status, health situation and the like, on the other. During the pandemic, schools are
facing serious challenges – to choose whether to organize distance education, even though
it is clear that a great many students do not have access to the internet and that they will be
excluded from the teaching process, or whether not to organize it, which can lead to all the
students missing out on their education (Lee & Lubienski, 2017). However, limited access to
the internet is only one of the obstacles. There is also the problem of the parents. Many parents,
due to their type of work, do not have enough time to work with their children, and many are
not technologically proficient enough to help their children manage the digital platforms. This
makes following along in class for children from families of a lower socio-economic status, and
with lower cultural and educational capital, more difficult (OECD, 2020). The results of a study
carried out in Montenegro by IPSOS, with the support of the British Embassy Podgorica and
UNICEF Montenegro (on a sample of 1037 parents or guardians of school age children) have
indicated that the parents of school age children take a negative view of distance education (an
attitude shared by almost 3/5 of the surveyed parents). However, in addition to the problems
which refer to motivation, work habits, unobjective grading, not being in contact with their
peers, and a low socio-economic status (especially in the case of children from the Roma
population), most parents have given a positive evaluation of the dedication of the teachers and
the organization of work in accordance with the new circumstances (A parent-based study of
education during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020, p. 19). Transitioning to the digital world of
learning and education leads to an even greater manifestation of social inequality in education,
from children who rely on the school to provide them with food and a safe environment, to
the digital divide in which children have no suitable devices and internet connections and are
unable to follow along in class and learn (Barrett, 2020).
The advantages and disadvantages noted during distance education, which were
indicated by the research results, can be used to further develop the theoretical-methodological
approaches used to analyze distance education. On the other hand, they can contribute to the
potential association between the research results and the practical solutions for tasks which
emerged during this sort of education, that is, for defining new directions and recommendations
for the organization of this type of work in education. A positive impact of distance education
and distance learning on education during the pandemic is based on the possibilities which
distance learning offers. They are reflected in the greater flexibility in the approach of the
students and the teachers (they are not limited by time and space during the learning-teaching
process), and the better conditions and resources which are available to them (Cejas Martinez
et al., 2021). Even though distance education does not bring into question the pedagogical
aspect of work, it leads to changes in the overall educational experience both in the case of the
learning-teaching process, and the means by which this process is realized (Dhurumraj et al.,
2020; Larsen & Vinsent-Lankrin, 2006; Mnguni & Mokiwa, 2020).
The question of the quality of distance education in the context of the pandemic caused
by the corona virus is very current and important, since the quality of the education process
carried out in various modalities depends on the intellectual and moral development of young
individuals. During the pandemic, in addition to acquiring knowledge and developing abilities
and skills, more and more importance is being assigned to enabling young people to face various
challenges, from preserving their health to using new technologies as part of the learning-
teaching process. That is why the questions which refer to the possibility of the potential
development of abilities and skills needed by students is becoming increasingly current, both

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
for life in a state of emergency, and for life after the end of the pandemic in a world which is 481
constantly changing (adaptability, quick decision-making, creative problem-solving skills).
The educational institutions in Serbia responded to the challenges of the pandemic by
adapting to the situation and offering various modalities of distance education. Namely, after
the state of emergency was declared in Serbia, and the classic means of education in schools at
universities was cancelled, distance learning classes were organized very quickly. That is how
learners and students, facing the difficulties associated with a state of emergency continued to
learn, without interruption, as part of the realization of the curriculum.
The research results confirmed the initial hypotheses on the predominance of high positive
grades awarded to the quality of certain modalities of distance education and the existence of
statistically significant differences in the evaluation of quality, based on whether they were
made by the teachers, the students, or the other citizens of Serbia. However, the highest grades
were awarded to online education taking place on the Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom
platforms.
Bearing in mind the experiences and the results achieved through distance education in
Serbia during the pandemic, it can be expected that such a form of education will be increasingly
more present in regular academic practice in the future, as it has significant advantages compared
to classic forms of education (for example, flexibility in terms of work, as the students and
teachers can determine the place, time, and tempo of the learning themselves). This increases
the effectiveness of education, encourages creativity on the part of the students, and over a short
period of time educates a great many of them, without the involvement of more teachers or the
use of more space. In that sense, this type of education is considerably cheaper than the classic,
traditional kind.
Organizing distance education in Serbia during the COVID-19 pandemic confirmed the
importance of the implementation of modern technologies in the realization of the curriculum and
indicated the advantages and disadvantages of this kind of work. Accordingly, new possibilities
opened up for a future intense development of these technologies and their implementation in
the learning-teaching process. With the aim of overcoming the noted disadvantages of distance
education, further comparative qualitative and quantitative studies on a larger sample, and in
more countries, are needed. Special emphasis should be placed on the issue of the motivation of
teachers and students for this kind of education, the problem of evaluating students, as well as
the problem of social inequality as it pertains to distance education. We can expect that social
inequality in education to be more pronounced over time due to the economic crisis caused by
the pandemic (loss of work or pay cuts).
With the aim of developing distance education in Serbia, it is necessary to introduce
changes to the legal regulations and enable the rapid development of information-communication
technologies. In that sense, the initial assumptions pertaining to the development of the
educational system, and especially distance education, include the low cost of technical
equipment, the increase in internet speed, a greater choice of software for communication,
as well as the further education of teachers and students which would enable them to develop
their digital competences for work and learning, and would also provide them with key
skills and abilities needed for life and work in the 21st century. Using a greater number of
available free platforms enabled the quick and effective organization of educational content and
distance education during the pandemic, and confirmed the importance of the development and
implementation of this type of education in the future. The state, the authorities, the relevant
institutions, and the teachers can all contribute to and support the development of distance
education by continuing the activities begun during the pandemic, and by creating favorable
social conditions for the improvement and modernization of distance education.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
482 Notes
1. “The Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia”, 30/2020; Decision on suspension of

teaching in higher education institutions and secondary and primary schools, and regular work
of institutions for pre-school education (“The Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia”,
29/2020) and the Decree on the measures of the state of emergency (“The Official Gazette of
the Republic of Serbia”, 31/2020).
2. September 1, 2020 marks the beginning of the implementation of the Rulebook on the re-
quirements for achieving quality and the manner of quality assurance and evaluation of dis-
tance learning in primary schools (Article 4) (https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/pravilnik-uslovi-
kvalitet-nastave-na-daljinu-za-osnovne-skole.html).
3. The authors were members of the research team.
4. The research results mostly refer to students, since there are few adult secondary school
students who filled out the survey questionnaire.
5. The difference in the number of respondents in relation to the overall sample can in part be
explained by the fact that some of the respondents believed themselves not to be sufficiently
well-informed regarding how the learning-teaching process was carried out online (depending
on their level of education and occupation), so they did not provide an evaluation of the quality
of online education (Google Classroom, Google Meet, Zoom).
References
Allen, J., Sinclair, M., & Smith, R. (2017). Using Mead's theory of emergence as a framework for
sociological inquiry into pre-service teacher education. Sociological Research Online, 14(5),
14–26. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.5153/sro.1948
Barrett, S. (2020). Coronavirus on campus: College students scramble to solve food insecurity and
housing challenges. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/23/coronaviruson-campus-students-
face-food-insecurity-housing-crunch.html
Beck, U. (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. Sage.
Ballova Mikuškova, E., & Verešova, M. (2020). Distance education during Covid-19: The
perspective of Slovak teachers. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(6), 884-906.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.884
Cejas Martinez, M. F., Navarro Cejas, M., Venegas Alvarez, G. S., Proano Rodriguez, C. E.,
& Mendoza Velazco, D. J. (2021). Student perceptions of Ecuadorian virtual platforms
during the Covid-19 pandemic. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(2), 241-
254. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.241
Ćamilović, D. (2012). Distance Education Trends. Globalisation challenges and the social-economic
environment of the EU (pp. 125–132). https://fei.uni-nm.si/uploads/_custom/01_unmfei/
konferenca/zbornik/unm_fei_fpuv_zbornik_prispevkov_konferenca_2012.pdf#page=125
Defining quality in education (2000). UNICEF. https://pdf4pro.com/view/defining-quality-in-education-
home-page-unicef-aefce.html
Dhurumraj, T., Ramaila, S., Raban, F., & Ashruf, A. (2020). Broadening educational pathways to STEM
education through online teaching and learning during Covid-19: Teachers' perspectives. Journal
of Baltic Science Education, 19(6A), 1055–1067. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/20.19.1055

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Gidens, E. (2003). Sociologija [Sociology]. Ekonomski fakultet. 483
Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (Eds.) (1999). Global transformations: Politics,
economics and culture. Stanford University Press.
Held, D., & McGrew, A. (2002). Globalization and anti-globalization. Polity.
Istraživanje s roditeljima o školi tokom pandemije COVID-19 (2020). [A parent-based study of education
during the COVID-19 pandemic]. https://www.unicef.org/montenegro/media/15881/file/mne-
media-1000.publication.pdf
King, F. B., Young, M. F., Drivere-Richmond, K., & Schrader, P. G. (2001). Defining distance learning
and distance education. AACE Journal, 9(1), 1–14.
Kung-Ming, T., & Khoon-Seng, S. (2009). Asynchronous vs. synchronous interaction. Encyclopedia
of Distance Learning (2nd Ed.). Information Science Reference (pp. 122–132). IGI Global.
https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/asynchronous-synchronous-interaction/11746
Larsen, K., & Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2006). The impact of ICT on tertiary education: Advances and
promises. In: Kahin, B., Foray, D. (Eds.) Advancing knowledge and the knowledge economy (pp.
151–168). MIT Press.
Lautenbach, G., & Randell, N. (2020). Through the Covid-19 looking glass: Coping skills for STEM
educators in the time of a pandemic and beyond. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 19(6A),
1068-1077. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/20.19.1068
Lee, J., & Lubienski, C. (2017). The impact of school closures on equity of access in Chicago. Education
and Urban Society, 49(1), 53–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124516630601
Marković, Ž. D. (2008). Globalizacija i visokoškolsko obrazovanje [Globalization and higher education].
Državni univerzitet Novi Pazar i Univerzitet u Nišu.
Mnguni, L., & Mokiwa, H. (2020). The integration of online teaching and learning in STEM education as
a response to the Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 19(6A), 1040-1042.
https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/20.19.1040
OECD (2020). Tackling coronavirus (COVID‑19). http://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/en/
Orellana, A., Hudgins, T., & Simonson, M. (2009). The perfect online course: Best practices for designing
and teaching. IAP-Information Age Publishing.
Pravilnik o bližim uslovima za ostvarivanje i način osiguranja kvaliteta i vrednovanje nastave na daljinu
u osnovnoj školi (2020). [The Rulebook on the requirements for achieving quality and the manner
of quality assurance and evaluation of distance learning in primary schools]. The Official Gazette
of the Republic of Serbia, 109/2020. https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/pravilnik-uslovi-kvalitet-
nastave-na-daljinu-za-osnovne-skole.html
School Education Gateway (2020). Survey on online and distance learning – Results. Europe’s online
platform for school education. https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/viewpoints/
surveys/survey-on-online-teaching.htm
Stepanović, S. (2020). Uticaj pandemije virusa korona na obrazovanje [The impact of the
pandemic caused by the corona virus on education]. Nastava i vaspitanje, 69(2), 183–
196, https://doi.org/10.5937/nasvas2002183S
Stepanović, S. (2018). Inkluzija [Inclusion in education]. Sumatra.
Stojanović, D. (2020). Analiza realizacije učenja na daljinu u Srbiji za vreme pandemije virusa Covid-19
[Analyzing how online education was realized in Serbia during the COVID-19 pandemic] (pp.
121–140). http://ebooks.ien.bg.ac.rs/1492/1/7.%20stojanovic.pdf
The Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Croatia (2020). Akcijski plan za provedbu
nastave na daljinu (2020) [Action plan for the implementation of the distance education] (pp.
1–38).
https://mzo.gov.hr/UserDocsImages/dokumenti/Obrazovanje/NastavaNaDaljinu/Akcijski%20plan%20
za%20provedbu%20nastave%20na%20daljinu%20-%20Model%20nastave%20na%20daljinu.
pdf
Wilson, B. G., & Christopher, L. (2008). Hype versus reality on campus. The e-Learning Handbook (pp.
29–54). Pfeiffer.
Wallerstein, I. (2000). Globalization or the age of transition? A long-term view on the trajectory of the
world-system. International Sociology, 15(2), 249–265.

pandemic
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
484 ZUOV [Institute for the Improvement of Education of the Republic of Serbia] (2020). Rezultati ankete
[Survey Results]. https://zuov.gov.rs/rezultati-ankete-sta-15-000-prosvetnih-radnika-misli-o-
ostvarivanjuobrazovno-vaspitnog-procesa-putem-ucenja-na-daljinu
Cite as: Marković Krstić, S., & Milošević Radulović, L. (2021). Evaluating distance education
in Serbia during the Covid-19 pandemic. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3),
467-484. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.467
Suzana V. Marković Krstić PhD, Associate Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy,
(Corresponding author) Department of Sociology, Ćirila i Metodija 2, 18000 Niš, Serbia.
E-mail: suzana.markovic.krstic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Website: https://www.filfak.ni.ac.rs/nastavno-osoblje/sociologija/item/153-
suzana-markovic-krstic
Lela R. Milošević Radulović PhD, Associate Professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Philosophy,
Department of Sociology, Ćirila i Metodija 2, 18000 Niš, Serbia.
E-mail: lela.milosevic.radulovic@filfak.ni.ac.rs
Website: https://www.filfak.ni.ac.rs/nastavno-osoblje/sociologija/item/155-
lela-milosevic-radulovic

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
ACHIEVING ACTIVE LEARNING AND DEEP 485
LEARNING WITH MEDIA USING THE

EXAMPLE OF TEACHING FINANCE
Alexander Zureck
FOM University of Applied Sciences, Germany
E-mail: alexander.zureck@fom.de
Abstract
The range of study programs in finance and the ways how to study due to place, time, and focus has
increased in recent years. Students can choose what and how they want to learn. If someone finds an
appropriate program he must decide to study face-to-face, online, or in a hybrid format.
Finance is often a duty in business administration or related study programs. For many students in those
classes the financial topics are bleak. This leads to a passive consumption of contents and ends often in
dropping out.
The aim of this research was to discuss methods to activate and keep learners motivated by using well
selected media in teaching. To identify which media is used in teaching, a literature review was done.
Teaching annual reports and other official reports available in English and/or German from several
international educational institutions are read, compared, and analyzed. Additionally, secondary
academic literature is checked for further examples.
In a first step, therefore, different techniques to active students, such as collaboration or interaction, are
discussed critically on a literature base. In a second step, based on the techniques, a selection matrix
was obtained that supports educators to select the right medium to deal with a certain technique. Many
examples were found that might assist educators in the practical use of the selection matrix.
Keywords: active learning in finance, motivation in higher education, media selection
Introduction
In 2020, the pandemic situation due to COVID-19 brought the digitalization of education
to everyone’s attention. Across the globe, many higher education institutions were closed for a
long time. Teaching and learning were shifted to online formats. Educators and learners often did
not even have the opportunity to meet each other in person. Teaching had to be transformed into
new formats within a couple of weeks and established learning environments were disrupted.
Besides the special situation arising out of the pandemic, teaching and learning are
changing continuously in recent times. There is a trend for lifelong learning because of
permanently changing requirements as viewed from the own job perspectives. Content-based
changes and also technology-related changes might constantly affect an individual’s job.
Academization is another reason why people look for new educational programs.
The individual education has also changed over the last decades. People do not ask
anymore for study programs after they have finished school. Today it is normal firstly to go
abroad after school or to gather some professional experiences. Some people are also interested
in a second or third master’s program to qualify for new jobs.
The changing demands of learners affect the educational institutions. There are institutions
that continue to focus on the traditional education system with well-known study programs.
Others offer study programs tailor-made for working people in general or for certain groups
from specific industries. Learners are confronted with a variety of programs offered by various
educational institutions.

Alexander ZURECK. Achieving active learning and deep learning with media using the example of teaching finance
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
486 There is great interest to earn a new certificate that qualifies one for a new job position.
Against this, stands the steady decrease in the academic motivation for adults to finish a study
program. Motivation depends on several aspects. Some influencing factors are the nature of
study program, job prospects, or the support of own family. Active learners participating in an
online study program or in a class are different.
This research focused on how to get learners from higher education institutions activated
to learn financial topics by the strategic use of media. Active learning includes the learner in
the learning process. Based on a literature review, techniques to get students activated with the
selection of the right media to deal with bleak contents should be elaborated.
Today’s Expectations for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
Existing literature shows that academic motivation of adults has been declining over the
years (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Novelty, the unexpected, and new life situations, among
others, arouse adults’ situational interest and make them aware of their limited knowledge of
issues for a short time. Situational interest must be transformed into topic interest as it changes
adults’ long-term preferences, and they get increasingly interested in the context (Tobias, 1994).
Since the 2000s, situational interests have become more important in the context
of learning. Before that, learning was mostly text-based. In the beginning of the 2000s, the
learning environment was under the focus of research. New learning materials and strategies
were discussed. How to deliver a task to a learner was also a topic of discussion in the context
of situational learning (Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Lepper &
Cordova, 1992).
Interest and knowledge have different impacts on learning. Learning benefits more from
interest because interest itself supports comprehension processes, imagination, and stimulation
of relevant emotional and personal associations (Tobias, 1994).
Learners have many choices to learn today. More and more online distance learning
options are being chosen. The enrollments in those programs are increasing by the year,
especially in emerging economies such as Brazil, China, or Turkey (Qayyum & Zawacki-
Richter, 2019).
They can choose between online and face-to-face settings or may prefer a mixed
approach. In regard to the diversity of possibilities, different skilled academic staff for the
different settings is needed. Perla et al. (2019) pointed out that for online courses digitally
skilled academic staff is needed. Not only the digital professors, but also digital tutors and other
supporters are needed. Therefore, higher education institutions must train and evaluate their
staff. Finally, educators must be able to teach learners contents from the learners’ point of view
by using all possible methods that a teaching environment offers.
Online courses are often taken by graduates aged between 25 and 30. They use the
online courses to learn new skills or strengthen existing skills for their professional careers
(Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016).
In general, there are four different ways how digital media can influence teaching:
Learning completely takes place in the digital world; digital media replaces traditional media
totally; content-based or feature-based expansion of the traditional offer; and retention of the
traditional offer with some replaced media (de Witt & Gloerfeld, 2018). Regardless of the type
of media integration, students do not radically change their learning (Saunders & Gale, 2012).
In the U.S.A., distance learning is more widespread than in Europe. Fewer limitations lead
to more online programs offered by educational institutions. Until 2005, the number of online
programs was limited up to 50% for colleges and universities. This rule was eliminated from the
Higher Education Act in 2006 and the number of online courses started to increase (Deming et
al., 2012). Before the elimination, 15.5% enrolled in a distance education course and 5.1% did

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
the entire program online; and after the change, it was about 20% and 4%, respectively (U.S. 487
Department of Education, 2011). Nowadays, one-third of all students are enrolled in distance
education courses in the U.S.A. The percentage of those students who do the entire program in
distance learning is about 15% (U.S. Department of Education, 2019).
The most often taken online courses are business programs in the U.S.A. There is a trend
that students prefer to enroll in programs of nearby schools. To learn online, students choose the
way that best fits their needs and schedules. The younger students especially prefer to complete
course-related activities on their mobile devices. If there were no online course, they would
enroll in a classroom program. Students think they can also learn soft skills such as critical
thinking, problem-solving, writing, time management, teamwork, and oral communication in
an online program (Clinefelter et al., 2019).
In 2017, the European Commission published a communication about European
higher education in the future. Technology should be used to organize learning and teaching.
Flexibility and educator-student interaction should be realized by including open, online, and
blended learning. Additionally, digital contents should be used to get students more involved
in research. Educators should get professional support to meet the requirements of the digital
future (European Commission, 2017).
The real situation is, however, different and teaching as well as learning is not digital
in Europe. Half of the European students never use digital media such as software, podcasts,
or simulations to learn. Educators do not feel digital-literate and the majority of the educators
would like to get more training in using digital media in teaching (Nascimbeni et al., 2019).
In Germany, 5.5% of all students at higher education institutions are enrolled in online
programs (Qayyum & Zawacki-Richter, 2019). 23.6% of them are enrolled in business
programs. More than 40% of these students are aged between 25 and 34 (Fogolin, 2019).
Summarizing, on average 21.3% of higher education students enroll in online courses.
Notably, online courses offered by large educational institutions or state-owned companies are
more trustworthy. In countries like Canada, the U.S., or the U.K., a certificate does not indicate
whether the program was taught online or face-to-face. In an application process, therefore,
employers cannot take the study model into consideration (Qayyum & Zawacki-Richter, 2019).
Online teaching has been established as an alternative or extension. In the past, research
on online teaching focused on the medium itself and the use of several tools. Now, the research
focuses on content, pedagogy, assessment, and ways as well as strategies to engage students and
to make them active learners (Green et al., 2010; Tomas et al., 2015).
Two big disadvantages face the digitization of learning. On the one hand, there is the fear
to lose intellectual property rights since educators develop course materials with innovative
ideas and original constructs and, on the other, the strict copyright laws deter educators from
incorporating digital media into their courses (Guri-Rosenblit, 2018).
Theoretical Framework to Meet Learners’ Needs
Active learning is more effective than traditional frontal learning for various subjects,
especially, smaller groups of learners benefit significantly from active learning in the learning
process (Freeman et al., 2014). Active learning offers educators more space to coach learners
individually. Times of presence can be used for coaching the learners instead of losing valuable
time in frontal lecturing. Pure knowledge transfer can be realized with videos beforehand. If
times of presence are active, students’ concentration will increase, and mobile devices will
not get too much attention (Loviscach, 2019). Different means to get learners activated are
described in the following part.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
488 Collaboration
Discussions in a face-to-face setting often end in the homogeneity of ideas and meanings.
Individuals are influenced by others’ opinions and a group opinion begins to form. In an online
discussion, people have more time to think. They do not follow ideas of others uncritically.
They are not affected by others’ behavior especially in the form of gestures and mimicry. Both
are transmitted on a reduced level in an online environment (Chen & Looi, 2007).
The staff has a critical role online. Educators must intervene in discussions to get the
learners socially engaged. Students need to get timely feedback from educators on their
learning progress (Tomas et al., 2015). Today’s students grew up with constant collaboration
and communication in social media. They expect to get a fast answer as they typically find
online. There are fewer inhibitions online and students are not shy of making contact with the
teaching staff. For this reason, today’s students need continual feedback, and they look for
interaction in teaching and extensive collaboration in learning (Saunders & Gale, 2012).
In an online discussion, learners’ collaboration is based on content. All participants
have an equal opportunity to join a conversation and express their own ideas. Online is less
judgmental on influencing factors such as social status, style, accent, or personality (Chen &
Looi, 2007). All learners are knowledge creators online. Input from learners supports creating
a community and a collaborative learning environment (Abedin et al., 2010; Green et al., 2010;
Oliveira et al., 2011).
Collaboration between students is needed for a completely successful and blended
learning, and to engage students. Students learn dominantly individually and just need some
guidance. Collaboration is needed to improve the learning of an individual. Valuable connections
between individuals improve their learning and should be used for special purposes to reach
personal engagement and success. If one student evaluates the subject as bleak, collaboration
with him is counterproductive (Tomas et al., 2015).
Interaction
An interactive relation between individuals is often based on specific interests. These

interests are related to the environment of an individual and might be objects, events, or ideas.
They are content specific (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Technological development is another
important factor. New technologies offer different possibilities to learn interactively and
provide educators various formats for teaching. Multimedia can be used for interaction and
communication. Learners bringing their own devices improve their trust in the new media, the
use of which helps to generate new knowledge (de Witt & Gloerfeld, 2018).
The possibility to interact in an online or blended learning setting depends on an
appropriate use of information and communication technologies. Limitations lower a student’s
motivation (Yükseltürk & Yildirim, 2008), whereas earning badges, scores, levels and other
gamification elements enhances their motivation and interaction in a kind of competition with
other learners (Butgereit, 2016).
Interaction has an impact on the student’s success in terms of academic achievement,
performance, and satisfaction. Online, there are three types of interaction, for example learner-
educator interaction, learner-learner interaction, and learner-content interaction. The quantity
of interaction in an online course which influences the effectiveness of the course through
persistence and retention (Bolliger & Martindale, 2004; Y. C. Kuo & Belland, 2016).
Learner-educator interaction describes different ways of supporting the learner. It covers
guidance, encouragement, and motivational as well as emotional support (Bernard et al., 2009).
Learner-learner interaction arises in collaborative activities where students can interact with
others in small groups. Students can share ideas and thoughts, thereby learning interactively from

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
each other. In higher education, learners benefit from others and their professional experiences 489
(Battalio, 2007; Y. C. Kuo & Belland, 2016). Learner-content interaction improves learner’s
understanding and cognitive thinking ability including capabilities like critical thinking and
problem solving. The learners connect their life experience to theoretical concepts (Bernard et
al., 2009). Thus, learner-content interaction covers the feature of media selection and the nature
of learning and instructional design as well (Y. C. Kuo & Belland, 2016).
The challenge in the case of learning is to entice learners to take part actively in an
online discussion. The progress of a class, however, is stopped by too much discussion without
any results. Thus, postings should not be task orientated only. At the end, not everyone can be
activated with a discussion if it is not compulsory practice (Chen & Looi, 2007).
Motivation
Individuals’ motivation to learn depends on interest and goals. These factors influence
learning expressively (Tobias, 1994). Intellectually engaged students ask questions and develop
critical thinking over ideas and concepts; and it also sharpens their general thinking linked to
their chosen disciplines. They are open to multiple perspectives on their topics (Pittaway, 2012).
Purposefully used online pedagogies and resources can support learning. Learners can
improve, for example, their capabilities in conceptual understanding, scientific literacy, and
sustainability (Tomas et al., 2015). Gamification accelerates thereby motivating, engaging, and
activating a learner (Butgereit, 2016).
Motivation and engagement in a course depend on the participants and the course itself.
Besides, what also matters is the organization of the course including its assessment and
pedagogical framework. The provision of citing case studies as authentic examples enhances
the engagement and motivation of a learner (Tomas et al., 2015).
Learners’ intrinsic motivation is driven by commitment, challenge, control, competition,
and contemporaneity. Commitment is formed by a larger group and the individual must believe
in belonging to the group. A participant list with names and pictures supports this aspect in
an online course. The challenge is that the course should not be too easy or difficult for the
entire group of participants. Control deals with the feeling of an individual. Individuals want
to control their environments. This is easier in an asynchronous online course because the
individual determines the pace of learning. Learners need competition while collaborating with
others. Gamification with points or badges for tasks creates a sense of competition between
the participants. Contemporaneity arises by modifying an online course with daily updated
contents from newspapers and video platforms, or contents created by students themselves
(Gottfried, 1985; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016; Rieber, 1991).
Intensification
The requirements for workers in high-qualified jobs have changed over the last few
decades. Today, a lot of work that requires routine skills is done by computers. For other tasks,
workers must critically think about specific issues, and they must have a sound understanding
of the context (Levy & Murnane, 2004).
In jobs for highly qualified people other skills are required. These people must be able to
find and process information to make decisions and to generate new ideas. People must have
a look at the details while, at the same time, easier tasks can be run by computers. Thus, these
people require critical thinking and deep understanding capabilities (Silva, 2009).
Problem solving on a high level requires people to think critically and to deal with different
perspectives. New things are often created when individuals with different perspectives give
their input to the problem; and especially, mavericks in a group with a good mood have positive
impacts on problem solving (Hayashi, 2018).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
490 Memorization
In research and society, there is a long debate on the reading of printed and digital
texts. Research underlines the fact that printed texts have many advantages as they help deep
comprehension and retention of texts. Printed long texts have a positive impact on concentration,
vocabulary, and memory. However, this is not always true as, finally, all these aspects depend
on the individual’s capabilities, skills, and assessment (E-READ, 2019).
Readers skim over a text more often if it is digital. They are often under pressure and
skimming is the consequence of a lower concentration on the contents (E-READ, 2019). This
effect is bigger when a reading time limit is imposed (Delgado et al., 2018; E-READ, 2019).
Informational texts use academic vocabulary and often they are not connected to real
world issues. Both points have a negative impact on the comprehension of informational texts
and require a higher level of processing (Graesser & McNamara, 2011).
Printed and digital texts have their own advantages and disadvantages of learning.
Educators must consider these aspects before they use both kinds of texts. If the right media is
used in the right aspect, media equivalence is possible (Delgado et al., 2018).
Analogously, there is a difference in taking notes. People can memorize contents better
after making hand notes than by using a computer keyboard or a touch-screen keyboard.
However, there should be a balanced mix of handwriting and digital writing because digital
solutions have proven to be necessary in today’s daily learning and business life (Frangou et
al., 2019).
Formal and Informal Learning
Formal learning focuses on learning and teaching based on a curriculum created by

educators and approved by an official institution. It often comes with a given schedule, learning
contents, materials, and activities. Informal learning does not have a curriculum and learners do
not feel to be in a learning situation (Livingstone, 2012). Informal learning often happens when
learners are engaging or interacting with others. It is self-directed, unplanned, and unorganized.
Smartphones and tablets, for example, offer new options to learn anywhere at any time. Informal
learning can be blended with or dissolved into formal learning (Elsafi, 2018). The blurring of
the two is an advantage. Institutions can provide required knowledge and skills facilitating
formal learning. It is complemented by informal learning where learners can stick to contents
in a self-directed learning regime (Sangrà & Wheeler, 2013).
Informal learning is crucial for lifelong learning, and it includes a motivational factor
driven by the learner’s personal interests (Wong, 2013). It is often no learning for the learner
because there are no learning goals, learning environments, or design. The learner just wants to
develop individually (Dilger et al., 2019).
In the following figure, different means to activate learners are briefly presented. A
mixture of different possibilities might be the best strategy to get learners actively involved in
teaching:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 1 491
Techniques to Activate Learners
Reaching Learners’ Needs in a Blended Learning Setting
Digital Literacy
The change in the standards of teaching requires digitally literate staff in education
institutions. Digital literacy is more than an ability to deal with digital tools. It is complex and
socio-culturally sensitive and situated practices and attitudes are required to address it. Digital
tools must be used for the interaction and collaboration with learners and others (Martin, 2008).
Digitally literate educators can deal with the following three points in their teaching
(Perla et al., 2019):
• Content: Identification of the fundamental subjects for learners,
• Transdisciplinarity: Use of fundamental subjects in a particular context,
• Digital transdisciplinarity of contents: Transmission of fundamental subjects in a
particular context to digital media.
Digital transdisciplinarity of contents helps learners to memorize and represent contents. Digital
media helps to generalize contents and understand issues related to a specific situation (Oleson
& Hora, 2014).
Learners enrolled in an online course need respectable computer literacy skills to meet
all the requirements of the program in terms of tasks and examinations (Bennett et al., 2008).
A satisfied student will finish an educational program with good performance, and he
will promote the program afterwards. There is an interlink between satisfaction and academic
performance (Chang & Smith, 2008; Reinhart & Schneider, 2001). The possibility of interacting
in an online course influences student satisfaction critically (Y.-C. Kuo et al., 2014). Besides
this, the content arrangement, document layout, access to contents, and the use of digital media
have influence on student satisfaction (Havice et al., 2010). The useful implementation of digital
media in a course facilitates understanding of certain contents and improves the cognitive
schemes of learners (Y. C. Kuo & Belland, 2016; Wanstreet, 2006).
Learners in a distance learning setting can be separated by place and time. Focusing on
the time, they can learn at their own pace. It is asynchronous distance learning. If they learn
together with others, it is synchronous distance learning (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016). Distance
learning is often associated with online learning on a computer or a mobile device but finally
distance and online learning are not the same. Generally, there is a wider range of media that

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
492 can be used to teach students not learning at the same place: letter correspondence, radio, TV,
mobile device, the Internet, and others (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016).
Blended learning is a mixture of teaching and self-learning. On the one hand, learners
get the opportunity to add contents and to focus on certain things that are relevant for them.
On the other hand, they can skip unimportant contents. Contents and learning itself must fit
the learner’s context and needs (Masie, 2005). This leads often to a greater motivation for the
learner. Learning appears to be related to the learner’s real world (Garrison & Vaughan, 2007).
Learners can focus on their needs, interests, and personal backgrounds in blended
learning. Delivering and providing feedback on the personal progress is the task of the educator
in such a setting. Feedback can be given face-to-face or online by a learning management
system, discussion forums, or e-mails (Milad, 2019). Video conferencing tools are also usable
to give a direct and personal feedback to a learner. They offer the advantage of referring directly
to certain documents while using the software.
Blended learning has advantages for learners who are shy or do not like to be in a certain
group of learners. Most of the time, people can learn what they want (Milad, 2019). Blended
learning offers, in general, a lot of individuality and fits the needs of the learners. Gender
differences can be respected. For example, women like to have more interaction with the
educator than men do. Women like a combination of understanding, empathy, and acceptance
(Rovai & Baker, 2005). Adaptive hypermedia is the best way to reach everyone and address
individual needs (Brown et al., 2005).
Bloom’s taxonomy is an often-used model to create contents or exams for classes. There
are also different apps and web tools that can be used in an educational setting to teach and
learn. The choice of tools is quite broad, and it varies from operating to operating system (de
Witt & Gloerfeld, 2018; Schrock, 2011). In general, blended learning has impacts on critical and
higher-level thinking skills. This includes, among others, skills such as comparing, classifying,
deducing, analyzing errors, and abstraction. Learners learn to transform the learned information
to use it to get a certain task done (Garrison & Vaughan, 2007).
The study was a literature review where previous work on the topic and additional
documents from several institutions have been thoroughly analyzed and critically evaluated.
Research reports from higher education institutions, presentations of teaching and learning
concepts as well as quality reports for example are covered by the analyzed documents.
The best practice examples were directly retrieved from the higher education institutions
via Google or as they were found in other scientific papers. In search, the following keywords
were used in English and German in a variety of combinations: Accounting, Annual, AR,
Augmented Reality, Banking, Bericht, Betrriebswirtschaftlehre, Blog, Business, CBT,
College, Computer Based Training, Facebook, Fachhochschule, Finance, Finanz, Finanzen,
Finanzierung, Higher Education, Hochschule, Instagram, Internet, Investment, Jahresbericht,
Lehrbericht, Lehrbericht, LinkedIn, Online Course, Planspiel, Podcast, Report, Simulation,
Social Media, SozialeNetzwerke, Stock Market, Teaching, Twitter, Uni, Universität, University,
Virtual Classroom, Virtual Reality, VR, WBL, WBT, Web Based Training, WebbasiertesLernen,
Webinar, Wirtschaftswissenschaften, and Xing.
All documents were analyzed qualitatively. The given examples were searched on the
internet and were reviewed critically. The review was focused on the question whether the
example is fitting to the teaching of financial contents and whether it is fitting to teaching in a
higher education setting.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Research Results 493
The European Commission (2017) pointed out that educators needed professional
training to be prepared to work in a digital future. The Universidad Internacional de La Rioja
(UNIR) created with partners from several countries a course where higher education educators
can gain the experience of working with information and communications technology in
teaching. The participants are induced to use digital media in the course. It is an attempt to make
educators think about the possible implementation of the media in their daily work (Nascimbeni
et al., 2019). Choosing the educators is essential for digital media to be introduced into the
course. Educators, like all people, are creatures of habit and have a delayed reaction to change.
The use of digital media promotes the creativity of teaching in blended learning (Milad,
2019). It can be divided in textual, visual, and audio content (Mayer, 2002). The learning is
improved by using real-life material and input. Interdisciplinary and cross-curricular materials
encourage learners’ motivation (Govindasamy, 2002).
Most of the currently enrolled students are digital natives and they know how to use
digital media. They like to work with digital media and spend a lot of time on working with
useful tools. Most students are strategic learners and stick to media they are familiar with.
New technologies do not change the learning methods of students rapidly. Finally, learners are
strategic learners and choose those media that enable them to pass a certain course (Saunders
& Gale, 2012).
Social Media
In general, social media, especially microblogging with Twitter is used by universities

to reach out to the target group at eye level. The target group receives information about study-
related events, contents, and multimedia from the university (Hochschule Merseburg, 2018). It
is also used to reach out to people outside the university. For example, the public can get direct
information from conferences. Discussions about lectures or other contents can also take place
in social media (University of Exeter, 2019).
Social media allows learning outside a classroom without any divide between formal
and informal learning (Gao et al., 2012). In a finance course, social media can be used to
intensify personal interests. Financial communities with a specific focus, for example, on stock
movements can motivate a student to develop interest in the topic.
To get interaction in class, Twitter must be used in small groups. In larger groups,
followers just consume information without adding any information on the network (Lowe &
Laffey, 2011). Twitter has the potential to develop a sense of social presence between students
and the faculty person. Because of this, the integration in online learning settings is useful to
get learners socially and emotionally involved in the group of learners (Dunlap & Lowenthal,
2009). Generally, in a finance class Twitter is useful for introducing currently discussed topics
to the class. The educator shares articles and other media about related topics with the learners.
In the class, the educator uses the shared information to explain contents based on the tweets.
The integration of micro blogging into teaching needs a strong curriculum orientation.
Tweets must have a direct relation to the curriculum and a frequency is needed to get Twitter
implemented in teaching. Twitter cannot replace other types of teaching. It is a supplement that
enriches learners with additional and especially current information (Lowe & Laffey, 2011).
The use of Twitter in a class can be realized as it is used in a conference context. Learners can
follow course-related topics with a specific hashtag that is used by an educator for the course.
One hashtag for one course is the challenge for using Twitter in a specific course. All involved
people must use this hashtag for all related tweets. Furthermore, social media is useful for
holding a fast poll in class on learners’ expectations about stock performances. The advantage

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
494 of using social media in comparison to pure discussions in class is that the information is saved
on the internet. The educator has the opportunity to go back to certain information later in class.
Finally, all tweets and contents are publicly available on Twitter.
In small groups, social media can be used in addition to physical group collaboration.
Groups can meet online in addition to physical meetings on platforms such as Facebook to
contact other group members and to collaborate on certain tasks (Saunders & Gale, 2012).
Collaborating on a prominent platform, for example Facebook, allows sharing of contents
also with third parties such as friends and family. Those people are not part of the education
institution’s internal platform. Future learners can also benefit from publicly available content.
Saunders & Gale (2012) pointed out that students asked for continual feedback. Social media
can be used by an educator in a classroom or out of it to give students feedback or to get some
on the learning process. Twitter can be used to provide information about certain topics to
learners or to discuss a current topic in class. Facebook offers the possibility that information is
kept in a group and others can check the information as and when required.
Wiki
A wiki can be a knowledge database that is made by a group of learners. In comparison

to social media such as Twitter or Facebook, it has more power for performing complex tasks.
Social media has advantages if fast reactions or sharing are needed. Wikis have advantages if
contents are to be developed step by step over a period. Bryant & Albring (2006), therefore, state
in this context that learning contents must be divided into a certain number of tasks. Learners
can work on their own tasks and, taken together, these tasks are the sum of the general task.
Learners can improve the contributions of others directly online on the wiki. The collaboration
and the interaction between the learners improve the final output. At the end, the wiki is a
database that covers all topics related to the lecture. For finance, it can be a collection of topics
such as industry, analysis, valuation, acquisition and so on (Bryant & Albring, 2006). In a
certain class, a wiki can be used to create an analyst report with a recommendation to buy, hold,
or sell a stock. The final document and the recommendations are the output of a collaboration
on a wiki.
A wiki is a collaboration platform where learners can instantly present their opinions
and thoughts primarily without getting influenced by others’ opinions and without forming
a group opinion (Chen & Looi, 2007). As previously mentioned, a typical task in a finance
course is to prepare a financial analyst report including the valuation of a certain company.
On a wiki, learners can present their ideas and interpretation without being influenced by the
educator and other learners on this task. In comparison to a single result presentation in class,
the advantage of a wiki is the possibility of others to comment directly on the work of others.
All these comments are visible so that changes are traceable, and everybody can take the time
to think about content. No direct feedback as it happens in class is needed. The educator is
always like a coach. He can give feedback on several ideas and can support the results with
his experiences. According to Tomas et al. (2015), the educator must ensure that learners are
socially engaged and make their contributions.
For example, for the preparation of a financial report, each student must work on a certain
task by writing a text for the wiki. The text will be available online and readable for everybody.
This is positive pressure to concentrate on the task and it intensifies the understanding of the
contents. The contents will move to the long-term memory.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Blog 495
It is easier for a single educator to setup an internet blog and use it in a course than
using a wiki. The operation of a wiki needs some IT resources and some advanced skills for
the first setup if no general setup in Moodle or elsewhere is made by the education institution
to facilitate it.
In a finance course, internet blogs can be used to prepare a class for complex tasks in
the final exams, such as a small case study. The educator can put the task as a post on the blog.
Each student can interact by writing an answer to the task. The educator can select the answer
that should be presented in class. The class can use all individual posts to work on a final
posting that can be the best answer to the given task. This type of preparation has advantages
for learners working in a foreign language. Students can take the time they need to work on the
task (FOM Hochschule, 2017).
Many people publish their individual financial success stories on blogs. There are many
internet blogs with a focus on retirement or the FIRE movement (mrmoneymustache.com or
junginrente.de) that motivate students to deal with specific topics. Stories of others can be
interesting for a student’s own strategy when the parameters match.
There are also some blogs on the internet that deal with specific financial instruments
or techniques for investment (dividendenadel.de or vermietertagebuch.com). These blogs can
motivate a learner, but mostly learners can be interested in using a certain financial instrument
while reading the blog. The blog shows the practical use of the financial instrument that was
discussed theoretically in class.
Video
Videos can be used to deliver general information to learners. They can inform about a
study program, a specific major, or the university in general (Hochschule Merseburg, 2018).
Videos are comparable to frontal lecturing. Today it is the best way to use videos to prepare
learners for the next meetup. Educators can use the meeting time to coach learners with open
discussions or individual feedback. Theoretical basics can be delivered through a video.
Recording and streaming of lectures on the internet is useful for learners to follow the
contents of the class if a student is unable to attend the class. Recordings of lectures are useful
as lecture wrap-up to prepare for exams in challenging subjects and for students with less
experiences in learning, such as first-year students (Tomas et al., 2015). In finance, videos can
be used to deliver theoretical topics, such as the basics of the capital asset pricing model, to
learners. If the learners have watched a video before the next meeting in class, the educator can
use the time for an open discussion about the use of the model in daily practice (Fyfield et al.,
2020).
Like blogs, videos can be motivating when they include documentary contents or a
success story of someone. Movies such as the Wall Street from 1987 engage students to deal
with the discussed topics. The story around the relevant topic in the sense of learning finance
lets students occupy themselves with the topic to understand the entire issue in the movie.
Podcast
Podcasts are mostly followed on a smartphone by younger people aged between 18 and
34. More than 50 percent of them generally listen to podcasts and about one-third listen to them
while using public or private transportation. People listen to podcasts mostly while having a
coffee, walking their dogs, doing the laundry, or cooking. They prefer podcasts that inform and
entertain. Podcasters use narratives to reach out to listeners (Newman et al., 2019). Podcasts can

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
496 be used in the context of finance to motivate students. An interesting story of someone’s life or
experiences, therefore, must be told as was previously described for blogs. In comparison to a
blog, podcasts offer the choice of listening to the contents while doing other things.
In Europe, 75 percent of higher education institutions have their lectures available as
videos or podcasts. It is the easiest feature of digital learning and is widely accepted (Gaebel
et al., 2018). Podcasts are produced by the university, or they are produced in classes. The
production of a podcast is a new didactic tool in higher education (Hochschule Ansbach, 2019).
The recording of a lecture can be used to put emphasis on taught contents. Podcasts of lectures
are strong means to emphasize taught contents and offer the choice for students to get familiar
parallelly with new contents and a new medium.
The University of Melbourne runs its own podcast called The Policy Shop. It was
launched in 2016 to enhance in the listeners leadership qualities and community awareness. The
focus of the podcast is on Australian and international policy (University of Melbourne, 2017).
Higher education institutions use podcasts to offer additional academic expertise from university
members and experts to students and other listeners. Researchers and guests are interviewed to
share information on their careers and successes (Chemnitz University of Technology, 2018;
University of Melbourne, 2017). Such expertise in combination with the used story telling in a
podcast strengthens the anchoring of the subject matter in the long-term memory of a listener.
Stories are often perceived as pictures in someone’s mind, and this can be remembered easier
than written texts and hard facts.
The University of New England holds a collection of more than 200 podcasts and
vodcasts in its library to support learning. The contents cover subject-related topics and help
topics such as how to use Google Scholar (University of New England, 2010). Podcasts are
useful in reaching out to a great number of learners formally and informally. They can be
used to repeat contents or to deepen student understanding with practical examples (Schwaiger,
2012).
Podcasts are used to convey extra-curricular content to students. The Indiana University
uses podcasts to improve students’ personal finance skills (The U.S. Financial Literacy and
Education Commission, 2015). The University of Cape Town uses podcasts to help non-native
students understand contents written in English which are not their first language. It is part of a
multilingual concept (University of Cape Town, 2017).
The Macquarie University stays connected with former students through podcasts. It
provides the alumni with new information about the university, contents, and other things
(Macquarie University, 2011). The Hochschule Merseburg uses podcasts to present careers of
alumni to currently enrolled students (Hochschule Merseburg, 2018).
Web Based Training
Web Based Training (WBT) is used to combine different learning formats into one tool.
Collaboration and interaction tools complement traditional materials such as presentations,
texts, or videos. Tests are another medium that can be integrated on a WBT. Educators can see
who attend the test and the candidate’s performance (Privatuniversität Schloss Seeburg, 2011).
Among others the La Trobe University entered into a partnership with LinkedIn Learning
to provide their staff, students, and alumni access to this professional development platform (La
Trobe University, 2019). Online courses from a university can also be used to share them with
other partner universities, that is for efficient doctoral training (University of Oulu, 2017).
The Royal Holloway University of London is offering a massive open online course
(MOOC) with its focus on open data and open innovation. Learners get to know how companies
can create new business models, products, and services on freely available data (Royal Holloway
University of London, 2018).

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
The Keiser University is offering a library training to its students online. Students can 497
easily access the library’s collections and the reading list. Furthermore, students can also use
other web-based research databases (Keiser University, 2020).
In the field of finance, WBT can be used to train learners how to use specific software
such as Bloomberg or Refinitiv. These skills are essential for the learners but the explanation of
the technical procedure for using the software takes too much time in a lecture. The advantage
of using WBT for this purpose is that some contents in the WBT can be replaced individually.
The software providers often change some details and a WBT can be modified to consider also
those changes.
Webinar
Classes get the opportunity to meet online. Webinars are used to prepare or follow
up contents from lectures in class, for feedback, presentations, discussions, and group work.
Educators from abroad can join in easily on the webinar. This makes teaching international and
flexible (Privatuniversität Schloss Seeburg, 2011).
In the context of finance webinars can be used by educators or by learners. Educators can
use webinars to support learners, for example, during the preparation of their theses. Learners
can use webinars to collaborate on certain documents. Also, the transmission of video and audio
allows one to interact with others in a conversation. Breakout sessions and group work can be
extra-motivating for some students.
Game
Digital games greatly help learning. To be beneficial, the game must be goal-orientated,
engaging, motivating, and must lead to critical thinking. A good game provides users with
continuous feedback on their performance and allows them to get control over the learning
environment (Denham & Guyotte, 2018).
Games generally motivate people to explore new things. Often people try to apply their
learning from games to the real world. Games and interaction with others in the game can
influence the behavior of the players. Also, games are motivating, and they support engagement
(Liew et al., 2018). Serious games are directly developed for learning purposes. However, there
are games that lack seriousness, but they also support learning in an informal way.
Games such as CASHFLOW by Robert Kiyosaki can be used in a finance class to
develop a general understanding of personal finance and of the influence of debts on personal
wealth. Additionally, students learn the basics of investment from the game. The game offers
different strategies to become financially independent. The way is a competition and interaction
with others where learners can learn intensively from each other’s financial decisions.
Simulation
Simulations are used to analyze and learn a process in a company. Furthermore,

management decisions can be simulated in different market conditions. Simulations include a
closed market with different market players. Learners play different roles over some years in the
simulated surrounding (Schwaiger, 2016). Entrepreneurship as well as established businesses
can be the subject of the simulation (Hochschule Hamm-Lippstadt, 2018; Schwaiger, 2016).
Learners must collaborate and interact with others in the simulation to be successful at the end.
The collaboration and interaction in the group support formal and informal learning. Covered
contents are learned in the simulation but the students also informally learn about decision-
making and collaboration in groups. Along with the hard facts about the simulation’s topics, the
students also get some soft facts that might be beneficial to them in the future.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
498 In the field of finance, stock market simulations are used to improve a learner’s stock
market knowledge and the general business knowledge. In a given period of time, learners
have to generate the highest returns to win the competition (Hochschule Hamm-Lippstadt,
2018). Competitions are often organized by companies or non-profit organizations. Education
institutions use these external educational services (EFMD, 2019; Planspiel Börse, 2020).
Learners become investors and they learn how to struggle with emotions and risks while
investing in certain stocks. For the learners, a good performance while playing the simulation
might be a motivator behind investments in real assets such as stocks. Simultaneously, mistakes
made in the simulations help avert mistakes in real-life investments (Liew et al., 2018). Learners
recognize their behavior patterns, and this affects future trading and investment, especially in
the real world. They improve their learning about volatility and other market effects on daily
investing and trading in the simulation.
Software can be used to simulate different models in macroeconomics. Students run
practical simulation exercises to understand political decision making by central banks such as
the ECB or the FED (Institute for Monetary and Financial Stability, 2019). Fidelity Labs uses
virtual reality to visualize these computational models to make them more understandable.
With gamification, financial issues should be more comprehensible to learners and customers
of the financial industry (Aldridge et al., 2019).
Book
Young people or especially digital natives prefer to read digital texts. They feel more
comfortable with these media and, armed with their digital experiences, they think they can
better handle digital media. For medical texts, it is proven that comprehension is better when
these people read printed texts (Singer & Alexander, 2017). The results, however, cannot be
confirmed by other studies at all. The quality of the digital media including the digital equipment
of a learner has impacts on comprehension. For younger students at a secondary school no
differences between the digital and printed could be observed (Porion et al., 2016), whereas for
linear narrative and expository texts the performance of young students was better for printed
texts (Mangen et al., 2013).
For younger learners, no differences in comprehension and memorization are observable
for paper-based and digital texts. Other criteria such as learning context, experiences, familiarity
etc. have even more significant impacts than the medium (Porion et al., 2016). Generally,
skimming and scrolling are important factors that influence the understanding of contents.
Learners more often skim over digital teaching media (Akkoyunlu & Soylu, 2008; Mangen et
al., 2013). Thus, textbooks in finance can be a good backbone for learners that have problems
due to skimming and scrolling. Finance topics are not often popular with learners. This prompts
skimming and scrolling. Learners can use textbooks additionally to avoid skimming over
important contents.
In financial education, textbooks can be used to deepen the understanding of certain
contents. Books such the “Richest Man in Babylon” by George S. Clason can improve the
understanding of general financial topics. Story telling in such a book has positive impacts on
memorization.
The explanations above show that there are different instruments and media which have
a positive impact on active learning. The combination of instruments and media is summarized
in the following figure. This figure might be an orientation for an educator to select the right
medium in class and online:

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Figure 2 499
Selection Matrix
Technique
Formal & Informal

Intensification
Collaboration
Memorization
Interaction
Motivation
Medium
Social Media X X X X
Webinar X X X
Wiki X X X X X X
Simulation X X X X X
Web Based Training X X X
Blog X X X X
Game X X X X
Video X X X
Podcast X X X X
Book X X
Conclusions and Outlook
This research shows how learners can get activated by a strategic use of media in teaching
finance. Learning finance is for many learners a big challenge because they are not interested
in the topic. Media diversity is the best way to get learners interested as each medium supports
different parts of active learning. Learners become curious individually since the usefulness of
one medium in activating them depends on the situational interest of individual learner in the
topic.
It was elaborated that in social media, an internal or external target group can get
information from an educator or an institution to collaborate or interact with others or to
enhance certain content or to memorize important things. Learner’s own selection of contents,
persons, and channels makes social media an individualized learning tool that motivates people
and supports formal and informal learning.
This investigation shows that in comparison to social media, wikis offer the possibility to
collaborate and interact intensively. Well-chosen individual tasks can motivate learners to bring
in their results to reach a group goal. Single contributions to a wiki can be modified by others
to improve the final quality of the output. Wikis are publicly available, and everybody can look
up specific topics repeatedly. The random reading of articles in a wiki can contribute to formal
and informal learning.
The analyzed examples show that the setup of a blog is easier than that of a wiki. Learners
can comment on the contributions of others in order to interact in a group of learners. Published
success stories motivate people to deal with a topic informally. Working on tasks on a blog
supports self-paced learning and improvements in content submitted by a learner. Finally, the
examples show that learners can deal with a certain task in greater depth.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
500 As a conclusion from this investigation educators should use videos formally to deliver
contents before they meet learners in person. With a video, the educator can also refer to things
that the learners should already know from previous courses. Live sessions should be used to
coach the learners and videos should be used before those sessions or in a short version in the
session to explain contents from a different point of view.
Research shows podcasts are a learning tool that can be used additionally. They can
provide learners with a motivating content, such as interviews with successful people, to
motivate students to deal with a topic. A podcast shares many similarities with a blog except
that it engages another sense organ. Listening to an interview with an expert in a specific area
helps the enhancement and memorization of contents. Listening to a podcast show for a certain
topic is also a kind of informal learning.
Online and board games offer learners the possibility of interacting with others and
learning from their decision making. Playing a game mostly in a competition is a motivator
for many. The post-game analysis of chosen strategies to win often ends in an improvement in
learned contents. New games are often tested randomly by players and that is why they offer a
good possibility for informal learning. The purposes of learning are often not in focus.
The given examples show that in contrast to games, simulations are long-term orientated.
Learners can improve on their decision making by collaborating and interacting with others over
several played periods. Playing with others promotes competition between players. Through
gamification, learners can enhance contents and learn about impacts of certain decisions. The
memorization of lessons learned and decision making can lead to better decisions in the real
world.
Browsing and scrolling have a negative impact on the general understanding of digital
contents. Textbooks help to enhance complex topics and to memorize important things for a
long time. Reading a book is time-consuming and forces the reader to concentrate on a specific
topic. Good storytelling supports memorization, too.
All in all, the examples discussed in this paper give different insights how to use different
media in teaching. The described techniques to active learners in combination with the selection
matrix presented in Figure 2 support educators to find the adequate tool to get the students
activated in any teaching setting.
Acknowledgements
This paper is co-funded by the European Union in the program Erasmus+ in the project
(FKZ: 2019-1-CZ01-KA203-0613579) that runs until 08/31/2021.

References

Abedin, B., Daneshgar, F., & D’Ambra, J. (2010). Underlying factors of sense of community in
asynchronous computer supported collaborative learning environments. Journal of Online
Learning and Teaching, 6(3), 585–596.
Akkoyunlu, B., & Soylu, M. Y. (2008). A study of student’s perceptions in a blended learning environment
based on different learning styles. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 183-193.
Aldridge, S. C., Powell, M. M., & Harvatt, K. (2019). Educating the next generation workforce —
Preparing students to meet employers’ needs and expectations. Drexel University Online.
Battalio, J. T. (2007). Interaction online: A reevaluation. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education,
8(4), 339–352.
Bennett, S., Maton, K., & Kervin, L. (2008). The ‘digital natives’ debate: A critical review of the evidence.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 775–786.
Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Borokhovski, E., Wade, C. A., Tamim, R. M., Surkes, M. A., & Bethel, E.
C. (2009). A meta-analysis of three types of interaction treatments in distance education. Review
of Educational Research, 79(3), 1243–1289.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Bolliger, D., & Martindale, T. (2004). Key factors for determining student satisfaction in. International 501
Journal on E-Learning, 3(1), 61–67.
Brown, E., Cristea, A., Stewart, C., & Brailsford, T. (2005). Patterns in authoring of adaptive educational
hypermedia: A taxonomy of learning styles. Educational Technology and Society, 8(3), 77–90.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ846433
Bryant, S. M., & Albring, S. M. (2006). Effective team building: Guidance for accounting educators.
Issues in Accounting Education, 21(3), 241–265. https://doi.org/10.2308/iace.2006.21.3.241
Butgereit, L. (2016). An exploration into mobile gamification in an Information Technology Classroom.
In H. Crompton & J. Traxler (Eds.), Mobile learning and STEM — case studies in practice (pp.
244–262). Routledge.
Chang, S.-H. H., & Smith, R. A. (2008). Effectiveness of personal interaction in a learner-centered
paradigm distance education class based on student satisfaction. Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 40(4), 407–426.
Chemnitz University of Technology. (2018). TUC report 2017.
Chen, W., & Looi, C.-K. (2007). Incorporating online discussion in face-to-face classroom learning: A
new blended learning approach. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(3), 307-326.
Clinefelter, D. L., Aslanian, C. B., & Magda, A. J. (2019). Online college students 2019: Comprehensive
data on demands and preferences. Willey Education Services.
de Witt, C., & Gloerfeld, C. (2018). Mobile learning and higher education. In D. Kergek, B. Heidkamp,
P. Kjærsdam Telléus & T. Rachwal, The Digital Turn in Higher Education (pp. 61–79). Springer
Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-19925-8
Delgado, P., Vargas, C., Ackerman, R., & Salmerón, L. (2018). Don’t throw away your printed books: A
meta-analysis on the effects of reading media on reading comprehension. Educational Research
Review, 25(September), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.003
Deming, D. J., Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2012). The for-profit postsecondary school sector: Nimble
critters or agile predators? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(1), 139–164. https://www.
aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.26.1.139
Denham, A. R., & Guyotte, K. W. (2018). Cultivating critical game makers in digital game-based learning:
Learning from the arts. Learning, Media and Technology, 43(1), 31–41.
Dilger, B., Gommers, L., & Rapp, C. (2019). The learning problems behind the seams in seamless
learning. In Lecture Notes in Educational Technology. Springer Singapore.
Dunlap, J. C., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2009). Horton hears a tweet. EDUCAUSE Quarterly, 32(4), 1–11.
E-READ. (2019, January 22). Zur Zukunft des Lesens [About the future of reading]. Frankfurter
Allgemeine.
EFMD. (2019). Annual Report 2018.
Elsafi, A. (2018). Formal and informal learning using mobile technology. In S. Yu, M. Ally, & A. Tsinakos
(Eds.), Mobile and ubiquitous learning, perspectives on rethinking and reforming education (pp.
177–189). Springer Nature.
European Commission. (2017). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the
Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on a
renewed EU agenda for higher education.
Fogolin, A. (2019). Strukturdaten Distance Learning/Distance Education 2019. Bundesinstitut für
Berufsbildung. https://www.bibb.de/dienst/veroeffentlichungen/de/publication/show/10602
FOM Hochschule. (2017). Transferbericht [Transfer report] 2017.
Frangou, S.-M., Wikgren, J., Sintonen, S., Kairaluoma, L., & Vasari, P. (2019). The effect of writing
modality on recollection in children and adolescents. Research in Learning Technology,
27(October). http://dx.doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v27.2239
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P.
(2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410–8415.
Fyfield, M., Henderson, M., & Phillips, M. (2021). Navigating four billion videos: Teacher search
strategies and the YouTube algorithm. Learning, Media and Technology, 46(1), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2020.1781890
Gaebel, M., Zhang, T., Bunescu, L., & Stoeber, H. (2018). Trends 2018: Learning and teaching in the
European Higher Education Area. In European University Association. European University
Association.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
502 Gao, F., Luo, T., & Zhang, K. (2012). Tweeting for learning: A critical analysis of research on microblogging
in education published in 2008-2011. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(5), 783–801.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01357.x
Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2007). Blended learning in higher education. Jossey-Bass.
Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 631–645.
Govindasamy, T. (2002). Successful implementation of e-Learning: Pedagogical considerations. The
Internet and Higher Education, 4(3–4), 287–299.
G r a e s s e r, A . C . , & M c N a m a r a , D . S . ( 2 0 11 ) . C o m p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s o f m u l t i l e v e l
d i s c o u r s e c o m p r e h e n s i o n . To p i c s i n C o g n i t i v e S c i e n c e , 3 ( 2 ) , 3 7 1 – 3 9 8 .
h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1111 / j . 1 7 5 6 - 8 7 6 5 . 2 0 1 0 . 0 1 0 8 1 . x
Green, N. C., Edwards, H., Wolodko, B., Stewart, C., Brooks, M., & Littledyke, R. (2010). Reconceptualising
higher education pedagogy in online learning. Distance Education, 31(3), 257–273.
Guri-Rosenblit, S. (2018). E-teaching in higher education: An essential prerequisite for e-learning.
Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 7(2), 93–97.
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. Handbook of Reading
Research, 3, 403–422.
Havice, P. A., Davis, T. T., Foxx, K. W., & Havice, W. L. (2010). The impact of rich media presentations
on a distributed learning environment: Engagement and satisfaction of undergraduate students.
Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 11(1), 53–58.
Hayashi, Y. (2018). The power of a “maverick” in collaborative problem solving: An experimental
investigation of individual perspective-taking within a group. Cognitive Science, 42, 69–104.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12587
Hidi, S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000). Motivating the academically unmotivated: A
critical issue for the 21st century. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 151–179.
https://doi.org/10.3102%2F00346543070002151
Hochschule Ansbach. (2019). Jahresbericht [Annual Report] 2019.
Hochschule Hamm-Lippstadt. (2018). OFFEN Bericht des Präsidiums [OFFEN Report of the Presisium]
2017.
Hochschule Merseburg. (2018). Bericht des Rektorats der Hochschule Merseburg zum
Zielvereinbarungszeitraum 1. Januar bis 31. Dezember 2017 [Report of the Rectorate of
Merseburg University on the target agreement period from January 1 to December 31, 2017].
Institute for Monetary and Financial Stability. (2019). Annual Report 2018.
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2016). Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs,
SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster. Business Horizons, 59(4), 441–450.
Keiser University. (2020). Undergraduate Catalog 2019-2020 (Vol. 19, Issue 2).
Kuo, Y.-C., Walker, A. E., Schroder, K. E. E., & Belland, B. R. (2014). Interaction, internet self-efficacy,
and self-regulated learning as predictors of student satisfaction in online education courses. The
Internet and Higher Education, 20, 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2013.10.001
Kuo, Y. C., & Belland, B. R. (2016). An exploratory study of adult learners’ perceptions of online learning:
Minority students in continuing education. Educational Technology Research and Development,
64(4), 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-016-9442-9
La Trobe University. (2019). Annual report 2018.
Lepper, M. R., & Cordova, D. I. (1992). A desire to be taught: Instructional consequences of intrinsic
motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 16(3), 187–208.
Levy, F., & Murnane, R. J. (2004). The new division of labor — how computers are creating the next job
market. Princeton University Press.
Liew, L. T. P., Jaya, N., Wan Abd. Rahman, & Zuliani, S. S. (2018). The effectiveness of gamification in
finance education. The Asian Conference on Education 2018, 969–976.
Livingstone, D. W. (2012). Probing the icebergs of adult learning: Comparative findings and implications
of the 1998, 2004 and 2010 Canadian surveys of formal and informal learning practices. Canadian
Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 25(1), 47–71.
Loviscach, J. (2019). Handbuch Innovative Lehre. In S. Kauffeld & J. Othmer (Eds.), Handbuch
Innovative Lehre. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Lowe, B., & Laffey, D. (2011). Is Twitter for the birds? Journal of Marketing Education, 33(2), 183–192. 503
Macquarie University. (2011). Annual report 2010.
Mangen, A., Walgermo, B. R., & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer
screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 58,
61–68.
Martin, A. (2008). Digital literacy and the “digital society.” In C. Lankshear & M. Knobel (Eds.), Digital
literacies: Concepts, policies, and practices (pp. 151–176). Peter Lang.
Masie, E. (2005). The blended learning imperative. In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The handbook
of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs (pp. 22–26). Pfeiffer.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41, 85–139.
Milad, M. (2019). The pedagogical development of blended learning. In English language teaching
research in the Middle East and North Africa (pp. 609–635). Springer International Publishing.
Nascimbeni, F., Alonso, J., Sanz, O., & Burgos, D. (2019). Read, watch, do: Developing digital competence
for university educators (pp. 80–93).
Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., & Kleis Nielsen, R. (2019). Reuters Institute Digital News
Report 2019.
Oleson, A., & Hora, M. T. (2014). Teaching the way they were taught? Revisiting the sources of
teaching knowledge and the role of prior experience in shaping faculty teaching practices. Higher
Education, 68(1), 29–45.
Oliveira, I., Tinoca, L., & Pereira, A. (2011). Online group work patterns: How to promote a successful
collaboration. Computers & Education, 57(1), 1348–1357.
Perla, L., Agrati, L. S., & Vinci, V. (2019). The ‘sophisticated’ knowledge of e-teacher. Re-shape digital
resources for online courses. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 1091 (Bsrg
2015), 3–17.
Pittaway, S. M. (2012). Student and staff engagement: Developing an engagement framework in a faculty
of education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(4), 37–45.
Planspiel Börse. (2020). Wettbewerb. Planspiel-Boerse.De. https://www.planspiel-boerse.de/toplevel/
main/deutsch/wettbewerb_inhalt.html
Porion, A., Aparicio, X., Megalakaki, O., Robert, A., & Baccino, T. (2016). The impact of paper-based
versus computerized presentation on text comprehension and memorization. Computers in Human
Behavior, 54, 569–576.
Privatuniversität Schloss Seeburg. (2011). Jahresbericht Privatuniversität Schloss Seeburg [Annual
Report Private University Seeburg Castle].
Qayyum, A., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2019). The state of open and distance education.
In: Zawacki-Richter O., Qayyum A. (Eds), Open and distance education in Asia,
Africa and the Middle East (pp. 125-140). SpringerBriefs in Education. Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5787-9_14
Reinhart, J., & Schneider, P. (2001). Student satisfaction, self-efficacy, and the perception of the two-
way audio/video Distance learning environment: A preliminary examination. Quarterly Review of
Distance Education, 2(4), 357–365.
Rieber, L. P. (1991). Animation, incidental learning, and continuing motivation. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 83(3), 318–328.
Rovai, A. P., & Baker, J. D. (2005). Gender differences in online learning: Sense of community, perceived
learning, and interpersonal interactions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6(1), 31–44.
Royal Holloway University of London. (2018). Annual Report.
Sangrà, A., & Wheeler, S. (2013). New informal ways of learning: Or are we formalizing the informal?
International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 10, 286–293.
Saunders, F. C., & Gale, A. W. (2012). Digital or didactic: Using learning technology to confront the
challenge of large cohort teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(6), 847–858.
Schrock, K. (2011). Bloomin’ apps. Kathy Schrock’s Guide to Everything. https://www.schrockguide.net/
bloomin-apps.html#
Schwaiger, M. (2012). Lehrbericht des Studiendekans der Fakultät für Betriebswirtschaft im Studienjahr
2011/2012 [Teaching report of the Dean of the Faculty of Business Administration in the academic
year 2011/2012].

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
504 Schwaiger, M. (2016). Lehrbericht des Studiendekans der Fakultät für Betriebswirtschaft im Studienjahr
2015/2016 [Teaching report of the Dean of the Faculty of Business Administration in the academic
year 2015/2016].
Silva, E. (2009). Measuring skills for 21st-century learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(9), 630–634.
Singer, L. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2017). Reading across mediums: Effects of reading digital and print
texts on comprehension and calibration. Journal of Experimental Education, 85(1), 155–172.
The U.S. Financial Literacy and Education Commission. (2015). Opportunities to improve the financial
capability and financial well-being of postsecondary students. Financial Literacy and Education
Commission.
Tobias, S. (1994). Interest, prior knowledge, and learning. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 37–54.
Tomas, L., Lasen, M., Field, E., & Skamp, K. (2015). Promoting online students’ engagement and
learning in science and sustainability preservice teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education, 40(11), 78–107.
U.S. Department of Education. (2011). The condition of education 2011 (No. 2011–033; NCES).
U.S. Department of Education. (2019). The condition of education 2019 (No. 2019–144; NCES).
University of Cape Town. (2017). Annual report 2016.
University of Exeter. (2019). Annual report 2018/19 and financial statements to 31 July 2019.
University of Melbourne. (2017). Annual report 2016.
University of New England. (2010). Annual report 2009.
University of Oulu. (2017). Annual report 2017.
Wanstreet, C. E. (2006). Interaction in online learning environments: A review of the literature. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 7(4), 399–411.
Wong, L.-H. (2013). Enculturating self-directed learners through a facilitated seamless learning process
framework. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 22(3), 319–338.
Yükseltürk, E., & Yildirim, Z. (2008). Investigation of interaction, online support, course structure and
flexibility as the contributing Factors to students’ satisfaction in an online certificate program.
Educational Technology & Society, 11(4), 51–65.
Received: February 06, 2021 Accepted: June 01, 2021
Cite as: Zureck, A. (2021). Achieving active learning and deep learning with media using
the example of teaching finance. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 79(3), 485-504.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.485
Alexander Zureck PhD, Professor for Banking & Finance, isf Institute for Strategic Finance at
FOM University of Applied Sciences, Leimkugelstr. 6, 45141 Essen, Germany.
E-mail: alexander.zureck@fom.de
Website: https://www.fom.de/en.html
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4596-209X

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
505
GUIDE FOR AUTHORS
ISSN 1822-7864 /print/ ISSN 2538-7111 /Online/
General Information
The publication language is English. All authors must take care of the language revision on their
own. The language must be clear and accurate. The work should be written in an impersonal style.
The editor reserves the right to send the manuscript to be reviewed. If English is a second language
for the author, please consider having the manuscript proof read and edited before submitting.
Format of Manuscripts
Title
The main research idea/problem should be reflected in the title. The title should show the nature of
the research/study. It is recommended to avoid the title of the question form. The recommended
length for a title is no more than 12 words (APA, 2.01, p. 23).
The title of the paper 14-point, bold with capital letters, align left; titles in the text (chapters)
12-point bold, not numbered; sub-titles (subchapters) 12-point, italic, not numbered. There must
be 1 empty line before and after a title or a subtitle. The text chapters must be separated by 1
empty row. The title should be concise and informative. Avoid abbreviations.
Author names and affiliations
Full names/surnames should be provided. Please indicate affiliations of the author(s). All the
e-mails should be indicated below.
Abstract
The first page of the manuscript must begin with the title of the paper and an abstract which should
be about 150 - 250 words. For the papers reporting original research, state in brief: the primary/
main aim (the research questions addressed or any hypothesis tested); the research design; the
methods and procedures employed; the number of participants; the main outcomes and results;
the conclusions drawn from these data and results, including their implications for further research
or application/practice. An abstract represents briefly a content of a text. Do not cite references in
the abstract. The abstract should grip the reader’s attention.
Keywords
Please provide 3 to 5 keywords in alphabetical order. Note that a keyword does not have to be
made of only one word. At least one of these should indicate the topic area and one should indicate
the methodology of the research.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
506 The structure of the manuscript (recommended)

The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
• abstract + keywords;
• introduction (it can be divided into some subchapters if needed);
• methodology of research (it is recommended to divide /rubricate);
• results of research;
• discussion;
• conclusions and/or implications;
• acknowledgements (if any);
• references (in APA style, 7th Ed);
• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure can be different if the paper is only theoretical qualitative research.
The length of the manuscript
The manuscript should be not shorter than 6 pages (including references, tables and figures).
Manuscripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-spaced, 2.5 cm
with all the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.
Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and figures
Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made in Word or
another software) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in the order of their
appearance. Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and each table column
an appropriate heading. The texts in tables and figures should be 11-point (in some cases 10) and
their width should be 12 cm at maximum. The figures should be in format .jpg (unless done in Word
or Excel); resolution 1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white colour, without ground-colour) and
captions should be inserted within the manuscript at their appropriate locations. All the graphics
(figures) must be editable. The font size should be Times New Roman for all figures and tables.
Figures should be carefully explained in the text and cited in numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc. from
other publications.
Discussion
Focus the discussion to the two important questions: What is already known about your topic?
What your research adds? It is recommended that the aim and major findings of the research
should be reminded. And then the similarities and differences of the findings with previous research
studies should be exemplified in detail.
Conclusions
This part is not a summary. Bring out the significance of your research. Show how you’ve brought
closure to the research problem, and point out remaining gaps in knowledge by suggesting issues
for further research. The main research outcome should be clearly seen.

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
References 507
The title „References“ must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the reference
list must be used. References in the text should be presented in parentheses (Knox, 1988; Martin,
1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p. 48). The list of references should
be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabeti¬cal order
by author’s name.
For the sake of accuracy, references should always be as updated as possible, also in the interest of
the readers and researchers on the topic the paper is dealing with.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APAstyle will be returned without review.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-ways
be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific quality. Obviously, they must
also comply with style and format requirements. The paper will not be subject to further review,
if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all
manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English).
Note 4: Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, technical quality, potential
impact, and clarity of writing.
Note 5: All papers are checked by CrossCheck system.
Editorial Board
Updated: July 2018
Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
15 June 2021. Publishing in Quires 10.75. Edition 80.
Publisher Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: scientia@scientiasocialis.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668

Printing „Šiaulių spaustuvė“ Ltd.

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 79, No. 3, 2021

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 79, No.

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

SUBJECT DIDACTICS: RELEVANT ISSUES

TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON STUDENT MISBEHAVIORS DURING ONLINE COURSES

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

INSTRUMENTS TO ACCESS THE CHEMISTRY PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE:

EMERGING EDUCATIONAL DESIGN IN ONLINE TRAINING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

INTERTWINING MATHEMATICAL MODELING WITH ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

CORRELATES OF SCIENCE CLASSROOM TEACHING WITH SOUTHEAST ASIAN AND

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POOR LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS:

EVALUATING DISTANCE EDUCATION IN SERBIA DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

ACHIEVING ACTIVE LEARNING AND DEEP LEARNING WITH MEDIA USING

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 505

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Interaction and Experiencing,

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340

Received: May 31, 2021 Accepted: June 06, 2021

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.340 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

TEACHERS’ VIEWS ON STUDENT 343

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research Aim and Research Questions

The research was designed as a phenomenological research design, based on the

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

Instrument and Procedures

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Validity and Reliability

Qualitative research seeks to understand as completely as possible. Golafashani (2003)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

348 phenomena in context-specific settings. Stenbacka (2001) viewed reliability as “purpose of

Number Student Misbehaviors Participants f %

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

According to Table 3, teachers list twenty-seven misbehaviors. Most of the teachers

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

Number Student Misbehaviors Participants f %

“Turn off camera and talk slang and abusive.” (T18)

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Number Students’ Misbehaviors Participants f %

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

Number Solutions Participants f %

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

As it is seen in Table 6, teachers have different suggestions about correction of student

“Taking attendance and turning on camera.”(T1)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

358 Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage.

Received: April 24, 2021 Accepted: June 04, 2021

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.343

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Emotional Intelligence is the ability to process information related to one's emotions

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

• A positive relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement

A correlational design was used to determine the relationship between emotional

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Psychometric Properties of Emotional Intelligence Scale 365

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.360