HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH • * Pathological Anatomy

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY o Patho is defined as disease

M1: Introduction to o study of structural changes associated

with diseases
o one of the major subjects in studying the
Human Anatomy and field of Medical Technology

Physiology PHYSIOLOGY
- body function and mechanisms
- practically describes how the body functions
and how it works
• Molecular Physiology
o study of functions of an individual
molecules such as Proteins, DNA, and
RNA
• Neurophysiology
o study of functional properties of Neurons
or Nerve cells
• * Endocrinology
o study of hormones
o hormones are chemical regulators in the
ANATOMY blood
- body structure and relationships o we study the hormones and how they
- first studied through dissection by carefully control the bodily functions
cutting the parts of the body structure to • Cardiovascular Physiology
better understand the relationship of each o involved in the functions of the heart and
organ to one another the blood vessels by the name suggests
- in the recent times, we use imaging • * Immunology
technique (X-ray, MRI, Ultrasound) in order to o accompanied with Serology is the study
visualize anatomical structures of the body’s defenses against disease
• Embryology causing agents (Bacteria, Fungi)
o study of the development of the fertilized • Respiratory Physiology
human egg o study of the air passages and the lungs
• Developmental Biology • * Renal Physiology
o complete development of an individual o study of the kidney functions
from fertilization to death • Exercise Physiology
• Cell Biology o involved in the study of changes in the
o study of cellular structures and functions cells and the organ functions during
• * Histology muscular activity
o study of microscopic structures in tissues • Pathophysiology
o one of the major subjects in studying the o study of functional changes associated
field of Medical Technology with disease and aging
• Gross Anatomy
o study of structures that can be examined STRUCTURAL LEVELS
through the naked eye or without the aid
of microscope 1. Chemical
• Systemic Anatomy 2. Cellular
o study of specific systems in the human 3. Tissue
body 4. Organ
• Regional Anatomy 5. System
o study of specific regions of the body 6. Organism
• Surface Anatomy
o deals with the surface markings of the
body to understand the internal
anatomy through the use of either
visualization or palpation
• Imaging Anatomy
o study of internal body structures with the
use of imaging technique

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 CHEMICAL LEVEL 3. Muscle tissue - contracts in order to
facilitate movement and generate body
heat

• It is the most basic level that consists of atoms

and molecules
4. Nervous tissues - carries the information
*Atom is the smallest unit of matter that is
from one part to another via nerve
capable of participating in a chemical
impulses
reaction

 CELLULAR LEVEL
• Primarily composed of cells
• Cells are the basic structural and functional
units of an organism
• they are also the smallest living units in the
human body  ORGAN LEVEL

• Organs are composed of two

or more different types of tissues
that have specific functions,
usually these organs have
recognizable shape.
• Generally, the largest organ is
the skin
*these are the common cellular organelles of • Largest internal organ is the
the cells liver

 TISSUE LEVEL
• Primarily composed of tissues  SYSTEM LEVEL
• Tissues are group of cells in the materials • Primarily composed of
surrounding them in order to work together or group of related organs with
perform a specific function a common function
• The cardiovascular system
• Generally we have 4 types of tissues: is in charge of pumping and
1. Connective tissue - responsible in circulating blood in order to
connecting and supporting body organs distribute oxygen and blood
while distributing blood vessels to other glucose
tissues • The digestive system is
generally in charge of
breaking down the food we
intake and how we absorb it

 ORGANISM LEVEL
• An organism is any living individual having all
2. Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces in the mentioned levels from chemical to
lines hollow organs and cavities such as system level
intestines
o our body glands are also made of
epithelial tissue

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 HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS • generates action potential nerve impulses in
order to generate body activities
• composed of 11 systems

I. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• composes the skin and the associated
structures
• includes the hair, finger nails, toe nails, glands
such as the sweat glands
• Main function: protect the body, regulate
body temperature, eliminate some waste,
V.ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
and detect sensations such as pain, touch,
• composes the various glands such as the
warmth and coldness
pituitary gland, pineal gland, adrenal gland,
and thyroid gland
• Function: they are hormone producers to
regulate bodily activities
• hormones are chemical messengers that are
transported in the blood to provide specific
functions

II. SKELETAL SYSTEM

• Primarily composed of the bones and joints
of the body and their associated cartilages
• Function: Generally provides support and
protects the human body
• Also provides an area for the muscles to
attach themselves in order to facilitate body
movement VI. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• composed of heart and blood vessels
• 3 types of blood vessels
o arteries- carries oxygenated blood away
from the heart
o veins - carry the oxygenated blood
towards the heart
o capillaries - site of exchange between the
oxygenated and the oxygenated blood
• these blood vessels helps the regulation of
III. MUSUCLAR SYSTEM the acid base balance, temperature and
• Generally composed of skeletal muscle the water content of other body fluids
tissues
• Function: Responsible together with the
skeletal system for body locomotion and
movement

VII. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• composed of the lymphatic fluids and vessels
• spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils
• B cells and T cells are also components of the
lymphatic system in order to protect us from
disease causing microorganisms
• Function: in charge of returning proteins in
IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM other critical molecules that can be recycled
• composed of the brain, nerves and the spinal to the blood in order to be reused
cord
• includes specialized organs such as the eyes
and the ears

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VIII. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• composed of lungs, pharynx or throat, larynx
or voice box, and trachea or wind pipe
• Primary function: transfers oxygen from the
inhaled air to the blood circulation
• Another function: the waste produced by
ourselves such as the carbon dioxide is
expelled via exhalation via the respiratory
system
IX. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Function: responsible for the physical and
chemical break down of food and absorbs
nutrients an eliminates solid waste
X. URINARY SYSTEM
• Primarily composed of the kidneys, ureter,
urethra
• Function: Responsible in the production,
storage and elimination of waste specifically,
urine
XI. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The reproductive system of males and
females are varied from each other
• Gonads and other associated parts are
responsible for gamete production in order
to facilitate reproduction
BASIC LIFE PROCESSES OF THE HUMAN BODY
 METABOLISM
• Defined as the sum of all chemical processes
of the human body
• 2 types of Metabolism
o Catabolism
- break down of larger molecules into
smaller molecules with use of energy ATP
- catabolic reactions also supply the
energy for anabolic reaction
o Anabolism
- synthesis of larger molecules from smaller
substances using ATP
- utilize smaller substances and synthesize
them together with ATP to produce
larger molecules
 RESPONSIVENESS
• our body has the ability to detect and react
to various changes, these occur in various
instances such as in fever (increase and
decrease beyond the normal temperature
range)
 MOVEMENT
• includes the motion of the whole body or the
motion of the individual cells
Ex. Contraction of the gallbladder to produce
bile after eating a fatty meal
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 GROWTH
• it is either an increase in the body size by
either or both increase in the number of cells
or increase in the size of the cells
• in bone growth, it is usually due to the
presence of an increase in both tissue size
growth when specific nutrients in minerals are
present such as calcium
 DIFFERENTATION
• Development of a non specialized state to a
specialized one
 REPRODUCTION
• sexual reproduction
o to produce new organisms
• reproduction/replication of cells
HOMEOSTASIS
“homeo” - sameness
“stasis” - standing still
- Maintenance of stable conditions in the
body’s internal environment
 HOMEOSTASIS AND BODILY FLUIDS
• Intracellular fluid (ICF)
o fluid found in the cell
• Extracellular / Interstitial fluid (IF)
o fluid found outside the cell; fluid filling the
narrow spaces in between the cells
• Plasma
o an example of an extracellular fluid within
the blood vessels
 Control of Homeostasis
• Homeostasis in the human body is constantly
disturbed both internal and external factors
are responsible for these disturbances
Feedback Systems
• cycles of events where in the status of a
human body is monitored, evaluated,
changed, monitored, re-evaluated, and the
cycle continues
• a continuous process until homeostasis is
achieved
• Stimulus - anything that is capable of
disrupting the controlled condition
3 Basic systems of the Feedback Systems:
• Receptor: monitors changes in controlled
conditions and sends input to a control
center
o follows the afferent pathway -
information flows towards the control
center
• Control Center: Sets a range that should be
maintained
o Brain - main control center in the body
o Evaluates the input it receives from the
receptors and generates the output
commands when needed
• Effector: RECEIVES OUTPUT and produces
response that controls condition in order to
achieve homeostasis
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
• The effector adds or enforces additional
responses
• A positive feedback loop moves a system
further away from the target of the
equilibrium
• It performs such by amplifying the effects of a
product or the event or when something
needs to happen quickly
Ex. Child labor
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 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
• The effector removes or inverts the original
response
• The product of the reaction leads to the
decrease in the reaction
• Brings a system closer to the target of stability
or homeostasis
• Responsible for the stabilization of a specific
system or ensure the steady and stable state
on a particular human organ

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES

• DISORDER: STRUCTURAL / FUNCTIONAL

ABNORMALITY
• DISEASE: RECOGNIZABLE SET OF SIGNS AND
SYMPTOMS
o Signs - something observable by others;
objective changes that can be evaluated
by the physician (Ex. Fever, coughing, rashes,
swelling or edema)
o Symptoms - any subjective change only
apparent to the patient and not apparent to
the doctor (Ex. Pain, nausea)

2 types of Diseases
• Local disease - primarily affects a limited
region in the body (Ex. Sinus Infections)
• Systemic disease - affects the entire body or
several parts of the human body
References:
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Van Putte, Regan, and Russo. (2016). Seeley’s
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Ed.
USA: McGraw-Hill.

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 M2: Cells • Little organs of the cell
• Specialized structures that
each have a characteristic,
shape and function
CELLS
NUCLEUS • Where the cell’s DNA can be
• Basic, living, functional units of the body
found
• Each cell is highly organized with specialized
• Chromosome and gene
structures called organelles
o A single molecule of DNA
o Little organs which are specialized
o Contains hereditary units
structures that perform specific functions.
• Genes
• The average human body consists of more
o Hereditary units
than 100 trillion cells.
o Control most of our cellular
o These cells perform various functions that
functions
aid or help in maintaining homeostasis or a
state of balance in our body.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL
• Cell metabolism and energy use CELL / PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• Reproduction and Inheritance • The structure of the cell membrane is
described to have a fluid mosaic model due
CYTOLOGY OR CELL BIOLOGY to its molecular arrangement.
• A branch of science that deals with the study o Allows the continuous movement or flow
of cells of fluid lipids that contain a mosaic.

ROBERT HOOKE
• Coined the term “cell”
• Observed a piece of cork under the
microscope and saw a series of walled small
boxes
• Compared these with small rooms where
monks stayed in (cellula)

DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS:

CELL / • Outer surface of the cell
• According to this model, the molecular
PLASMA • Encloses the cytoplasm
arrangement of the plasma membrane
MEMBRANE • Selectively permeable barrier
resembles a continually moving sea of fluid
o Regulates the flow of
lipids that contains a mosaic of many
substances into and out of the
different proteins.
cell
• Communication among and
LIPID BILAYER STRUCTURE
between cells
• Serves as a boundary between
• Basic structural framework of the plasma
extracellular and intracellular
membrane
substances or the substances
• Composed of three different types of lipids
outside and inside the cell
o Phospholipids – 75%
o Cholesterol – 20%
CYTOPLASM • Consists of all cellular contents
o Glycolipids – 5%
between cell membrane and
• The bilayer arrangement occurs because of
the nucleus
the amphipathic nature of the lipid
o Living material surrounding
components.
the nucleus
o They both have hydrophilic or polar parts
• Includes two components:
and hydrophobic or nonpolar parts.
 Cytosol
• Hydrophilic Head
• Intracellular fluid
o Water loving
• The fluid portion of the
cytoplasm
 Organelles

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 o Faces outward towards each side, one
towards the extracellular fluid and the
other towards the cytosol.
• Hydrophobic Tail
o Made up of fatty acids which are the
hydrophobic part.
o Points towards one another facing the
interior of each half of the bilayer.
 ION CHANNELS (INTEGRAL)
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
• Play an important role on how a cell performs
its functions.
• May either be integral or peripheral depending
on how they are firmly embedded in the
 CARRIERS (INTEGRAL)
bilayer.
 RECEPTORS (INTEGRAL)
• Integral Membrane Proteins
o Extend into or through the lipid bilayer and
are firmly embedded in it.
o They fully penetrate the bilayer.
o Most integral proteins are transmembrane
proteins, which means that they span the
entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the
cytosol and extracellular fluid.
• Peripheral Proteins
o Not as firmly embedded in the membrane.
o They are attached to the polar heads of the
membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the
inner or outer surface of the membrane.
o Help in supporting the plasma membrane
facilitate movement of substances and
organelles and also in cell attachment.
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Acts as a barrier separating the inside and
outside of the cell.
• Controls the flow of substances into and out
of the cell.
• Helps identify the cell to other cells.
o Ex., immune cells
• Participates in intercellular signaling.
o Communication between cells.
• Form a pore through which a specific ion
can flow to get across membrane.
• Most plasma membranes include specific
channels for several common ions.
• Selectively transports a specific substance
across membrane by undergoing a change
in shape.
• Also known as transporters.
• Serve as cellular recognition sites.
• Recognizes specific ligand and alters cell’s
function in some way.
• Ligands – specific molecules that bind two
receptors.
Ex: antidiuretic hormone binds to receptors in
the kidneys and changes the water
permeability of certain plasma membranes.
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 ENZYMES (INTEGRAL AND PERIPHERAL)
• Catalyzes biochemical reaction inside or
outside the cells (depending on which
direction the active site faces).
o Cholesterol holds the phospholipids together
and it serves as a buffer.
• Low Temperature
o Phospholipids go too rigid.
o Cholesterol = increases membrane fluidity
• Higher Temperature
o Phospholipids go too fluid.
o Cholesterol = decrease membrane fluidity

 LINKERS (INTEGRAL AND PERIPHERAL)

• Anchors proteins/filaments inside and outside
the plasma membrane, providing structural
stability and shape for the cell.
• May also participate in movement of the cell
or link to cells together.
 CELL IDENTITY MARKERS (GLYCOPROTEINS)
• Distinguishes your cells from anyone else’s
(unless you are an identical twin).
• An important class of such markers are the
major histocompatibility (MHC) proteins.
• Membrane fluidity is essential for different
interactions to occur inside the cell.
o Allows interactions to occur.
• Enables movement of membrane components.
o Movement of different substances
responsible for cellular processes.
• Allows lipid bilayer to seal itself when punctured
or injured.
o Ex., Intracytoplasmic sperm injection – a
sperm cell can be injected into an oocyte
without bursting.

MEMBRANE FLUIDITY MEMBRANE PERMEABLITY

SELECTIVE • The plasma membrane
• The structure of the membrane is fluid. PERMEABILITY allows some substances to
o The membrane lipids and membrane pass more readily than
proteins can easily move and rotate in the others
bilayer. • The lipid bilayer portion of
• This fluidity depends on the following factors: the plasma is highly
o Number of double bonds in the fatty acid permeable to nonpolar
tails. molecules.
o Amount of cholesterol present. o Oxygen, carbon
• There is a sense of balance in the fluidity of the dioxide, and steroid.
membrane. • Impermeable to ions and
o Too rigid/stiff = difficult to facilitate large, uncharged polar
movement. molecules.
o Completely fluid = no structural organization o Glucose, proteins.
and mechanical support.
• Temperature also serves as another factor that TRANSMEMBRANE • Act as channels and
influences the fluidity of the cell membrane. PROTEINS carriers to increase

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 membrane permeability to
a variety of ions and
uncharged polar
molecules
• very selective
HYDROPHOBIC • Allows nonpolar molecules,
INTERIOR but not other ions and
large, uncharged polar
molecules
• The more hydrophobic or
lipid-soluble the substance
is, the greater is the
membrane’s permeability
to that substance.
CYTOSOL
• Intracellular fluid
• Fluid portion of cytoplasm
• Site of chemical reactions for cell to survive
• Constitutes about 55% of the total cell
volume
CYTOSKELETON
• Network of protein filaments that extend
throughout the cytosol.
• Has three protein filaments that serve as a
scaffold or platform which contribute to the
structure, shape, and movement and
organization of the cell and its contents.

HIGHLY MODERATELY IMPERMEABLE

PERMEABLE PERMEABLE
Oxygen Water Glucose

Carbon Urea Large,

Dioxide uncharged
polar
molecules
• While water and urea are considered polar
molecules, they are still able to pass through
the membrane.
o When the membrane phospholipids move
due to their fluidity, small gaps may appear.
o Since water and urea molecules are just
small, even though they are polar, they
can still move through the membrane via
these small gaps.
• Impermeable substances are too large that
they are unable to go across membrane
except via endocytosis and exocytosis.
 MICROFILAMENTS
CYTOPLASM
• Consists of all contents of the cell located
between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus
o Cytosol and the organelles
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate Filaments
• Microtubules
• Thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton.
• Composed of the proteins: actin and myosin.
o Most prevalent at the edge of a cell.
• Two General Function:
o Help generate movement.
o Provide mechanical support.
• Movement: microfilaments are involved in
muscle contraction, cell division, and cell
locomotion.
• Mechanical support: responsible for the basic
strength and shapes of cells.
o They anchor the cytoskeleton to integral
proteins in the plasma membrane.
o Provide mechanical support for cell
extensions called microvilli, nonmotile,
microscopic fingerlike projections of the
plasma membrane.
• Microvilli greatly increase the surface area of
the cell.

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 o Abundant on cells involved in absorption,
such as epithelial cells that line the small
intestine.
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• Thicker than microfilaments but thinner than
microtubules.
• Several different proteins can compose
intermediate filaments, which are
exceptionally strong.
• Found in parts of the cells subject to
mechanical stress.
• Help stabilize the position of organelles such
as the nucleus.
• Help attach cells to one another.
 MICROTUBULES
• Largest of the cytoskeletal components.
• Long, unbranched hollow tubes composed
mainly of the protein tubulin.
• The assembly of microtubules begins in an
organelle called the centrosome.
• Grow outward from the centrosome and
toward the periphery of the cell.
• Help determine cell shape.
• Function in the movement:
o Of organelles such as secretory vesicles.
o Of chromosomes during cell division.
o Of specialized cell projections, such as
cilia and flagella.
ORGANELLES
• Specialized structures with specific functions
• Perform functions in cellular growth,
maintenance, and reproduction
• Functional compartments for specific
biochemical processes
• Maintain homeostasis
 NUCLEUS
• Genetic material (DNA) and nucleoli
• Site of RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit
assembly
 RIBOSOMES
• Site of protein synthesis
• Some ribosomes are attached to the nuclear
membrane. to the rough ER, some are free or
unattached on the cytosol, and some are
found in the mitochondria.
 ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Outer surface has many ribosomes attached
• Continuous with the nuclear membrane.
• Synthesizes glycoproteins and Phospholipids
• Produces secretory proteins, membrane
proteins, and other proteins of organelles.
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Site of lipid synthesis and participates in
detoxification of harmful substances such as
alcohol and carcinogens.
o Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids such
as estrogen and testosterone.
• Extends from the rough ER but it does not
have ribosomes.
• Removes phosphate group from glucose-6-
phosphate and releases calcium ions in
muso Allows free glucose to enter the
bloodstream.
o Allows free glucose to enter the
bloodstream
• Releases calcium ions in muscle cells.
o Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – a form of
smooth ER in muscle cells.
o Responsible for triggering contractions.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• Modifies protein structure and packages
proteins in secretory vesicles
• Modifies, sort and packages, and transports
proteins received from the rough ER.
 SECRETORY VESICLE
• Contains materials produced in the cell
• Secretory vesicles pinch off form the Golgi
apparatus.
o From there, it fuses with the cell
membrane, and it releases its contents
into the extracellular fluid by the process
of exocytosis.
• Formed by the Golgi apparatus and
secreted by exocytosis
 LYSOSOME
• Formed from the Golgi apparatus.
• Contains enzymes that digest material taken
into the cell.
o Digestive enzymes and hydrolytic
enzymes that breakdown molecules.
• Digest worn out cell structures in the process
known as autophagy through the use of a
vesicle known as the autophagosomes.
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 • May also destroy the entire cell which can NUCLEUS
occur in some pathological conditions and in
death.
o This process is called autolysis.
• Also involved in extracellular digestion

 CENTRIOLE
• Facilitate movement of chromosomes during
cell division.

 CENTROSOME
• Pair of centrioles plus a pericentriolar material
(tubulin) which are used for the growth of
mitotic spindle and microtubules formation.
• Periphery Centriolar Material
o Contains the protein tubulin and forms
the microtubules and mitotic spindle
during cell division.
 PEROXISOME
• Also called microbodies.
• Contain several oxidases.
• Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids.
• Detoxifies harmful substances such as alcohol.
 MITOCHONDRION
• Powerhouse of the cell.
• Site of aerobic cellular respiration and the
major site of ATP synthesis.
• Plays an important role in apoptosis.
o Genetically programmed death of a cell.
• Have their own DNA.
• Has an outer and inner mitochondrial
membrane.
• Inner Membrane
o It has a series of folds known as the
cristae which provides a large surface
area for cellular respiration to take place.
• Contains the cell’s genes which are located on
chromosomes.
• Function of the Nucleus
o Control of cellular structure.
o Directing cellular activities.
o Producing ribosomes in the nucleoli.
 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• Double membrane (lipid bilayer).
• Separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
• Openings of the nuclear membrane are
called nuclear pores.
o Nuclear pores control the movement of
substances between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm.
 NUCLEOLUS
• Nucleoli
• Spherical bodies which are responsible for
the production of ribosomes.
• Sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis.
• Assembly of rRNA or ribosomal RNA and
proteins.

 CILIA GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

• Short hairlike projections that extend from the
surface of the cell. GENE • Hereditary units of the cell
• Moves substances over surfaces of certain • Arranged along
cells. chromosomes

 FLAGELLA CHROMOSOMES • Where genes are located

• Propel sperm cells. • Long molecules of DNA
• Moves an entire cell which generates a coiled together with
forward motion by rapidly wiggling. proteins

 MICROVILLI CHROMATIN • Loosely coiled

• Increase surface area of cells. chromosomes with a
• Microscopic, fingerlike projections of the “beads on a string”
plasma membrane. • Structure under electron
micrographs
• complex DNA, some RNA,
and proteins
• each bead is a
nucleosome

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NUCLEOSOME Double-stranded DNA
wrapped around a core of
8 proteins (histone)

HISTONES • Core of 8 proteins

• Help in organization of
coiling and folding of DNA

GENOME • Total genetic information in

a cell

CELLULAR PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

 CILIA
• Found in many cells of the respiratory tract.
• In smokers, the movement of cilia may be
paralyzed or stopped due to the nicotine
present in cigarettes.
o That is why smokers usually cough to
remove foreign particles stuck in their
airways.
o There is no functioning cilia to do it for
them.
• For female smoker.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

• The double-stranded DNA will unwind, and

one strand serves as the template strand for
the mRNA (messenger RNA).
• The nucleotides that will form the mRNA will
bind with the DNA nucleotides through base
pair combinations.
o Cilia present in the cells of fallopian tubes.
• The sequence of nucleotides in the template
o Since the cilia is paralyzed, the
DNA strand determines the sequence of
movement of cilia is paralyzed leading to
nucleotides in the mRNA.
a possibility that the egg cell will not be
• The newly formed mRNA molecule will now
moved towards the uterus.
go to the ribosome.
o Causes ectopic pregnancy.
• The ribosome aligns the mRNA with the tRNA
(transfer RNA) containing the appropriate
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
anti-codons.
• Those who take a particular sedative drug
• The formation of a peptide bond between
known as the phenobarbital may cause
amino acids bound to the tRNA allows the
changes in the liver cells.
creation of a polypeptide chain.
• Smooth ER helps in detoxification.
• Transcription → Translation
• Prolonged use of phenobarbital may cause
an increased tolerance (the same dose no
longer shows the same effect).
o Repeated exposure to the drug causes
the smooth ER and its enzymes to

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 increase to be able to still protect the o Spread of cancer cells to other parts of
cells from toxic effects. the body.
o This can possibly result in overdose and o Most of malignant tumors have a
an increased dependence on drugs. property of metastasizing.
• The names of cancer are derived from the
type of tissue in which it develops

Phenobarbital
Increased use = overdose and
drug dependence
TYPES OF CANCER
CARCINOMA • Most human cancers
are under this type;
malignant tumors that
arise from epithelial
 LYSOSOMES
cells
• Connected with the Tay-Sachs Disease (TSD)

MELANOMA • Cancerous growths of

melanocytes (skin
epithelial cells that
produce melanin)

SARCOMA • General term for

cancers arising from
• Accumulation of glycolipid muscle cells or
• An inherited condition wherein there is an connective tissues
absence of a lysosomal enzyme known as
Hex a.
o This enzyme is known to breakdown a
membrane glycolipid prevalently found LEUKEMIA • Cancer of blood-
in nerve cells. forming organs
• In TSD, there is no enzyme to breakdown the characterized by rapid
glycolipid and so there is an accumulation growth of abnormal
which causes the nerve cells to function less leukocytes (white
effectively. blood cells)
• That is why people with TSD develop seizures,
muscle rigidity, blindness, and incoordination. LYMPHOMA • Malignant disease of
lymphatic tissue (ex.
 CANCER lymph nodes)
• Group of diseases characterized by
uncontrolled or abnormal cell division
• Oncology - study of cancer or tumors
• Tumor or Neoplasm
o Develops from excess tissues when cells GROWTH AND SPREAD OF CANCER
in a part of the body divide without • Malignant cells divide or duplicate rapidly.
control. • Angiogenesis
o May be diagnosed as benign (harmless) o Growth of new networks of blood vessels
or malignant (cancerous). stimulated by tumor angiogenesis factors
• Metastasis (TAFs).

Bella Gatbonton | BSMT 2-D

 o Triggered to form when cancer cells
invade surrounding tissues.
• Angiogenesis or the formation of new blood
vessels may be due to the overproduction of
the TAFs or if there are no angiogenesis
inhibitors naturally occurring in the body.
• Cancer tissues compete w/ normal tissues for
space and nutrients.
o May even invade other body tissues to
establish more tumors.
• Cancer patients fell pain mainly because
tumors may be pressing down on their nerves,
or they may be blocking passageways in
organs.
o Results to the death of tissues and organs
CHEMOTHERAPY
CAUSES OF CANCER
ENVIRONMENTAL • Substances in the air, food,
AGENTS water
CARCINOGEN • A chemical agent or
radiation that can cause
cancer and induce
mutations
o Ex., hydrocarbons in
cigarettes, radon gas, and
UV radiation.
ONCOGENES • Cancer-causing genes
VIRUSES • Oncogenic viruses that
stimulate proliferation of
cells
o Ex., Human Papillomavirus
(HPV) – leads to cervical
cancer in women
INFLAMMATION • Contributes to the
development of cancer
o Chronic inflammation
stimulates the proliferation
of mutated cells which
leads to angiogenesis and
metastasis.
o Ex., Chronic Gastritis –
inflammation of the
stomach lining which can
lead to stomach cancer.
TERMINOLOGIES
ANAPLASIA
ATROPHY
DYSPLASIA
TREATMENT OF CANCER
• Various treatments are available for cancer,
but it is not easy since cancer is not a single
disease, and each kind is different from the
other.
SURGICAL • Removal of cancer-causing
REMOVAL tumors through surgery
o Not applicable for all,
especially cancers that are
already widely distributed
throughout the body or
those that involve the brain.
• Administration of drugs to kill
cancerous cells
RADIATION • Breaking of chromosomes to
THERAPY block cell division
o Targets cancer cells since
they proliferate rapidly.
o However, there are normal
cells that divide rapidly such
as hair follicles, bone
marrow cells, and cells in
the gastrointestinal tract.
o That is why most effects of
these therapies are hair loss,
immunocompromisity,
nausea, and vomiting
VIROTHERAPY • Currently under
development potential
treatment; use of viruses to
kill cancer cells
o Receptors that can only be
found in cancer cells are
attached to viruses.
o They will only be the ones
infected by the virus.
METASTASIS • Controls cancer cells from
REGULATORY metastasizing
GENES
• Loss of tissue differentiation
and function
• A decrease in the size of cells
• A change in size, shape, and
organization of the cell; may
progress to neoplasia
Bella Gatbonton | BSMT 2-D
HYPERPLASIA • Increase in the number of cells

HYPERTROPHY • Increase in the size of cells

without cell division

METAPLASIA • Transformation of one cell

type to another

PROTEOMICS • The study of all of an

organism’s proteins for
identification

TUMOR • A substance introduced by

MARKER tumor cells; used to screen,
diagnose, monitor, and treat
cancer

References:
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Van Putte, Regan, and Russo. (2016). Seeley’s
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Ed.
USA: McGraw-Hill.

Bella Gatbonton | BSMT 2-D

 M3: Tissues
TISSUES
• Group of cells that have similar structure or
common origin and function to carry out
specialized activities and processes
• Histology
o Microscopic study of tissue structures
•Pathologist
o Physician specialist who makes the
examination of cells and tissues to provide
an accurate diagnosis
• Basic types of tissue
1. Epithelial tissue
• covers the surfaces and it lines our organs,
cavities, and ducts
• form glands
2. Connective tissue
• encloses and separates other tissues
• connects tissues to one another
• help in protection movement and support
3. Muscular tissue
• specialized for contraction and insulation
4. Nervous tissue
• for conducting nerve impulses
• generating different functions and processes
o Involved in the filtration of blood in our
kidneys
• Divided into 2 general patterns:
o Surface epithelium - covers and lines surfaces
of the skin
o Glandular epithelium - makes up the
secreting portion of glands such as in our
sweat glands and thyroid glands
• Has own nerve supply but avascular (lacks
blood vessels)
• Covering and lining surfaces:
o Apical/free
- not in contact with other cells
- faces the body surface/ body cavity/
lumen of an organ
- may contain cilia or microvilli
- most superficial layer of the cell
o Lateral
- face the adjacent cells on either side and
may contain cell junctions
o Basal
- adjacent to the basement membrane
which attaches the epithelial surfaces to
underlying tissues
- deepest layer of the cell
FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Protecting underlying structures
• skin and oral cavity
 Acts as a barrier
• protects our body from the entry of toxic
molecules and microorganisms
 Permitting passage of substances
• exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
 Secreting and absorbing substances
• sweat glands and mucous glands for
secretion
• carrier proteins for absorption

EPITHELEAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA

NUMBER OF LAYERS OR CATEGORY
• The epithelium or  Simple (single layer of cells)
epithelial tissue covers  Stratified (more than one layer of cells)
the external and  Pseudostratified (modification of simple
internal surfaces all epithelium) - multiple layers
throughout the body  Transitional (modification of stratified
• forms the coverings epithelium) - change shape
and linings
• since the cells are SHAPE OF CELLS
closely packed tight  Squamous - flat and thin; rapid passage of
together, there is little substances
intercellular space  Cuboidal - cube-like in shape and tall as
between them they are wide; function in secretion and
absorption
SURFACE EPITHELIUM  Columnar - tall and thin cells; protect
underlying tissues; function in secretion and
• Basement membrane absorption
o Functions as a filter and barrier in restricting
large molecules to pass through

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 FUNCTION • Diffusion
• Filtration
• Secretion
• Protection

LOCATION  Lining of cardiovascular and

lymphatic system
(endothelium)
 Serous membranes of body
cavities (mesothelium)
 Alveoli of lungs
 Kidneys (Bowman’s capsule)
 Inner surface of eardrum

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

NUMBER OF LAYERS / SHAPE OF CELLS
CATEGORY
Simple (single layer of • Squamous
cells) • Cuboidal
• Columnar
Stratified (more than • Squamous
one layer of cells) o Nonkeratinized STRUCTURE Single layer of cube-shaped cells
(moist) with a round, centrally located
o Keratinized nucleus; some have microvilli
• Cuboidal (kidney tubules) or cilia
• Columnar (bronchioles of lungs)

Pseudostratified • Columnar FUNCTION • Secretion

(modification of • Absorption
simple epithelium)
LOCATION  Kidney tubules
Transitional • Roughly cuboidal to  Glands and ducts
(modification of columnar when not  Bronchioles of lungs
stratified epithelium) stretched and  Surface of the ovary
squamous-like when  Lens and retina of the eye
stretched

EPITHELIAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATIONS

• Simple squamous SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
• Simple cuboidal
• Simple columnar
• Pseudostratified columnar
• Stratified squamous
• Stratified cuboidal
• Stratified columnar
• Transitional STRUCTURE Single layer of tall, narrow cells;
some have cilia (bronchioles,
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM auditory tubes, uterine tubes,
uterus) or microvilli

FUNCTION • Movement
• Secretion
• Absorption

STRUCTURE Single layer of flat cells with a LOCATION  Glands and some ducts
flattened centrally located  Bronchioles of lungs
nucleus  Auditory tubes

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  Uterus and uterine tubes
 Stomach and intestines
 Gallbladder
 Ventricles of the brain
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
STRUCTURE Single layer of cells but some are
tall and thin, reaching the free
surface, and others do not; nuclei
of cells are at various levels
FUNCTION • Absorption
• Secretion
LOCATION  Lining of nasal activity and
nasal sinuses
 Auditory tubes
 Pharynx and trachea
 Bronchi of lungs
 Epididymis
 Parts of the male urethra
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
STRUCTURE Several layers of cells that are
cuboidal to columnar in the basal
(deepest) layer and flattened
squamous cells in the apical layer
FUNCTION • Protection
• Formation of barrier
• Reduction of water loss
LOCATION Keratinized:
 Outer layer of skin
Nonkeratinized
 Mouth and throat
 Esophagus and larynx
 Anus and urethra
 Vagina
 Cornea
• Keratinizing epithelium
o has a tough layer of keratin (set of fibrous
protein that help in protection of the skin
and its underlying structures).
• Non-keratinizing epithelium
o does not have large amounts of keratin
and it is moistened by mucous.
o can be found more on moist cavities
o protection against abrasion and acts as a
barrier to prevent microorganisms from
entering the body
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
STRUCTURE Has 2 or more layers of cells;
cube-shaped cells in the apical
layer
FUNCTION • Protection
• Limited secretion and
absorption
LOCATION  Sweat gland ducts
 Part of male urethra
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
STRUCTURE Shortened, irregularly shaped cells
in the basal layer; columnar cells
in apical layer only
FUNCTION • Protection
• Secretion
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LOCATION  Part of Urethra
 Large excretory ducts of
some glands (esophageal
glands)
 Anal mucous membranes
 Conjunctive of eyes
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
STRUCTURE Stratified cells that appear
cuboidal when organ is not
stretched and squamous when
organ is stretched
FUNCTION • Allows for stretching
• Protection
LOCATION  Urinary bladder
 Ureters and urethra
• Unstretched - contains five or more layers of
cuboidal to columnar cells
• Stretched - cells will change shape to a low
cuboidal squamous shape and number of cell
layers will decrease
CELL JUNCTIONS
• Contact points between plasma membranes
of tissue cells
• Bridge that connects tissue cells from one
another
• Five (5) types of cell junctions: tight junction,
adherens junction, desmosome,
hemidesmosome, and gap junction
 TIGHT JUNCTION
• bind adjacent cells together
• form permeability barriers wherein they prevent
the passing through of materials between cells
• mostly found in stomach intestine and urinary
bladder
 ADHERENS JUNCTION
• contains plaque
• this plaque is a dense layer of protein that
attaches to both membrane proteins and
microfilaments
• Cadherin - transmembrane glycoprotein that
joined the cells
• Adherence junction - form adhesion belts that
are like extensive zones as they completely
surround the cell like a belt; help in contractile
activities such as in food digestion
 DESMOSOME
• mechanical links that bind cells together
• contain plaque and cadherin or the
transmembrane glycoprotein that attach cells
to one another but the plaque of desmosomes
unlike in adherence junctions attached to the
intermediate filaments which contain keratin
• Common in the epidermis and carjack muscle
cells
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 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

• A gland is a structure that secretes substances

onto surfaces and into ducts, cavities, and
blood and is classified into exocrine and
endocrine

EXOCRINE VS ENDOCRINE
 HEMIDESMOSOME
EXOCRINE GLANDS ENDOCRINE GRANDS
• modified desmosomes that encore cell in the
• Glands with ducts • Glands with no ducts;
basement membrane and not to adjacent
lined with epithelium with extensive blood
cells
• Sweat, oil, earwax, vessels
•contain a transmembrane glycoprotein
saliva, or digestive • Hormones
• we have integrin rather than cadherin
enzymes
• integrin attaches to the intermediate filaments
on the inside of the plasma membrane but on
the outside of the plasma membrane, it
CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
attaches to laminin
• Unicellular
o single cell glands
o Goblet cells - secrete mucous
• Multicellular
o Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, salivary
glands

Simple - Glands that have a single duct and

does not branch
Tubular Glands in the large intestine

Branched Gastric glands

Tubular
Coiled Sweat glands
 GAP JUNCTION Tubular
• small channels allowing small molecules and Acinar Penile urethral glands
ions to pass through one epithelial cell to
another Branched Sebaceous glands
• as as communication signals for the cell’s acinar
coordination and transfer of nutrients
• they have membrane proteins as well and it is
called connexin Compound - Glands with ducts that branch
• connexin form tiny fluid tunnels connexons and
they connect neighboring cells
Tubular Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland

Acinar Mammary glands

Tubulo- Acinar glands of pancreas

acinar

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 • it will then be replaced by a new cell
• Example: hologram gland is the sebaceous
gland or the oil glands

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE
GLANDS

 MEROCRINE GLANDS
• most common type of secretion
• products are released but most cellular
material is lost
• secretions are synthesized in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and processed and
packaged into secretory vesicles in the golgi
apparatus and released through exocytosis
• found throughout the body
• Examples: sweat glands, salivary glands,
• Consists of 2 basic elements: extracellular
pancreas
matrix and cells
• does not usually occur on body surfaces; highly
vascular (except cartilage and tendons) and
supplied with nerves (except cartilage)

FUNCTIONS
 Enclosing and separating other tissues
 Connecting tissues to one another
• tendons attached to bones
• ligaments that holds bones together
 Support and movement
 APOCRINE GLANDS
• bones of the skeletal system and our joints
• secretory products are released as fragments
 Storage
or they are pinched off by exocytosis to
• storing fats and minerals
release the secretion
 Cushioning and insulating
• then the cell will repair itself and repeat the
• fat tissues that protect and conserve heat
process
 Transport
• Example: mammary gland
 Protection
• immune cells and our bones

CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS

• Mesenchymal cells
o Embryonic cells
o pinagmulan ng connective tissue cells
• Immature cells end in “-blast”
o Fibroblast
o Chondroblast
 HOLOCRINE GLANDS
o Osteoblast
• involves shedding of the entire cell because
- capable of cell division and are responsible
the secretory products accumulate in the
for secreting the extracellular matrix
cytosol
• Mature cells ending in “-cyte”
• when the cell matures, it ruptures and
o Fibrocyte
becomes the secretory product

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 o Chondrocyte GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS
o Osteocyte HYALURONIC • binds the cells together
ACID • lubricates the joints
FIBROBLASTS • Most numerous CT cells • maintain the shape of the
• large, flat cells eyeballs
• secrete fibers and ground • Viscous, slippery substance;
substances broken apart by hyaluronidase

CHONDROITIN • Support and adhesiveness

MACROPHAGES • Develop from monocytes SULFATE
(type of white blood cell;
capable of performing DERMATAN • Found in our skin, tendons,
phagocytosis) and destroy SULFATE blood vessels, heart valves
bacteria and cell debris

PLASMA CELLS • Develop from B KERATAN • Found in our bone, cartilage,

lymphocyte SULFATE cornea
• secrete antibodies
* trap water; they make the ground substance
more jelly like in consistency.
MAST CELLS • Abundant in blood vessels;
 Fibers
produce histamine
o Embedded in ECM between cells
(vasodilator involved in the
o Strength and support
process of inflammation)
o 3 types:
• can ingest bacteria
APDIPOCYTES • fat cells; store fat ECM FIBERS
• found deep in the skin and COLLAGEN FIBERS • Tissue flexibility; consists
in our organs (heart and of collagen
kidney) • Bone, cartilage,
tendons, and
ligaments
LEUKOCYTES • White blood cells;
eosinophils and neutrophils
ELASTIC FIBERS • Forms fibrous networks;
consists of elastin
surrounded by fibrillin;
elasticity
• Skin, blood vessel walls,
lung tissue
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
RETICULAR FIBERS • Consists of collagen;
 Ground substance produced by fibroblasts
o Shapeless background • Reticular CT which forms
o May be fluid, gelatinous, or calcified stroma of soft organs
o Contains polysaccharides and proteins
- polysaccharides of the ground substance
are known as glycosaminoglycans
CLASSIFICATION OF CT
 Glycosaminoglycans EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
o these are hyaluronic acid chondrotin sulfate, • Mesenchyme
dermaton sulfate, and keratin sulfate • Mucous CT
o they are associated with proteins expect for MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
hyaluronic acid to proteoglycans 1. LOOSE
 Proteoglycans • Areolar
 Adhesion proteins • Adipose
o link the components of the ground • Reticular
substance to one another and to surfaces 2. DENSE
of cells • Dense Regular
o Fibronectin - is the main adhesion protein • Dense Irregular
of the connective tissues • Elastic

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*SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE FUNCTION • Strength
3. CARTILAGE • Elasticity
• Hyaline • Support
• Fibrocartilage • Nourishment
• Elastic
4. BONE LOCATION  Nearly every body structure
• Spongy  Subcutaneous layer of skin
• Compact  Blood vessels, nerves, and
5. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE body organs
• Blood tissue
• Lymph

MESENCHYME ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

STRUCTURE Irregularly shaped mesenchymal

cells; contains reticular fibers
STRUCTURE Little ECM surrounding cells;
FUNCTION Forms almost all types of CT cytoplasm and nucleus is
pushed to periphery of cell
LOCATION  Under the skin
 Along developing bones of
FUNCTION • Thermal insulator
embryo
• Energy storage
 Adult CT (blood vessel)
• Protection

MUCOUS CT LOCATION  Predominantly in

subcutaneous areas
 Mesenteries
 Around the heart and
kidney
 Mammary glands
 Yellow bone marrow
STRUCTURE Widely scattered fibroblasts that
contain collagen fibers

FUNCTION Support

LOCATION  Umbilical cord

MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. LOOSE
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

* White adipose tissue - contains a large centrally

located droplet of triglyceride
STRUCTURE Consists of fibers (mostly
* Brown adipose tissue - has a darker color due to
collagen) arranged randomly
a rich blood supply and many mitochondria
and cells such as fibroblasts,
are pigmented as well; more numerous in the
macrophages, white blood
fetus and infants
cells, adipocytes

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 RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Bone
 Cartilage and joints
 Kidneys, livers, testes, lymph
nodes

ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE

STRUCTURE Fine network of irregularly arranged
reticular fibers and reticular cells

FUNCTION • Forms stroma

• Providing structure
• Filtration
• Binding STRUCTURE Contains predominantly elastic
fibers with fibroblasts; yellowish
LOCATION  Stroma of organs (liver, spleen, when unstained
lymph nodes)
 Bone marrow FUNCTION • Elasticity (stretch and recoil)
 Blood vessels and muscles
LOCATION  Lung tissue
 Elastic arteries
2. DENSE  Trachea
DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Bronchial tubes
 True vocal cords
 Ligaments of penis and
vertebrae

STRUCTURE Forms shiny white ECM, mainly

collagen fibers regularly arranged

FUNCTION • Strength
• Withstands tension

LOCATION  Tendons, ligaments

 Aponeuroses (tendons)
 Dermis of skin, organ capsules
 Blood vessels
* Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes or the
cartilage cells; located inside spaces called
the lacunae

DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

3. CARTILAGE
HYALINE

STRUCTURE Made up of collagen fibers

irregularly arranged with few
fibroblasts STRUCTURE Most abundant cartilage in the
body; matrix appear transparent;
FUNCTION • Tensile strength chondrocytes are found in spaces
or lacunae surrounded by
LOCATION  Dermis perichondrium
 Heart (heart valves)
FUNCTION • Movement

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 • Flexibility ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• Support

LOCATION  Ends of lone bones

 Anterior ends of ribs
 Nose
 Larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchial tubes
STRUCTURE Has chondrocytes in threadlike
 Embryonic and fetal skeleton network of elastic fibers; presence
of perichondrium

FUNCTION • Rigidity
• Flexibility
• Strength
• Elasticity

LOCATION  Epiglottis
 External ear (auricle)
 Eustachian / auditory tubes

3. BONE
BONE

FIBROCARTILAGE

STRUCTURE Many osteocytes located within

lacunae; matrix is organized into
layers called lamellae
STRUCTURE Lacks perichondrium; has
FUNCTION • Strength
chondrocytes among thick bundles
• Support
of collagen fibers
• Protection
• Storage
FUNCTION • Support
• Attachment and movement
• Joining of structures
• Strength
LOCATION  All bones of the body
• Rigidity

LOCATION  Pubic symphasis

 Intervertebral discs
 Articular disks (knee, jaw, joints)
 Tendons

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4. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
BLOOD TISSUE

STRUCTURE Blood plasma and formed

elements

FUNCTION • Transport of substances

• Temperature regulation
• Protection from infection
• Blood clotting

LOCATION  White blood vessels

 Within chambers of the heart

LYMPH

References:
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
STRUCTURE ECF; different types of cells; less John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
protein than plasma • Van Putte, Regan, and Russo. (2016). Seeley’s
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Ed.
FUNCTION • Drainage of excess interstitial USA: McGraw-Hill.
fluid • Mescher, A. (2013). Junquiera’s Basic Histology
• Transport Text & Atlas, 13th edition
• Immunity • Dongmei Cui, M.S. (2011). Atlas of Histology
LOCATION  Lymphatic vessels with Functional & Clinical Correlations.
1st edition

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 M4: Muscle and TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES

Nervous Tissues
MUSCLE TISSUES

LOCATION:

Differences:
• Presence of striations
o Both the cardiac muscle and the skeletal
muscle have striations. These striations
• Attached to bones
are a result of repeating bands of
• Heart
proteins. (Actin and Myosin)
• Body organs
o Smooth muscle is the only tissue that do
not have striations
FUNCTIONS:
• No. and location of nuclei
• Body movements
o Cardiac muscles have one to two nuclei
o Our body’s skeleton gives enough rigidity
o Skeletal muscle have multiple nuclei
to our body that skeletal muscle can yak
o Smooth muscle are unillocular
and pull on it. It results in body movement
o Are located centrally just like the smooth
such as walking, running, lifting,
muscle
manipulating objects with our hands.
o Skeletal muscle is the only type of muscle
• Maintenance of posture
that has peripherally located nuclei
o Without much conscious control, our
• Cell shape
muscles generate a constant contractile
o Cardiac muscle are characterized to be
force that allows us to maintain unerect
branching
or seated position/posture.
o Skeletal muscle are characterized to be
• Storing and moving substances
cylindrical or tubular in shape
o Example is our smooth muscle in our
o Smooth muscles are characterized to be
digestive tract. It functions in propelling
spindle in shape
food throughout the git.
• Control of action
• Heat production
o can be described as voluntary and
o construction of muscle tissue generates
involuntary
heat which is essential for maintenance
o both cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
of temperature homeostasis.
are characterized to be involuntary
o only the skeletal muscle is characterized
CHARACTERISTICS:
to be voluntary
• Excitability
• Location in the body
o Ability to respond to a stimulus which
o Cardiac muscle can be found in the
may be delivered from a motor neuron
heart
or a hormone
o Skeletal muscles can be found attached
• Contractility
in the bones and tendons
o Ability of a muscle cells to forcefully
o Smooth muscle can be found at the GI
shorten
tract
• Elasticity
o Ability of a muscle to be stretched
1. Skeletal Muscle
• Extensibility
• Striations: Present
o Ability to recoil or bounce back to
• Nuclei: Many, periphery
muscle’s original length after being
• Cell shape: Long, cylindrical
stretched
• Control of action: Voluntary
• Location in the body: Attached to bones
and tendons

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 • It makes up approximately 40 of the total
body mass and functions to produce
movement of the body, generate body heat
and maintain body posture

NERVOUS TISSUE

2. Cardiac Muscle
• Striations: Present
• Nuclei: 1-2, center
• Cell shape: Branching
• Control of action: Involuntary
• Location in the body: Heart
• *With intercalated discs - major portal for
cardiac cell to cell communication
• Forms the myocardium
• Found at the middle layer of the heart

LOCATION:
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
a. Brain
b. Spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
a. Cranial nerves
b. Spinal nerves
c. Ganglia outside CNS

FUNCTIONS:

3. Smooth Muscle
• Striations: Absent
• Nuclei: 1, center
• Cell shape: Spindle COMPONENTS:
• Control of action: Involuntary
• Location in the body: Walls of hollow internal
structures such as the git
• Undergoes rhythmic contractions called
peristaltic waves in the gi tract, uterine tubes,
ureters, and other hollow organs

1. Neurons / Nerve cell

• Perform the unique functions of nervous
system

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 • Functional unit of the nervous tissue • Receive stimuli; transmits impulse toward the
cell
2. Neuroglia
• Non-irritable supporting cells 3. Axon
• Nourish and protect the neuron • Single process up to 100 cm
• Originate from the axon hillock
Difference between Neurons & Neurologia • No ribosomes
• They are terminally differentiated cells, they • Conducts impulse away from the soma
cannot transform into another cell type.
• They are incapable of cell division, they TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
cannot be replaced if it dies.
• Unlike neuroglia, they are supporting cells
and capable of regeneration

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Excitability
o can be stimulated to produce an
impulse (action potential)
• Conductivity
o transfer an impulse along the full length
of their axons

PARTS OF A NEURON:

• Provide metabolic & mechanical support

• 10 times more abundant than neurons
• Can undergo mitosis; they can divide
• Capable of cell division

1. Astrocyte (CNS)

1. Cell body
• Also known as Perikayon / soma
• Contains: nucleus + cytoplasm

a. NUCLEUS
• Large, spherical to ovoid, centrally
located
• A single prominent nucleolus
b. CYTOPLASM
• Has typical cellular organelles
• Basic dyes → Nissl bodies
o Prominent clusters of RER that are
used to replace cellular components
and to regenerate damaged axons
• Star-shaped with multiple radiating processes
• Most abundant glial cells
• Support the blood-brain barrier by forming
glia limitans
o theme barrier of astrocyte food
processesl
• Involved in metabolic processes such as the
control the ionic and chemical environment
of neurons

2. Dendrites
• Short, highly branched cytoplasmic
extensions
• ________________________→ where axons of
other neurons form synapses with the
dendrites
• No Golgi complex

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2. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) Example:
• When macrophanges are found in the liver, it
is called copper cells
• When they are located in the CNS, they are
called microglia

5. Schwann cells (PNS)

• Produce myelin sheath in CNS

• A single cell wraps several axons
• Form Nodes of Ranvier
o Periodic gap in the insulating sheath on
the axon of certain neurons
o They serve to facilitate the rapid
• Also known as Neurilemmocytes
conduction of nerve impulses/saltatory
• Surround axons of all neurons in PNS
conduction of nerve impulses
(Neurilemma)
• Form myelin sheath around most axons of
3. Ependymal cells (CNS)
PNS

6. Satellite cells (PNS)

• Low columnar epithelial cells

• Line the ventricles of the brain & central
canal of the spinal cord
• Facilitate movement of cerebrospinal fluid • Support groups of cell bodies of neurons
• Acts as a shock absorber cautioning the within ganglia of PNS NERVE
brain against the skull
NERVE FIBER
4. Microglia (CNS)
NERVE

• Derived from the bone marrow

• Mononuclear phagocytic system in the
nervous tissue
• Aid in clearing debris
• Protect CNS from microorganism • Enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons in the
• Primary innate immune defector cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
CNS • Structured pathway that supports
*Macrophanges function to aid in clearing electrochemical nerve impulses
debris and microorganism. Macrophanges
have different names depending where their
location is.

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Layers:
1. Epineurium
• Outer layer of dense collagen fibers

2. Perineurium
• Middle layer that divides the nerve into
fascicles

3. Endoneurium
• Inner layer that surrounds Schwann cells and
individual axons

TISSUE REPAIR & REGENERATION

A. Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal muscle – YES and NO
o Skeletal muscles contain numerous
satellite cells
o When the muscle is damaged, these cells
are stimulated to divide
o After dividing, they fuse with existing
muscle fibers to regenerate and repair
the damaged fibers
o Skeletal muscle fibers themselves cannot
divide. However, the muscle fibers can
lay down new protein and enlarge
o Yes - The skeletal muscle can be repaired
or can regenerate but the one that is
responsible for the repair is the satellite
cells underneath the basal lamina that
fuse with the muscle fibers.
o No - It is not the muscle fibers themselves
that are capable of mitosis; they cannot
divide themselves.

• Cardiac muscle cells – NO

o Do not contain cells equivalent to the
satellite cells found in the skeletal muscles.
Thus, when the cardiac muscles die, they
are not replaced.
o In short, cardiac muscles are
irreplaceable

• Smooth muscle cells - YES

o Have the greatest capacity to
regenerate of all the muscle cell types.
o Retain the ability to divide and can
increase in number.

B.Nervous Tissue
• PNS – YES
• CNS – NO
References:
• VanPutte, C. L., & Seeley, R. R. (2014).
Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology. 10th ed New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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