HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY WITH

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

M1: The Human Body

(Basic Anatomical
Terminology)
ANATOMICAL TERMS

• Accurate Description and communication of

scientists, physicians, and other allied health
professionals
• Increase precision & Reduces medical errors
• Greek/LATIN WORDS + Prefix/suffix
o Root Word: Organ / Tissue / Condition THE MOST COMMON ANATOMICAL NAMES IN THE
o Prefix / Suffix: Describes the root word FIELD OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
ANTERIOR POSTERIOR
ANATOMICAL POSITION Armpit (Axillary) Shoulder Blade
(Scapular)
• Utilized in order to further increase the precision Arm (Brachial) Spinal Column
so that anatomist have a standardized way in (Vertebral)
which they view the body. Wrist (Carpal) Buttock (Gluteal)
Fingers (Digital) Sole (Plantar)
• The subject stands erect facing the observer, Thigh (Femoral)
with the head level and the eyes facing Ankle (Tarsal)
directly forward. The lower limbs are parallel Toes (Digital)
and the feet are flat on the floor and directed Cheek (Buccal)
forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides Nose (Nasal)
with the palms turned forward. Breast (Mammary)
Front of elbow
• To further visualize, the example presents a (Antecubital)
man on its anterior and posterior position is on
his anatomical position.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS

• Utilized to describe the position of one body

part relative to another
• Often encountering two organs wherein we
describe the position of one organ in
comparison/relation to the other
• Generally in pairs where one is the opposite of
the other
• Scientific versions of prepositions

EXAMPLE
Superior Inferior
Anterior Posterior
Medial Lateral
Ipsilateral Contralateral
ANATOMICAL NAMES Proximal Distal
Superficial Deep
• The common anatomical names of various
regions and locations in the body are presented
in the example:

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 colon are
ipsilateral
(same side)
Contralateral On the The ascending
opposite side of and
the body / descending
structure colons are
contralateral
(opposite side)
Proximal Nearer to the The humerus is
attachment of proximal to the
a limb to the radius
trunk;
Nearer to the
origination of a
structure
Distal Farther to the The phalanges
attachment of are distal to the
a limb to the carpals
trunk; farther
DIRECTIONAL DEFINITION EXAMPLES
from the
TERMS
origination of a
Superior Towards the The head is
structure
head, upper superior
Superficial Towards or on The ribs are
part of the (above) to the
the surface of superficial to
structure liver
the body the lungs
Inferior Away from the The stomach is
Deep Away from the The ribs are
head, lower inferior (below)
surface of the deep to the
part of the to the lungs
body skin of the
structure
chest and
Anterior Nearer to / at The sternum is
back
the front of the anterior (near
*Medial, Lateral, and Intermediate are
body to the front) to
considered trio
the heart
Posterior Nearer to / at The esophagus
SECTIONS
the back of the is posterior
body (near to the
• Two-dimensional surface of a three-
back) to the
dimensional structure
trachea
Medial Nearer to the The ulna is
PLANES
midline medial (near to
the midline) to
• Imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes
the radius
through the body
Lateral Nearer from the The lungs are
• There are 3 commonly used planes in anatomy
midline lateral (farther
and in the field of medicine:
from the
midline) to the
 SAGITTAL PLANE
heart
• Mid-sagittal Plane / Median Plane
Intermediate Between two The transverse
• Divides the body or the organ into equal left
structures (in between)
or right side/s.
colon is
intermediate to
the ascending
and
descending
colons
Ipsilateral On the same The
side of the body gallbladder
/ structures and ascending

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 CAVITY DEFINITION
 FRONTAL PLANE CRANIAL CAVITY Formed by the cranial
• Coronal Plane bones, contains brain
• Divides the body to the anterior (front) and VERTEBRAL CANAL Formed by vertebral
posterior (back) region columns, contains spinal
cord and nerves
THORACIC CAVITY Chest cavity which houses
the pleural cavity,
pericardial cavity, and
mediastinum
PLEURAL CAVITY Surrounds the lungs
PERICARDIAL Surrounds the heart
CAVITY
MEDIASTINUM Contains the heart, thymus,
esophagus, trachea, and
 TRANSVERSE PLANE blood vessels
• Divides the body to the superior (upper) and ABDOMINOPELVIC Subdivided into abdominal
inferior (lower) region CAVITY and pelvic cavities
ABDOMINAL Contains the stomach,
BODY CAVITIES CAVITY spleen, liver, gall bladder,
intestines, peritoneum
• are spaces that encloses and protects the PELVIC CAVITY Urinary bladder,
internal organs and viscera reproductive organs

MEMBRANES OF THE ANTERIOR BODY CAVITY

 MEMBRANE:
• thin pliable tissue that covers the lines or
partitions of the tissue

 SEROUS MEMBRANE:
• slippery, double-layered membrane
associated with body cavities that does not
open directly to exterior region
• covers the viscera within the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
• lines the walls of the thorax and the
abdomen
The 2 Main cavities
• 3 major parts of the serous membrane:
1. Ventral Cavity
o Parietal - Thin epithelium that lines the wall
• Relatively larger and subdivided into two by
of the cavities.
the diaphragm.
o Diaphragm is a dome-shape respiratory
o Visceral - Thin epithelium that covers and
muscle.
adheres to the viscera within the cavities.
• Relatively larger space than the dorsal cavity
because it facilitates the movement of
o Serous fluid - Small amount of lubricating
organs vital to life such as:
fluid between layers
o Inhalation-exhalation of the lungs;
o Pumping of the heart; and
o Consumption of food along with its
digestion in the stomach
• Contains the Thoracic Cavity and
Abdominopelvic Cavity

2. Dorsal Cavity
• Contains the Cranial Cavity and Vertebral or
Spinal Cavity

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 2. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
• Contains the right portion of the:
o Liver
o Gallbladder
o Right kidney
o Small portion of the stomach
o Portion of the ascending and transverse
colon
o Some parts of the small intestine
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
3. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
• Contains the:
• Established in order to properly pinpoint
o (Houses) Majority of small intestine
location in the abdomen in the instance of
o Parts of large intestine
pain, lesions, etc.
o Left female reproductive system
• There are 9 abdominopelvic regions and 4
o Left ureter
abdominal quadrants.
4. Right Lower Quadrant
• Contains the:
o Cecum
o Appendix
o Portion of the small intestine
o Right female reproductive system
o Right ureter

9 ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS

4 ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS

1. Right Hypochondriac Region

• Contains the:
o Right portion of the liver
o Gallbladder
o Right kidney
1. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) o Some parts of the small intestine
• Contains the:
o Location of the left portion of the liver 2. Left Hypochondriac Region
o Larger portion of the stomach • Contains the:
o Pancreas o Parts of the spleen
o Left kidney o Left portion of the kidney
o Spleen o Some parts of the stomach
o Portions of the transverse and descending o Pancreas
colon o Few parts of the colon
o Parts of small intestine

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 o Bladder
3. Epigastric Region o Parts of the sigmoid colon
• In-between the right and left hypochondriac o Anus
region. • Many organs associated with the
• Pushes out when the diaphragm contracts reproductive system such as:
during breathing. o Uterus
• Above the stomach that contains the: o Ovaries
o Majority of the stomach o Prostate
o Parts of the liver
o Parts of the pancreas
o Some parts of the duodenum
o Spleen
o Adrenal glands

4. Right Lumbar Region

• Contains the:
o Gallbladder
o Left kidney
o Some parts of the liver
o Ascending colon

5. Left Lumbar Region

• Contains the:
o Descending colon
o Left part of the kidney
o Parts of the spleen

6. Umbilical Region
• Middle portion of the abdominopelvic region
• Name such as it contains the umbilicus or
navel
• Contains the:
o Many parts of the small intestine
o Parts of the (a) duodenum, (b) jejunum,
and (c) ilium
o Section of the transverse colon
o Bottom portion of the left and right kidneys

7. Right Iliac Region/Right Inguinal Region

• Usually, the pain in this area is often
associated with appendicitis.
o Appendicitis is the inflammation of the
appendix.
• Contains the:
o Appendix
o Cecum
o Right iliac fossa

8. Left Iliac Region/Left Inguinal Region

• Contains the:
o Parts of the descending colon
o Sigmoid Colon
o Left iliac fossa
References:
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
9. Hypogastric Region
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
• In-between the right and left iliac region.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Region below the stomach.
• Van Putte, Regan, and Russo. (2016). Seeley’s
• Contains the organs around the pubic bone
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Ed.
which include:
USA: McGraw-Hill.

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 M2: Cell Membrane
Transport Mechanism
Plasma membrane exhibits a property of being
permeable - it allows the passage or the passing
through of some but not all substances.
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA
• The different gradients across the plasma
membrane which are responsible for
maintaining balance in the movement of the
substances through the plasma or the cell
membrane.
1. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
• Defined as the difference in the
concentration of a chemical from one place
to another
• Or from the inside to the outside of the
plasma membrane
Example: sodium ions are more concentrated
outside the cell compared with potassium
ions that are more concentrated inside (PISO:
potassium inside, sodium outside)
2. ELECTRICAL GRADIENT
• defined as the difference in electrical
charges between two regions: inside and the
outside of the plasma membrane
• Difference in the distribution of positively and
negatively charged ions on either side of the
plasma membrane
• membrane potential: term used for the
charge difference
In this image, the plasma or the cell membrane is
known to have a more positive charge in its
outer surface and a more negative charge in its
inner surface.
3. ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT
• Is the combined influence of the previously
mentioned gradients on the movement of
ions
• both the concentration and electrical
gradients are important to reach an
equilibrium whenever substances move
across the plasma membrane.
TRANSPORT MECHANISM
• The movement of substances across cellular
membranes may be classified as passive or
active depending on the use of energy.
1. PASSIVE PROCESSES
• Deal with substances that move down or with
its concentration or electrical gradient using
only its own kinetic energy or its energy of
motion
• There is no processing of energy involved
from the cell
Example: Simple diffusion
2. ACTIVE PROCESSES
• Deal with the use of energy usually in the
form of ATP to move substances uphill or
against its concentration or electrical
gradient
Example: Active transport
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 PASSIVE PROCESSES: DIFFUSION
• Involves random mixing of
particles in a solution due to
the kinetic energy or the
energy of motion of the
particles
• A solute moves down its
concentration gradient that is
— the solutes move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration
Example: Placing a drop of colored dye or ink in
a container filled with water
• The most intense color was seen in the area
where the drop was first placed because its
concentration was higher there;
• as the dye or ink diffuses down its
concentration gradient the color becomes
lighter and the dye or ink molecules become
more distributed thus reaching equilibrium
• Diffusion the solute in this case, the dye or the
ink moved from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration
TWO TYPES: Simple Diffusion and Facilitated
Diffusion.
1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• Simply means that substances move freely
across the membrane without the help of
membrane transport proteins
Examples: water, urea, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, fatty acids, steroids, and fat soluble
vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E, and K
2. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• requires the assistance or help of an integral
membrane protein to be able to pass
through the membrane
• recall integral membrane proteins extend
into or through the bilayer and are firmly
embedded in it
Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose, and
some vitamins
• TWO TYPES:
a. Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• A solute moves down or with its
concentration gradient through the use
of membrane channels (mostly ion
channels: these are integral
transmembrane proteins that allow the
passage of inorganic ions that cannot
pass through the lipid bilayer because of
their hydrophilic or water loving nature)
TWO TYPES:
a. Leaks channels: constantly and
continuously allow the passage of ions
b. gated channels: may gate, so it limits
the movement of ions by opening or
closing the pore through changing its
shape
b. Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
• Makes use of a carrier or a transporter to
move solutes down or with its
concentration gradient
• These carriers undergo shape change
following the shape of the solute in order
to move it across the membrane
• Now, the steepness of the concentration
gradient determines how quickly this
type of facilitated diffusion occurs
• Exhibits transport maximum and
saturation
• Transport maximum is upper limit this
means that once all carriers are utilized
already; reached its maximum, fully
saturated; and the rate of facilitated
diffusion will no longer increase.
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 a. Concentration of water: osmosis may be
defined as the diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane from an
area of higher water concentration to an
area of lower water concentration or;

b. perspective of solutes: diffusion of water

from an area of lower solute concentration
to an area of higher solute concentration

• During osmosis, the movement of water

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
molecules through the membrane may be
facilitated in two ways:
 steepness of the concentration gradient
a) Simple Diffusion
• The greater or the bigger the difference in
b) Aquaporins: are integral membrane proteins
the concentration between the two sides of
that act as water channels
the membrane → the higher or the faster will
be the rate of diffusion so the
• Osmosis occurs only when a membrane is
• Steepness of the concentration gradient and
permeable to water but not to certain solutes
the rate of diffusion is directly proportional

 Temperature
• considered directly proportional with the rate
of diffusion
• the higher the temperature the faster will be
the rate of diffusion

 mass of the diffusing substance

• inversely or indirectly proportional with the
diffusion rate
• the larger the mass of the diffusing particle, This picture is a perfect example to show osmosis.
the lower diffusion rate
• Pure water is on the left side of the u-shaped
 surface area tube
• is considered directly proportional with the • While a solution with a solute that cannot
diffusion rate pass through the membrane is on the right
• the greater the membrane surface area • There will be a net movement of water from
available for diffusion, the faster will be the left to right because the water concentration
diffusion rate is higher on the left
• And again, one of the definitions of osmosis is
 diffusion distance the diffusion of water from an area of higher
• is considered indirectly or inversely water concentration to an area of lower
proportional with the diffusion rate meaning water concentration
• the greater the distance on which the • This results in the decrease of volume of
diffusion will occur, the longer will be the rate water in the left side and an increase of
of diffusion volume in the right
• two pressures are involved in this example of
PASSIVE PROCESSES: OSMOSIS osmosis:
a) Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure exerted
• Is another example of a by the liquid
passive process and a b) Osmotic Pressure: is the pressure
type of diffusion where needed to stop the movement of water
there is a net movement from the left side to the right
of solvent through a • The more the volume on the right increases,
selectively permeable the more pressure it exerts, and this pressure
membrane exerted by the liquid is the hydrostatic
pressure
• Solvent: Water • This pressure will then force molecules force
water molecules back into the left side
• May be seen in two perspectives:

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 • There is only equilibrium when the molecules
moving from right to left which is due to
hydrostatic pressure is equal to that of those
molecules moving from left to right, which is
due to osmosis
• Now, osmotic pressure on the other hand is
the pressure needed to stop the movement
of water from the left side to the right
• The higher the solute concentration that
cannot pass through the membrane the
higher will be the osmotic pressure so they
are directly proportional.
TONICITY
• is a measure of the ability of a solution to
change the volume of cells by altering or
changing their water content,
three types:
a) Hypertonic
• Is used to describe a solution that has higher
concentration of solutes than the cytosol or
the intracellular fluid inside the cells
• This may lead to the moving out of water
molecules from the cells
• This will cause this the cell to shrink or
crenation or cell shrinkage
b) Isotonic
• is the solution to be used to maintain the
cell's normal shape and size
• there is same concentration seen in both
sides of the membrane, seen intracellularly
and extracellularly
c) Hypotonic
• used to describe a solution that has lower
concentration of solutes than the cytosol
inside the cell
• this may lead to the moving of water
molecules into the cell, causing cell bursting,
rupture, or lysis
ACTIVE PROCESSES: ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• The active transport facilitates an uphill
movement or they move substances against
their concentration gradients
• The active transport it is an example of an
active process requiring the use of energy for
carrier proteins to move substances across the
plasma membrane
• This process also exhibits transport maximum
and saturation
There are two possible sources of energy:
a) energy from the hydrolysis of ATP which is
the source used for primary active transport
b) energy stored in an ionic concentration
gradient which is the source for secondary
active transport.
two types of active transport
1) Primary Active Transport
• Energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP
changes the shape of a carrier protein which
pumps a substance across the membrane
against its concentration gradient (pumps)
• The shape of a carrier protein changes
through the energy derived from ATP
hydrolysis
• This change in shape will pump the
substance across the membrane against its
concentration gradient
• Now, these pumps refer to carrier proteins
that are involved in the primary active
transport
• An example of a primary active transport
mechanism: sodium-potassium pump Na+-
K+ ATPase pump
Now, in this pump seen in this picture, three Na
ions will bind to the Sodium Potassium Pump
• This will then trigger the ATP to bind to the
Sodium Potassium Pump as well
• The ATP will then break down into a DP and
releases energy
• This energy will then be used for the change
in shape in the Sodium Potassium Pump
• Once the pump changes its shape, the Na
ions will be transported into the extracellular
fluid in exchange two potassium ions will bind
to the pump
• The phosphate is released from the pump
binding site
• The pump will then again undergo shape
change from the energy of the released
phosphate to transport the potassium ions
into the cell
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 • Remember the acronym PISO (Potassium In,
Sodium Out)
• So, two potassium ions in three sodium ions
out.
2) Secondary Active Transport
• The energy stored in an ionic concentration
gradient is used; indirectly uses energy
obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP
• uses the energy stored in an ionic
concentration gradient
• this type of active transport indirectly use
energy from the hydrolysis of ATP
• the diffusion of the transported substance
down its concentration gradient provides the
energy to transport a second substance
• SYMPORTERS: move two substances in the
same direction (Ex: Na & Glucose, Na &
Amino Acid)
• ANTIPORTERS: in opposite directions (Ex: Na &
H, Na & Ca)
• From the image, in secondary active
transport, carrier protein binds two
substances substances at the same time
• Sabay nagbbind yung two different
substances sa carrier protein
• Then, the carrier protein will change its shape
— so both of the substances can pass
through the membrane at the same time
ACTIVE PROCESSES VESICLES
• Requires energy from ATP
• Vesicle is a small spherical sac
• two main processes: Exocytosis and
Endocytosis
ENDOCYTOSIS
• Materials move into the cell in a vesicle
formed from the plasma membrane
• there is an uptake of material where the
membrane folds inward to form a vesicle
containing the materials to be taken inside
the cell
• three types of endocytosis:
1) Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
• Highly selective; cells take up specific ligands
which are molecules that bind to specific
receptors
• Imports materials that are needed by cells
2) Phagocytosis
• Also known as cell eating
• This is where cells engulf large solid particles
• This process is carried out by special cells
known as phagocytes
3) Bulk-Phase or Pinocytosis
• known as pinocytosis or cell drinking
• this is where much smaller vesicles are
formed and tiny droplets of extracellular fluid
are taken up rather than large particles
exocytosis
• Material moves out of the cell by fusion with
the plasma membrane of vesicles formed
inside the cell
• Allows the release of materials from the cell
by the fusion of a secretory vesicle which
was formed inside the cell it will fuse with the
plasma membrane
• This is important especially in secretory cells
and nerve cells
CELLULAR PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
• diseases that may occur in connection with the
transport mechanism
a) tonicity in relation to our RBC
• Red blood cells are easily destroyed when
exposed to hypertonic or hypotonic solutions
• That is why most IV solutions or intravenous
solutions infused in the blood are isotonic
• Hypertonic Solutions: manitol is used to treat
patients with cerebral edema to relieve the
overload of fluid in the brain
• Hypotonic Solutions: are given to dehydrated
patients so that the water will move into their
body cells for rehydration
b) sodium potassium pumps
• Digitalis is a drug given to patients with heart
failure
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 • The drug has an effect of slowing down the
action of sodium potassium pumps
• The sodium potassium pumps let more
sodium accumulate inside the heart muscle
cells
• This really this results in a decreased sodium
concentration gradient across the plasma
membrane which causes the sodium
calcium antiporters to slow down
• This leads to more calcium staying in the
heart muscle cells thereby increasing the
force of contractions and strengthening the
force of the heart beat
c) viruses and receptor-mediated endocytosis
• An example of a virus that employ receptor-
mediated endocytosis is the HIV which
causes AIDS
• HIV virus attaches to a receptor called the
cd4 which is present in the plasma
membrane of a type of white blood cell
known as the helper t cell
• The HIV enters the cell via this mechanism,
the receptor-mediated endocytosis
d) cystic fibrosis or cf
• Is a genetic disorder characterized by an
abnormality in chloride channels
• Normally as chloride moves out of cells that
line body tubes such as respiratory passages,
water follows by osmosis
• In patients with cystic fibrosis or CF, chloride
does not exit these cells which causes less
water to move into the tubes
• The less water leads to difficulty in getting rid
of mucous
• Thus, resulting to build up of mucus
e) Emphysema
• Is a lung disease characterized by damage
to the walls of the alveoli or air sacs of our
lungs
• The alveoli have a large membrane surface
to allow for the diffusion of oxygen from the
air that we breathe into our blood
• Remember, that surface area is one of the
factors that affect the rate of diffusion
• People with this lung disease since they have
damaged alveoli, they have reduced
surface area for diffusion to occur
• Therefore, the diffusion rate of oxygen
becomes slower and there is difficulty
breathing (DOB) for people with emphysema
References:
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). Tortora's
Principles of Anatomy & Physiology 15th ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Van Putte, Regan, and Russo. (2016). Seeley’s
Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Ed.
USA: McGraw-Hill.
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 M3: Epithelial and STRATIFIED
EPITHELIUM
• consists of two or more
layer of cells

Connective Tissue
EPITHELIAL TISSUES

• Epithelial cells or epithelium consist of cells

arranged in continuous sheets (single or
multiple layers) with little intercellular space CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CELL SHAPE
between adjacent membranes - cell shape or morphology of the cell
- also depends on the cell’s or tissues’ function
General characteristics:
• Avascular - no blood supply; relies on blood
vessels of nearby connective tissues for
nutrition and waste disposal
• Has its own nerve supply
• High rate of cell division - constantly renew
and repair itself
• Function mainly for protection, filtration,
secretion, absorption and excretion SQUAMOUS • thin and flattened cells
EPITHELIUM allowing rapid passage
Two general types: of substances through
• Covering and Lining Epithelium (Surface them
epithelium)
• Glandular Epithelium

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

• Surface epithelium forms outer covering of the

skin and some internal organs, as well as the CUBOIDAL • equally tall and wide
inner lining of organs such as blood vessels. EPITHELIUM that looks like cubes or
• It is further classified according to: cell hexagons
arrangement into layers and shapes or • are also usually involved
morphology of the cell in secretion and
absorption
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ARRANGEMENT OF
LAYERS:

COLUMNAR • much taller than wider

EPITHELIUM • involved in secretion
and absorption
* Cells look like columns
and the nucleus are
basally oriented with
abundant cytoplasm
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM • Cells are arranged into a
single layer and serving
functions such as
diffusion, osmosis,
filtration, secretion, or
absorption

Pseudostratified Epithelium – still a simple

epithelium; has a single layer arrangement of
cells appearing to have multiple layers
because nuclei lie at different positions.

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CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO COMBINED LAYERS GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
AND SHAPE CELL
• Functions in secretion
•Lies in clusters deep to the covering and lining
epithelium
• Gland consists of epithelium that secretes into:
o Ducts (tubes)
o Onto surface
o Into bloodstream
• Classified as Endocrine or Exocrine glands

 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
*We can combine both characteristics o Secretions are called hormones – enters
(arrangement and shape) to come up with interstitial fluid and diffuse into bloodstream
different types of epithelial tissues o Have far-reaching effects – distributed
throughout the body by the bloodstream
 Simple squamous epithelium
• a single layer of flattened cells
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
• a single layer of cubed cells
 Simple columnar epithelium
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Example: Thyroid gland releasing thyroid

hormones

*Here we have multiple layers of cells varying in  EXOCRINE GLANDS

shape • Secrete products into ducts – empties onto
surface of covering and lining epithelium or
 Stratified epithelium or stratified squamous lumen of hollow organ
epithelium • Limited effects
• can either be keratinized or • Classified into unicellular (single cell) or
nonkeratinized depending on the Multicellular glands (composed of many cells
presence or absence of keratin on their that can form microscopic structure or
surface macroscopic organs like sweat glands, oil
glands, and salivary glands)
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified • Most are multicellular glands
columnar epithelium, and transitional • Multicellular glands can be classified into two
epithelium criteria:
• usually lines the urinary tract. o Branched or unbranched (ducts)
• This classification is based on the shape o Shape of secretory portion of gland
of the cells in the upper or apical surface
only.
• Note that there may be variations on its
shape depending on the cell layer.

Example: columnar cells can be seen above,

and cuboidal shaped cells are below (see
Columnar epithelium)
• Stratified squamous epithelium - keratinized *An example of an exocrine gland—eccrine
• Stratified squamous epithelium - nonkeratinized sweat gland— showing nucleus basement
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium membrane and lumen where secretions are
• Stratified columnar epithelium released. In this gland, secretions may be
• Transitional epithelium

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released from ducts or lumen just like this • As the cell matures, it ruptures, becoming the
example. secretory product

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE

GLANDS (MULTICELLULAR)
• Simple tubular
• Simple branched tubular
• Simple coiled tubular
• Simple acinar
• Simple branched acinar
• Compound tubular
• Compound acinar
• Compound tubuloacinar

• Illustration for the two criteria of multicellular

glands
• Purple - represents the duct
• Pink - represents the secretory portion
• If the duct is unbranched, it is a simple gland.
• If it branches, it is a compound gland.
• Glands with tubular secretory parts are known
as tubular glands
• if it is rounded, it is acinar or alveolar gland.
• Combining the characteristics of duct and
secretory portion, we form the Structural
Classification of Multicellular Exocrine Glands
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Is one of the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues in the body
• Binds together, supports and strengthens other
body tissues
• Protects and insulates organs
• Major transport system in the body
• Consists of Two Basic Elements:
o Extracellular matrix
o Cells

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

GLANDS
 Merocrine secretion A. EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• secretions contain within the secretory • Mesenchyme: present in the embryo and in
vesicles are released via exocytosis the fetus
• Most exocrine glands are merocrine glands • forms almost all other types of connective
 Apocrine secretion tissue
• secretions will accumulate in the apical or • Mucous (mucoid) connective tissue -
upper surface and this portion would pinch represented within the umbilical cord and
off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to function as support
release it. Then, it repairs itself and repeats
the process
 Holocrine secretion
• accumulation of secretion takes place on
cytol.

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B. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE 1. b. Dense connective tissue
1. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER • contain more fibers that are thicker and more
1.a. Loose connective tissue densely packed but with fewer cells than loose
AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE connective tissue
• one of the most widely distributed connective
tissue consisting of randomly arranged fibers DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and variety of cells. • mainly bundles of regularly arranged collagen
fibers, which is its extra cellular matrix, with
fibroblast in between them

• embedded in a semi-fluid ground substance

• Its cells here are represented by the fibroblast,
but not limited to it • shows the nucleus of the fibroblast in dense
• extracellular matrix is represented by the semi- regular connective tissue
fluid ground substance and fibers collagen,
and elastic fiber (reticular fibers are also seen) DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- made up of collagen fibers as well but
ADIPOSE TISSUE irregularly arranged
• has cells derived from fibroblast known as
adipose cells or adipocytes

• cells are filled up with triglyceride droplet in the • not uniformly arranged like dense regular
fat-storage area pushing the nucleus and the connective tissue
cytoplasm into the sides or into the periphery. • has few fibroblast (as seen on the fibroblast
nucleus)
RETICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• there is an interlacing network of reticular fibers ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and reticular cells • mainly containing elastic fibers with fibroblasts
in between them

• nucleus of the reticular cells is prominent in

here with faint cytoplasm

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 2. SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
2.a. Cartilage
• consist in dense network of collagen and
elastic fibers embedded in ground substance
chondroitin sulfate
• made up of larger quantities of extracellular
matrix and few cells
• can withstand more stress that the previous
types of connective tissues
HYALINE CARTILAGE
• most abundant cartilage in the body
• Contains resilient gel as its ground substance
with prominent chondrocyte or cells of mature
cartilage in spaces called lacunae
• Surrounded by perichondrium (faintly seen in
the image) which is a covering of dense
irregular connective tissue.
FIBROCARTILAGE
• has chondrocytes in thick bundles of collagen
fibers
• Only cartilage without a perichondrium
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• has chondrocytes in a threadlike network
within ground substance
• also has perichondrium just like the hyaline
cartilage
• chondrocytes are within the a space or the
lacunae with faint threads of fibers in the
ground substance
2. b. Bone
• organs composed of different types of
connective tissue and has several functions
such as calcium and phosphorous storage,
houses red bone marrow and contains yellow
bone marrow as well.
COMPACT BONE
• Canaliculi - serves as passageway for nutrients
of osteocytes or mature bone cells and waste
removal.
• Central or Haversian canal - contains the blood
vessels and nerves
• Lamella - are concentric rings of extracellular
matrix consisting of mineral salts mainly calcium
and phosphates
• Lacunae – the spaces between lamellae
• These are the 4 parts of an osteon or haversian
system which is the basic unit of a compact
bone
SPONGY BONE
• lacks osteons
• Rather, it consists of columns of bone called
trabeculae, which contain lamellae,
osteocytes, lacunae, and canaliculi
• Spaces between trabeculae are filled with red
bone marrow
3. LIQUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
BLOOD
• has plasma as its liquid extracellular matrix with
formed elements
• Formed elements in the blood— platelets,RBCs,
and WBCs particularly, neutrophils.
LYMPH
• the extracellular matrix flowing within lymphatic
vessels similar to blood, but with less protein
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 M4: Muscle and
Nervous Tissues
MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue is composed of cells specialized for

contraction.
Muscle is classified into three types according to
their structure and function:

I. Skeletal muscle cells

• long cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and
under voluntary control.
II. Cardiac muscle cells
• short branching fibers, have a single
(occasionally two), centrally located nucleus,
show the same striations as skeletal muscle,
and are under involuntary control.
III. Smooth muscle cells
• spindle-shaped (fusiform), have a single,
centrally located nucleus, and are under
involuntary control. The uniform, nonstriated
appearance gives rise to the name smooth
muscle.

NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous system is specialized for the rapid

communication of information from one region
of the body to another.
Nervous system is divided anatomically into two
major components:
• Central nervous system (CNS) – consists of the
brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – peripheral
nerves and ganglia

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE:

I. Neuron
• structural and functional unit of the nervous
system.
II. Non-neural cells (glial cells)
• provide support and protection in the CNS
(oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal
cells, and microglia) and the PNS (Schwann
cells and satellite cells).

PERIPHERAL NERVE:
• Peripheral nerves contain the axons of both
motor neurons and sensory neurons that
connect with the spinal cord.
• They are surrounded by multiple layers of
connective tissue
o Epineurium, Perineurium, Endoneurium

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