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Network Layer Routing in Packet Networks Shortest Path Routing
Network Layer Routing in Packet Networks Shortest Path Routing
Network Layer
Routing in Packet Networks
Shortest Path Routing
Network Layer
Network Layer Overview
Network Layer Services
Network Layer Functions
Network Layer Overview
Network Layer: the most complex layer
Requires the coordinated actions of multiple,
geographically distributed network elements
(switches & routers)
Must be able to deal with very large scales
Billions of users (people & communicating devices)
Biggest Challenges
Addressing: where should information be directed to?
Routing: what path should be used to get information
there?
3
Network Layer Services
Messages
Messages
2 Node
5
(switch or router)
Node 3
Node 4
Destination Next node
1 1
2 2
Node 2 Node 5
3 3
Destination Next node Destination Next node
5 5
1 1 6 3 1 4
3 1 2 2
4 4 3 4
5 5 4 4
6 5 6 6
8
Routing Algorithm: Requirements
Rapid and accurate delivery of packets
Must operate correctly
Rapid convergence
Responsiveness to changes and avoid routing loops
Topology or bandwidth changes, congestion
Freedom from persistent loops
Optimality
Resource utilization, path length
Robustness
Continues working under high load, congestion, faults
Simplicity
Efficient implementation, reasonable processing load
9
Routing Algorithm: Classification
A. Centralized vs Distributed Routing
Centralized Routing
Distributed Routing
10
B. Static vs Dynamic Routing
Static Routing
Set up manually, do not change; requires administration
Works when traffic predictable & network is simple
Used to override some routes set by dynamic algorithm
Used to provide default router
Dynamic Routing
Adapt to changes in network conditions
Automated
Calculates routes based on received updated network
state information
11
C. Flat vs Hierarchical Routing
Flat Routing
All routers are peers
Does not scale
Hierarchical Routing
Partitioning: Domains, autonomous systems,
areas...
Some routers part of routing backbone
Some routers only communicate within an area
Scales
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• Example: Non-Hierarchical Addresses and Routing
0000 0001
0111 0100
1010 1 4 1011
1101 1110
3
R1 R2
2 5
0011 0011
0110 0000 1 0001 4 0101
1001 0111 1 0100 4 1000
1100 1010 1 1011 4 1111
… … … …
0000 0100
0001 0101
0010 1 4 0110
0011 0111
3
R1 R2
2 5
1000 1100
1001 00 1 00 3 1101
1010 01 3 01 4 1110
1011 10 2 10 3 1111
11 3 11 5
16
Routing Metrics
Means for measuring desirability of a path
Path Length = sum of costs or distances
Possible metrics
Hop count: rough measure of resources used
Reliability: link availability; BER
Delay: sum of delays along path; complex & dynamic
Bandwidth: “available capacity” in a path
Load: Link & router utilization along path
Cost
17
Shortest Path Protocols
Distance Vector Protocols
Neighbors exchange list of distances to destinations
18
Distance Vector
Do you know the way to DADAR?
DADAR 596
19
Distance Vector
Local Signpost Table Synthesis
Direction Neighbors exchange
Distance table entries
Determine current best
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Shortest Path to SJ
Focus on how nodes find their shortest
DADAR
path to a given destination node, i.e. SJ
Dj
Cij
j
i
Di If Di is the shortest distance to Dadar from
i
and if j is a neighbor on the shortest path,
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then D = C + D
But we don’t know the shortest
paths
DADAR
1 Hop
2 Hops
3 Hops From DR
From DR
From DR
Hop-1 nodes
calculate current
(next hop, dist), &
Accurate info about DR send to neighbors
ripples across network, 23
Shortest Path Converges
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Consider computations for one destination d
Initialization
Each node table has 1 row for destination d
Distance of node d to itself is zero: Dd=0
Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj=, for j d
Next hop node nj = -1 to indicate not yet defined for j d
Send Step
Send new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
Receive Step
At node j, find the next hop that gives the minimum distance to d,
Minj { Cij + Dj }
Replace old (nj, Dj(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance
Go to send step
24
Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Now consider parallel computations for all destinations d
Initialization
Each node has 1 row for each destination d
Distance of node d to itself is zero: Dd(d)=0
Distance of other node j to d is infinite: Dj(d)= , for j d
Next node nj = -1 since not yet defined
Send Step
Send new distance vector to immediate neighbors across local link
Receive Step
For each destination d, find the next hop that gives the minimum
distance to d,
Minj { Cij+ Dj(d) }
Replace old (nj, Di(d)) by new (nj*, Dj*(d)) if new next node or distance
found
Go to send step
25
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
4
3 1 3 6
2
2 5
4
26
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
D3=D6+1
n3=6
D6=0
2 3 1
1 1
5 2
0
4 Dadar
3 1 3 6
2 5 2
4
2
D5=D6+2 D6=0
n5=6 27
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
3 1
2 3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 Dadar
3 1 3 6
2 2
5
4
6 2
28
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
1
3 2 3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 Dadar
3 1 3 6
2
2 5
4
6 4 2
29
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
1 5
3 2
3
1 1
5 2
3 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4 4
2
Network disconnected; Loop created between nodes 3 and 4 30
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
5
37 2
3
1 1
5 53 2
0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4
4 2
31
Node 4 could have chosen 2 as next node because of tie
Iteration Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5
5 7
7 2 3
1 1
5 2
5 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2 5 2
4
46 2
79 2 7
3
1 1
5 2
5 0
4 San
3 6
1 3
Jose
2
2 5
4
6 2
36