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Review of Strengthening RC Columns with FRP Composites Fiber Reinforced polymer

(FRP)

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Contents

Topics Page
Introduction 5
Plain Concrete Behavior 10
Causes of Cracking, Damage, and Deterioration of Concrete 11
 Design and Construction Defects 11
 Corrosion of Reinforcement 12
 Chemical Attacks 13
 Weathering 14
 Natural Forces and Hazards 14
Reinforced Concrete Columns in Structures 15
Concrete Confinement 16
RC Column Retrofitting by Concrete Jackets 17
RC Column Retrofitting by Steel Jacketing 18
RC Column Retrofitting by Fiber Reinforced Polymers 20
Repairing and Upgrading Columns Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers 24
Composite Material 28
Advantages of FRP Material 30
Types and Properties of Fibers 31
 Resin 34
 Epoxy Resins 35
FRP Composites as Structural Reinforcement 36
Strengthening with FRP Sheets 39
Effect of Ratio of the Cross-Section on the Behaviour of 40
FRP-wrapped Columns
Effect of Number of FRP Layers on the Behaviour of 41
FRP-wrapped Columns
Effect of Orientation on the Behaviour of 42
FRP-wrapped Columns
Influence of Edge Sharpness on the Strength of 44
Rectangular and Square Columns
Theoretical Models 46
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)-1997 46
Mander et al. (1988) Model 47
BS 8110 (1997) 49
References 50

1
List of Figures

No. Title Page

1- Plain Concrete Stress-Strain Diagrams. 10
2- Spalling of Cover Concrete. 17
3- Typical FRP Stress-Strain Diagram . 21
4- Fibre Directions in Composite Materials like Sheet. 36
5- Various Forms of FRP Materials. 37
6- Stress-Strain Behaviour of FRP Compared to Steel. 38
7- Gain in Ultimate Load Versus Number of Layers. 41
8- Effect of Fibre Orientation on the Behavior of 43
FRP-Wrapped Columns
9- Effect of Corner Radius on Confined Square Columns 45

2
List of Tables

No. Title Page

1- Properties of E- glass and S-glass 32
(SIKA Manufacturers Manual).
2- Comparison between Glass, Aramid and Carbon Fibres. 33

3
Observation

Observation Full meaning

FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymers
RC Reinforced Concrete
AFRP Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymers
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers
GFRP Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymers
BFRP Basalt Fibre Reinforced Polymers
PVA Polyviny Alcohol
ICBO International Conference of Building Officials

4
Introduction
A major part of the civil engineering reinforced concrete (RC)
infrastructure all over the world including bridges, municipal buildings,
transportation systems, and parking facilities are facing problems of deficient
design and/or construction practices, space, functionality or loading alterations,
overuse, seismic upgrading and of course inadequate maintenance.

Reinforced concrete columns as a major supporting element for any

structure may, for numerous reasons, need strengthening. Traditional
conventional methods like concrete or steel jacketing were used for repair,
strengthening, or providing a lateral confinement for the RC columns (Chai et al.
1991 & Priestly et al. 1994). Although both methods are effective in increasing
the structural capacity, they are labor consuming and mostly results in a
substantial increase in the cross section of the strengthened column.

For these reasons and to replace outdated techniques, the innovative

rehabilitation and strengthening methods for reinforced concrete structures,
especially with composite materials, have taken a large portion of the research
and application work in the field of repair and restoration of structural elements.
)LEHU UHLQIRUFHG SRO\PHUV )53 VKHHWV FDQ EH XVHG WR ZUDS FROXPQ¶V FURVV
section with a high-strength adhesive providing confinement with composite
enclosure resulting in increasing the load carrying capacity of the strengthened
columns.

5
 FRP have emerged as a promising alternative strengthening materials for
upgrading deficient RC infrastructure. There is a vast available database on Fiber
Reinforced Polymer-Reinforced Concrete, (FRP-RC), beams and slabs; however,
literature on FRP-RC columns is infrequent and limited. Many research works
were conducted in the field of repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete
circular columns. However, columns with cross section like square or
rectangular did not take enough attention. Confining of circular or non-circular
reinforced concrete to enhance or regain strength and ductility of concentrically
loaded RC short columns using CFRP sheets has been reported by numerous
studies (Etman et al. 2003 & Etman et al. 2002). In reality, columns are never
exposed to concentric load but always exposed to eccentric load (combined axial
load and bending moment). RC columns under the effect of eccentric loads still
need thorough investigations.

Fiber-reinforced polymer, FRP is a composite material containing fibers in

a polymer matrix. The FRP is typically applied with an epoxy resin. The epoxy
resin is used to combine the fibers and connect the wrap with the structural
member. The reinforcement system works together as a cohesive unit, and if one
part of the fiber is weak, the entire system will have a brittle failure as a result.
The advantages of the FRP wrap are many. These include increased concrete
confinement, corrosion resistance, high specific strength, and durability
(Bischoff 2003).

6
 Several traditional techniques have been used for repairing reinforced
concrete columns such as concrete jackets and steel plates. The main purpose
of confinement is to increase the load carrying capacity and ductility of the
reinforced concrete columns. It has some disadvantages such as increase of
dead load; increase of owns section of column which leads to increase its
flexural stiffness. This steel plate jacketing system is not a feasible technique to
use in aggressive environments.

Engineers have used traditional materials such as wood, steel, and

concrete to confine and improve the structural behaviour of concrete members.
Since 1980, there has been a worldwide increase in the use of composite
materials for the rehabilitation of deficient RC structures. One important
application of this composite retrofitting technology is; the use of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) jackets to provide external confinement to RC
columns when the existing internal transverse reinforcement is inadequate
(Yousef, 2006).

Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) is a composite material comprises fibre

in a polymer matrix. The FRP is typically applied with an epoxy resin. The
epoxy resin is used to align the fibres in proper direction and bond the wrap
with the structural member. The advantages of the FRP include high strength to
weight ratio, high stiffness, corrosion resistance, high specific strength, and
durability (Raghu et al, 2001). While FRP can be used to strengthen many
different structural members such as beams, columns, slabs and chimneys.

7
 A structure probably needs upgrading due to the increased loading and/or
reduction in the load carrying capacity, corrosion of steel reinforcement,
chemical attacks, aggressive environments, construction errors, and old design
codes. For example, bridges are sometimes designed according to standard
specifications however, due to increased traffic volume; they probably need to
improve the load carrying capacity and structural performance of the structures.

Deterioration of RC columns due to the corrosion of reinforcing steel and

spalling of concrete cover has been a major problem for the aging infrastructure.
Environmental effects on concrete bridge pier columns and piles could
significantly deteriorate their long-term durability and structural integrity. The
key problem is permeability of concrete and corrosion of the embedded steel
reinforcement. To improve the structural performance, the existing reinforced
concrete columns can be strengthened or retrofitted with externally bonded Fibre
Reinforced Polymers. Wrapping with externally bonded FRP fabrics offers a
high strength, low weight, and corrosion-resistant jacket, which can be easily and
quickly installed with negligible increase in the column's cross-section.

8
 The use of externally bonded FRP composites has been increasingly used
to improve the strength and structural performance of the existing reinforced
concrete columns. In practice, rectangular columns have been widely used in the
residential and commercial building. Past studies have shown that wrapping
FRP sheets around circular reinforced concrete columns is an effective and
economical means for increasing their strength and ductility in axial compression
(Suter and Pinzelli, 2001; Theriault et al, 2001; Chaallal et al, 2006). However,
relatively less work has been performed on the rectangular columns (Kumutha et
al, 2007), to examine the effects of the external confinement on the structural
performance. It was also found that extensive researchers (Mohamed and
Harajli, 2006; Yousef, 2006; Watanabe et al, 1997) used circular and square
columns with different variables such as number of layers and slenderness ratio
with complete wrapping system along the height of the column.

9
Plain Concrete Behavior
The axial behavior of plain concrete has been widely studied by
researchers for the past century, and is widely dependent on the specifications of
the concrete. The water-cement ratio, cement and aggregate characteristics,
concrete unit weight, type of curing and age all play a significant role in the
behavior (Carreira and Chu 1985).

The plain concrete behavior is best understood from the axial compression
of concrete cylinders taken from the concrete mix. Concrete gains most of its
ultimate strength in the first 28 days after construction, during which time the
type of curing system will affect the overall strength. The testing of the cylinders
at 28 days will result in a stress-strain plot that will rise until ultimate strength
and then descend quickly when the concrete crushes. Figure 1 shows typical
stress-strain diagrams of plain concrete.

Figure 1 - Plain Concrete Stress-Strain Diagrams (Spiegel and Limbrunner 2003).

10
Causes of Cracking, Damage, and Deterioration of Concrete
The most common factors that cause cracks and damage in concrete
structures are summarized as following.

I. Design and Construction Defects

Errors in design and detailing that may result in deficiencies in the
behavior of concrete include improper selection and/ or misplacement of
reinforcement, insufficient transverse reinforcement. Insufficient lap length at
splices, and inadequate concrete cover. The importance of proper design and
detailing will depend on the particular structure and the loading involved.
Special care must be taken in design and detailing of structures in which
cracking may cause a major serviceability problem.

A wide variety of poor construction practices can result in cracking or

reduction of strength in concrete structures. Foremost among these is the
common practice of adding water to concrete to improve workability during
construction. Added water has the effect of reducing strength, and increasing the
ultimate drying shrinkage. When accompanied by a higher cement content to
help offset the decrease in strength, an increase in the water content results in
increased thermal stresses and possible cracking.

Lack of curing increase the degree of cracking within the concrete

member. The early termination of curing may allow for shrinkage ar a time
when the concrete has not gained its full strength. The lack of hydration of the
cement results in decreased long term strength, and reduced durability of the
concrete structure.

11
 Other construction problems that may lead to cracks or reduced strength
are inadequate form supports, inadequate consolidation, and placement of
construction joints at points of high stresses. Lack of support for forms or
inadequate consolidation can result in settlement and cracking of concrete before
it has developed enough strength to support its own weight. The improper
location of construction joints may result in cracks and reduced load carrying
capacity at those planes of weakness.

A number of deleterious chemical reactions may result in cracking and

reduced load carrying capacity of concrete structures. Concrete may crack as a
result of expansive reactions between aggregates containing silica and alkalis
derived from cement hydration, admixtures, or curing water. The alkali-silica
reaction causes local expansion that may eventually result in the deterioration of
the structure.

II. Corrosion of Reinforcement

Corrosion is an electrochemical process requiring an anode, a cathode, and
an electrolyte. The moist concrete matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte, and the
steel reinforcement provides the anode and cathode. Electrical current flows
between the cathode and anode, and the reaction results in an increase in the steel
volume as the iron is oxidized and precipitates as iron oxide (rust) and
hydroxide. The iron oxides and hydroxides which have a much larger volume as
compared to original reinforcement result in high radial bursting stresses around
the reinforcing bars, and in local radial cracks. These splitting cracks can
propagate along the bar causing longitudinal cracks (parallel to the bar) or
destruction of the concrete cover. Those cracks provide access to oxygen,
moisture, and chlorides creating a condition in which corrosion continues and
causes further cracking.
12
III. Chemical Attacks
Chemicals attack concrete through cracks or by permeation. Some salts
like chlorides can cause severe damage in the concrete. Chlorides can be
introduced into concrete by coming in contact with environments containing
chlorides, such as sea water or de-icing salts. Penetration of the chlorides starts at
the surface, then moves inward. The concentration of chlorides in contact with
the reinforcing steel causes corrosion when oxygen and moisture are present. As
the rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by expansion of the oxide cause the
concrete to crack and delaminate as was explained before.

Steel corrosion may also take place in a high alkaline environment if

chlorides are present. While chlorides are not consumed in the corrosion process,
they act as catalysts to the process. Carbon dioxide in industrial atmospheres
might cause the corrosion of steel. Carbon dioxide penetrates into the pores of
concrete and reacts with the calcium hydroxide present in the pore water. This
reaction reduces the alkalinity of concrete, and, consequently, concrete
protection of the steel is lost, and the passivity if the protective layer on the steel
is destroyed. As a result, corrosion begins if moisture and oxygen are present.
The process of carbonation requires constant change in moisture level from dry
to damp to dry, consequently, carbonation will not occur when concrete is
constantly under water.

13
IV. Weathering
The weathering process that can cause cracking and deterioration of
concrete are freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, and heating and cooling.
Concrete may be damaged by the freezing of the water in the paste, and/or the
aggregate. Alternate wetting and drying, and heating and cooling produce
volume changes in the concrete. If volume changes are excessive, damage may
occur.

V. Natural Forces and Hazards

Natural forces and hazards that include earthquakes, hurricanes, high
winds, and snow have been always a source of damage and even collapse to
concrete structures. Most of the time, the damage in the concrete structure occurs
in the structural members.

14
Reinforced Concrete Columns in Structures
Many structures are erected on RC columns. The strength, ductility and
durability of RC columns strongly affect the overall behavior of structures, thus
understanding the behavior of individual columns under various loading
conditions is of great importance.

RC columns are generally referred to as vertical load carrying structural

members. However, it is also known that this kind of classification is merely an
idealization as columns may also carry shear and bending moments depending
on their position in the structure, uneven settlements, workmanship errors and
seismic loads. RC columns are constructed as highway bridge peers, vertical load
carrying members in buildings or underground piles. They are constructed in
many different cross-sectional geometries and heights using different types and
amounts of concrete and steel reinforcement depending on the structural
necessity and material availability.

To keep RC columns from further deterioration due to materials

vulnerability to hostile environment conditions and to restores their strength,
ductility and durability to a technically accepted level, there are a number of
retrofitting techniques developed and tested. Steel jacketing and Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) wrapping are the most commonly used methods
(Priestley et al. 1996). These methods may also be applied to undamaged or new
RC columns to increase their load carrying capacity and ductility.

15
Concrete Confinement
Concrete confinement is a very important design factor when designing
concrete columns under axial compression. Studies have shown that effective
transverse confinement can cause a large improvement in axial strength and
ductility of the concrete member. The increased ductility is a desired attribute,
allowing warning of structural failure in the member.

In the design of traditional rebar reinforced concrete construction, spiral

reinforcement provides greater confinement than longitudinal or rectangular tie
reinforcement. The best confinement can be obtained with closer spacing of the
transverse reinforcement, and better distributed longitudinal reinforcement.
Furthermore, the volume of transverse reinforcement should be increased in
comparison with the volume of the concrete core (Mander et al. 1988).

The concrete confinement is important because the cover concrete will

begin to spall at a strain of 0.003 in./in. At this point, the core concrete will carry
the load as long as it is effectively confined by the rebar reinforcement. The
longitudinal bars will eventually begin to buckle in between the transverse
reinforcement as is seen in Figure 2. Failure will be reached once the
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement fails, and can no longer confine the
concrete core (Lam and Teng 2003).

16
 Figure 2 - Spalling of Cover Concrete (Mander et. al. 1988).

ƒ RC Column Retrofitting Concrete Jackets

Concrete jackets consist of added concrete, and longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement around the existing member. While this type of
strengthening improves the axial. Shear strength, and flexural strength of the
column, both stiffness and frequency of the member will be increased. To
improve bond between the old and new concrete, chipping away the concrete
cover of the original member and roughening its surface is recommended.

17
 In case of shear walls having lengths greater than 5 m, it is recommended
to connect the old and new concrete by steel dowels to ensure the monolithic
action of the strengthened section. It can be seen that for proper installation of
concrete jackets, a lot of damage is required in the existing structure to provide a
bond between the reinforcement of the existing column and that of the concrete
jacket. Concrete jackets can be used to improve the shear and flexural load
carrying capacities of concrete columns, however, the jackets do not improve the
ductility.

Column confinement with steel sections, steel straps, new closely spaced
ties, or welded wire fabric together with filling the voids with shortcrete or grout
are among the successful techniques used for repairing and upgrading concrete
columns. In cases of severe damage, the longitudinal steel must be replaced
because large shear distortions or buckling of the original bars.

ƒ RC Column Retrofitting by Steel Jacketing

Steel jackets were originally developed for circular columns. Two half
shells of steel plates rolled to a radius of 25 mm larger than the column radius
are positioned around the column and are welded up the vertical seams to
provide a continuous tube with a small gap around the column. The jacket exerts
a uniform confining pressure around the entire circumference of the column. The
increase in strength of the upgraded column is proportional to the stiffness of the
steel jacket.

18
 Concrete columns can also be strengthened using four steel angles at the
corners tied horizontally by steel plates. Such reinforcing scheme has proved to
be highly efficient in enhancing the shear strength and ductility of reinforced
concrete columns.

For rectangular columns, the practice is to use a circular or an elliptical

jacket thus changing the shape of the column. This is usually not acceptable for
architectural reasons. Changing the shape of the column to circular or elliptical is
not possible for walls or rectangular columns with high aspect ratios.
Rectangular steels jackets are not recommended because they do not provide any
significant confinement at the flat sides and the greatest part of the confining
pressure falls on the corners of the column.

Steel jacketing has been a popular retrofitting method for the deficient RC
columns due to already established ultimate strength and strain equations for
steel confined concrete. Steel jacketing is simply applied to the deficient RC
column in two half shells with a slightly larger diameter than the RC column
itself. The parts are welded together over the areas to be retrofitted and the gap
between the RC column and steel jacket is filled with cement grout (Priestley et
al. 1996). The jacket provides a passive lateral confinement similar to internal
steel helix reinforcement mentioned above as the column tends to expand
laterally under axial loads.

19
 ƒ RC Column Retrofitting by Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Fiber-reinforced polymer is a composite material that consists of a
polymer matrix with fiber reinforcement. Glass and Carbon are common fibers
while the polymer is typically an epoxy resin. The polymer is placed on the
concrete surface, then the FRP is wrapped around the column or beam. In wet-
application, fibers are soaked in wet resin or polymer before FRP application.
The polymer helps to connect the fibers of the wrap together while also making a
strong connection with the surface of the concrete.

An FRP system wrapped around a column provides passive reinforcement

to the column. As the concrete member is loaded axially, the FRP reinforcement
system provides little or no effect on strength increase to the confined concrete
initially. However, once the concrete dilates and begins to crack and weaken, the
FRP reinforcement provides confinement for the concrete.

The stress-strain diagram presented in Figure 3 will continue on a second

linear path before reaching a brittle failure at a much higher axial stress and axial
strain than the initial unretrofitted failure point. The main advantage of the FRP
system is the amount of confinement that it provides. The enveloping wrap or
tube provides more confinement than a longitudinal or spirally wrapped steel
rebar.

20
 Figure 3 ± Typical FRP Stress-Strain Diagram

Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) has been used to repair and rehabilitate
concrete columns, beams and slabs. This FRP composite has many potential
characteristics as compared to the use of traditional techniques. FRP sheets have
a high strength to weight ratio, very high resistance to corrosion and chemical
attacks which makes them, unlike steel plates and concrete jackets, suitable for
structures subjected to aggressive environment.

21
 In addition, FRP sheets are easy to handle in site and do not add to the
dead load of the structure. The ACI report (1996), reported that FRP products
were first used to reinforce concrete structures in the mid-1950s however, in
spite of the earlier research on the use of FRP reinforcement in concrete,
commercial application of the FRP in concrete was not recognized until the late
1970s.

FRP reinforcement is activated by the outward expansion of the crushing

concrete and LV WKHUHIRUH D SDVVLYH W\SH RI UHLQIRUFHPHQW ³$V WKH D[LDO VWUHVV
increases, the confining device develops a tensile hoop stress balanced by a
XQLIRUPUDGLDOSUHVVXUHZKLFKUHDFWVDJDLQVWWKHFRQFUHWHODWHUDOH[SDQVLRQ´'H
Lorenzis and Tepfers 2003). The amount of axial load that the system can
withstand relies on the FRP, when the fibers reach ultimate stress and strain the
FRP system ruptures producing a brittle failure.

FRP reinforcement is essential in providing confinement to columns after

the concrete starts cracking. Near failure, the concrete is cracked internally and
the cracking is not uniform throughout. This also causes high stress
concentrations in specific areas of the FRP reinforcement as opposed to areas
where little cracking has occurred.

22
 The FRP reinforcement is subjected to two different types of loading while
the column undergoes axial deformation. There is a transverse loading from the
concrete crushing and trying to push out radially. There is also some axial
loading due to the epoxy resin connection between the concrete and the FRP
reinforcement. This combination of loads produces strength limitations that are
difficult to predict, and the failure strength of the FRP system is a portion of its
ultimate strength.

Studies have shown that increasing the FRP strength and stiffness are
directly related to the increase in concrete stress and strain limits. Furthermore,
the strength and stiffness of the FRP is a result of the material chosen and the
number of layers used. The FRP strength and stiffness are important in limiting
the dilation of the concrete. Limiting the dilation of the concrete as the axial load
increases will cause a rise in stress and strain capacity.

23
Repairing and Upgrading Columns Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers
FRPs have superior properties that include light weight, corrosion
resistance, high strength to weight ratio, high resistance to chemical attacks, and
a coefficient of thermal expansion suitable for use with concrete.

Katsumata et al, 1988 developed a method for increasing the earthquake

resistance capacity of reinforced concrete columns using CFRP wrapping. They
concluded that the earthquake-resistance capacity, the ultimate displacement, and
energy dissipation can be increased using CFRP wrapping. Matsuda et al. 1990
tested a system for bridge and pier retrofit using unidirectional; carbon fiber
sheets wrapped longitudinally and transversally in the potential plastic hinge
region or in the region of main bar cutoff.

Priestley and Seiblel, 1991, and Seible et Priestly, 1993 used an E-glass
fiber wrapping system, which is more economical than carbon fiber to repair
columns. Priestley and Seible also developed a full design package for seismic
retrofit of existing columns using different retrofit jacketing systems. Harmon et
al ,1992 investigated the behavior of concrete cylinders confined using CFRP.
They confirmed the generally bi-linear nature of heavily confined concrete
cylinders in addition to demonstrating that cyclic loads little effect on the
backbone monotonic response.

24
 Nanni et al, 1992 investigated the ductility of concrete columns confined
using fiber reinforced polymers. They concluded that lateral FRP confinement
increases the strength and ductility of concrete columns. Nanni et al, 1995
studied the behavior of FRP jacketed concrete under uniaxial compression.
Saadatmanesh et al, 1994 proposed a wrapping technique using glass fiber
reinforced composite straps for column retrofit. Continuos and non-continuos
straps were used. The ends of the straps could be epoxy bonded or mechanically
coupled to the column.

Watson, 1994 investigated the behavior of concrete cylinders confined

using 2,3, and 4 layers of FRP under axial loading. The cylinders were 6 in. in
diameter and 12 in. long. The compressive strength of the confined concrete
cylinders improved by values ranging from 135% to 220%. Howie et al, 1994
reported the results of tests on cylinders wrapped with varying layers of FRP
external reinforcement oriented in various directions. The results indicate that
crossing fibers may weaken the jacket and make it susceptible to progressive
failure and that fibers oriented in the hoop direction are important to providing
good confinement.

Seible et al, 1995 have experimentally validated a carbon fiber retrofit

system that uses an automated machine to wrap carbon bundles to form a
continuous jacket. Successful field construction is also reported by Seible.
Demers et al, 1996 investigated the behavior of both square and circular columns
confined with varying amounts of fiber reinforced polymer composites. A
notable difference between the behaviors of circular and square specimens was
reported. FRP jackets provide confinement of the entire cross section of circular
columns. FRP jackets, however, engage high confining pressures at the corners
of square columns but little pressure on their flat side.
25
 Rehabilitation of deteriorated civil engineering infrastructure such as
bridge decks, building, beams, girders, parking structures, marine structures,
roads etc has been a major issue in the last decades. The deterioration of these
structures might be due to ageing, poor maintenance, corrosion due to poor
environmental conditions, poor initial design or construction and accidental
situations like earthquakes. The need to upgrade the deteriorated civil
engineering infrastructure greatly enhances with the ever increasing demands.
For example, the increased traffic conditions normally do not match with the
initial design load actions. Therefore rehabilitating existing civil engineering
infrastructure has been identified as an important issue to be addressed.

Transportation agencies are faced with a continuous challenge to keep

bridges in a good operation condition despite limited resources. Bridge structures
are deteriorating at a fast rate, and cost for repair and replacement of deficient
bridges are continuously rising. Even when resources are available, extended
time is often required for performing needed remedies, causing disruption of
traffic and inconvenience to the traveling public. The strengthening or
retrofitting of existing concrete structures to resist higher design loads, correct
deterioration-related damage, or increased ductility has traditionally been
accomplished using conventional materials and construction techniques.
Externally bonded steel plates, steel or concrete jackets and external post
tensioning are just some of the many traditional techniques available. In the
context to the strengthening problem, advanced composited have the potential to
prove another promising solution.

26
 New technology options in bridge rehabilitation are being developed from
polymers, metals, ceramics and composites of these materials, and some of these
high performance materials are already being utilized in construction.
Composites comprise of several different basic components that together provide
physical characteristics superior to what each can provide separately. While the
concept of composites has been in existence for several millennia, the
incorporation of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) is less than a century old. These
composites combine the strength of the fibers with the stability of the polymer
resins. They are defined as polymer matrix, either thermo-set or thermoplastic,
that are reinforced with fibers or other reinforcing material with a sufficient
aspect ratio (length to thickness) to provide a desirable reinforcing function in
one or more directions. These composite materials are different from traditional
construction materials such as steel, aluminum, and concrete because they are
anisotropic; i.e., the properties differ depending on the direction of the fibers.
Due to the resulting benefits, FRP composite applications have revolutionized
entire industries including aerospace, marine, electrical, and transportation
(Nystrom at el .2003).

27
Composite Material
A composite material is formed when two or more materials are combined
so that the properties of the composite are different from, and usually better than
those of the individual constituents. Today modern advanced composites refer
primarily to fiber reinforced polymers (FRP). Fiber reinforced polymers are
composed of continuous fibers made of, carbon, glass, aramid, or polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA), embedded in resins. Alone or joined with other traditional
materials like concrete and steel to form hybrids or super-composites. The fibers
can also be discontinuous but in this case the fibber volume fraction should be 10
percent or more in order to provide a significant reinforcement function. Resins
can be either thermosetting or thermoplastic. Thermosetting resins harden upon
application of heat and cannot be reliqufied, such as polyesters and epoxies.
Thermoplastic resins solidify by cooling and liquefied by heating, such as PVC,
polyethylene, and polypropylene. FRP products for civil engineering
applications depend on thermosetting resins.

The performance of any composite depends on the reinforcing fibers

which are the load bearing constituent of any structural composite, and the
interaction between the fibers and the polymer matrix. FRP are composite
materials that consist of high strength fibers and a polymer matrix. The fibers,
which normally exhibit very high tensile strength and stiffness, carry most of the
load that the composite materials are subjected to. The polymer matrix has a
relative low strength and stiffness that contribute little to the load carrying
capacity. The main function of the polymer matrix are to protect the fiber form
damage, keep the fibers aligned, and allow loads to be distributed among the
individual fibers in the composite materials.

28
 FRP composites have superior properties that are desirable for their use as
structural members (Ballinger, C. A. 1991). These properties include: high
strength-to-weight ratio, high resistance to fatigue, high resistance to corrosion
from dicing salts as well as other chemical agents, ease and speed of installation.
These properties often make FRP composites favorable materials in structural
rehabilitation. For example, the lightweight materials and ease of construction
can result in reduced labor and traffic control costs in highway bridge retrofit.

The use of composite materials in construction industry began with the use
of timber, plywood, straw-reinforced clay, iron-reinforced pozzolanic cement
concrete and steel-reinforced concrete. The earlist FRP materials used glass
fibers impregnated in polymer resins that were made available by the burgeoning
petrochemical industry following World War II (Bakis, 2002). They were first
used as the structural materials of the body of boats. In the 1960s and 1970s, due
to their high strength, high stiffness and low density, FRP composites were
commercialized to meet the ever-increasing challenges in the performance of
Aerospace Industry.

Since 1980s, with the decreasing cost of FRP composites and increasing
number of deteriorated structures, FRP composite had gained great interest in
construction industry for its superior features that well meet the materials
requirements of structural retrofit. Extensive researchers on most aspects of FRP
materials for civil infrastructure application have been done in the past decade;
their potential has been successfully demonstrated in the laboratory and field
conditions. Moreover, several building codes, such as ACI and ICBO (ACI
Committee 440 1996; ICBO 1997), recently included specifications for use of
FRP composites in building design and construction.
29
 The characteristics of FRP composites depend on many factors such as
type of fiber, its orientation and volume, type of resin used and quality control
used during the manufacturing process. It is possible to obtain the characteristics
of commercially available FRP composites from the manufacturer.

Advantages of FRP Materials

The advantages of FRP materials are summarized as presented from
sources (Balagury et al .2009 & GangaRao et al. 2007).

x Light weight: It makes FRP sheets easy to handle in site and repair work
can be performed without disturbing traffic.
x Non-corrosive: No corrosion problem like the case of steel plates.
x High strength to weight ratio: Accordingly, a very thin sheet of FRP can
efficiently replace a thick steel plate.
x High resistance to chemical attacks from acids, alkalis and salts,
consequently, this FRP material is used for repairing and upgrading all
structures subjected to chemical attacks. For example, water desalination
plants, waste water treatment stations, and offshore petroleum platforms.
x The coefficient of thermal expansion of FRP is close to that of concrete,
thus the two materials are compatible and there are no problems of
expansion or shrinkage.

30
Types and Properties of Fibers
Reinforcing fibers are the principal load bearing constituent of any
structural composite element. Typical types of structural fibres include aramid,
carbon, and glass fibres. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Fibers are generally made
from materials with the following properties:
1. High modules of elasticity.
2. High ultimate strength.
3. Low variation of mechanical properties between individual fibers.
4. Stability and retention of mechanical properties.
5. Uniform fiber cross section.
The most commonly fibers used in engineering applications are discussed
below.

Glass Fibre: Glass is a predominant fibre for many civil engineering

applications because of its economical cost and specific strength properties.
Glass fibres are available in E-Glass, and S-Glass (high silica), and C-Glass
(chemical grade). Table 1 shows the properties of glass fibres. Typical specific
properties of glass fibres are summarized below:

x Glass fibres are elastic until failure.

x Low cost with respect to other fibres.
x Low tensile modulus.
x High tensile strength.
x Low resistance to cyclic loads.
x Softening point of about 800-1000 C.
x Sensitivity to alkaline environment.
x High insulating property.

31
 Table 1: Properties of E- glass and S-glass (SIKA Manufacturers Manual)
Properties E-glass S-glass
Tensile strength (MPa) 3450 4600
Tensile modulus (GPa) 73 86
Elongation (%) 4.8 4.7
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion mm/mm/C 5 5.6
Density (g/cc) 2.54 2.48

Carbon Fibre: There are three sources to manufacture commercial carbon

fibres: pitch, a by-product of petroleum distillation; PAN (polyacrylonitrile), and
rayon. The properties of carbon fibres are controlled by molecular structure and
the degree of freedom from defects. The formation of carbon fibres requires
processing temperatures above 1000C. The properties of carbon fibres are listed
below:

x High strength and stiffness to weight ratio.

x Low ultimate strain.
x Low impact resistance and low sensitivity to fatigue loads.
x Excellent chemical and moisture resistance.
x Sensitivity to galvanic corrosion.
x Thermal stability up to 2000C.
x Highly conductive to heat and electricity

32
 Aramid Fibre: Several organic fibres can be used in structural applications,
the most common of which is aramid. The properties of aramid fibres are listed
below:

x Tensile properties decrease by 5% when moisture exists.

x Good resistance to chemical attack.
x Low electrical conductivity.
x Tensile strength ranges between 2414-3150 MPa.
x Elastic modulus ranges between 62-142 GPa.

Comparison of Fibre Types: Glass, aramid and carbon fibres are the most
common fibres used as reinforcement for the application in the construction
field. Table 2 shows the summary of potential characteristics of different types
of fibres.

Table .2: Comparison between Glass, Aramid and Carbon Fibres (Johnson, 1980)
Criterion Fibre composite laminates made of
E-glass Aramid Carbon
Tensile strength Very good Very good Very good
Compressive strength Good Inadequate Very good
Modulus of elasticity Adequate Good Very good
Long term behavior Adequate Good Very good
Fatigue behavior Adequate Good Excellent
Bulk density Adequate Excellent Good
Alkaline resistance Inadequate Good Very good
Price Very good Adequate Adequate

33
 ¾ Resin
A large variety of resins are used with FRP systems. The most commonly
used resins can normally be used in different environmental conditions. However
as shown by the ACI Committee 440 (2000). A polymer material such as plastic
consists of a collection of a large number of polymer molecules of similar
chemical structure. Reinforcing fibres are impregnated with polymers to form
Fibre Reinforced Polymers. Although the reinforcing fiber are the load bearing
element of any structural composite, it is important to understand the role played
by the matrix polymer which may be summarized in the following points:
x Transfer applied load and stresses to fiber.
x Protect the surface from damage during handling.
x Protect the fibers from mechanical and environmental damage.
x Resin provides lateral support against fiber buckling under compression
loading.
x The polymer matrix properties influence inter-laminar shear.
x The polymer matrix properties influence in-plane shear.
x The polymer matrix has to be chemically and thermally compatible with
the fibres.
x The polymer matrix stops to some extent a crack from propagating straight
through a mass of fibers.

The most common commercial thermosetting matrix is polyester resins, epoxy

resins, and vinyl esters.

34
 ¾ Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins were first used for composite applications in the early 1950s.
The good adhesion characteristics of these types with glass, aramid and carbon
fibres have resulted in remarkable success in the field of manufacturing matrices
for the fibre reinforced composites. They also have good balance of physical,
mechanical, and electrical properties, and have a lower degree of curing
shrinkage than the polyester resins. Other attractive features of epoxy resins in
composite applications are relatively good hot/wet strength, chemical resistance,
and dimensional stability, ease of processing and low material costs. Typical
physical and mechanical properties of epoxy system (SIKA Manufacturers
Manual).

x Tensile strength (MPa) 55-130

x Tensile modulus (GPa) 2.8-4.1
x Elongation (%) 3.0-10.0
x Density (g/cc) 1.2-1.3
x Shrinkage (%) 1-5

35
FRP Composites as Structural Reinforcement
FRP has been available in many forms so it can be used as a structural
reinforcement for concrete elements. Sheets, bars and mesh are some of these
forms that are used like shown in Figure 5. In existing structures that need
strengthening or have to be repaired, FRP sheets are usually used. Composite
materials like sheets have different shape, surface texture, and configurations.
The fibres can be placed in multiple directions as shown in Figure 4. Epoxy resin
or cement-based bonding material can be used with different types of fibres:
AFRP (Aramid Fibre Reinforced Polymers), CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Polymer), GFRP (Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer) or BFRP (Basalt Fibre
Reinforced Polymer). Therefore, FRP reinforcement forms a group of products
where the characteristics are not the same and many reinforcement types can be
used in different situations (Balagury et al .2009 & GangaRao et al. 2007).

Figure 4 - Fibre directions in composite materials like sheet.

36
 Figure 5 - Various Forms of FRP Materials. From Left: Sheets, Mesh and Bars
(GangaRao et al., 2007).

Typical stress-strain behaviour for FRPs along with reinforcing steel is

shown in Figure 6. The FRP does not experience any yielding during tension, it
has a linear elastic behaviour from the origin (starting point) up to failure where
the ultimate stress is reach. Steel normally has higher modulus of elasticity than
FRP element, but FRPs are characterized by high tensile strength in the range of
2400 to 5400 MPa (Balagury et al .2009 & GangaRao et al. 2007 & CSC, 2004
& Irwin and Rahman, 2002 & ACI, 2002).

37
Figure 6 - Stress-Strain Behaviour of FRP Compared to Steel (Fédération ,2001).

38
Strengthening with FRP Sheets
The layup technique, where FRP sheets are placed on e.g. concrete
element and fixed externally usually with epoxy resin, is gaining wide
acceptance in structural engineering because of its advantages. FRP materials are
non-metallic and are more likely to be resistant to aggressive chemicals,
therefore they are good option for reinforcement of concrete structures. By
means of structural strengthening the bearing capacity can be increased. If the
service life of a structure is shorter than anticipated, investments related to
maintaining the structure can be justified.

The maintenance can be categorized into two types, repair (retrofit) and
strengthening (upgrading) of a certain structure (V. C. Li ). Strengthening with
FRP sheets has shown to be a beneficial alternative to structural elements that
have had a change in function. By means of repairing (retrofitting), durability is
the most urgent need in the repair of concrete structures. Concrete structure can
deteriorate due to environmental actions like steel corrosion, freeze-thaw, alkali-
silica reaction, fire etc. (Balagury et al .2009 & GangaRao et al. 2007 & ISIS,
2006).

39
Effect of Ratio of the Cross-Section on the Behaviour of FRP-wrapped
Columns
Pessiki et al, (2001) investigated the axial behaviour of twenty-eight small
scale circular and square plain concrete specimens and large-scale circular and
square reinforced concrete columns confined with fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) composite jackets, subjected to monotonic, concentric axial loads.
Improvements in the axial load carrying and deformation capacities of FRP
jacketed concrete members over unjacketed members were reported. Result also
shows that cross-section geometry significantly influences the axial behavior of
FRP jacketed specimens. The jackets provided to the specimens with square
cross section were not as efficient as those provided to specimens with circular
cross sections, Theriault et al (2001) tested 34 FRP-confined concrete specimens
with different slenderness ratio to study the effect of specimen size and
slenderness ratio on the behaviour of FRP-confined concrete column under axial
compression test.

A slenderness ratio of 2 was used to represent the test data that has been
generated from most studies reported in the past literature. At the same time,
specimens with a height-to-diameter ratio of 6 also tested to represent the typical
³VKRUW´FROXPQV1RQHRIWKHFRQFUHWHVSHFLPHQVKDGVWHHOUHLQIRUFHPHQW7KH
experimental result obtained indicates that there is no significant variation in
compressive strength, when comparing the results for both different slenderness
ratios.

40
Effect of Number of FRP Layers on the Behaviour of FRP-wrapped
Columns
Kumutha et al (2005) presented results of a comprehensive experimental
investigation on the behaviour of axially loaded rectangular columns
strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Polymer wrap.

All the test specimens were loaded to failure in axial compression and the
behaviour of the specimens in the axial and transverse directions was
investigated. From the results, it was found that, the confinement of columns
with GFRP wrap increased the load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete
columns. In addition, the greater the number of GFRP layers, the greater the
gain in axial load carrying capacity with respect to unconfined columns (see
Figure 7).

Figure 7 - Gain in Ultimate Load Versus Number of Layers (Kumutha et al, 2005).

41
 Abdelhady et al, (2001) also conducted a similar experimental program to
study the behavior of RC rectangular columns strengthened with CFRP. Twelve
columns with a aspect ratio of one-to-three and overall dimension of 150 x 450
mm and 2100 mm height were tested under axial loading. The result showed
that the capacity of the columns increased by 50 % for the strengthened column
with two layers of carbon FRP.

Effect of Orientation on the Behaviour of FRP-wrapped Columns

Li et al (2003) investigated the behaviour of FRP repaired RC columns.
They used ANSYS finite element software to perform the parametric analysis.
Experiments were also conducted to justify the finite element analysis results. A
reasonable agreement was found between the finite element analysis and the test
results.

The effect of the thickness, stiffness, and fiber orientation of the FRP
layers as well as the interfacial bonding between the FRP wraps and the concrete
on the strength and stiffness of the repaired columns was evaluated using the
finite element modeling. He tested eight specimens with different fibre
orientation of the FRP layers. It was found that the effect of the fibre orientation
(see Figure 8) on the strength and stiffiness is coupled with the effect of the
interfacial bonding. With perfect interfacial bonding, fibres in axial direction are
more effective than those in hoop direction, with weak interfacial bonding,
however, the effect of fibre orientation can be neglected.

42
Figure 8 - Effect of Fibre Orientation on the Behavior of FRP-Wrapped Columns
(Guoqianq Li et al 2003).

43
Influence of Edge Sharpness on the Strength of Rectangular and Square
Columns
Mohamed (2006) carried out investigation to study the influence of the
ratio of the rectangular column cross-sectional the corners radius used for FRP
application. He tested nine specimens with different edge radius. It was
observed that FRP confinement is not as effective in increasing the axial strength
of rectangular columns as compared to circular columns and that the
corresponding increase in axial strength diminishes sharply with increase in the
aspect ratio of rectangular sections. The model predicts that the effectiveness of
FRP confinement in increasing the axial strength decreases as the unconfined
concrete compressive strength increases.

Yousef (2006) conducted similar test to study the influence of the radius
of the cross-sectional corners on the strength of small square column specimens
confined with FRP composite laminates. He tested 20 specimens with different
edge radius under uniaxial compression. It was found that the best performance
was the circular specimens followed by the columns having corner radius of 50
mm, 38 mm, 25 mm, then the 5 mm radius, respectively. This showed that a
jacket delivers a uniform confining stress around the circular concrete core (see
Figure 9).

44
Figure 9 - Effect of Corner Radius on Confined Square Columns (Yousef, 2006).

45
Theoretical Models:
I. International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)-1997
For rectangular sections with an aspect ratio (h/b) less than 1.5, the
enhanced compressive strength can be calculated with the following equation:

I¶cc = I¶c(1+5 Uf cos2T ) (1)

where,

Uf = 2tf (b  h)
bh

T ”ƒ

The axial load capacity enhancement due to the longitudinal fibres is

ǻ3 = Af FRVðșf¦ (2)

Where,

Af = cross-sectional area of the fibre sheets

¦¦ Ǽ¦ FRVðș¦¦X

A higher fibre strain may be used if the section is effectively confined.

46
 II. Mander et al. (1988) Model
Mander et al. (1988) proposed a model to calculate the increase in
concrete compressive strength due to confining pressure provided by transverse
reinforcement in reinforced concrete columns. The model has been extended to
the case of FRP-confined circular and square reinforced concrete by sections
several researchers (Wang and Restrepo 2001).

For rectangular sections in which the confining pressures in two

orthogonal directions,

I¶cc = D1 D2 I¶c (3)

where

D1 = 1.25[1.8 (1  7.84 flx f ' c ) -1.6 flx f ' c -1] (4a)

D2 = [1.4 fly flx -0.6( fly flx ) 2-0.8 flx

f 'c
+1] (4b)

flx = fly.

flx = U jx (0.005 Ep (5a)

fly. = U jy (0.005 Ep) (5b)

47
 :KHUHǼS LVWKHHODVWLF PRGXOXVRIWKH )53MDFNHWUHSUHVHQWV the
transverse strain in the FRP jacket is provided in the determination of lateral
confining stresses when the nominal compressive strength of the concrete at
ultimate state is evaluated.

The reinforcement ratio U jx and U jy are defined as follows:

U jx = 2 (tj / ty) (6a)

U jy = 2 (tj / tx) (6b)

Where, tj is the nominal jacket thickness, tx and ty are the overall column cross-
section dimensions.

48
III. BS 8110 (1997)
A rigorous approach would entail the consideration of the confinement
effect of transverse steel links; however, this is implicitly accounted for in the
following formula for the axial load capacity of the reinforced concrete column
with nominal transverse links:

N = 0.67 fcu Ac+As fy (7)

(without safety of factor: 1.5 for concrete, 1.05 for steel)

Where,
As = total area of longitudinal reinforcement,
Ac = net area of the concrete

49
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48.SaaGDWQRQHVK+05(KVDQLDQG0:/L³6WUHQJWKDQG'XFWLOLW\RI
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50.6HLEOH)*$+HJHPLHUDQG',QQDPRUDWR³'HYHORSPHQWVLQ %ULGJH
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55.7KHULDXOW 0 &ODXGH 6 1HDOH .:  ³Effect of size and
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AEDIFICATIO Publishers.

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59. <DPDNDZD7 =KDQJ$ DQG 6DWRK+  ³Effect of Fibre

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