Mme 541 Theory and Design of Alloy Lecture Slide 1. - Unn Complete

MME 541: Theory and design of
Engineering alloys
ALLOY THEORIES LECTURE 1

: HUME-ROTHERY THEORY
Instructor: Dr. Paul Nnamchi

Department of Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering,
University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria

Chapter 11 - 1
FIRST ASPECT OF OUR LECTURES
Elements of Alloy Theory

• Alloys are materials which impurities have been
deliberately added
– Al-Si, for example, is an
alloy of two elements
Why are alloys important?

Alloys are important because their
properties are often superior to those of
their component elements. Chapter 11 - 2
Alloy Theory
• Alloys are materials which impurities have
been deliberately added
– Al-Si, for example, is an alloy of two
elements
Description of terms
1. Two elements: Binary
2. Three elements: Ternary alloy
3. Four elements: Quaternary
4. Five elements and above multicomponent alloy
Chapter 11 - 3
Theory and design of Engineering alloys
The question is: what happens

when we combine two solids
1. Miscible
2. Immiscible
3. Partially miscible
And why do they behave differently ?
Chapter 11 - 4
Classification of Engineering Alloys
Chapter 11 - 5
Chapter 11 - 6
A summary of possible alloy structure:
Chapter 11 - 7
Alloys can form from their component atoms in different ways
• If the atoms of the components in an alloy are

about the same size, they can replace each
other in the crystal.
– This type of alloy is called a substitutional alloy.
• Thus: solute substitutes the solvent in the

crystal lattice without much visible structural
changes.
Chapter 11 -
Types of Substitutional solid solubility
Chapter 11 -
interstitial Solid solution alloy.
1. the atomic sizes are
quite different, the smaller
atoms can fit into the
interstices(spaces)
between the larger atoms.
2. the solute does not

occupy the sites in the
lattice of the solvent but
resides in crystallographic
pores
NOTE: Solvent atoms here are far smaller than solvent atoms and therefore occupy
the arbitrarily interstitial region (interatomic space) in the crystal lattice of solvent
between solvent atoms. As shown in Fig., the solute atoms do not occupy grids. (b)
2.2. In FCC-iron (gamma-iron) carbon atoms, for example, dissolves by occupying the
Chapter 11 -
interstitial space in the iron structure of FCC-gamma.
INTERSTITIAL SOLIID SOLUBILITY
Chapter 11 -
Alloys can form from their component atoms in different ways

• If the atomic sizes are quite different, the
smaller atoms can fit into the interstices
(spaces) between the larger atoms.
– Such an alloy is called an interstitial alloy.
Thus: Transformational alloy occur when a completely new

lattice is formed. Usually occurs as a result of intermetallic
compound formation
Chapter 11 -
The prediction of solid solubility of alloys:
developments and applications
 In the 1920s, Hume-Rothery helped to make the
art of metallurgy into a science by the discovery of
rules for the prediction of solubility in alloys.
 Their simplicity and generality made them

become one of the most important rules in
materials science.
Chapter 11 -
In 1925, after his PhD at the Royal School of Mines, Hume-
Rothery returned to Oxford and worked on intermetallic
compounds, metallography and chemistry, extending his
ideas on the formation of compounds.
He examined phase diagrams of the noble and related metals

(i.e. Cu, Ag and Au), especially those alloyed with the B-
subgroup elements (these include Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Na,
Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Zn, Ga, Ge, As, Se, Br, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Te,
I, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi). this paper was published in 1926 [5]
In the few decades after Hume-Rothery’s discovery, many researchers have

tried to make “corrections” to H-R rules aiming to make them work better in
general alloy systems.
Chapter 11 -
Two of the Hume-Rothery rules controlling solid
solubility: Both of these rules are presented in his
classical paper in 1934 [6].
1) the first Hume-Rothery rule, the atomic size factor,

said that if the atomic diameters of the solvent and
solute differ by more than about 14-15% then the
primary solid solubility will be very restricted;
2) the second rule emphasised the importance of the

electron concentration (or electron per atom ratio) in
determining the phase boundary. Both of these rules
Chapter 11 -
are presented in his classical paper in 1934 [6].
In 1937, after studying the silver rich antimony-silver alloy

system with Reynolds [7],
3) Hume-Rothery became aware of a third factor restricting

solid solubility, that is, electrochemical factor; maximum
solid solubility reduced as the electronegativity difference
between solute and solvent increased because of the
competition to form intermetallic compounds.
Chapter 11 -
KEY CONCEPTS: HUME-ROTHERY
RULES
A. Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15%

difference)
B. Crystal Structure factor
C. Relative valence factor
D. Electronegativity factor
Chapter 11 - 17
Development and application of each
rule
A. Atomic size factor:
The atomic size factor rule is usually presented in the
following way :
 “if the atomic diameters of the solute and solvent differ

by more than 14%, the solubility is likely to be
restricted, because the lattice distortion is too great for
substitutional solubility.”
 When the size factor is unfavourable, the primary solid

solubility will be restricted; when the size factor is
favourable, other factors limit the extent of solid
solubility and it is of secondary importance. Chapter 11 - 18
rule
A. Atomic size factor:
 Waber et al. applied the size factor alone to 1423

terminal solid solutions and within 90.31% (559/619) of
the systems where low solid solubility was predicted,
low solid solubility was indeed observed.
 On the other hand, it was less easy to predict extensive

solid solubility when there was a small size difference;
it achieved only a 50 % (403/804) success rate. The size
factor rule has been explained by using elementary
electron theory.
Chapter 11 - 19
rule
A. Atomic size factor validity
 The validity of the size factor has been debated since

the rule was proposed. Hume-Rothery et al. themselves
pointed out [6] that the exact “atomic diameter” of an
element is always difficult to define. They defined the
atomic diameter as given by the nearest-neighbour
distance in a crystal of the pure metal.
Chapter 11 - 20
RULES
B. Crystal Structure
Elements of similar crystal structure are

mostly going to produce a solid solution
mixture and vice versa
Chapter 11 - 21
RULES
C. Relative Valence Factor

 He stated that a metal of lower valence is more likely to dissolve
one of higher valence than vice versa. However, more extensive
investigation has not confirmed the generality of this rule. An
example is that monovalent silver can dissolve about 20%
aluminium but trivalent aluminium dissolves about 24% silver.
 However, for high valence, covalently bonded components, the

relative valence factor applies well. For example, copper
dissolves about 11% of silicon but silicon dissolves negligible
copper . This rule seems to be valid only when monovalent
metals copper, silver or gold are alloyed with the B-subgroup
elements of the Periodic Table which have higher valences.
Chapter 11 - 22
RULES
C. Relative Valence Factor
 Besides the valencies of transition metals are variable

and complex, as analysed independently by Hume-
Rothery et al. [58] and Cockayne and Raynor .
Cottrell’s book points out in his book that due to the
valency complication caused by partly filled d orbitals,
the transition metal alloys generally do not follow the
rule.
Chapter 11 - 23
RULES
D. Electronegativity Factor
 As discussed by Hume-Rothery , stable intermetallic compounds
are prone to form as the more electronegative is the solute and
the more electropositive is the solvent metal, or vice versa. Due to
the lower free energy that can be obtained when the system
adopts a mixture of solid solution and compound, solute atom
partition to form the stable compound rather than to enter solid
solutions
 In some binary alloy systems, if one component is very

electropositive relative to the other, there would be a strong
tendency for them to form compounds of considerable stability in
which valence rules are satisfied. This is the strongest effect in
determining the constitution of alloys, which dominates all other
effects. Chapter 11 - 24
RULES
 The scale for electronegativity as given by Mullikan is based on
the equation:
(Equation 1)
where I is the ionization energy, A is electron affinity, and χ is

Mullikan electronegativity. Dividing by 2.8, gives approximately
Pauling’s empirical scale.
 Watson and Bennett [60] point out that in the case of transition
metals, the partly filled d states at energies near the Fermi energy
influence electronegativity. They produced an electronegativity
scale for transition metals, which matches Pauling’s scale, and
could be scaled by 2.8 to bring it to Mullikan’s scale
Chapter 11 - 25
RULES
 As discussed by Hume-Rothery , stable intermetallic compounds
are prone to form as the more electronegative is the solute and
the more electropositive is the solvent metal, or vice versa. Due to
the lower free energy that can be obtained when the system
adopts a mixture of solid solution and compound, solute atom
partition to form the stable compound rather than to enter solid
solutions
 The scale for electronegativity as given by Mullikan is based on

the equation:
(Equation 1)
Chapter 11 - 26
RULES
A. Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15%

difference)
B. Crystal Structure factor
C. Relative valence factor
D. Electronegativity factor
Chapter 11 - 27
A possible check on the rule with Al-Si
alloy system
Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15% difference)
– Al-ra = 0.1143nm
– Si- ra = 0.117nm
The difference is 18.2% > 15%
Crystal structure factor:
–Al = Fcc crystal structure
–Si- = diamond crystal structure
Chapter 11 - 28
A possible check on the rule with Al-Si
alloy system
Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15% difference)
– Al = 1.6
– Si = 1.9
The difference is 18.2% > 15%
Relative Valence factor :
–Al = +3
–Si- = +4
Almost all rules broken: Partial solubility
Chapter 11 - 29
Mapping and derivatives of Hume-Rothery’s
Rules
 Following this hugely significant work by Hume-Rothery and his
colleagues on the prediction of solid solubility in alloys, many
researchers, such as Darken and Gurry [10],Chelikowsky [11],
Alonso and Simozar [12], Alonso et al. [13] and Zhang and Liao
[14, 15] all contributed in different ways to the prediction of solid
solubility in terms of a soluble/insoluble criterion.
 Although extensive researches have been done to work out the

theory behind the H-R rules, it would be very useful if the
solubility of the materials can be mapped diagrammatically on a
Cartesian system. So researchers can simply calculate the
coordinate of the element to predict the solubility using such a
diagram. This direction started from Darken and Gurry [10],
followed by Gschneidner [57], Chelikowsky [11], Alonso et al. [12,
13], and Zhang [14, 15] among others. Chapter 11 - 30
DARKEN –GURRY MAP
 In 1953, Darken and Gurry proposed a diagrammatic method to

describe the solid solubility of fifty alloy systems (DG method).
They used the size factor as abscissa and electrochemical factor
(electronegativity) as ordinate to plot solubilities of each alloy
system and then draw an ellipse (rsolvent ± 15% as minor axis,
χsolvent ± 0.4 as prolate axis, where rsolvent and χsolvent are radius
and electronegativity of solvent respectively) to separate the
soluble elements from the insoluble elements.
 DG solubility is characterized qualitatively as “extensive” or

“limited”, inside the ellipse or outside the ellipse, respectively.
They applied this method to magnesium, aluminium and silver
alloy systems. The electrochemical factor was taken as the
difference of 0.4 (| χsolvent - χsolute| <0.4). This method works well for
the magnesium alloy systems but not for the silver systems. Chapter 11 -
DARKEN –GURRY MAP
Chapter 11 -
CHELIKOWSKY VERSES DARKEN- GURRY MAP
Comparing Chelikowsky’s method with Darken-Gurry’s, both have a

coordinate in common – the electronegativity. In Darken-Gurry plots,
electronegativity is used in Pauling’s scale, while in Chelikowsky
plots the Miedema scale is used.
Both scales actually have a good correlation as shown by Miedema

et al. The other co-ordinate is different, atomic size is used in
Darken-Gurry plots and electron cell-boundary density is used in
Chelikowsky’s method.
Although higher accuracy has been established, some exceptions

remain. These exceptions suggest that Chelikowsky’s method is still
susceptible to some improvement.
Chapter 11 -
CHELIKOWSKY MAP
 In 1979, Chelikowsky introduced a
graphical procedure similar to the
Darken-Gurry method to analyse
solid solubility in the case of
divalent hosts. In his work, a
different pair of coordinates were
introduced: the electron density at
the boundary of bulk atomic cells, ,
and the electronegativity .
 In this new kind of plot,
Chelikowsky was able to give more
reliable predictions. An example of
Chelikowsky plots and a
These two coordinates are the
comparison with Darken-Gurry
fundamental parameters in a successful
plots are shown in Figure. Other semi-empirical theory of heats of alloy
results can be found in formation developed by Miedema and co-
Chelikowsky’s paper . workers Chapter 11 -
ALONSO’S METHOD
 In the 1980s, from analysis of both Darken-Gurry and Chelikowsky

methods, Alonso and Simozar proposed a scheme containing all three
coordinates (atomic size, electronegativity, electron cell-boundary
density). The suggestion was also proposed by Miedema and De Chatel
 By incorporating a size factor in a new graphical method, they

improved on the original Miedema coordinate scheme proposed by
Chelikowsky. In their analysis, each chemical element is characterized
by three parameters: the atomic volume , the electronegativity , and the
electron density at the boundary of bulk atomic cells . As the result,
and (the difference of electronegativity and electron density at the
boundary of bulk atomic cells) combined into a new parameter
Chapter 11 -
INTERMEDIATE PHASES
As the name suggest intermediate structures formed between
two metals are neither the parent metals nor like an alloy
Intermetallic compounds
if two elements have high difference in electronegetivity,
they tend to from a system called intermetallic compound.
Intermetallic compounds like MgSe, PbSe, Mg2Si, Cu2S are
cubic whereas NiAs, MnSe, CuSn are hexagonal
electron or Hume-Rothery phases

These compounds have wide range of solubility and occur at
certain values of valence electrons to atom ratio such as
3:2(CuZn), 21:13 (Cu5Zn8), 7:4 (CuZn3) Chapter 11 -
INTERMEDIATE PHASES
Lava Phase
Laves phases have a general formula of AB2, for example
MgCu2 (cubic), MgZn2 (hexagonal), MgNi2 (hexagonal)
Sigma phase
Sigma phase has a very complex crystal structure and is very
brittle. This phase can act as a source of embrittlement insome
alloys such as steels.
Metal carbides and nitrides

Metals which have high chemical affinity for carbon and nitrogen
form carbides and nitrides such as VC, NbC, VN, NbN, TiC, TiN.
They can act as source of hardening in many alloys
Chapter 11 -
Solubility Prediction Using Artificial
Neural Networks
A large number of researches on solubility prediction have been
published in the last century, however, few of them have attempted to
predict the solubility quantitatively.
The size factor has been regarded as the most important factor but has
never been quantitatively proved
Recently, some authors have used one tool of artificial intelligence, ,

called artificial neural networks (ANNs), to simulate the process that
Hume-Rothery used to derive the Hume-Rothery’s Rules from
experiments.
They attempted to predict the solubility quantitatively rather than

produce a classification of soluble/insoluble by this method.Chapter 11 -
The input parameters used for the ANN
examination of solubility
The versatility of the ANN permits various combinations of number
and format for input parameters to be adopted easily
Three different expressions of these parameters were used to examine

which gave the best performance
1. The raw data that Hume-Rothery used.
2. The original collected values for each parameter of solvent and

solute atoms.
3. The functionalized parameters:

Chapter 11 -
i) For the size factor. The difference between the atomic diameters of solvent and
solute atoms divided by the diameter of the solvent atoms.
ii)For the valence factor. Original values are used, leaving the neural network to
decide the relations between valence of solvents and solutes.
iii)For the electrochemical factor. The difference between that of the solvent and
solute atoms.
iv)For the structure parameter. The structures are expressed in three sets of
numbers representing primitive cell dimensions, angles and systems. The three
sets are (1) unit cell length, (2) axes angles and (3) (simple; base-centred; face-
centred; body-centred).
Chapter 11 -
1. When the original values of input parameters are used, the training
performance of the ANN is quite good (with regression coefficient
R=0.996) but the prediction of the testing set is poor.
2. When the functionalized values were used as input parameters,

both the training and testing set of the ANN gave good performance.
Through a search of all combinations of those parameter formats, the
best format of input parameters was determined as the functionalized
values.
3. Another uncertainty in the H-R rule is the atomic size difference:

some researchers believe the threshold is 14% and others believe it’s
15%. The performance of ANN using the 15% criterion is slightly
higher than that for 14% which implies 15% is a better threshold in
the size factor. Chapter 11 -
THE OUTCOME OF THE ANN RESULTS
4. Using the same approach and including the 15% criterion, the
structure parameter was introduced in terms of whether the
structure of solvents and solutes are the same or not (i.e. 1 same, 0
not same). There was no improvement in correlation. This indicates
that the structure parameter do not play a very important role in
solubility.
Chapter 11 -
Determination Of The Output Parameters
From Hume-Rothery’s rules, only the possibility of whether a
component is soluble or insoluble can be predicted. However, it
would be more advantageous to attempt to predict the original
value of solubility. The output parameters are expressed in two
ways:
1) Follow a specialized criterion: if the solubility of solute metal

in solvent metal exceeds 5 at. %, then it is said that this
solute metal is soluble in the solvent metal.
2) Original maximum solubility limits of each alloy system

are used.
The results of the prediction show the ANN can predict the
solubility quantitatively with a small mean modulus error of 1.65
at.%. Chapter 11 -
SECOND ASPECT OF OUR LECTURES
STEEL AND ITS ALLOY

Fundamental principles of its
constitution, structure,
treatment and application
Chapter 11 -
Theory and design of Engineering alloys
•The most important alloys today are steels.
• The principal elements in most steels, in addition to

iron and carbon, are boron, chromium, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel,
tungsten, and vanadium.
Stainless Steel
• Steels have a wide 80.6% Fe
range of useful 18.0% Cr
properties, such as 0.4% C
1.0% Ni
corrosion resistance,
ductility, hardness, and
toughness. Chapter 11 -
Metallic Alloys: Steel
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are steel alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common microstructural features?
• Treatments: How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?
• what are the possible applications of different types of steel alloys?
Chapter 11 - 46
Metallic Alloy Classifications
Chapter 11 - 47
Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys
Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.
Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
d
cementite
1400 L
g+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
1200 g 1148°C L+Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
austenite Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
g+Fe3C 1990.)
a800 727°C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C Chapter 11 -
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C
heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 -
Ferrous Metallurgy: The
Chemistry and Structure of Iron
and Steel
Chapter 11 - 50
Pure Iron
Iron from which the residual carbon left over from smelting has
been removed. In the pure state it is a very soft grey metal of
no commercial use
Wrought Iron Has approx 0.05% carbon
Is stronger than most other pure metals. Made into weapons,
armour, cooking pots and vessels Main limitation to wider uses
due to processing (no way of making large items and no
welding)
Cast Iron Between 2% & 4% carbon content
Standard grey cast iron very brittle due to carbon rosettes in the
structure acting as stress-raisers
Possible to use heat treatment to improve the structure, this gives
materials such as ductile iron and malleable iron (black heart)
Chapter 11 - 51
Ferrous Metallurgy: Types and
Properties of cast iron
Chapter 11 - 52
Cast Iron
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
• low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast
• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)
– generally a slow process
Chapter 11 - 53
Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.
Ductile iron
• add Mg or Ce
• graphite in nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
Chapter 11 - 54
Types of Cast Iron
White iron
• <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
• more cementite
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.
Malleable iron
• heat treat at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• more ductile
Chapter 11 - 55
Production of Cast Iron
Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.
Chapter 11 - 56
Changing the Properties
of Steels
Chapter 11 - 57
Changing the Properties of
Steels
Steel 0.001% to 1.5% carbon Wide range of
properties due to:
1. Variation in carbon content

2. Cold working
3. Heat treatment
4. Addition of alloying
elements
Chapter 11 - 58
Microstructure of Steel
Five main constituents:
Ferrite
Austenite
Cementite
Pearlite
Martensite
Chapter 11 - 59
Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
g +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200 g 1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
a+g g + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
Adapted from Fig.
a + Graphite
11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2 400
adapted from Binary Alloy 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., (Fe) Co , wt% C
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
Chapter 11 -
Ferrite The structure of pure
iron
Has a body-centred cubic
(BCC) crystal structure. It is
soft and ductile and imparts
these properties to the steel.
Very little carbon (less than
0.01% carbon will dissolve
in ferrite at room
temperature). Often known
as α iron.
A photomicrograph of 0. 1% carbon steel
(mild steel)
A photomicrograph of 0.1% carbon steel
(mild steel). The light areas are ferrite.
Chapter 11 - 61
Austenite
This is the structure of iron
at high temperatures (over
912 deg C). Has a face-
centre cubic (FCC) crystal
structure. This material is
important in that it is the
structure from which other
structures are formed when
the material cools from
elevated temperatures.
Often known as γ iron. Not
present at room
temperatures
Chapter 11 - 62
Cementite A compound of iron and
carbon, iron carbide (Fe3C).
It is hard and brittle and its
presence in steels causes an
increase in hardness and a
reduction in ductility and
toughness.
Three-dimensional analogy to the

structure of pearlite, i.e. the
cabbage represents a single crystal
of pearlite, and the water in the
bucket the single crystal of ferrite
Chapter 11 - 63
Pearlite
A laminated structure
formed of alternate layers of
ferrite and cementite.
It combines the hardness
and strength of cementite
with the ductility of ferrite
and is the key to the wide
range of the properties of
steels. The laminar structure
also acts as a barrier to
crack movement as in
composites. This gives it
toughness
Chapter 11 - 64
Effect of Carbon Content
Chapter 11 - 65
Non-alloy and alloy steels classification (1)
Non-alloy steels (carbon steels) Alloy steels

C content based Alloying degree based
- low C-steels (<0,25%) - low alloy steels (<2,5%)
- medium C-steels (0,3…0,6%) - medium alloy steels (<5%)
- high C-steels (>0,6%) - high alloy steels (>5%)
Alloying degree based

- Cr steels
- Mn steels
- Cr-Ni steels etc.
Chapter 11 -
Steels
Designations (3)
Materials numbers (EN 10027)
1. XX XX (XX)
Material group
Steel class
Order in class
Additional numbers
Pos. 2 and 3
Ordinary grade steels 00...90 Tool steels 20...29
High quality grade Special steels 40...49
10 – spec. phyc. prop. steels (stainless and heat resistant. etc.)
11 – construction and machine
construction steell
12 – machine contruct. steels
13 – spec. constr. and ja machine constr. steels
High quality 01...91 – structural steels
02...92 – non heat treatable structural steels
07...97 – high P- ja S-cont. steels
Pos. 4 ja 5
Order no. in class
Designation of steels
Iron containing – Steels - cast irons
Nomenclature AISI & SAE: American Iron and Steel Institute.

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr
Chapter 11 -
Classification of steels (EN 10020)
• Non-alloy steels (carbon steels)
• Alloy steels
Inclusions, % Non-alloy steels Alloy steels

(carbon steels)
Mn ≤ 1,65 > 1,8
Si ≤ 0,5 > 0,5
Cr ≤ 0,3 > 0,5
Ni ≤ 0,3 > 0,5
Ti ≤ 0,05 > 0,12
V ≤ 0,1 > 0,12
C content based Alloying degree based
- low C-steels (<0,25%) - low alloy steels (<2,5%)
- medium C-steels (0,3…0,6%) - medium alloy steels (<5%)
- high C-steels (>0,6%) - high alloy steels (>5%)
Alloying degree based

- Cr steels
- Mn steels
- Cr-Ni steels etc.
Steels
Non-alloy and alloy steels (2)
Quality based Quality based:
(degree of purity): - quality steels
-ordinary quality - high quality steels
- quality steels (≤ 0,035 S,P)
Structure based:
- high quality steels (≤ 0,025 S,P) - in annealed condition
Deoxidation degree based - in normalized condition (ferrite,
- killed steels (Mn,  Si) pearlite, martensite and austenitic
steels)
- semikilled steels (Mn,  Si)
- rimmed steels (Mn)
Application based:
C<0,7%C – structural steels – 0,2...0,7% C
C>0,7%C – tool steels – 0,4...1,6% C
• corrosion resistant
• heat resistant
• high temperature strength
• magnetic
• cryogenic
Classification of structural steels
Heat treatment based:
- case hardening steels (≤ 0,25% C)
- quenching and tempering steels (0,3…0,6% C)
- nitriding and carbonitriding steels

(0,1…0,2 or 0,3…0,4% C)
Steels
Structural steels (2)
Alloy structural steels (C = 0,2...0,7%, wear resistant steels 0,9...1,3%)
• low alloy steels (all. elem. g 2,5%)
–structural steels
–cold forming steels
–spring steels (C = 0,5...0,7%, Si = 1...2%)
–ball bearing steels (C ≈ 1%, Cr = 0,5...0,6%)
• medium alloy steels (all. elem. 2,5...5%)
– cementizing steels
– quenching and tempering steels
– nitriding steels
• high alloy steels (leg. el. > 5%) – steels with specific properties
– corrosion resistant steels
– high temperature strength steels
– wear resistant steels
Steels
Low alloy steels (1)
Steels for structural construction
Low alloy carbon steels C≤0,22%; 1...2% Si, Mn
Requirements:
• Cold brittleness: low TBCT, T50
high toughness (h impact energy KU, KV)
• Weldability
CE%=C%+Mn%/6+(Cr%+Mo%+V%)/5+(Ni%+Cu%)/15
CE≤0,40% - satisfactory weldability
CE≥0,40% - special means: preheating, low annealing.
Alloying principles: iP,S gi TBCT
Simultaneous alloying with V,NgTBCT -80°C
Steels
Cold forming steels
Requirements
• low yield strength ratio (Rp0,2/Rm = 0,5...0,65)
• high plasticity (A ≥ 40%)
Principles of alloying:
C and Si%h Rp0,2 gi formability; Mn% h Rm, Rp0,2≈ g good formability
Preferred:
– rimmed steels (Si ≈ 0%)
– dual phase steels (F + 20...30% M or B)
(C = 0,06...0,12%, partial-hardening g Rp0,2/Rm = 0,5) g good deep
drawability at 10% degree of deformation Rp0,2/Rm = 0,8...0,9
• Ballon steels
• Pressure vessel steels
• Seamless pipes
• Welded pipes
Steels
Spring steels
high Re, σR, modulus of elasticity E
C = 0,5...0,7%
Mn-steels (1...2% Mn)
Si-steels (2...3% Si)
Cr-V-steels
TT: Hardening + mid. temp. (300...400°C) g Trostite
structure
Ball bearing steels
High hardness (≥ 62 HRC)
C ≈ 1%; Cr = 0,6...1,5% – 105 Cr6
Ball races (63...64 HRC), balls (61...62 HRC)
Steels
Medium alloy steels (1)
Cementizing (case hardening)
steels (0,1...0,25% C)
• Cr-steels
• Cr-Mn-steels
• Cr-Ni-steels
• B-steels
HT: Tcem + hard. + low. temp.
Surface (Cg0,8) – 58...62 HRC
Core (C = 0,1...0,25) – 30...42 HRC
Steels

Quenching and tempering steels
Requirements:
• Reliability ( Rm, Rp0,2; acceptable KU and TBCT)
• High hardenability (D50, D95, T50)
Principles pf alloying:
• Alloying hardenability (Ma, Ml) (all exc. Al and Co)
• At solution in F,  Rm and TBCT, alloying degree as low
as possible (for D50)
Steels

Nitriding steels (C-, all. elem. – same as in hard. and temp.

steels)
Tnitr 500...600°C (differently from cem.)
All. elem. Cr, Mo, Al + N g CrN, MoN, AlN
Properties:
Hardness: surface – alloy steels 950...1150 HV,
non-alloy steels (carbon steels) 400...500 HV
Core 250...300 HB
High fatigue strength ( by comp. stresses induced nitrides)
Steels
High alloy steels (1)
Corrosion resistant steels (1)
• Cr-steels, C – min (0,08...0,2%)
0,1...0,4% – for hardenability
Cr = 13, 17 or 27%
Ccorrosion resistance , C  0,1 %C – ferritic
steels
For hardness/ wear resiatance  0,1...0,4 %C –

martensitic steels
Steels
• Cr-Ni steels C ≤ 0,12%
18% Cr, 10...12% Ni, Ti/Nb ≤ 1%
Rm = 500...600 N/mm2
Rp0,2 = 200...250 N/mm2
Intergranular corrosion (at to. 500...600 oC):
Ccorr. resist, i, especially in welds g Cr3C2 g
Cr % reduction in A.
To avoid:
g Ti, Nb (0,1...0,2%)
g Ci (<0,03%)
Steels
High temperature strength steels
High temperature strength = heat resiatance + high temp. strength
Heat resistance = oxidation resistance T,C
High temp. strength: endurance limit σt T
1100
mite kuumus püs iv
creep strength σε/tT 900

350...500°C – boiler steels
0,1...0,15% C, 0,5...1% Mo, W või V 700 kuumus püs iv
0,5...1% Cr (pearlite steels) 500

2...6% Cr (martensite steels) 5
10 15 20 25 C%
,r
- silchrome
0,5...0,6% C, 1,5...3% Si, 5...15% Cr
600...700°C – austenitic steels
13...25% Cr; 14...20% Ni
13...25% Cr; g37% Ni + Al, W, Nb, Ti, Mo
> 700°C - Ni- Co-alloys (superalloys)
Steels
Wear resistant steels
Requirements:
High surface hardness
Principles of alloying:
– through alloying (uneffective – 2...3% /Ø100mm)
– surface alloying
• Non-alloy- and alloy steels (Cr, Mn, W jt.)
• Cementizing steels
• Mn-steels (Hadfield steel) (1,1...1,3% C, 12...13% Mn)
HT: H (1050...1100°C) g A-structure

Rm=800...1000, Rp0,2=250...350 N/mm2, A = 40...50%, 180...220 HB
In cold worked conditions g 50...55 HRC – self hardening

Steels
Tool steels (1)
Requirements:
• hardness and wear resistance
• strength and toughness
• heat resistance
• Non-alloy tool steels

(C = 0,7...1,3%)
• Alloy steels
(C = 0,4...1,6%)
– non-heat resistant (g200°C)
– semi heat resistant (g300...500°C)
• coldwork tool steels
• hot work tool steels
– Heat resistant steels (g500...750°C)
• Carbide induced tempering
hardness,
• Intermetallics induced tempering
hardness
Steels
Tool steels (2)
Non heat resistant steels (200...250°C)
• non-alloy tool steels (0,7...1,2% C)
• low alloy steels (Cr, W, Mn)
Semi heat resistant steels (300...500°C)
• Cold work tool steels (150...200°C)
Cr-steels (1,2...2,3% C; 12% Cr + Mo, V)
Structure: M + 13...20% carbides
C = 0,6...0,7 – cutting- ja impact tools
• Hot work tool steels
Requirements:
• high temperature strength,
• heat resistance ja thermal resistance
• high hardenability and not prone to tempering brittleness
• low adhesion
Steels 0,5...0,6% C g good toughness

1,5...2% Ni, Mo g high hardenability
Steels
Special steels -alloys (1)

Magnetic steels
• Soft magnetic materials
– pure Fe (C < 0,05%)
– electrotechnical (1...4% Si)
• Hard magnetic materials
– High C-content Non-alloy tool steels (1,1...1,3% C)
– Cr-steels (ca 1% C; 1,5...3% Cr)
– Co-steels (ca 1% C; 1,5...3% Cr; 5...15% Co)
– Fe-Ni-Al-alloys (alniko) (11...14% Al; 22...34% Ni)
Steels
Special steels ja -alloys (2)

Cryogenic steels
Requirements:
• low transition temperature TBCT
Steels for low temperature applications
• ≤ –60°C (non-alloy- low alloy steel)
• ≤ –100°C – low C-content Ni-steels – 2...5% Ni +
Cr, V, Ti
• ≤ –190°C (liquid N2) – austenitic stainless steels)
• below –190°C (liquid H2, O2) – high alloy
corrosion resistant steels – Cr > 10%; Ni > 20%
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys
1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance
Chapter 11 - 89
Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag
Chapter 11 - 90
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower r: 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower r: 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 - 91
Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Molding - cast
• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape
Hot working vs. Cold working

• T high enough for • well below Tm
recrystallization • work hardening
• Larger deformations • smaller deformations
Chapter 11 - 92
Metal Fabrication Methods - I
FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force
• Drawing • Extrusion Fig. 11.8,
Callister 7e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 93
Metal Fabrication Methods - II
• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials
Chapter 11 - 94

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
Sand Sand • cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!
molten metal • pack sand around form (pattern) of

desired shape
Chapter 11 - 95

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks) Investment Casting
• pattern is made from paraffin.
Sand Sand • mold made by encasing in
molten metal plaster of paris
• melt the wax & the hollow mold
• Investment Casting is left
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) • pour in metal
plaster
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 96

• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)
Sand Sand
molten metal
• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
molten
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster solidified
die formed
around wax wax
prototype
Chapter 11 - 97
Metal Fabrication Methods - III

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister 7e.
densify (Fig. 11.9 from Iron
Castings
• Heat affected zone: Handbook, C.F.
point contact densification Walton and T.J.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11 - 98
Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.
• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get g, then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.
Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e. Chapter 11 - 99

Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)
a) Annealing TE
T(°C) A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e.
0%
200 M+A
50%
M+A
90%
b) a)
10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
time (s) Chapter 11 -100
Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• Jominy end quench
60
Hardness, HRC
results, C = 0.4 wt% C 100
4340 80 %M
50
40 4140
Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e.

8640
(Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished 5140
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) 20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
• "Alloy Steels" 800

T(°C) TE
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) 600 shift from
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B A to B due
(0.2 to 2wt%) 400 to alloying
--these elements shift
200 M(start)
the "nose".
M(90%)
--martensite is easier
0 -1
to form. 10 10 10 3 10 5 Time (s)
Chapter 11 -101
Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
(heated to g Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book
phase field) Rockwell C Company, New York,
1978.)
24°C water hardness tests
• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister 7e.
Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 -102
Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high
Chapter 11 -103
Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocations.
• Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(°C) L CuAl2
• Procedure:
--Pt A: solution heat treat
600
a a+L q+L
A
(get a solid solution) 500 q
--Pt B: quench to room temp. C a+q
400
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small q crystals within 300
0 B 10 20 30 40 50
a crystals. (Al) wt% Cu
composition range
• Other precipitation needed for precipitation hardening
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L.
• Cu-Be Temp. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Pt C (precipitate q)
Adapted from Fig.
11.22, Callister 7e. Time
Pt B
Chapter 11 -104
Summary
• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding

--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.
Chapter 11 -105

Mme 541 Theory and Design of Alloy Lecture Slide 1. - Unn Complete

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Mme 541 Theory and Design of Alloy Lecture Slide 1. - Unn Complete

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mme 541 Theory and Design of Alloy Lecture Slide 1. - Unn Complete

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MME 541: Theory and design of

ALLOY THEORIES LECTURE 1

Instructor: Dr. Paul Nnamchi

University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria

Elements of Alloy Theory

Why are alloys important?

The question is: what happens

And why do they behave differently ?

Alloys can form from their component atoms in different ways

• If the atoms of the components in an alloy are

• Thus: solute substitutes the solvent in the

2. the solute does not

Alloys can form from their component atoms in different ways

Thus: Transformational alloy occur when a completely new

 Their simplicity and generality made them

He examined phase diagrams of the noble and related metals

In the few decades after Hume-Rothery’s discovery, many researchers have

1) the first Hume-Rothery rule, the atomic size factor,

2) the second rule emphasised the importance of the

In 1937, after studying the silver rich antimony-silver alloy

3) Hume-Rothery became aware of a third factor restricting

A. Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15%

B. Crystal Structure factor

C. Relative valence factor

 “if the atomic diameters of the solute and solvent differ

 When the size factor is unfavourable, the primary solid

 Waber et al. applied the size factor alone to 1423

 On the other hand, it was less easy to predict extensive

 The validity of the size factor has been debated since

Elements of similar crystal structure are

C. Relative Valence Factor

 However, for high valence, covalently bonded components, the

C. Relative Valence Factor

 Besides the valencies of transition metals are variable

 In some binary alloy systems, if one component is very

where I is the ionization energy, A is electron affinity, and χ is

 The scale for electronegativity as given by Mullikan is based on

A. Atomic size factor: Radii ( 15%

B. Crystal Structure factor

C. Relative valence factor

 Although extensive researches have been done to work out the

 In 1953, Darken and Gurry proposed a diagrammatic method to

 DG solubility is characterized qualitatively as “extensive” or

Comparing Chelikowsky’s method with Darken-Gurry’s, both have a

Both scales actually have a good correlation as shown by Miedema

Although higher accuracy has been established, some exceptions

 In the 1980s, from analysis of both Darken-Gurry and Chelikowsky

 By incorporating a size factor in a new graphical method, they

electron or Hume-Rothery phases

Metal carbides and nitrides

Recently, some authors have used one tool of artificial intelligence, ,

They attempted to predict the solubility quantitatively rather than

Three different expressions of these parameters were used to examine

1. The raw data that Hume-Rothery used.

2. The original collected values for each parameter of solvent and

3. The functionalized parameters:

2. When the functionalized values were used as input parameters,