Coordinates: 23°N 102°W

Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México [ˈmexiko] ( listen); Nahuan
languages: Mēxihco), officially the United Mexican United Mexican States
States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos; EUM [esˈtaðos u Estados Unidos Mexicanos
ˈniðoz mexiˈkanos] ( listen), lit. 'Mexican United (Spanish)
States'), is a country in the southern portion of North
America. It is bordered to the north by the United
States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to
the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean
Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico.[10] Mexico
covers 1,972,550 square kilometers Flag Coat of arms
(761,610 sq mi), [11] making it the world's 13th-largest
country by area; with approximately 126,014,024 Motto:
La Patria Es Primero (Spanish)
inhabitants,[1] it is the 10th-most-populous country and ("The Homeland is First")
has the most Spanish-speakers. Mexico is organized as
a federation comprising 31 states and Mexico City,[12] Anthem: Himno Nacional Mexicano
("Mexican National Anthem")
its capital and largest metropolis. Other major urban
areas include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca,
Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and León.[13] 0:00 / 0:00

Pre-Columbian Mexico traces its origins to 8,000 BC

and is identified as one of the six cradles of
civilization;[14] it was home to many advanced
Mesoamerican civilizations, most notably the Maya and
the Aztecs. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and
colonized the region from its base in Mexico City,
establishing the colony of New Spain. The Catholic
Church played an important role in spreading
Christianity and the Spanish language, while also
preserving some indigenous elements.[15] Native
populations were subjugated and heavily exploited to
mine rich deposits of precious metals, which
contributed to Spain's status as a major world power for
the next three centuries,[16] and to a massive influx of
wealth and a price revolution in Western Europe.[17]
Capital Mexico City
Over time, a distinct Mexican identity formed, based on and largest city 19°26′N 99°08′W
a fusion of European and indigenous customs; this
contributed to the successful Mexican War of Official languages None at federal level[b]
Independence against Spain in 1821.[18] Recognized Spanish and 68
regional languages Amerindian
Mexico's early history as a nation state was marked by languages[a]
political and socioeconomic upheaval. The Texas National language Spanish (de facto)[b]
Revolution and the Mexican–American War in the mid
Ethnic groups 56 Amerindian and
19th century led to huge territorial losses to the United
diverse foreign ethnic
States. Liberal reforms were enshrined in the groups
Constitution of 1857, which sought to integrate
indigenous communities and curtail the power of the Religion (2020)[1] 88.9% Christianity
church and the military. This triggered an internal war —77.7% Catholicism
of Reform and intervention by France, in which —11.2% Other
conservatives installed Maximilian Habsburg as Christian
emperor against the Republican resistance led by 10.6% No religion
Benito Juárez. The last decades of the 19th century 0.2% Others
were marked by the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, who 0.3% Unspecified
sought to modernize Mexico and restore order.[18] The
Demonym(s) Mexican
Porfiriato era ended in 1910 with the decade-long
Mexican civil war, which killed approximately 10% of Government Federal presidential
the population and after which the victorious constitutional republic[2]
Constitutionalist faction drafted a new 1917 • President Andrés Manuel López
Constitution, which remains in effect to this day. The Obrador
revolutionary generals ruled as a succession of • President of the Olga Sánchez Cordero
presidents until the assassination of Alvaro Obregón in Senate
1928. This led to the formation of the Institutional • President of the Sergio Gutiérrez Luna
Chamber of
Revolutionary Party the following year, which Deputies
governed Mexico until 2000.[19][20][21][22]
Legislature Congress
Mexico is a developing country, ranking 74th on the • Upper house Senate
Human Development Index, but has the world's 15th- • Lower house Chamber of Deputies
largest economy by nominal GDP and the 11th-largest Independence from Spain
by PPP, with the United States being its largest • Declared 16 September 1810[3]
economic partner.[23][24] Its large economy and • Consummated 27 September 1821
population, global cultural influence, and steady • Recognized 28 December 1836
democratization make Mexico a regional and middle • First constitution 4 October 1824
power;[25][26][27][28] it is often identified as an • Second 5 February 1857
emerging power but is considered a newly constitution
industrialized state by several analysts.[29][30][31][32][33] • Current 5 February 1917
However, the country continues to struggle with social constitution
inequality, poverty and extensive crime; it ranks poorly Area
on the Global Peace Index,[34] due in large part to • Total 1,972,550 km2
ongoing conflict between the government and drug (761,610 sq mi) (13th)
trafficking syndicates that led to over 120,000 deaths • Water (%) 1.58 (as of 2015)[4]
since 2006.[35] Population
• 2020 census 126,014,024[1] (10th)
Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the • Density 61/km2 (158.0/sq mi)
world for the number of UNESCO World Heritage (142nd)
Sites.[36][37][38] It is also one of the world's 17
GDP (PPP) 2020 estimate
megadiverse countries, ranking fifth in natural
• Total $2.715 trillion[5]
biodiversity.[39] Mexico's rich cultural and biological (11th)
heritage, as well as varied climate and geography, • Per capita $21,362[5] (64th)
makes it a major tourist destination: as of 2018, it was
the sixth most-visited country in the world, with 39 GDP (nominal) 2020 estimate
million international arrivals.[40] Mexico is a member of • Total $1.322 trillion[5]
United Nations, the G20, the Organisation for (15th)
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), • Per capita $10,405[5] (64th)
the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia-Pacific Gini (2018) 41.8[6]
Economic Cooperation forum, the Organization of medium
American States, Community of Latin American and HDI (2019) 0.779[7]
Caribbean States, and the Organization of Ibero- high · 74th
American States.
Currency Mexican peso (MXN)
 Time zone UTC−8 to −5 (See
Contents Time in Mexico)
• Summer (DST) UTC−7 to −5 (varies)
Etymology
History Driving side right
Indigenous civilizations Calling code +52
Conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521) ISO 3166 code MX
Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821)
Internet TLD .mx
War of Independence (1810–1821)
First Empire and the Early Republic (1821– a. ^ Article 4.° of the General Law of Linguistic
1855) Rights of the Indigenous Peoples.[8][9]
Liberal Reform, Second Empire, and b. ^ Spanish is de facto the official language
Restored Republic (1855–1876) in the Mexican federal government.
Porfiriato (1876–1911)
Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)
Political consolidation and one-party rule
(1920–2000)
Contemporary Mexico
Geography
Climate
Biodiversity
Government and politics
Government
Politics
Foreign relations
Military
Law enforcement
Crime
Administrative divisions
Economy
Communications
Energy
Science and technology
Tourism
Transportation
Water supply and sanitation
Demographics
Ethnicity and race
Emigration
Languages
Urban areas
Religion
Health
Education
Women
Culture
 Painting
Sculpture
Architecture
Photography
Literature
Cinema
Media
Mexican cuisine
Music
Sports
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links

Etymology
Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire,
namely the Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its
people being known as the Mexica. The terms are plainly linked; it
is generally believed that the toponym for the valley was the origin
of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance, but it may
have been the other way around.[41] In the colonial era, when
Mexico was called New Spain, this central region became the
Intendency of Mexico, during the eighteenth-century
reorganization of the empire, the Bourbon Reforms. After the
colony achieved independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821,
said territory came to be known as the State of Mexico, with the
new country being named after its capital: Mexico City, which
itself was founded in 1524 on the site of the ancient Mexica capital
of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

The official name of the country has changed as the form of

government has changed. The declaration of independence signed
on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the Congress of Anáhuac Depiction of the founding myth of
called the territory América Septentrional (Northern America); the Mexico-Tenochtitlan from the Codex
1821 Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two Mendoza
occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known
as Imperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire). All three federal
constitutions (1824, 1857 and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos[42]
—or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos,[43] all of which have been translated as "United Mexican
States". The phrase República Mexicana, "Mexican Republic", was used in the 1836 Constitutional
Laws.[44]

History
Indigenous civilizations

The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools

found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and
radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago.[45] Mexico is the site
of the domestication of maize, tomato, and beans, which produced
an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-
Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning
around 5000 BC.[46] In the subsequent formative eras, maize
cultivation and cultural traits such as a mythological and religious
Pyramid of the Sun of Teotihuacan
complex, and a vigesimal (base 20) numeric system, were diffused
with first human establishment in the
from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican culture
area dating back to 600 BC
area.[47] In this period, villages became more dense in terms of
population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and
developing into chiefdoms. The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing the
construction of large ceremonial centers.[48]

The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture,

which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec
cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in
Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Valley of Mexico. The formative period saw
the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic
and architectural complexes.[49] The formative-era of Mesoamerica is
considered one of the six independent cradles of civilization.[50] In the
subsequent pre-classical period, the Maya and Zapotec civilizations
developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán, respectively.
During this period the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were
developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures. The
Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya
Hieroglyphic script. The earliest written histories date from this era. The
tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521.[51]

Cultivation of maize, shown inIn Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of
the Florentine Codex (1576) Teotihuacán, which formed a military and commercial empire whose
drawn by an indigenous political influence stretched south into the Maya area as well as north.
Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some
scribe, with text in Nahuatl on
this folio of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas.[52]
After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued
between several important political centers in central Mexico such as
Xochicalco and Cholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into
Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they
displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages.

During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 CE), Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture,
Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán.
Toward the end of the post-Classic period, the Mexica established dominance, establishing a political and
economic empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), extending from central Mexico to
the border with Guatemala.[53] Alexander von Humboldt popularized the modern usage of "Aztec" as a
collective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexica state
and Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān, the Triple Alliance.[54] In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H.
Prescott, it was adopted by most of the world, including 19th-
century Mexican scholars who considered it a way to distinguish
present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage
has been the subject of debate since the late 20th century.[55]

The Aztec empire was an informal or hegemonic empire because it

did not exert supreme authority over the conquered territories; it
was satisfied with the payment of tributes from them. It was a
discontinuous empire because not all dominated territories were
connected; for example, the southern peripheral zones of
1945 mural by Diego Rivera depicting
Xoconochco were not in direct contact with the center. The
the view from the Tlatelolco markets
hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire was demonstrated by their into Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the largest
restoration of local rulers to their former position after their city- city in the Americas at the time
state was conquered. The Aztec did not interfere in local affairs, as
long as the tributes were paid.[56]

The Aztec of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mexico.[57] The Aztec were
noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale. Along with this practice, they avoided killing enemies
on the battlefield. Their warring casualty rate was far lower than that of their Spanish counterparts, whose
principal objective was immediate slaughter during battle.[58] This distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition
of human sacrifice ended with the gradually Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Over the next centuries
many other Mexican indigenous cultures were conquered and gradually subjected to Spanish colonial
rule.[59]

Conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521)

Although the Spanish had established colonies in the Caribbean

Depict of Hernán Cortés and his
bilingual cultural translator, Doña
Marina ("Malinche"), meeting
Moctezuma II from the Lienzo de
Tlaxcala. This historical document
was created c. 1550 by the
Tlaxcalans to remind the Spanish of
their loyalty and the importance of
Tlaxcala during the conquest of the
Aztec Empire.
against their enemies, the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan. The Spanish gained other indigenous allies, who also
joined in the war for their own reasons.
starting in 1493, it was not until the second decade of the sixteenth
century that they began exploring the coast of Mexico. The
Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva
expedition of 1518. The natives kept "repeating: Colua, Colua,
and Mexico, Mexico, but we [explorers] did not know what Colua
or Mexico meant", until encountering Montezuma's governor at the
mouth of the Rio de las Banderas.[60]: 33–36 The Spanish conquest
of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés
landed on the Gulf Coast and founded the Spanish city of
Veracruz. Around 500 conquistadores, along with horses, cannons,
swords, and long guns gave the Spanish some technological
advantages over indigenous warriors, but key to the Spanish
victory was making strategic alliances with disgruntled indigenous
city-states (altepetl) who supplied the Spaniards and fought with
them against the Aztec Triple Alliance. Also important to the
Spanish victory was Cortés's cultural translator, Malinche, a Nahua
woman enslaved in the Maya area whom the Spanish acquired as a
gift. She quickly learned Spanish and gave strategic advise about
how to deal with both indigenous allies and indigenous foes.[61]
The unconquered city-state of Tlaxcala allied with the Spanish
We know so much about the conquest because it is among the best documented events in world history
from multiple points of view. There are accounts by the Spanish leader Cortés[62] and multiple other
Spanish participants, including Bernal Díaz del Castillo.[63][64] There are indigenous accounts in Spanish,
Nahuatl, and pictorial narratives by allies of the Spanish, most prominently the Tlaxcalans, as well as
Texcocans[65] and Huejotzincans, and the defeated Mexican themselves, recorded in the last volume of
Bernardino de Sahagún's General History of the Things of New Spain.[66][67][68]

When the Spaniards arrived, the ruler of the Aztec empire was
Moctezuma II, who after a delay allowed the Spanish to proceed
inland to Tenochtitlan. The Spanish captured him, holding him
hostage. He died while in their custody and the Spanish retreated
from Tenochtitlan in great disarray. His successor and brother
Cuitláhuac took control of the Aztec empire, but was among the
first to fall from the first smallpox epidemic in the area a short time
later.[69] Unintentionally introduced by Spanish conquerors,
among whom smallpox, measles, and other contagious diseases
were endemic, epidemics of Old World infectious diseases ravaged
Smallpox depicted by an indigenous
Mesoamerica starting in the 1520s. The exact number of deaths is
artist in the 1556 Florentine Codex in
disputed, but unquestionably more than 3 million natives who had
its account of the conquest of
no immunity.[70] Other sources, however, mentioned that the death Mexico from the point of view of the
toll of the Aztecs might have reached 15 million (out of a defeated Mexica
population of less than 30 million) although such a high number
conflicts with the 350,000 Aztecs who ruled an empire of 5 million
or 10 million.[71] Severely weakened, the Aztec empire was easily defeated by Cortés and his forces on his
second return with the help of state of Tlaxcala whose population estimate was 300,000.[72] The native
population declined 80–90% by 1600 to 1–2.5 million. Any population estimate of pre-Columbian Mexico
is bound to be a guess but 8–12 million is often suggested for the area encompassed by the modern nation.

The territory became part of the Spanish Empire under the name of New Spain in 1535.[73] Mexico City
was systematically rebuilt by Cortés following the Fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521. Much of the identity,
traditions and architecture of Mexico developed during the 300-year colonial period from 1521 to
independence in 1821.[74]

Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821)

The 1521 capture Tenochtitlan and immediate founding of the

The National Palace on the east side
of Plaza de la Constitución or
Zócalo, the main square of Mexico
City; it was the residence of viceroys
and Presidents of Mexico and now
the seat of the Mexican government.
Spanish capital Mexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a
300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known as
Nueva España (New Spain). The Kingdom of New Spain was
created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of
Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both
under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had
granted sweeping powers to the Spanish crown, with the proviso
that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, King
Charles I created the Council of the Indies based in Spain to
oversee State power its overseas territories; in New Spain the
crown established a high court in Mexico City, the Real Audiencia,
and then in 1535 created the viceroyalty. The viceroy was highest
official of the State. In the religious sphere, the diocese of Mexico
was created in 1530 and elevated to the Archdiocese of Mexico in
1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy, overseeing Roman Catholic clergy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic
faith the only one permitted, with non-Catholics (Jews and Protestants) and Catholics (excluding Indians)
holding unorthodox views being subject to the Mexican Inquisition, established in 1571.[75]

In the first half-century of Spanish rule, a network of Spanish cities was created, sometimes on pre-
Columbian sites. The capital Mexico City was and remains the premier city. Cities and towns were hubs of
civil officials, ecclesiastics, business, Spanish elites, and mixed-race and indigenous artisans and workers.
When deposits of silver were discovered in sparsely populated northern Mexico, far from the dense
populations of central Mexico, the Spanish secured the region against fiercely resistant indigenous
Chichimecas. The Viceroyalty at its greatest extent included the territories of modern Mexico, Central
America as far south as Costa Rica, and the western United States. The Viceregal capital Mexico City also
administrated the Spanish West Indies (the Caribbean), the Spanish East Indies (that is, the Philippines), and
Spanish Florida. In 1819, the Spain signed the Adams-Onís Treaty with the United States, setting New
Spain's northern boundary.[76]

The population of Mexico was overwhelmingly indigenous and

rural during the entire colonial period and beyond, despite the
massive decrease in their numbers due to epidemic diseases.
Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and others were introduced by
Europeans and African slaves, especially in the sixteenth century.
The indigenous population stabilized around one to one and a half
million individuals in the 17th century from the most commonly
accepted five to thirty million pre-contact population.[77] During
the three hundred years of the colonial era, Mexico received
between 400,000 and 500,000 Europeans,[78] between 200,000 Viceroyalty of New Spain following
and 250,000 African slaves.[79] and between 40,000 and 120,000 the signing of the 1819 Adams-Onís
Asians.[80][81] Treaty

The first census in Mexico (then known as New Spain) that

included an ethnic classification was the 1793 census. Also known as the Revillagigedo census. Most of its
original datasets have reportedly been lost, thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from
essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as
reference for their works such as German scientist Alexander von Humboldt. Europeans ranged from 18%
to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos from 21% to 25%, Indians from 51% to 61% and Africans
were between 6,000 and 10,000. The total population ranged from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded
that the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the percentage of the indigenous
population decreased at a rate of 13%–17% per century, mostly due to the latter having higher mortality
rates from living in remote locations and being in constant war with the colonists.[82] Independent-era
Mexico eliminated the legal basis of the Colonial caste system which led to exclusion of racial classification
in the censuses to come.

Colonial law with Spanish roots was introduced and attached to native customs creating a hierarchy
between local jurisdiction (the Cabildos) and the Spanish Crown. Upper administrative offices were closed
to native-born people, even those of pure Spanish blood (criollos). Administration was based on the racial
separation. Society was organized in a racial hierarchy, with whites on top, mixed-race persons and blacks
in the middle, and indigenous at the bottom. There were formal legal designations of racial categories. The
Republic of Spaniards (República de Españoles) comprised European- and American-born Spaniards,
mixed-race castas, and black Africans. The Republic of Indians (República de Indios) comprised the
indigenous populations, which the Spanish lumped under the term Indian (indio), a Spanish colonial social
construct which indigenous groups and individuals rejected as a category. Spaniards were exempt from
paying tribute, Spanish men had access to higher education, could hold civil and ecclesiastical offices, were
subject to the Inquisition, and liable for military service when the standing military was established in the
 late eighteenth century. Indigenous paid tribute, but were exempt
from the Inquisition, indigenous men were excluded from the
priesthood; and exempt from military service.

Although the racial system appears fixed and rigid, there was some
fluidity within it, and racial domination of whites was not
complete.[84] Since the indigenous population of New Spain was
so large, there was less labor demand for expensive black slaves
than other parts of Spanish America.[85][86] In the late eighteenth
century the crown instituted reforms that privileged Iberian-born
Spaniards (peninsulares) over American-born (criollos), limiting
their access to offices. This discrimination between the two
became a sparking point of discontent for white elites in the
colony.[87]

Luis de Mena, Virgin of Guadalupe The Marian apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe said to have
and castas, showing race mixture appeared to the indigenous Juan Diego in 1531 gave impetus to
and hierarchy as well as fruits of thethe evangelization of central Mexico.[88][89] The Virgin of
realm,[83] ca. 1750 Guadalupe became a symbol for American-born Spaniards'
(criollos) patriotism, seeking in her a Mexican source of pride,
distinct from Spain.[90] The Virgin of Guadalupe was invoked by
the insurgents for independence who followed Father Miguel Hidalgo during the War of Independence.[89]

The rich deposits of silver, particularly in Zacatecas and

Guanajuato, resulted in silver extraction dominating the
economy of New Spain. Taxes on silver production
became a major source of income for Spain. Other
important industries were the haciendas and mercantile
activities in the main cities and ports.[91] Wealth created
during the colonial era spurred the development of New
Spanish Baroque. New Spain was essential to the Spanish global
trading system. White represents the route of the
As a result of its trade links with Asia, the rest of the Spanish Manila Galleons in the Pacific and the
Americas, Africa and Europe and the profound effect Spanish convoys in the Atlantic. (Blue
of New World silver, central Mexico was one of the represents Portuguese routes.)
first regions to be incorporated into a globalized
economy. Being at the crossroads of trade, people and
cultures, Mexico City has been called the "first world city".[92] The Nao de China (Manila Galleons)
operated for two and a half centuries and connected New Spain with Asia. Silver and the red dye cochineal
were shipped from Veracruz to Atlantic ports in the Americas and Spain. Veracruz was also the main port
of entry in mainland New Spain for European goods, immigrants from Spain, and African slaves. The
Camino Real de Tierra Adentro connected Mexico City with the interior of New Spain. Mexican silver
pesos became the first globally used currency.

Spanish forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell
rebellions through the colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New
Spain include the Chichimeca War (1576–1606),[93] Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620),[94] and the Pueblo
Revolt (1680), the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt.[95] Most rebellions were small-
scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites.[96] To protect Mexico from the attacks of
English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect the Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were
open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. Among the best-known
pirate attacks are the 1663 Sack of Campeche[97] and 1683 Attack on Veracruz.[98] Of greater concern to
 the crown was of foreign invasion, especially after Britain
seized in 1762 the Spanish ports of Havana, Cuba and
Manila, the Philippines in the Seven Years' War. It created a
standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and
expanded the northern presidios and missions into Alta
California. The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City
was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the
price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of
Silver peso mined and minted in colonial
power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's
Mexico, which became a global currency
residence attacked by the mob.[84]

Due to the importance of New Spain administrative base,

Mexico was the location of the first printing shop (1539),[99] first university (1551),[100] first public park
(1592),[101] and first public library (1640) in the Americas,[102] among other institutions. Important artists
of the colonial period, include the writers Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, and Sor
Juana Inés de la Cruz, painters Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera, and architect Manuel Tolsá.
The Academy of San Carlos (1781) was the first major school and museum of art in the Americas.[103]
German scientist Alexander von Humboldt spent a year in Mexico, finding the scientific community in the
capital active and learned. He met Mexican scientist Andrés Manuel del Río Fernández, who discovered
the element vanadium in 1801.[104] Many Mexican cultural features including tequila,[105] first distilled in
the 16th century, charreria (17th),[106] mariachi (18th) and Mexican cuisine, a fusion of American and
European (particularly Spanish) cuisine, arose during the colonial era.

War of Independence (1810–1821)

On 16 September 1810, a "loyalist revolt" against the ruling junta was

declared by priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, in the small town of
Dolores, Guanajuato.[107] This event, known as the Cry of Dolores
(Spanish: Grito de Dolores) is commemorated each year, on 16
September, as Mexico's independence day.[108] The first insurgent group
was formed by Hidalgo, the Spanish viceregal army captain Ignacio
Allende, the militia captain Juan Aldama and La Corregidora (English:
"The Magistrate") Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Hidalgo and some of his
soldiers were captured and executed by firing squad in Chihuahua, on 31
July 1811.[109]: 17–27

Following Hidalgo's death, the leadership was assumed by Ignacio López

Rayón and then by the priest José María Morelos, who occupied key
southern cities with the support of Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás
Father Miguel Hidalgo with Bravo. In one notable incident, Nicolas Bravo captured 200 royalist
the banner of the Virgin of soldiers, whom Morelos ordered should be executed in revenge of the
Guadalupe. Antonio Fabrés, murder of Bravo's father. In an act of mercy, Bravo instead pardoned the
1905. prisoners, most of whom then joined the insurgent cause.[109]: 40–41 In
1813 the Congress of Chilpancingo was convened and, on 6 November,
signed the "Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern
America".[109]: 35–37 This Act also abolished slavery and the caste system. Being a Catholic priest himself,
Morelos also called for Roman Catholicism to be the exclusive faith in Mexico.[109]: 44–50 Morelos was
captured and executed on 22 December 1815.[109]: 46
In subsequent years, the insurgency was near collapse, but in 1820
Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent an army under the criollo
general Agustín de Iturbide against the troops of Vicente Guerrero
who had among his trusted soldiers, Filipino Mexicans who were
concentrated in Guerrero, a state later named after Vicente
Guerrero himself and where the Mexican flag was first sewn.
Chief among the Filipino-Mexican soldiers was General Isidoro
Montes de Oca who defeated Royalist armies 3 times his force's
size.[110] Then, the Criollo Royalist, Agustin Iturbide, instead of
attacking Vicente Guerrero, approached Guerrero to join forces as Depiction of the Abrazo de
he was impressed with his tenacity despite fighting larger odds, Acatempan between Agustín de
and on 24 August 1821 representatives of the Spanish Crown and Iturbide, left, and Vicente Guerrero
Iturbide signed the "Treaty of Córdoba" and the "Declaration of
Independence of the Mexican Empire", which recognized the
independence of Mexico under the terms of the "Plan of Iguala".[109]: 53–80 Similarly to José María
Morelos' goals. A provision of the Plan of Iguala of Agustín de Iturbide bringing about Mexican
independence in 1821, also included Catholic exclusivity in the religious sphere. The Constitution of 1824
declared that the official religion of the Republic would be Catholic.

Mexico's short recovery after the War of Independence was soon cut short again by the civil wars, foreign
invasion and occupation, and institutional instability of the mid-19th century, which lasted until the
government of Porfirio Díaz reestablished conditions that paved the way for economic growth. The
conflicts that arose from the mid-1850s had a profound effect because they were widespread and made
themselves perceptible in the vast rural areas of the countries, involved clashes between castes, different
ethnic groups, and haciendas, and entailed a deepening of the political and ideological divisions between
republicans and monarchists.[111]

First Empire and the Early Republic (1821–1855)

The first thirty-five years after Mexico's independence were

marked by political instability and the changing form of the
Mexican State, from a monarchy to a federated republic. There
were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict
between Conservatives and Liberals, and economic stagnation.
Catholicism remained the only permitted religious faith and the
Catholic Church as an institution retained its special privileges,
prestige, and property, a bulwark of Conservatism. The army,
another Conservative institution, also retained its privileges.
Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide, became regent,
as newly independent Mexico sought a constitutional monarch The territorial evolution of Mexico
from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired after independence, noting the
the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The secession of Central America
young and weak United States was the first country to recognize (purple), Chiapas annexed from
Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court of the Guatemala (blue), losses to the U.S.
emperor and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe (red, white and orange) and the
Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short reannexation of the Republic of
(1822–23) and he was overthrown by army officers.[109]: 87–88 Yucatán (red)

The successful rebels established the First Mexican Republic. In

1824, a constitution of a federated republic was promulgated and former insurgent general Guadalupe
Victoria became the first president of the newly born republic.[109]: 94–95 Central America, including
Chiapas, left the union. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero, a signatory
of the Plan de Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short
term in office, April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. As a visibly mixed-race man of modest
origins, Guerrero was seen by white political elites as an interloper.[112] His Conservative vice president,
former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante, led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially
murdered.[113] There was constant strife between Liberals, supporters of a federal form of decentralized
government and often called Federalists and their political rivals, the Conservatives, who proposed a
hierarchical form of government, were termed Centralists.[109]: 101–115, 125–127

Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable

government was in question. Spain attempted to reconquer its former
colony during the 1820s, but eventually recognized its independence.
France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during
Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-called Pastry
War of 1838–39.[114] Santa Anna lost a leg in combat during this conflict,
which he used for political purposes. Emerging as a national hero in
defending Mexico was creole army general, Antonio López de Santa
Anna, who had participated in the overthrow of the emperor, fought the
Spanish invasion, and came to dominate the politics for the next 25 years,
until his own overthrow in 1855.

Mexico also contended with indigenous groups which controlled territory

that Mexico claimed in the north. The Comanche controlled a huge
General Antonio López de territory in the sparsely populated region of central and northern
Santa Anna Texas.[115] Wanting to stabilize and develop the frontier, the Mexican
government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day
Texas. The region bordered the United States, and was territory controlled
by Comanches. There were few settlers from central Mexico moving to this remote and hostile territory.
Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers
from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to
Mexican law. Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule, suspending the constitution and
promulgating the Seven Laws, which place power in his hands. When he suspended the 1824 Constitution,
civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas,
the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán.[109]: 129–137

The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–American War.
Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo. Despite that disastrous loss, Conservative Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again and
then was ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla.

Liberal Reform, Second Empire, and Restored Republic (1855–1876)

The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to
enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. It was a prelude to more civil
wars and yet another foreign invasion. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and
institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a new Constitution of 1857, separating Church and
State, stripping the Conservative institutions of the Church and the military of their special privileges
(fueros); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and
secularizing education.[116] Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and
Conservative governments (1858–61).
The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on the battlefield, but
Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign
intervention by the French. Mexican conservatives asked Emperor
Napoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in
Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed
Maximilian Hapsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico,
supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the
French Army. The Liberal republic under Benito Juárez was
basically a government in internal exile, but with the end of the
Civil War in the U.S. in April 1865, that government began aiding
the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army
The Execution of Emperor
withdrew its support, Maximilian remained in Mexico rather than
Maximilian, 19 June 1867. Gen.
return to Europe. Republican forces captured him and he was Tomás Mejía, left, Maximiian, center,
executed in Querétaro, along with two Conservative Mexican Gen. Miguel Miramón, right. Painting
generals. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, who by Édouard Manet 1868.
was "the personification of the embattled republic,"[117] as
president.

The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily, but also discredited politically for their
collaboration with the French invaders. Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism.[118] The Mexican
Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed.
New military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most
notably Porfirio Díaz, a hero of the Cinco de Mayo, who now sought civilian power. Juárez won re-
election in 1867, but was challenged by Díaz, who criticized him for running for re-election. Díaz then
rebelled, crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office of natural causes in July 1872,
and Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of state" for rule of law,
peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the
Plan of Tuxtepec. Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of
Díaz's victory on the battlefield, Lerdo fled from office, going into exile.[119] Another army general
assumed the presidency of Mexico.

Porfiriato (1876–1911)

After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of
Liberal General Porfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to
rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of "order and
progress". The Porfiriato was characterized by economic stability
and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an
expansion of the railroad network and telecommunications, and
investments in the arts and sciences.[120] The period was also
marked by economic inequality and political repression. Díaz
The Metlac rail bridge in 1897. There
knew the potential for army rebellions, and systematically
was large investment in rail transport
downsized the expenditure for the force, rather expanding the rural during the Porfiriato.
police force under direct control of the president. Díaz did not
provoke the Catholic Church, coming to a modus vivendi with it;
but he did not remove the anticlerical articles from the 1857 Constitution. From the late nineteenth century,
Protestants began to make inroads in Mexico.

The government encouraged British and U.S. investment. Commercial agriculture developed in northern
Mexico, with many investors from the U.S. acquiring vast ranching estates and expanding irrigated
cultivation of crops. The Mexican government ordered a survey of land with the aim of selling it for
development. In this period, many indigenous communities lost their lands and the men became landless
wage earners on large landed enterprises (haciendas).[121] British
and U.S. investors developed extractive mining of copper, lead,
and other minerals, as well as petroleum on the Gulf Coast.
Changes in Mexican law allowed for private enterprises to own the
subsoil rights of land, rather than continuing the colonial law that
gave all subsoil rights to the State. An industrial manufacturing
sector also developed, particularly in textiles. At the same time,
new enterprises gave rise to an industrial work force, which began
organizing to gain labor rights and protections. Celebration of Mexico's first one
hundred years of Independence in
Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the 1910. Several projects were
científicos ("scientists").[122] The most influential cientifco was undertaken for the celebrations, such
Secretary of Finance José Yves Limantour.[123] The Porfirian as the Monumento a la
regime was influenced by positivism.[124] They rejected theology Independencia.
and idealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards
national development. As an integral aspect of the liberal project
was secular education. The Díaz government led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui that culminated
with the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca.

Díaz's long success did not include planning for a political transition beyond his own presidency. He made
no attempt, however, to establish a family dynasty, naming no relative as his successor. As the centennial of
independence approached, Díaz gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910
elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for a
new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely
candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family, Francisco I. Madero. Madero won a surprising amount
of political support when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September
centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato. The Mexican Revolution
starting in 1910 saw a decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico."[125]

Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational

conflict in Mexico, with consequences to this day.[126] It saw
uprisings against President Díaz, his resignation, an interim
presidency, and the democratic election of a rich landowner,
Francisco I. Madero in 1911. In February 1913, a military coup
d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the
U.S., resulted in Madero's murder by agents of Federal Army
General Victoriano Huerta. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the
North, the Constitutionalist Army overseen by Venustiano Revolutionaries, 1911
Carranza, and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata,
defeated the Federal Army. In 1914 that army was dissolved as an
institution. Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, revolutionary armies sought to broker a
peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico into civil war again.
Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa, commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and
allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general, Alvaro Obregón, defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in
the battle of Celaya in 1915, and Villa's forces melted away. Carranza became the de facto head of Mexico,
and the U.S. recognized his government. In 1916, the winners met at a constitutional convention to draft
the Constitution of 1917, which was ratified in February 1917. Said Constitution strengthened the
anticlerical provisions that were carried over from the 1857
Constitution.[127] With amendments, it remains the governing
document of Mexico. It is estimated that the war killed 900,000 of
the 1910 population of 15 million.[128][129]

The U.S. has had a history of inference and intervention in

Mexico, most notably the Mexican-American War. During the
Revolution, the Taft administration supported the Huerta coup
against Madero, but when Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as
president in March 1913, it refused to recognize Huerta's regime Candidate Francisco I. Madero with
and allowed arms sales to the Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered peasant leader Emiliano Zapata in
troops to occupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was Cuernavaca during the Mexican
lifted. [130] After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary Revolution
forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New
Mexico, prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General
John J. Pershing in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops
being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as the U.S. entered World War I.[131]
Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded telegram in 1917 to incite war between
the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War.[132] Mexico
remained neutral in the conflict.

Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant-leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in

1919.[109]: 312 Carranza had gained support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power he
did little to distribute land, and, in fact, returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President
Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in Carranza's administration, but returned to his home state
of Sonora to position himself to run in the 1920 presidential election. Carranza chose a political and
revolutionary no-body to succeed him. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the
Plan of Agua Prieta, overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la
Huerta became interim president, followed the election of General Álvaro Obregón.

Political consolidation and one-party rule (1920–2000)

The first quarter-century of the post-revolutionary period (1920–1946)

was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as Presidents of
Mexico, including Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles
(1924–28), Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), and Manuel Avila Camacho
(1940–46). Since 1946, no member of the military has been President
of Mexico. The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government
sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in
politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers,
peasants, urban office workers, and even the army for a short period
were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated
Mexican politics from its founding in 1929.
Logo of the Institutional
Revolutionary Party, which
Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of
incorporates the colors of the
organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and
Mexican flag
took steps to settle claims with companies and individuals that lost
property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former
Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As
president, Calles provoked a major conflict with the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he
strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution. The Church-State conflict was mediated and
ended with the aid of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico and ended with an agreement between the parties in
conflict, by means of which the respective fields of action were defined. Although the constitution
prohibited reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to
allow non-consecutive re-election. Obregón won the 1928 elections, but was assassinated by a Catholic
zealot, causing a political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, since he has just
ended his term. He sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the party that
was to dominate Mexico until the late twentieth century. Calles declared that the Revolution had moved
from caudillismo (rule by strongmen) to the era institucional (institutional era).[133]

Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key

political figure during the period known as the Maximato (1929–
1934). The Maximato ended during the presidency of Lázaro
Cárdenas, who expelled Calles from the country and implemented
many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil
expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and
Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum
Company. This movement would result in the creation of the state-
Pemex, the national oil company
owned Mexican oil company Pemex. This sparked a diplomatic
created in 1938 for reasons of
crisis with the countries whose citizens had lost businesses by
economic nationalism; it continues to
Cárdenas's radical measure, but since then the company has played provide major revenues for the
an important role in the economic development of Mexico. government
Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) was
more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly
improved during World War II, when Mexico was a significant ally, providing manpower and materiel to
aid the war effort.

From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán, the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period,
Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as the Mexican miracle,
which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and the increase of inequality in Mexico
between urban and rural areas.[134] With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the
world by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics. The government poured huge resources into building new
facilities. At the same time, there was political unrest by university students and others with those
expenditures, while their own circumstances were difficult. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on
for weeks before the planned opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking
down. The culmination was the Tlatelolco Massacre,[135] which claimed the lives of around 300 protesters
based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800.[136]

Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social

inequality remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became
increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what is now
referred to as the Mexican Dirty War.[137]
Logo for the 1968 Mexico Olympics
Luis Echeverría, Minister of the Interior under Díaz Ordaz,
carrying out the repression during the Olympics, was elected
president in 1970. His government had to contend with mistrust of Mexicans and increasing economic
problems. He instituted some with electoral reforms.[138][139] Echeverría chose José López Portillo as his
successor in 1976. Economic problems worsened in his early term, then massive reserves of petroleum
were located off Mexico's Gulf Coast. Pemex did not have the capacity to develop these reserves itself, and
brought in foreign firms. Oil prices had been high because of OPEC's lock on oil production, and López
Portilla borrowed money from foreign banks for current spending to fund social programs. Those foreign
banks were happy to lend to Mexico because the oil reserves were enormous and future revenues were
collateral for loans denominated in U.S. dollars. When the price of oil dropped, Mexico's economy
collapsed in the 1982 Crisis. Interest rates soared, the peso
devalued, and unable to pay loans, the government defaulted on its
debt. President Miguel de la Madrid (1982–88) resorted to
currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation.

In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete

political dominance. In Baja California, the PAN candidate was
elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose Carlos Salinas de
Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone Students in a burned bus during the
presidential victor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of former President protests of 1968
Lázaro Cárdenas, broke with the PRI and challenged Salinas in the
1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive electoral fraud, with
results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive
protests in Mexico City to the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988.[140] In
1990 the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then
there had been major challenges to the PRI's hegemony.[141][142][143]

Although Salinas won by fraud, he embarked on a program of

neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchange rate of the peso,
controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and
began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade
agreement. In order to do that, the Constitution of 1917 was
amended in several important ways. Article 27, which allowed the
government to expropriate natural resources and distribute land,
was amended to end agrarian reform and to guarantee private
owners' property rights. The anti-clerical articles that muzzled
NAFTA signing ceremony, October
religious institutions, especially the Catholic Church, were
1992. From left to right: (standing)
amended and Mexico reestablished of diplomatic relations with the
President Carlos Salinas de Gortari
Holy See, to which the Mexican State did not recognize as a (Mexico), President George H. W.
political entity. Signing on to the North American Free Trade Bush (U.S.), and Prime Minister
Agreement (NAFTA) removed Mexico's autonomy over trade Brian Mulroney (Canada)
policy. The agreement came into effect on 1 January 1994; the
same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)
started a two-week-long armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent
opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization.

In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio, Salinas was
succeeded by substitute PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo. Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with the
Mexican peso crisis, requiring a $50 billion IMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by
President Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of
1999.[144]

Contemporary Mexico

In 2000, after 71 years, the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action
Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election, Felipe Calderón from the PAN was declared the winner,
with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador then the candidate
of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).[145] López Obrador, however, contested the election and
pledged to create an "alternative government".[146]
 After twelve years, in 2012, the PRI won the presidency again with the
election of Enrique Peña Nieto, the governor of the State of Mexico from
2005 to 2011. However, he won with a plurality of about 38%, and did
not have a legislative majority.[147]

After founding the new political

Vicente Fox and his
opposition National Action
Party won the 2000 general
election, ending one-party
rule.
discourse with focus in conciliation.[148]
party MORENA, Andrés Manuel
López Obrador won the 2018
presidential election with over 50%
of the vote. His political coalition,
led by his left-wing party founded
after the 2012 elections, includes
parties and politicians from all over
the political spectrum. The coalition Military forces during an anti-drug
operation in Michoacán. Since
also won a majority in both the
2006 Mexico has been at war
upper and lower congress
against various drug cartels,
chambers. AMLO's (one of his
costing the lives of tens of
many nicknames) success is
thousands of people.
attributed to the country's other
strong political alternatives
exhausting their chances as well as the politician adopting a moderate

Mexico has contended with high crime rates, official corruption, narcotrafficking, and a stagnant economy.
Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s, with neoliberal reforms, but
Pemex, the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses
being issued.[149] In AMLO's push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex has been
arrested.[150]

Although there were fears of electoral fraud in Mexico's 2018 presidential elections,[151] the results gave a
mandate to AMLO.[152] On 1 December 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador was sworn in as the new
President of Mexico. After winning a landslide victory in the July 2018 presidential elections, he became
the first leftwing president for decades.[153]

In April 2021, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention warned travellers that there was a very
high level of COVID-19 in Mexico.[154]

Geography
Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N, and
longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion of
North America. Almost all of Mexico lies in the North
American Plate, with small parts of the Baja California
peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates.
Geophysically, some geographers include the territory
east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the
total) within Central America.[155] Geopolitically,
however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North
America, along with Canada and the United States.[156]
Topographic map of Mexico
Mexico's total area is 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi), making it the world's 13th largest country by total
area. It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California, as well as the Gulf of Mexico and
Caribbean Sea, the latter two forming part of the Atlantic Ocean.[157] Within these seas are about
6,000 km2 (2,317 sq mi) of islands (including the remote Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo
Islands). From its farthest land points, Mexico is a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length.

On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km (1,952 mi) border with the United States. The meandering Río
Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States) defines the border from Ciudad Juárez
east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican
border west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 km (541 mi)
border with Guatemala and a 251 km (156 mi) border with Belize.

Mexico is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra
Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America. From
east to west at the center, the country is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt also known as the
Sierra Nevada. A fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca.[158]

As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and the
highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft),
Popocatépetl (5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca
(4,577 m or 15,016 ft). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys between these four
elevations: Toluca, Greater Mexico City and Puebla.[158]

An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub crater. The scientific consensus is
that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

Climate

The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into

temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of
Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter
months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are
fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of
elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most
diverse weather systems.

Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to

1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal
plains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a yearly
median temperature between 24 to 28 °C (75.2 to
82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the
year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter
and summer median temperatures. Both Mexican coasts,
except for the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and Mexico map of Köppen climate classification
northern Baja, are also vulnerable to serious hurricanes
during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas
north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly
temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the
winter.
Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes
generally above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). This gives them a year-round temperate climate with yearly
temperature averages (from 16 to 18 °C or 60.8 to 64.4 °F) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the
year.

Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the
tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example,
many cities in the north like Monterrey, Hermosillo, and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C
(104 °F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more.

Biodiversity

Mexico ranks fourth[159] in the world in biodiversity and is one of

the 17 megadiverse countries. With over 200,000 different species,
Mexico is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity.[160]
Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known
species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in
amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000
different species.[161] Mexico is also considered the second
country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall
Mexican wolf
species.[162] About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican
legislations.[162]

In 2002, Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the

world, second only to Brazil.[163] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape
Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out
of 172 countries.[164] The government has taken another initiative
in the late 1990s to broaden the people's knowledge, interest and
use of the country's esteemed biodiversity, through the Comisión
Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad.
Gray whale
In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometres (65,637 sq mi) are
considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere
reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their
aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource
protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse
species).[160]

The discovery of the Americas brought to the rest of the world many widely used food crops and edible
plants. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include: chocolate, avocado, tomato, maize, vanilla,
guava, chayote, epazote, camote, jícama, nopal, zucchini, tejocote, huitlacoche, sapote, mamey sapote,
many varieties of beans, and an even greater variety of chiles, such as the habanero and the jalapeño. Most
of these names come from indigenous languages like Nahuatl.

Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of bioprospecting by international
research bodies.[165] The first highly successful instance being the discovery in 1947 of the tuber
"Barbasco" (Dioscorea composita) which has a high content of diosgenin, revolutionizing the production
of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined oral
contraceptive pills.[166]

Government and politics

Government

The United Mexican States are a

Andrés Manuel López Obrador
President of Mexico
federation whose government is
representative, democratic and
republican based on a
presidential system according to
the 1917 Constitution. The
constitution establishes three
levels of government: the federal New Senate building on Paseo de
Union, the state governments la Reforma and Insurgentes in
and the municipal governments. Mexico City
According to the constitution, all
constituent states of the
federation must have a republican form of government composed of
three branches: the executive, represented by a governor and an
appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral
congress[167] and the judiciary, which will include a state Supreme
Court of Justice. They also have their own civil and judicial codes.

The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union, composed of the Senate of the Republic and
the Chamber of Deputies. The Congress makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the
national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.[168]

The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by a system of parallel voting that
includes plurality and proportional representation.[169] The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of
these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts) and 200 are
elected by proportional representation with closed party lists[170] for which the country is divided into five
electoral constituencies.[171] The Senate is made up of 128 senators. Of these, 64 senators (two for each
state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs; 32 senators are the first minority or
first-runner up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional
representation from national closed party lists.[170]

The executive is the President of the United Mexican States, who is the head of state and government, as
well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and
other officers. The President is responsible for executing and enforcing the law, and has the power to veto
bills.[172]

The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the

Supreme Court of Justice, the national supreme court, which has
eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the
Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges
cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are
the Federal Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district
tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary.[173]

Politics
Site of the Supreme Court of Justice

Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in

Mexican politics: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a
catch-all party[174] and member of the Socialist International[175] that was founded in 1929 to unite all the
factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then;
the National Action Party (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian
Democrat Organization of America;[176] and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) a left-wing
party,[177] founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. PRD emerged
after what has now been proven was a stolen election in 1988,[178] and has won numerous state and local
elections since then. PAN won its first governorship in 1989, and won the presidency in 2000 and
2006.[179]

A new political party, National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), a leftist-populist party, emerged after
the 2012 election and dominated the 2018 Mexican general election.[180]

Unlike many Latin American countries, the military in Mexico does not participate in politics and is under
civilian control.[181]

Foreign relations

The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of

Mexico[182] and managed through the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs.[183] The principles of the foreign policy are
constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which
include: respect for international law and legal equality of states,
their sovereignty and independence, trend to non-interventionism
in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of
conflicts, and promotion of collective security through active
participation in international organizations.[182] Since the 1930s,
the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these
principles.[184]

Mexico is founding member of several international organizations,

most notably the United Nations,[185] the Organization of
American States,[186] the Organization of Ibero-American Alfonso García Robles diplomat who
States,[187] the OPANAL[188] and the CELAC.[189] In 2008, received the Nobel Peace Prize in
Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations 1982
regular budget. [190] In addition, it was the only Latin American
member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full membership in 2010.[191][192]

Mexico is considered a regional power[193][194] hence its presence in major economic groups such as the
G8+5 and the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations
Security Council and its working methods[195] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine
countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club.[196]

After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its
northern neighbor, largest trading partner,[197] and the most powerful actor in hemispheric and world
affairs.[198] Mexico supported the Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s,[199] the
Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s,[200] and leftist revolutionary groups in El
Salvador during the 1980s.[201] Felipe Calderón's administration (2006–2012) put a greater emphasis on
relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.[202] Enrique Peña Nieto (2012–2018) emphasized
economic issues and foreign investment, particularly the now-defunct Trans-Pacific Partnership.[203]
Andrés Manuel López Obrador has taken a cautious approach, unwilling to challenge U.S. President
Donald Trump on either trade or migration, while maintaining neutrality on Venezuela and welcoming
Chinese money.[204]

Military

The Mexican military "provides a unique example of a military

leadership's transforming itself into a civilian political elite, simultaneously
transferring the basis of power from the army to a civilian state."[205] The
transformation was brought about by revolutionary generals in the 1920s
and 1930s, following the demise of the Federal Army following its
complete defeat during the decade-long Mexican Revolution.[206]

The Mexican Armed Forces have two branches: the Mexican Army
(which includes the Mexican Air Force), and the Mexican Navy. The
Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including
facilities for design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft,
naval vessels, defense systems and electronics;[207][208] military industry
manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval A Mexican Navy Eurocopter
dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile
technologies.[209]

In recent years, Mexico has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures
and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military by designing as well as
manufacturing its own arms,[210] missiles,[208] aircraft,[211] vehicles, heavy weaponry, electronics,[207]
defense systems,[207] armor, heavy military industrial equipment and heavy naval vessels.[212] Since the
1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on
acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies,[207] urban
warfare equipment and rapid troop transport.[213]

Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty
of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to only use its nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.[214] In 1970,
Mexico's national institute for nuclear research successfully refined weapons grade uranium[215] which is
used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons but in April 2010, Mexico agreed to turn over its weapons
grade uranium to the United States.[216][217] Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear
Weapons.[218]

Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts,[219] with the exception of World War
II. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution to
allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping
missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.[220]

Law enforcement

Public security is enacted at the three levels of government, each of which has different prerogatives and
responsibilities. Local and state police departments are primarily in charge of law enforcement, whereas the
Mexican Federal Police are in charge of specialized duties. All levels report to the Secretaría de Seguridad
Pública (Secretary of Public Security). The General Attorney's Office (Fiscalía General de la República,
FGR) is a constitutional autonomous organism in charge of investigating and prosecuting crimes at the
federal level, mainly those related to drug and arms trafficking,[221]
espionage, and bank robberies.[222] The FGR operates the Federal
Ministerial Police (Policia Federal Ministerial, PMF) an investigative and
preventive agency.[223]

While the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens,
serious abuses of power have been reported in security operations in the
southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor
urban neighborhoods.[224] The National Human Rights Commission has
had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation
but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to the officials
who ignore its recommendations.[225] By law, all defendants have the
rights that assure them fair trials and humane treatment; however, the
system is overburdened and overwhelmed with several problems.[224]

Despite the efforts of the authorities to fight crime and fraud, most
Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and
Federal Police headquarters
therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens.[224] The Global
in Mexico City
Integrity Index which measures the existence and effectiveness of national
anti-corruption mechanisms rated Mexico 31st behind Kenya, Thailand,
and Russia.[226] In 2008, president Calderón proposed a major reform of
the judicial system, which was approved by the Congress of the Union, which included oral trials, the
presumption of innocence for defendants, the authority of local police to investigate crime—until then a
prerogative of special police units—and several other changes intended to speed up trials.[227]

Crime

Drug cartels are a major concern in Mexico.[228] Mexico's drug war, ongoing since 2006, has left over
120,000 dead and perhaps another 37,000 missing.[35] The Mexican drug cartels have as many as 100,000
members.[229] Mexico's National Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that in 2014, one-fifth of
Mexicans were victims of some sort of crime.[230] The U.S. Department of State warns its citizens to
exercise increased caution when traveling in Mexico, issuing travel advisories on its website.[231]

President Felipe Calderón (2006–12) made eradicating organized

crime one of the top priorities of his administration by deploying
military personnel to cities where drug cartels operate. This move
was criticized by the opposition parties and the National Human
Rights Commission for escalating the violence,[232] but its effects
have been positively evaluated by the US State Department's
Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs
as having obtained "unprecedented results" with "many important
successes".[233] Demonstration on 26 September
2015, in the first anniversary of the
Since President Felipe Calderón launched a crackdown against disappearance of the 43 students in
cartels in 2006, more than 28,000 alleged criminals have been the Mexican town of Iguala
successfully killed.[234][235] Of the total drug-related violence 4%
are innocent people,[236] mostly by-passers and people trapped in
between shootings; 90% accounts for criminals and 6% for military personnel and police officers.[236] In
October 2007, President Calderón and US president George W. Bush announced the Mérida Initiative, a
plan of law enforcement cooperation between the two countries.[237]
More than 100 journalists and media workers have been killed or disappeared since 2000, and most of
these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with few perpetrators arrested and
convicted.[238][239]

The mass kidnapping of the 43 students in Iguala on 26 September 2014 triggered nationwide protests
against the government's weak response to the disappearances and widespread corruption that gives free
rein to criminal organizations.[240]

Administrative divisions

The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 free and sovereign states, which form a union that
exercises a degree of jurisdiction over Mexico City.[241]

Each state has its own constitution, congress, and a judiciary, and its citizens elect by direct voting a
governor for a six-year term, and representatives to their respective unicameral state congresses for three-
year terms.[242]

Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a whole and not to a particular
state.[241] Formerly known as the Federal District, its autonomy was previously limited relative to that of
the states.[243] It dropped this designation in 2016 and is in the process of achieving greater political
autonomy by becoming a federal entity with its own constitution and congress.[244]

The states are divided into municipalities, the smallest administrative political entity in the country,
governed by a mayor or municipal president (presidente municipal), elected by its residents by
plurality.[245]

United States of America

Baja
California
Sonora
Chihuahua
Coahuila
Baja
California
Sur Nuevo
Durango León
Sinaloa Gulf of
Zacatecas Tamaulipas Mexico
San Luis
AG Potosí
Nayarit Guanajuato Mexico City Yucatán
Querétaro
Jalisco HD Quintana
Pacific EM TL Roo
Ocean Colima Michoacán Campeche
MOPueblaVeracruz
Tabasco
Guerrero Oaxaca Chiapas
Central
America
 Entity/Abbreviation Capital Entity/Abbreviation Capital
Aguascalientes (AGS) Aguascalientes Morelos (MOR) Cuernavaca

Baja California (BC) Mexicali Nayarit (NAY) Tepic

Baja California Sur (BCS) La Paz Nuevo León (NL) Monterrey

Campeche (CAM) Campeche Oaxaca (OAX) Oaxaca

Chiapas (CHIS) Tuxtla Gutiérrez Puebla (PUE) Puebla

Chihuahua (CHIH) Chihuahua Querétaro (QRO) Querétaro

Coahuila (COAH) Saltillo Quintana Roo (QR) Chetumal

Colima (COL) Colima San Luis Potosí (SLP) San Luis Potosí

Durango (DUR) Durango Sinaloa (SNL) Culiacán

Guanajuato (GTO) Guanajuato Sonora (SON) Hermosillo

Guerrero (GRO) Chilpancingo Tabasco (TAB) Villahermosa

Hidalgo (HGO) Pachuca Tamaulipas (TAMPS) Victoria

Jalisco (JAL) Guadalajara Tlaxcala (TLAX) Tlaxcala

State of Mexico (EM) Toluca Veracruz (VER) Xalapa

Mexico City (CDMX) Mexico City Yucatán (YUC) Mérida

Michoacán (MICH) Morelia Zacatecas (ZAC) Zacatecas

Economy
As of April 2018, Mexico has the 15th largest nominal
GDP (US$1.15 trillion)[246] and the 11th largest by
purchasing power parity (US$2.45 trillion). GDP
annual average growth was 2.9% in 2016 and 2% in
2017.[246] Agriculture has comprised 4% of the
economy over the last two decades, while industry
contributes 33% (mostly automotive, oil, and
electronics) and services (notably financial services and
tourism) contribute 63%.[246] Mexico's GDP in PPP
per capita was US$18,714.05. The World Bank
reported in 2009 that the country's Gross National
Income in market exchange rates was the second
highest in Latin America, after Brazil at A proportional representation of Mexico's
US$1,830.392 billion, [247] which led to the highest exports. The country has the most complex
income per capita in the region at $15,311. [248][249] economy in Latin America.
Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle-
income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the
country has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006,[250] even though it
is considered to be well below Mexico's potential growth.[251] The International Monetary Fund predicts
growth rates of 2.3% and 2.7% for 2018 and 2019, respectively.[246] By 2050, Mexico could potentially
become the world's fifth or seventh largest economy.[252][253]
Although multiple international organizations coincide and classify Mexico as an upper middle income
country, or a middle class country[254][255] Mexico's National Council for the Evaluation of Social
Development Policy (CONEVAL), which is the organization in charge to measure the country's poverty
reports that a huge percentage of Mexico's population lives in poverty. According to said council, from
2006 to 2010 (year on which the CONEVAL published its first nationwide report of poverty) the portion of
Mexicans who live in poverty rose from 18%–19%[256] to 46% (52 million people).[257] However, rather
than Mexico's economy crashing, international economists attribute the huge increase in the percentage of
population living below the country's poverty line to the CONEVAL using new standards to define it, as
now besides people who lives below the economic welfare line, people who lacks at least one "social
need" such as complete education, access to healthcare, access to regular food, housing services and goods,
social security etc. were considered to be living in poverty (several countries do collect information
regarding the persistence of said vulnerabilities on their population, but Mexico is the only one that
classifies people lacking one or more of those needs as living below its national poverty line). Said
economists do point out that the percentage of people living in poverty according to Mexico's national
poverty line is around 40 times higher than the one reported by the World Bank's international poverty line
(with said difference being the biggest in the world) and ponder if it would not be better for countries in the
situation of Mexico to adopt internationalized standards to measure poverty so the numbers obtained could
be used to make accurate international comparisons.[258] According to the OECD's own poverty line
(defined as the percentage of a country's population who earns 60%[259] or less of the national median
income) 20% of Mexico's population lives in a situation of poverty.[260]

Among the OECD countries, Mexico has the second-highest degree of

Mexican Stock Exchange
building
Indigenous population are considerably lower than the national average, which is motive of concern for the
government.[266]
economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after
Chile – although it has been falling over the last decade, being one of
few countries in which this is the case.[261] The bottom ten percent in the
income hierarchy disposes of 1.36% of the country's resources, whereas
the upper ten percent dispose of almost 36%. The OECD also notes that
Mexico's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social
development is only about a third of the OECD average.[262] This is also
reflected by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher
than the average among OECD nations whereas its literacy levels are in
the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, according to Goldman
Sachs, by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th largest economy in the
world.[263] According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a
typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the average income
in rural areas just miles away was only $8,403.[264] Daily minimum
wages are set annually being set at $102.68 Mexican pesos (US$5.40) in
2019.[265] All of the indices of social development for the Mexican

The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth
largest electronics industry in the world after China, United States, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Mexico is the second-largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion
worth of electronics in 2011.[267] The Mexican electronics industry is dominated by the manufacture and
OEM design of televisions, displays, computers, mobile phones, circuit boards, semiconductors, electronic
appliances, communications equipment and LCD modules. The Mexican electronics industry grew 20%
between 2010 and 2011, up from its constant growth rate of 17% between 2003 and 2009.[267] Currently
electronics represent 30% of Mexico's exports.[267]
Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North
American nation.[268] The industry produces technologically
complex components and engages in some research and
development activities.[269] The "Big Three" (General
Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico
since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their
plants in the 1960s.[270] In Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-
makers cluster around Volkswagen.[269] In the 2010s
expansion of the sector was surging. In 2014 alone, more than
$10 billion in investment was committed. In September 2016 Angel of Independence on Paseo de la
Kia motors opened a $1 billion factory in Nuevo León,[271] Reforma, Mexico City
with Audi also opening an assembling plant in Puebla the
same year.[272] BMW, Mercedes-Benz and Nissan currently
have plants in construction.[273]

The domestic car industry is represented by DINA S.A., which has built buses and trucks since 1962,[274]
and the new Mastretta company that builds the high-performance Mastretta MXT sports car.[275] In 2006,
trade with the United States and Canada accounted for almost 50% of Mexico's exports and 45% of its
imports.[11] During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 billion trade deficit with
Mexico.[276] In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become the 9th largest holder of US debt.[277]
The commercial and financial dependence on the US is a cause for concern.[278]

The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the United States account for 0.2% of Mexico's
GDP[279] which was equal to US$20 billion per year in 2004 and is the tenth largest source of foreign
income after oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles,
construction, food, banking and financial services.[280] According to Mexico's central bank, remittances in
2008 amounted to $25bn.[281]

Communications

The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by

Telmex (Teléfonos de México), privatized in 1990. By 2006,
Telmex had expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile,
Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States. Other
players in the domestic industry are Axtel, Maxcom, Alestra,
Marcatel, AT&T Mexico.[282] Because of Mexican
orography, providing a landline telephone service at remote
mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-
phones per capita is low compared to other Latin American
Telmex Tower, Mexico City.
countries, at 40 percent; however, 82% of Mexicans over the
age of 14 own a mobile phone. Mobile telephony has the
advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the total
number of mobile lines is almost two times that of landlines, with an estimation of 63 million lines.[283] The
telecommunication industry is regulated by the government through Cofetel (Comisión Federal de
Telecomunicaciones).

The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is also extensive
microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.[283] Mexican
satellites are operated by Satélites Mexicanos (Satmex), a private company, leader in Latin America and
servicing both North and South America.[284] It offers broadcast, telephone and telecommunication
services to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada to Argentina. Through business partnerships Satmex
provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services.[285] Satmex maintains its own
satellite fleet with most of the fleet being designed and built in Mexico.

Major players in the broadcasting industry are Televisa, the largest Mexican media company in the Spanish-
speaking world,[286] TV Azteca and Imagen Televisión.

Energy

Energy production in Mexico is managed by the state-owned

companies Federal Commission of Electricity and Pemex.

Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, extraction,

transportation and marketing of crude oil and natural gas, as well
as the refining and distribution of petroleum products and
petrochemicals, is one of the largest companies in the world by
revenue, making US$86 billion in sales a year.[287][288][289]
Mexico is the sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 The Central Eólica Sureste I, Fase II
in Oaxaca. The Isthmus of
million barrels per day.[290] In 1980 oil exports accounted for
Tehuantepec is the region of Mexico
61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.[269]
with the highest capacity for wind
energy. (see Tehuantepecer, a strong
The largest hydro plant in Mexico is the 2,400 MW Manuel
wind that affects the region)
Moreno Torres Dam in Chicoasén, Chiapas, in the Grijalva River.
This is the world's fourth most productive hydroelectric plant.[291]

Mexico is the country with the world's third largest solar potential.[292] The country's gross solar potential
is estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50 times national electricity generation.[293]
Currently, there is over 1 million square meters of solar thermal panels[294] installed in Mexico, while in
2005, there were 115,000 square meters of solar PV (photo-voltaic). It is expected that in 2012 there will be
1,8 million square meters of installed solar thermal panels.[294]

The project named SEGH-CFE 1, located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Northwest of Mexico, will have
capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels when complete in 2013.[295] All of the
electricity will be sold directly to the CFE and absorbed into the utility's transmission system for distribution
throughout their existing network. At an installed capacity of 46.8 MWp, when complete in 2013, the
project will be the first utility scale project of its kind in Mexico and the largest solar project of any kind in
Latin America.

Science and technology

The National Autonomous University of Mexico was officially

established in 1910,[296] and the university became one of the most
important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.[297] UNAM
provides world class education in science, medicine, and
engineering.[298] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of
higher learning, such as National Polytechnic Institute (founded in
1936),[299] were established during the first half of the 20th century.
Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM.
Guillermo Haro Observatory in
Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to
Cananea, Sonora.
1973.[300] In 1959, the Mexican Academy of Sciences was created to
coordinate scientific efforts between academics.
In 1995, the Mexican chemist Mario J. Molina shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Paul J. Crutzen
and F. Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation
and decomposition of ozone.[301] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win
the Nobel Prize in science.[302]

In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the construction of the Large
Millimeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), the world's largest and most sensitive single-
aperture telescope in its frequency range.[303] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by
stellar dust. Mexico was ranked 55th in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, up from 56th in
2019.[304][305][306][307]

Tourism

As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most visited country in the world
and had the 15th highest income from tourism in the world which
is also the highest in Latin America.[308] The vast majority of
tourists come to Mexico from the United States and Canada
followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller number also come from
other Latin American countries.[309] In the 2017 Travel and
Tourism Competitiveness Report, Mexico was ranked 22nd in the
world, which was 3rd in the Americas.[310]
Cancun and the Riviera Maya is the
most visited region in Latin America
The coastlines of Mexico harbor many stretches of beaches that are
frequented by sunbathers and other visitors. According to national
law, the entirety of the coastlines are under federal ownership, that
is, all beaches in the country are public. On the Yucatán peninsula, one of the most popular beach
destinations is the resort town of Cancún, especially among university students during spring break. Just
offshore is the beach island of Isla Mujeres, and to the east is the Isla Holbox. To the south of Cancun is the
coastal strip called Riviera Maya which includes the beach town of Playa del Carmen and the ecological
parks of Xcaret and Xel-Há. A day trip to the south of Cancún is the historic port of Tulum. In addition to
its beaches, the town of Tulum is notable for its cliff-side Mayan ruins.

On the Pacific coast is the notable tourist destination of Acapulco. Once the destination for the rich and
famous, the beaches have become crowded and the shores are now home to many multi-story hotels and
vendors. Acapulco is home to renowned cliff divers: trained divers who leap from the side of a vertical cliff
into the surf below.

At the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula is the resort town of Cabo San Lucas, a town noted for
its beaches and marlin fishing.[311] Further north along the Sea of Cortés is the Bahía de La Concepción,
another beach town known for its sports fishing. Closer to the United States border is the weekend draw of
San Felipe, Baja California.

Transportation

The roadway network in Mexico is extensive and all areas in the country are covered by it.[312] The
roadway network in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),[313] of which 116,802 km
(72,577 mi) are paved.[314] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-lane expressways: 9,544 km
(5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.[314]
Starting in the late nineteenth century, Mexico was one of the first
Latin American countries to promote railway development,[224]
and the network covers 30,952 km (19,233 mi).[315] The Secretary
of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed a high-
speed rail link that will transport its passengers from Mexico City
to Guadalajara, Jalisco.[316][317] The train, which will travel at 300
kilometres per hour (190 miles per hour),[318] will allow
passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in just
2 hours.[318] The whole project was projected to cost 240 billion The Baluarte Bridge is the highest
pesos, or about 25 billion US$[316] and is being paid for jointly by cable-stayed bridge in the world, the
the Mexican government and the local private sector including the fifth-highest bridge overall and the
wealthiest man in the world, Mexico's billionaire business tycoon highest bridge in the Americas.
Carlos Slim.[319] The government of the state of Yucatán is also
funding the construction of a high speed line connecting the cities
of Cozumel to Mérida and Chichen Itza and Cancún.[320]

Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 35 carry 97% of the passenger traffic.[315] The
Mexico City International Airport remains the busiest in Latin America and the 36th busiest in the
world[321] transporting 45 million passengers a year.[322]

Water supply and sanitation

Among the achievements is a significant increase in access to piped

water supply in urban areas (96.4%) as well as in rural areas (69.4%)
as of 2018.[323] Other achievements include the existence of a
functioning national system to finance water and sanitation
infrastructure with a National Water Commission as its apex
institution.

The challenges include water scarcity in the northern and central parts
of the country; inadequate water service quality (drinking water El Cajon Dam
quality; 11% of Mexicans receiving water only intermittently as of
2014);[324] poor technical and commercial efficiency of most utilities
(with an average level of non-revenue water of 43.2% in 2010);[325] increasing the national percentage of
fully sanitized water which at 57%,[326] is considered to not be enough, as the country's theoretically
available percentage of water per capita is 60% lower than it was 60 years ago;[327] and the improvement
of adequate access in rural areas. In addition to on-going investments to expand access, the government has
embarked on a large investment program to improve wastewater treatment.

Demographics
Throughout the 19th century, the population of Mexico had barely Historical population
doubled. This trend continued during the first two decades of the Year Pop. ±% p.a.
20th century, and even in the 1921 census there was a loss of about 1895 12,700,294 —
1 million inhabitants. The phenomenon can be explained because 1900 13,607,272 +1.39%
during the decade from 1910 to 1921 the Mexican Revolution took
1910 15,160,369 +1.09%
place. The growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s
1921 14,334,780 −0.51%
and the 1980s, when the country registered growth rates of over 3%
1930 16,552,722 +1.61%
(1950–1980). The Mexican population doubled in twenty years,
and at that rate it was expected that by the year 2000 there would be 1940 19,653,552 +1.73%
1950 25,791,017 +2.75%
120 million Mexicans. Life expectancy went from 36 years (in 1960 34,923,129 +3.08%
1895) to 72 years (in the year 2000). According to estimations made 1970 48,225,238 +3.28%
by Mexico's National Geography and Statistics Institute, as of 2017 1980 66,846,833 +3.32%
Mexico has 123.5 million inhabitants[328] making it the most 1990 81,249,645 +1.97%
populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.[329] Between 2000 97,483,412 +1.84%
2005 and 2010, the Mexican population grew at an average of 2010 112,336,538 +1.43%
1.70% per year, up from 1.16% per year between 2000 and 2005. 2020 126,014,024 +1.16%
Source: INEGI
Even though Mexico is a very ethnically diverse country, research
about ethnicity has largely been a forgotten field, in consequence of
the post-revolutionary efforts of Mexico's government to unify all non-indigenous Mexicans under a single
ethnic identity (that of the "Mestizo"). As a result, since 1930 the only explicit ethnic classification that has
been included in Mexican censuses has been that of "Indigenous peoples".[330] Even then, across the years
the government has used different criteria to count Indigenous peoples, with each of them returning
considerably different numbers ranging from 6.1%[1] to 23% of the country's population. It is not until very
recently that the Mexican government begun conducting surveys that considered other ethnic groups that
live in the country such as Afro-Mexicans who amount to 2% of Mexico's population[1] or White
Mexicans[331][332] which amount to 47% of Mexico's population (with the criteria being based on
appearance rather than on self-declared of ancestry).[333][334][335][336][337] Less numerous groups in
Mexico such as Asians and Middle Easterners are also accounted for, with numbers of around 1% each.

As of 2017, it is estimated that 1.2 million foreigners have settled in the country,[338] up from nearly 1
million in 2010.[339] The vast majority of migrants come from the United States (900,000), making Mexico
the top destination for U.S. citizens abroad.[340] The second largest group comes from neighboring
Guatemala (54,500), followed by Spain (27,600).[338] Other major sources of migration are fellow Latin
American countries, which include Colombia (20,600), Argentina (19,200) and Cuba (18,100).[338]
Historically, the Lebanese diaspora and the German-born Mennonite migration have left a notorious impact
in the country's culture, particularly in its cuisine and traditional music.[341][342] At the turn of the 21st
century, several trends have increased the number of foreigners residing in the country such as the 2008–
2014 Spanish financial crisis,[343] increasing gang-related violence in the Northern Triangle of Central
America,[344] the ongoing political and economic crisis in Venezuela,[345][346] and the automotive industry
boom led by Japanese and South Korean investment.[347][348]

Ethnicity and race

Regardless of ethnicity, the majority of Mexicans are united under the same national identity.[349] This is
the product of an ideology strongly promoted by Mexican academics such as Manuel Gamio and José
Vasconcelos known as mestizaje, whose goal was that of Mexico becoming a racially and culturally
homogeneous country.[350][349][351] The ideology's influence was reflected in Mexico's national censuses
of 1921 and 1930: in the former, which was Mexico's first-ever national census (but second-ever if the
census made in colonial times is taken into account)[82] that considered race, approximately 60% of
Mexico's population identified as Mestizos,[352] and in the latter, Mexico's government declared that all
Mexicans were now Mestizos, for which racial classifications would be dropped in favor of language-based
ones in future censuses.[330] During most of the 20th century these censuses' results were taken as fact,
with extraofficial international publications often using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial
composition,[353][224][354] but in recent time historians and academics have claimed that said results are not
accurate, as on its efforts to homogenize Mexico the government inflated the Mestizo label's percentage by
classifying a good number of people as such regardless of whether they were of actual mixed ancestry or
not,[355][356][357][358] pointing out that an alteration so drastic of population trends compared to earlier
censuses such as New Spain's 1793 census (on which Europeans were estimated to be 18% to 22% of the
population, Mestizos 21% to 25% and Indigenous peoples 51% to 61%)[82] is not possible and that the
frequency of marriages between people of different ancestries in
colonial and early independent Mexico was low.[359][360] it is also
observed that when asked directly about their ethno-racial
identification, many Mexicans nowadays do not identify as
Mestizos,[361] would not agree to be labeled as such,[362] and that
"static" ethnoracial labels such as "White" or "Indian" are far more
prominent in contemporary Mexican society than the "Mestizo" one
is, whose use is mostly limited to intellectual circles, result of the
label's constantly-changing and subjective definition.[363]

The total percentage of Mexico's indigenous peoples tends to vary

depending on the criteria used by the government on its censuses: it is
6.1% if the ability to speak an indigenous language is used as the
criteria to define a person as indigenous,[1][364] if racial self-
identification is used it is 14.9%[365][a] and if people who consider
themselves part indigenous are also included it amounts to 23%.[368]
Las castas. Casta painting
Nonetheless, all the censuses conclude that the majority of Mexico's showing 16 racial groupings.
indigenous population is concentrated in rural areas of the southern Anonymous, 18th century, oil on
and south-eastern Mexican states.[369] with the highest percentages canvas, 148×104 cm, Museo
being found in Yucatán at 59% of the population, Oaxaca with 48%, Nacional del Virreinato,
Quintana Roo with 39%, Chiapas with 28% and Campeche with Tepotzotlán, Mexico.
27%.[266][370]

Similarly to Mestizo and indigenous peoples, estimates of the percentage of European-descended Mexicans
vary considerably depending on the criteria used: recent nationwide field surveys that account for different
phenotypical traits (hair color, skin color etc.) report a percentage between 18%[371]-23%[372] if the criteria
is the presence of blond hair, and of 47% if the criteria is skin color, with the later surveys having been
conducted by Mexico's government itself.[333][334][335][337][373] While during the colonial era, most of the
European migration into Mexico was Spanish, in the 19th and 20th centuries a substantial number of non-
Spanish Europeans immigrated to the country,[374] with Europeans often being the most numerous ethnic
group in colonial Mexican cities.[375][376] Nowadays Mexico's northern and western regions have the
highest percentages of European populations, with the majority of the people not having native admixture
or being of predominantly European ancestry.[377]

The Afro-Mexican population (2,576,213 individuals as of 2020)[1][378] is an ethnic group made up of

descendants of Colonial-era slaves and recent immigrants of sub-Saharan African descent. Mexico had an
active slave trade during the colonial period, and some 200,000 Africans were taken there, primarily in the
17th century. The creation of a national Mexican identity, especially after the Mexican Revolution,
emphasized Mexico's indigenous and European past; it passively eliminated the African ancestors and
contributions. Most of the African-descended population was absorbed into the surrounding Mestizo
(mixed European/indigenous) and indigenous populations through unions among the groups. Evidence of
this long history of intermarriage with Mestizo and indigenous Mexicans is also expressed in the fact that in
the 2015 inter-census, 64.9% (896,829) of Afro-Mexicans also identified as indigenous. It was also
reported that 7.4% of Afro-Mexicans speak an indigenous language.[1][379] The states with the highest self-
report of Afro-Mexicans were Guerrero (8.6% of the population), Oaxaca (4.7%) and Baja California Sur
(3.3%).[1][380] Afro-Mexican culture is strongest in the communities of the Costa Chica of Oaxaca and
Costa Chica of Guerrero.

During the early 20th century, a substantial number of Arabs (mostly Christians)[381] began arriving from
the crumbling Ottoman Empire. The largest group were the Lebanese and an estimated 400,000 Mexicans
have some Lebanese ancestry.[382] Smaller ethnic groups in Mexico include South and East Asians,
present since the colonial era. During the colonial era Asians were termed Chino (regardless of ethnicity),
and arrived as merchants, artisans and slaves.[383] A study by Juan
Esteban Rodríguez, a graduate student at the National Laboratory
of Genomics for Biodiversity, indicated that up to one third of
people sampled from Guerrero state had significantly more Asian
ancestry than most Mexicans, primarily Filipino or
Indonesian.[384][385] Modern Asian immigration began in the late
19th century, and at one point in the early 20th century the Chinese
were the second largest immigrant group.[386]

Emigration

In the early 1960s, around 600,000 Mexicans lived abroad, which

increased sevenfold by the 1990s to 4.4 million.[387] At the turn of
the 21st century, this figure more than doubled to 9.5 million.[387]
As of 2017, it is estimated that 12.9 million Mexicans live abroad,
primarily in the United States, which concentrates nearly 98% of Puebla de Zaragoza is the most
the expatriate population.[387] The majority of Mexicans have populated city of Puebla
settled in states such as California, Texas and Illinois, particularly
around the metropolitan areas of Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston
and Dallas–Fort Worth.[388] As a result of these major migration flows in recent decades, around 36 million
U.S. residents, or 11.2% of the country's population, identified as being of full or partial Mexican
ancestry.[389] The remaining 2% of expatriates have settled in Canada (86,000), primarily in the provinces
of Ontario and Quebec,[390] followed by Spain (49,000) and Germany (18,000), both European
destinations represent almost two-thirds of the Mexican population living in the continent.[387] As for Latin
America, it is estimated that 69,000 Mexicans live in the region, Guatemala (18,000) being the top
destination for expatriates, followed by Bolivia (10,000) and Panama (5,000).[387]

Languages

Spanish is the de facto national language spoken by the vast majority of the population, making Mexico the
world's most populous Hispanophone country.[391][329] Mexican Spanish refers to the varieties of the
language spoken in the country, which differ from one region to another in sound, structure, and
vocabulary.[392] In general, Mexican Spanish does not make any phonetic distinction among the letters s
and z, as well as c when preceding the vowels e and i, as opposed to Peninsular Spanish. The letters b and
v have the same pronunciation as well.[392] Furthermore, the usage of vos, the second person singular
pronoun, found in several Latin American varieties, is replaced by tú; whereas vosotros, the second person
plural pronoun, fell out of use and was effectively replaced by ustedes.[392] In written form, the Spanish
Royal Academy serves as the primary guideline for spelling, except for words of Amerindian origin that
retain their original phonology such as cenzontle instead of sinzontle and México not Méjico. Words of
foreign origin also maintain their original spelling such as whisky and film, as opposed to güisqui and filme
as the Royal Academy suggests.[392] The letter x is distinctly used in Mexican Spanish, which may be
pronounced as [ks] (as in oxígeno or taxi), as [ʃ] particularly in Amerindian words (e.g. mixiote, Xola and
uxmal) and as the voiceless velar fricative [x] (such as Texas and Oaxaca).[392]

The federal government officially recognizes sixty-eight linguistic groups and 364 varieties of indigenous
languages.[393] It is estimated that around 8.3 million citizens speak these languages,[394] with Nahuatl
being the most widely spoken by more than 1.7 million, followed by Yucatec Maya used daily by nearly
850,000 people, Tzeltal and Tzotzil, two variants of the Mayan languages, are spoken by around half a
million people each, primarily in the southern state of Chiapas.[394] Mixtec and Zapotec, both with
estimated 500,000 native speakers each, are two other well-known language groups.[394] Since its creation
in March 2003, the National Indigenous Languages Institute has been
in charge of promoting and protecting the use of the country's
indigenous languages, through the General Law of Indigenous
Peoples' Linguistic Rights, which recognizes them de jure as "national
languages" with status equal to that of Spanish.[395] Notwithstanding,
in practice, indigenous peoples often face discrimination and are
unable to have proper access to public services such as education and
healthcare, as well as the justice system, as Spanish is the prominent
language.[396]

Aside from indigenous languages, there are several minority

languages spoken in Mexico due to international migration such as
Low German by the 80,000-strong Menonite population, primarily
settled in the northern states, fuelled by the tolerance of the federal
government towards this community by allowing them to set their
own educational system compatible with their customs and
traditions.[397] The Chipilo dialect, a variance of the Venetian Octavio Paz was awarded the
language, is spoken in the town of Chipilo, located in the central state 1981 Miguel de Cervantes Prize,
of Puebla, by around 2,500 people, mainly descendants of Venetians the 1982 Neustadt International
that migrated to the area in the late 19th century. [398] Furthermore, Prize for Literature, and the 1990
English is the most commonly taught foreign language in Mexico. It is Nobel Prize in Literature.
estimated that nearly 24 million, or around a fifth of the population,
study the language through public schools, private institutions or self-
access channels.[399] However, a high level of English proficiency is limited to only 5% of the
population.[400] Moreover, French is the second most widely taught foreign language, as every year
between 200,000 and 250,000 Mexican students enroll in language courses.[401][402][403]

Urban areas

Religion

The 2020 census by the Instituto Nacional de Religion in Mexico (2020 census)[1][404]
Estadística y Geografía (National Institute of Statistics Roman Catholicism 77.7%
and Geography) gave Roman Catholicism as the main Protestantism 11.2%
religion, with 77.7% (97,864,218) of the population, Other religion 2.4%
while 11.2% (14,095,307) belong to No religion 8.1%
Protestant/Evangelical Christian denominations— Unanswered .4%
including Other Christians (6,778,435), Evangelicals
(2,387,133), Pentecostals (1,179,415), Jehovah's
Witnesses (1,530,909), Seventh-day Adventists (791,109), and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints (337,998)—; 8.1% (9,488,671) declared having no religion; .4% (491,814) were
unspecified.[1][404]

The 97,864,218[1] Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second largest Catholic community
in the world, after Brazil's.[407] 47% percent of them attend church services weekly.[408] The feast day of
Our Lady of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico, is celebrated on 12 December and is regarded by
many Mexicans as the most important religious holiday of their country.[409]

Our Lady of Guadalupe,
patron saint of Mexico. This
painting of her at the Basilica
of Guadalupe is among her
most notable depictions;
scientists still debate if it
should be dated 1531, the
year of the first apparition,[405]
or the 1550s.[406]
The denominations Pentecostal also have an important presence,
especially in the cities of the border and in the indigenous communities.
As of 2010, Pentecostal churches together have more than 1.3 million
adherents, which in net numbers place them as the second Christian
creed in Mexico. The situation changes when the different Pentecostal
denominations are considered as separate entities. The third-largest
Christian group is the Jehovah's Witnesses, which totals more than
1 million adherents. In the same census The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, whose members are known as Mormons, reported
314,932 members,[410] though the church claimed in 2009 to have over
one million registered members.[411] Other groups are growing, such as
Iglesia apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesús, Mennonites and Seventh-day
Adventist Church and Church of the La Luz del Mundo, which has its
center in "La Hermosa Provincia", a colony of Guadalajara. Migratory
phenomena have led to the spread of different aspects of Christianity,
including branches Protestants, Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern
Orthodox Church.[412] The presence of Jews in Mexico dates back to
1521, when Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs, accompanied by
several Conversos.[413] According to the 2020 census, there are 58,876
Jews in Mexico.[1] Islam in Mexico (with 7,982 members) is practiced
mostly by Arab Mexicans.[1] In the 2010 census 36,764 Mexicans
reported belonging to a spiritualist religion,[1] a category which includes
a tiny Buddhist population.

According to Jacobo Grinberg (in texts edited by the National

Autonomous University of Mexico), the survival of magic-
religious rituals of the old indigenous groups is remarkable, not
only in the current indigenous population but also in the mestizo
and white population that make up the Mexican rural and urban
society. There is often a syncretism between shamanism and
Catholic traditions. Another religion of popular syncretism in
Mexico (especially in recent years) is the Santería. This is mainly
due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory
after the Cuban Revolution (mainly in states such as Veracruz and
View of the Chapel of Mercy of the
Yucatán). Even though Mexico was also a recipient of black
Panteón Francés (French Cemetery)
slaves from Africa in the 16th century, the apogee of these cults is
relatively new.[414] In general, popular religiosity is viewed with
bad eyes by institutionally structured religions. One of the most
exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult of Holy Dead (Santa Muerte). The Catholic hierarchy
insists on describing it as a satanic cult. However, most of the people who profess this cult declare
themselves to be Catholic believers, and consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they
offer to the Christ Child and the adoration of God. Other examples are the representations of the Passion of
Christ and the celebration of Day of the Dead, which take place within the framework of the Catholic
Christian imaginary, but under a very particular reinterpretation of its protagonists.[415]

In certain regions, the profession of a creed other than the Catholic is seen as a threat to community unity. It
is argued that the Catholic religion is part of the ethnic identity, and that the Protestants are not willing to
participate in the traditional customs and practices (the tequio or community work, participation in the
festivities and similar issues). The refusal of the Protestants is because their religious beliefs do not allow
them to participate in the cult of images. In extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has
led to the expulsion or even murder of Protestants in several villages. The best known cases are those of
San Juan Chamula,[416][417] in Chiapas, and San Nicolás, in Ixmiquilpan,[418] Hidalgo.
A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the government of the
Republic to expel the Summer Linguistic Institute (SIL), in the year 1979, which was accused of promoting
the division of indigenous peoples by translating the Bible into vernacular languages and evangelizing in a
Protestant creed that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The Mexican government paid attention to
the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement that had held with the SIL.[419]

Health

Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in

the health of its population and some indicators such as
mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly
developed countries like Germany or Japan.[420] Mexico's
medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most part and is
usually excellent in major cities,[421][422] but rural
communities still lack equipment for advanced medical
procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the
closest urban areas to get specialized medical care.[224] Social
General Hospital of Mexico in Mexico
determinants of health can be used to evaluate the state of
City.
health in Mexico.

State-funded institutions such as Mexican Social Security

Institute (IMSS) and the Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major
role in health and social security. Private health services are also very important and account for 13% of all
medical units in the country.[423]

Medical training is done mostly at public universities with much specializations done in vocational or
internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such as the University of Guadalajara, have signed
agreements with the U.S. to receive and train American students in Medicine. Health care costs in private
institutions and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North American
economic partners.[421]

Education

In 2004, the literacy rate was at 97%[424] for youth under the age
of 14, and 91% for people over 15,[425] placing Mexico at 24th
place in the world according to UNESCO.[426]

Nowadays, Mexico's literacy rate is high, at 94.86% in 2018, up

from 82.99% in 1980,[427] with the literacy rates of males and
females being relatively equal.

The National Autonomous University of Mexico ranks 103rd in

Central Library of the National
the QS World University Rankings, making it the best university in
Autonomous University of Mexico
Mexico. After it comes the Monterrey Institute of Technology and
Higher Education as the best private school in Mexico and 158th
worldwide in 2019.[428] Private business schools also stand out in
international rankings. IPADE and EGADE, the business schools of Universidad Panamericana and of
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education respectively, were ranked in the top 10 in a
survey conducted by The Wall Street Journal among recruiters outside the United States.[429]
Women

Until the twentieth century, Mexico was an overwhelmingly rural country,

with rural women's status defined within the context of the family and
local community. With urbanization beginning in the sixteenth century,
following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire, cities have provided
economic and social opportunities not possible within rural villages.
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, women including middle-class
women began working outside the home in offices and factories, and the
gained access to education.[430][431] Women were granted suffrage in
1953.[432] In the 21st century, Mexican women are prominent in politics,
academia, journalism, literature, and visual arts among other fields. In
President Andrés Manuel López Obrador's first cabinet following his 2018
election, he appointed women in equal numbers as men.[433] However, a Olga Sánchez Cordero,
wave of feminism in 2020 has criticized the president for his tone-deaf Minister of the Interior
(Gobernacion) in President
response to murders of women in Mexico.[434]
López Obrador's cabinet
Mexico is among the countries that treat particular murders of women as
femicide.[435] In 2014, Mexico had the 16th highest rate of homicides
committed against women in the world.[436] The remains of the victims were frequently mutilated.[437]
According to a 1997 study, domestic abuse in Mexican culture "is embedded in gender and marital relations
fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by
ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements".[438] The perpetrators are
often the boyfriend, father-in-law, ex-husbands or husbands but only 1.6% of the murder cases led to an
arrest and sentencing in 2015.[437] After a particularly well-publicized gruesome femicide followed by that
of a kidnapped little girl, women began protesting more vociferously, falling on deaf ears, including those
of President López Obrador. This is the first new and major movement with which his presidency has had
to deal. On International Women's Day (8 March) in 2020, women staged a massive demonstration in
Mexico City with some 80,000 participants. On Monday, 9 March 2020, the second day of action was
marked by the absence of women at work, in class, shopping and other public activities. The "Day Without
Women" (Día Sin Nosotras) was reported in the international press along with the previous day's
demonstrations.[439][440]

Culture
Mexican culture reflects the complexity of the country's history
through the blending of indigenous cultures and the culture of
Spain, imparted during Spain's 300-year colonial rule of Mexico.
Exogenous cultural elements have been incorporated into Mexican
culture as time has passed.

The Porfirian era (el Porfiriato), in the last quarter of the 19th
century and the first decade of the 20th century, was marked by
economic progress and peace. After four decades of civil unrest
and war, Mexico saw the development of philosophy and the arts,
promoted by President Díaz himself. Since that time, as
accentuated during the Mexican Revolution, cultural identity has
had its foundation in the mestizaje, of which the indigenous (i.e. Talavera pottery
Amerindian) element is the core. In light of the various ethnicities
that formed the Mexican people, José Vasconcelos in La Raza
Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico to be the melting pot of all races (thus extending the
definition of the mestizo) not only biologically but culturally as well.[441] Other Mexican intellectuals
grappled with the idea of Lo Mexicano, which seeks "to discover the national ethos of Mexican
culture."[442] Nobel laureate Octavio Paz explores the notion of a Mexican national character in The
Labyrinth of Solitude.

Painting

Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in

Mexican territory is about 7500 years old and has been found
in the caves of the Baja California Peninsula. Pre-Columbian
Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in Aztec codices, in
ceramics, in garments, etc.; examples of this are the Maya
mural paintings of Bonampak, or those of Teotihuacán, those
of Cacaxtla and those of Monte Albán.

Mural painting with religious themes had an important

flowering during the 16th century; the same in religious Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine
constructions as in houses of lineage; such is the case of the Arts)
convents of Acolman, Actopan, Huejotzingo, Tecamachalco
and Zinacantepec. These were also manifested in illustrated
manuscripts such as the 1576 Florentine codex overseen by
Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún. Most art in the colonial era
was religious, but starting in the late seventeenth century and most
prominently in the eighteenth century, secular portraits and casta
painting appeared. Important painters of the late colonial period
were Juan Correa, Cristóbal de Villalpando and Miguel Cabrera.

Nineteenth-century painting had a marked romantic influence;

landscapes and portraits were the greatest expressions of this era.
Hermenegildo Bustos is one of the most appreciated painters of the
historiography of Mexican art. Other painters include Santiago
Mexican Muralism. A cultural
Rebull, Félix Parra, Eugenio Landesio, and his noted pupil, the
expression starting in the 1920s
landscape artist José María Velasco.[443] created by a group of Mexican
painters after the Mexican
Mexican painting of the 20th century has achieved world renown
Revolution.
with figures such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente
Orozco, Joaquín Clausell, Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, a
generation of idealists who marked the image of modern Mexico in the face of strong social and economic
criticism. The Oaxacan School quickly gained fame and prestige, diffusion of ancestral and modern culture.
Freedom of design is observed in relation to the color and texture of the canvases and murals as a period of
transition between the 20th century and the 21st century. Federico Cantú Garza, Juan O'Gorman, and
Rufino Tamayo are also important artists. Diego Rivera, the most well-known figure of Mexican muralism,
painted the Man at the Crossroads at the Rockefeller Center in New York City, a huge mural that was
destroyed by the Rockefellers the next year because of the inclusion of a portrait of Russian communist
leader Lenin.[444] Some of Rivera's murals are displayed at the Mexican National Palace and the Palace of
Fine Arts.

Some of the most outstanding painters in the late 20th century and early 21st century: Francisco Toledo was
a Mexican Zapotec painter, sculptor, and graphic artist. In a career that spanned seven decades, Toledo
produced thousands of works of art and became widely regarded as one of Mexico's most important
contemporary artists. Verónica Ruiz de Velasco is a neofigurative painter and muralist. Both Verónica Ruiz
de Velasco and Francisco Toledo were students of Rufino Tamayo. Gilberto Aceves Navarro is also
considered an important contemporary artist.

Throughout history several prominent painters of different nationalities have expressed in their works the
face of Mexico. Among the most outstanding we can mention are Claudio Linati, Daniel Thomas Egerton,
Carl Nebel, Thomas Moran, and Leonora Carrington.

Sculpture

Sculpture was an integral part of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations,

(Mayans, Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Aztecs), and others, usually religious in nature.
From the Spanish conquest in 1521, civil and religious sculpture was created by
indigenous artists, with guidance from Spaniards, so some pre-Columbian features are
evident. Since the 17th century, white and mestizo sculptors have created works with
a marked influence of European classicism. After independence in 1821, sculpture
was influenced by Romanticism, which tended to break the strict norms and models
of classicism, while it pursued ideas influenced by realism and nationalism. Religious
sculpture was reduced to a sporadic imagery, while the secular sculpture continued in View of the
portraits and monumental art of a civic nature. Between 1820 and 1880 the Apotheosis
predominant themes were, successively: religious images, biblical scenes, allegories to sculptural group
at the Angel of
the symbols of the independence insurgency, scenes and personages of pre-
Independence
Columbian history, and busts of the old aristocracy, of the nascent bourgeoisie and
commanders of the pre-revolution. During the 20th century, some important
exponents of Mexican sculpture are Juan Soriano, José Luis Cuevas, and Enrique
Carbajal (also known as Sebastián).

Architecture

The presence of the humans in the Mexican territory has left

important archaeological findings of great importance for the
explanation of the habitat of primitive man and contemporary man.
The Mesoamerican civilizations managed to have great stylistic
development and proportion on the human and urban scale, the
form was evolving from simplicity to aesthetic complexity; in the
north of the country the adobe and stone architecture is manifested,
the multifamily housing as we can see in Casas Grandes; and the
troglodyte dwelling in caves of the Sierra Madre Occidental.
Teotihuacán, State of Mexico
Urbanism had a great development in pre-Columbian cultures,
where we can see the magnitude of the cities of Teotihuacán,
Tollan-Xicocotitlan and México-Tenochtitlan, within the
environmentalist urbanism highlight the Mayan cities to be incorporated into the monumentality of its
buildings with the thickness of the jungle and complex networks of roads called sakbés. Mesoamerican
architecture is noted for its pyramids which are the largest such structures outside of Ancient Egypt.

Spanish Colonial architecture is marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded
by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of
New Spain has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With the arrival of the Spaniards,
architectural theories of the Greco-Roman order with Arab influences were introduced. Due to the process
of evangelization, when the first monastic temples and monasteries were built, their own models were
projected, such as the mendicant monasteries, unique in their type in architecture. The interaction between
Spaniards and natives gave rise to artistic styles such as the so-called tequitqui (from Nahuatl: worker).
Years later the baroque and mannerism were imposed in large cathedrals and civil buildings, while rural
areas are built haciendas or stately farms with Mozarabic tendencies.

In the 19th century the neoclassical movement arose as a response to the

objectives of the republican nation, one of its examples are the Hospicio
Cabañas where the strict plastic of the classical orders are represented in
their architectural elements, new religious buildings also arise, civilian
and military that demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. Romanticists
from a past seen through archeology show images of medieval Europe,
Islamic and pre-Columbian Mexico in the form of architectural elements
in the construction of international exhibition pavilions looking for an
identity typical of the national culture. The art nouveau, and the art deco
were styles introduced into the design of the Palacio de Bellas Artes to
mark the identity of the Mexican nation with Greek-Roman and pre-
Columbian symbols.

Modern architecture in Mexico has an important development in the

plasticity of form and space, José Villagrán García develops a theory of
form that sets the pattern of teaching in many schools of architecture in Museo Soumaya in Mexico
the country within functionalism. The emergence of the new Mexican City building
architecture was born as a formal order of the policies of a nationalist
state that sought modernity and the differentiation of other nations. The
development of a Mexican modernist architecture was perhaps mostly fully manifested in the mid-1950s
construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, the main campus of the National Autonomous
University of Mexico. Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani,
Eugenio Peschard, and Enrique del Moral, the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera, David
Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Chávez Morado. It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site.[445]

Juan O'Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing the "organic" theory,
trying to integrate the building with the landscape within the same approaches of Frank Lloyd Wright.[446]
In the search for a new architecture that does not resemble the styles of the past, it achieves a joint
manifestation with the mural painting and the landscaping.

The Jalisco School was a proposal of those socio-political movements that the country demanded. Luis
Barragán combined the shape of the space with forms of rural vernacular architecture of Mexico and
Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco), integrating an impressive color that handles light and shade in
different tones and opens a look at the international minimalism. He won the 1980 Pritzker Prize, the
highest award in architecture.[447]

Mexican architecture is a cultural phenomenon born of the ideology of nationalist governments of the 20th
century, which was shaping the identity image by its colorful and variegated ornamental elements inherited
from ancestral cultures, classical and monumental forms and, subsequently, the incorporation of modernism
and cutting-edge international trends.

Photography

Mexico has been photographed since the nineteenth century, when the technology was first developed.
During the Porfiriato, Díaz realized the importance of photography in shaping the understanding of his
regime and its accomplishments. The government hired Guillermo Kahlo (father of painter Frida Kahlo) to
create photographic images of Mexico's new industrial structures as well as its pre-Columbian and colonial
past. Photographer Hugo Brehme specialized in images of "picturesque"
Mexico, with images of Mexican places and often rural people. During the
Mexican Revolution, photographers chronicled the conflict, usually in the
aftermath of a battle, since large and heavy equipment did not permit
action shots. Agustín Victor Casasola is the most famous of photographer
of the revolutionary era, and he collected other photographers' images in
the Casasola Archive; his vast collection was purchased by the Mexican
government and is now part of the government photographic repository,
the Fototeca.[448][449] After the revolution, Mexican photographers
created photographs as art images.[450] Among others, notable Mexican
photographers include Manuel Álvarez Bravo, Héctor García Cobo, and
Graciela Iturbide.

Literature David Alfaro Siqueiros by

Héctor García Cobo at
Lecumberri prison, Mexico
Mexican literature has its antecedents in
City, 1960.
the literature of the indigenous settlements
of Mesoamerica. Poetry had a rich cultural
tradition in pre-Columbian Mexico, being
divided into two broad categories—secular and religious. Aztec poetry
was sung, chanted, or spoken, often to the accompaniment of a drum or a
harp. While Tenochtitlan was the political capital, Texcoco was the cultural
center; the Texcocan language was considered the most melodious and
refined. The best well-known pre-Columbian poet is Nezahualcoyotl.[451]

Literature during the 16th century consisted largely of histories of Spanish

conquests, and most of the writers at this time were from Spain. Bernal
Díaz del Castillo's True History of the Conquest of Mexico is still widely
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,
read today. Spanish-born poet Bernardo de Balbuena extolled the virtues
"The Tenth Muse."
of Mexico in Grandeza mexicana (Mexican grandeur) (1604); Francisco
Posthmous portrait Juan
Cabrera de Terrazas was the first Mexican-born poet to attain renown.[452]
Baroque literature flourished in the 17th century; the most notable writers
of this period were Juan Ruiz de Alarcón and Juana Inés de la Cruz. Sor
Juana was famous in her own time, called the "Ten Muse."[452] The 18th and early 19th centuries gave us
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose The Mangy Parrot ("El Periquillo Sarniento"), is said to be the
first Latin American novel. Several Jesuit humanists wrote at this time, and they were among the first to call
for independence from Spain.[452]

Other writers include Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Octavio Paz (Nobel Laureate), Carlos Fuentes, Alfonso
Reyes, Renato Leduc, Carlos Monsiváis, Elena Poniatowska, Mariano Azuela (Los de abajo) and Juan
Rulfo (Pedro Páramo). Bruno Traven wroteCanasta de cuentos mexicano (A basket of Mexican tales) and
El tesoro de la Sierra Madre (Treasure of the Sierra Madre), Luis Spota, Jaime Sabines, Martín Luis
Guzmán, Nellie Campobello, (Cartucho), and Valeria Luiselli (Faces in the Crowd) are also
noteworthy.[453]

Cinema

Mexican films from the Golden Age in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American
cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. Mexican films were exported
and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe. María Candelaria (1943) by Emilio Fernández, was one
of the first films awarded a Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1946, the first time the event was held
after World War II. The famous Spanish-born director Luis Buñuel
realized in Mexico between 1947 and 1965 some of his masterpieces like
Los Olvidados (1949) and Viridiana (1961). Famous actors and actresses
from this period include María Félix, Pedro Infante, Dolores del Río, Jorge
Negrete and the comedian Cantinflas.

More recently, films such as Como agua para chocolate (1992), Sex,
Shame, and Tears (1999), Y tu mamá también (2001), and The Crime of
Father Amaro (2002) have been successful in creating universal stories
about contemporary subjects, and were internationally recognized, as in
the prestigious Cannes Film Festival. Mexican directors Alejandro
González Iñárritu (Amores perros, Babel, Birdman, The Revenant),
Alfonso Cuarón (A Little Princess, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Actress Dolores del Río,
Azkaban, Gravity, Roma), Guillermo del Toro (Hellboy, Pan's Labyrinth, Hollywood star in the 1920s
Crimson Peak, The Shape of Water), screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga and and 1930s and prominent
photographer Emmanuel Lubezki are some of the most known present-day figure of the Golden Age of
film makers. Numerous Mexican actors have achieved recognition as Mexican cinema in the
Hollywood stars.[454] 1940s and 1950s

Media

There are three major television companies in Mexico that own the primary networks and broadcast
covering all nation, Televisa, TV Azteca and Imagen Television. Televisa is also the largest producer of
Spanish-language content in the world and also the world's largest Spanish-language media network.[455]
Media company Grupo Imagen is another national coverage television broadcaster in Mexico, that also
owns the newspaper Excélsior. Grupo Multimedios is another media conglomerate with Spanish-language
broadcasting in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The telenovelas are very traditional in Mexico and
are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renowned names like Verónica Castro,
Victoria Ruffo and Lucero.

Mexican cuisine

In 2005, Mexico presented the candidature of its gastronomy for

World Heritage Site of UNESCO, being the first occasion in
which a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this
purpose.[457] However, in a first instance the result was negative,
because the committee did not place the proper emphasis on the
importance of corn in Mexican cuisine.[458] Finally, on 16
November 2010 Mexican gastronomy was recognized as
Intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO.[459] In addition, Daniela
Soto-Innes was named the best female chef in the world by The
Mole sauce, which has dozens of
World's Best 50 Restaurants in April 2019.[460] varieties across the Republic, is
seen as a symbol of
The origin of the current Mexican cuisine is established during the Mexicanidad[456] and is considered
Spanish colonial era, a mixture of the foods of Spain with native
Mexico's national dish.[456]
indigenous ingredients.[461] Of foods originated in Mexico is the
corn, the pepper vegetables (together with Central and South
America), calabazas (together with the Americas), avocados, sweet potato (together with Central and South
America), the turkey (together with the Americas) and other fruits and spices. Other Indigenous products
are many beans. Similarly, some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Columbian peoples,
such as the nixtamalization of corn, the cooking of food in ovens at ground level, grinding in molcajete and
metate. With the Spaniards came the pork, beef and chicken meats; peppercorn, sugar, milk and all its
derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet
of Mexicans.

From this meeting of millennia old two culinary traditions, were born pozole, mole sauce, barbacoa and
tamale is in its current forms, the chocolate, a large range of breads, tacos, and the broad repertoire of
Mexican street foods. Beverages such as atole, champurrado, milk chocolate and aguas frescas were born;
desserts such as acitrón and the full range of crystallized sweets, rompope, cajeta, jericaya and the wide
repertoire of delights created in the convents of nuns in all parts of the country.

Music

Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century,
when it was a Spanish colony. Music of New Spain, especially that of Juan
Gutiérrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a
significant contribution to New World culture.

Portrait of Carlos Chávez
by Carl van Vechten
(1937)
Although the traditions of European opera and especially Italian opera had
initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and strongly influenced
native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of
Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th
century with operas such as Aniceto Ortega del Villar's 1871 Guatimotzin, a
romanticised account of the defense of Mexico by its last Aztec ruler,
Cuauhtémoc. Ángela Peralta was an operatic soprano of international fame,
known in Europe as "The Mexican Nightingale", who sang in the premieres
of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar.

Mexican society enjoys a vast array of music genres, showing the

diversity of Mexican culture. Traditional music includes mariachi,
banda, norteño, ranchera and corridos; on an everyday basis most
Mexicans listen to contemporary music such as pop, rock, etc. in both
English and Spanish. Mexico has the largest media industry in Latin
America, producing Mexican artists who are famous in Central and
South America and parts of the United States and Europe, especially
Spain. Elements from the Indigenous peoples of Mexico music have
deeply influenced Mexico's music at large, distinguishing it from Natalia Lafourcade has the most
European and Asian traditions. Latin Grammys won by a
Mexican female artist.
The Bolero, Cha-cha-cha and Mambo invade the radio of the 40s and
50s mimicking the idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Known as Agustín
Lara, the Mexican composer was and interpreter of songs and boleros, most popular songwriter of his era.

César Costa and Angélica María in the 1970s performed cover versions of songs and their own as most of
the pop music produced in Mexico consisted on Spanish-language versions of English-language rock-and-
roll hits. Grupera music became definitely popular in the 1990s to collectively refer to what is now referred
to as regional Mexican music. Relatively recent American creations jazz, techno, and house music have
crossed over.

Sports
Mexico's most popular sport is association football. It is
commonly believed that football was introduced in Mexico by
Cornish miners at the end of the 19th century. By 1902 a five-
team league had emerged with a strong British
influence.[462][463] Mexico's top clubs are América with 12
championships, Guadalajara with 11, and Toluca with 10.[464]
Antonio Carbajal was the first player to appear in five World
Cups,[465] and Hugo Sánchez was named best CONCACAF Estadio Azteca
player of the 20th century by IFFHS.[466] Rafael Márquez is
the only Mexican to have won the Champions League.[467]

The Mexican professional baseball league is named the Liga Mexicana de

Beisbol. While usually not as strong as the United States, the Caribbean
countries and Japan, Mexico has nonetheless achieved several international
baseball titles.[468][469] Mexican teams have won the Caribbean Series nine
times. Mexico has had several players signed by Major League teams, the
most famous of them being Dodgers pitcher Fernando Valenzuela.[467] Mesoamerican ballgame

Mexico City hosted the XIX Olympic Games in 1968, making it the first
Latin American city to do so.[470] The country has also hosted the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1970 and
1986.[471]

In 2013, Mexico's basketball team won the Americas Basketball Championship and qualified for the 2014
Basketball World Cup where it reached the playoffs. Because of these achievements the country earned the
hosting rights for the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship.[472]

Bullfighting (Spanish: corrida de toros) came to Mexico 500 years ago with the arrival of the Spanish.
Despite efforts by animal rights activists to outlaw it, bullfighting remains a popular sport in the country,
and almost all large cities have bullrings. Plaza México in Mexico City, which seats 45,000 people, is the
largest bullring in the world.[473]

Mexico is an international power in professional boxing.[467] Thirteen Olympic boxing medals have been
won by Mexico.[474]

Professional wrestling (or Lucha libre in Spanish) is a major crowd draw with national promotions such as
AAA, CMLL and others.[467]

See also
Index of Mexico-related articles
Outline of Mexico

Notes
a. Defined as persons who live in a household where an indigenous language is spoken by
one of the adult family members or people who self-identified as indigenous ("Criteria del
hogar: De esta manera, se establece, que los hogares indígenas son aquellos en donde el
jefe y/o el cónyuge y/o padre o madre del jefe y/o suegro o suegra del jefe hablan una
lengua indígena y también aquellos que declararon pertenecer a un grupo indígena."[366])
AND persons who speak an indigenous language but who do not live in such a household
("Por lo antes mencionado, la Comisión Nacional Para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos
Indígenas de México (CDI) considera población indígena (PI) a todas las personas que
 forman parte de un hogar indígena, donde el jefe(a) del hogar, su cónyuge y/o alguno de los
ascendientes (madre o padre, madrastra o padrastro, abuelo(a), bisabuelo(a),
tatarabuelo(a), suegro(a)) declaro ser hablante de lengua indígena. Además, también
incluye a personas que declararon hablar alguna lengua indígena y que no forman parte de
estos hogares."[367])

References
1. "Censo Población y Vivienda 2020" (https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/2020/).
www.inegi.org.mx. INEGI. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
2. "Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, title 2, article 40" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20110511194922/http://www.scjn.gob.mx/SiteCollectionDocuments/PortalSCJN/Rec
Jur/BibliotecaDigitalSCJN/PublicacionesSupremaCorte/Political_constitucion_of_the_unite
d_Mexican_states_2008.pdf) (PDF). MX Q: SCJN. Archived from the original (http://www.scj
n.gob.mx/SiteCollectionDocuments/PortalSCJN/RecJur/BibliotecaDigitalSCJN/Publicacion
esSupremaCorte/Political_constitucion_of_the_united_Mexican_states_2008.pdf) (PDF) on
11 May 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
3. Rafaela Castro (2000). Chicano Folklore: A Guide to the Folktales, Traditions, Rituals and
Religious Practices of Mexican Americans (https://books.google.com/books?id=WdzY7YjhR
roC&pg=PA83). Oxford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-19-514639-4.
4. "Surface water and surface water change" (https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=
SURFACE_WATER#). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Retrieved 11 October 2020.
5. "Mexico" (https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=96&
pr.y=12&sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=273&s=NGDP
D%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=). International Monetary Fund.
Retrieved 19 October 2019.
6. Inequality - Income inequality - OECD Data (https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequali
ty.htm). OECD. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
7. "Human Development Report 2020" (http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf)
(PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. Retrieved
15 December 2020.
8. INALI (13 March 2003). "General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples" (http://
www.inali.gob.mx/pdf/LGDLPI.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 7 November 2010.
9. "Catálogo de las lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus
autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas" (http://www.inali.gob.mx/clin-inali/).
Inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
10. Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Springfield, Massachusetts, United
States, Merriam-Webster; p. 733
11. Mexico (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/). The World Factbook.
Central Intelligence Agency.
12. Chavez, Victor (22 January 2016). "DF no es el estado 32, aclaran legisladores" (https://ww
w.elfinanciero.com.mx/nacional/df-no-es-el-estado-32-aclaran-legisladores). El Financiero.
Retrieved 15 July 2019.
13. "MEXICO: Metropolitan Areas" (https://www.citypopulation.de/php/mexico-metro.php). City
Population. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
14. "MAPPED: THE 6 CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION" (https://mapscaping.com/blogs/geo-candy/
mapped-the-6-cradles-of-civilization). Mapscaping. 8 May 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
15. Michael Arbagi, THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND THE PRESERVATION OF
MESOAMERICAN ARCHIVES: AN ASSESSMENT (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23100485).
Vol. 33, No. 2 (2011), pp. 112–120, Midwest Archives Conference,
16. Archer, Christon I. (2015). "Military: Bourbon New Spain" (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=MOI4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA455). In Werner, Michael (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of
Mexico. Routledge. pp. 455–462. ISBN 978-1-135-97370-4.
17. Fischer, David Hackett (1996). The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of
History (https://archive.org/details/greatwavepricere00fisc). Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-505377-7.
18. "History of Mexico" (https://www.history.com/topics/mexico/history-of-mexico). The History
Channel. 9 November 2009. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
19. Rama, Anahi; Stargardter, Gabriel (28 June 2012). "Chronology: Checkered history of the
PRI's rule in Mexico" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-election-pri/chronology-che
ckered-history-of-the-pris-rule-in-mexico-idUSBRE85R12C20120628). Reuters.
20. "Mexico's history of one-party rule" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/mexicos-history-
of-one-party-rule/2012/01/15/gIQA0NVf1P_graphic.html). The Washington Post. 5 January
2012.
21. Padgett, L. Vincent (1957). "Mexico's One-Party System: A Re-Evaluation". The American
Political Science Review. 51 (4): 995–1008. doi:10.2307/1952448 (https://doi.org/10.2307%
2F1952448). JSTOR 1952448 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1952448).
22. Whitehead, Laurence (2007). "An elusive transition: The slow motion demise of authoritarian
dominant party rule in Mexico". Democratization. 2 (3): 246–269.
doi:10.1080/13510349508403441 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13510349508403441).
23. "Mexico (05/09)" (https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35749.htm). US Department of
State. 25 June 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
24. "CRS Report for Congress" (https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34733.pdf) (PDF). Congressional
Research Service. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
25. James Scott; Matthias vom Hau; David Hulme. "Beyond the BICs: Strategies of influence" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525012832/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/dat
astream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:105725&datastreamId=SUPPLEMENTARY-1.DO
C&ei=fMKFT7SMKIye8gS71NHACA&usg=AFQjCNHKPFxJk5bu6Qs5R2SKSUs8IwidWw
&sig2=_lt4YNVT-1ECYQBh61EWgA). The University of Manchester. Archived from the
original (https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-
scw:105725&datastreamId=SUPPLEMENTARY-1.DOC&ei=fMKFT7SMKIye8gS71NHACA
&usg=AFQjCNHKPFxJk5bu6Qs5R2SKSUs8IwidWw&sig2=_lt4YNVT-1ECYQBh61EWgA)
on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
26. Nolte, Detlef (October 2010). "How to compare regional powers: analytical concepts and
research topics" (http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/38289). Review of
International Studies. 36 (4): 881–901. doi:10.1017/S026021051000135X (https://doi.org/10.
1017%2FS026021051000135X). JSTOR 40961959 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40961959).
S2CID 13809794 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13809794).
ProQuest 873500719 (https://search.proquest.com/docview/873500719).
27. "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan" (http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/2006/05.p
df) (PDF). Retrieved 7 May 2012.
28. "Oxford Analytica" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070424211219/http://www.oxanstore.com/
displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098). Archived from the original (http://www.oxanstore.co
m/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098) on 24 April 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
29. "G8: Despite Differences, Mexico Comfortable as Emerging Power" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20080816044329/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38056). ipsnews.net. 5
June 2007. Archived from the original (http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38056) on 16
August 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
30. Paweł Bożyk (2006). "Newly Industrialized Countries" (https://books.google.com/books?id=i
uHsIuez5qoC). Globalization and the Transformation of Foreign Economic Policy. Ashgate
Publishing. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-7546-4638-9.
31. Mauro F. Guillén (2003). "Multinationals, Ideology, and Organized Labor" (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=CweHgfPIceYC). The Limits of Convergence. Princeton University Press.
p. 126 (table 5.1). ISBN 978-0-691-11633-4.
32. David Waugh (2000). "Manufacturing industries (chapter 19), World development (chapter
22)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=7GH0KZZthGoC). Geography, An Integrated
Approach (3rd ed.). Nelson Thornes. pp. 563, 576–579, 633, and 640. ISBN 978-0-17-
444706-1.
33. N. Gregory Mankiw (2007). Principles of Economics (https://books.google.com/books?id=3oj
sWuqmorEC) (4th ed.). Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western. ISBN 978-0-324-22472-6.
34. "Global Peace Index 2019: Measuring Peace in a Complex World" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20190827155045/http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/06/GPI-2019-web003.p
df) (PDF). Vision of Humanity. Sydney: Institute for Economics & Peace. June 2019.
Archived from the original (http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/06/GPI-2019-web0
03.pdf) (PDF) on 27 August 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
35. Brianna Lee; Danielle Renwick; Rocio Cara Labrador (24 January 2019). "Mexico's Drug
War" (https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/mexicos-drug-war). Council on Foreign Relations.
Retrieved 19 July 2019.
36. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre — World Heritage List" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list).
UNESCO. Retrieved 25 May 2012.
37. "Mexico's World Heritage Sites Photographic Exhibition at UN Headquarters" (https://whc.un
esco.org/en/events/295). whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
38. Table of World Heritage Sites by country
39. "What is a mega-diverse country?" (https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/country/what
ismegcountry.html). Mexican biodiversity. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
40. "México ocupa el sexto lugar en turismo a nivel mundial" (https://expansion.mx/economia/20
18/08/27/mexico-ocupa-el-sexto-lugar-en-turismo-a-nivel-mundial). www.expansion.mx.
CNN Expansión. 28 August 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
41. William Bright (2004). Native American Placenames of the United States (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&pg=PA281). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 281.
ISBN 978-0-8061-3598-4.
42. "El cambio de la denominación de "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" por la de "México" en la
Constitución Federal" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081101110558/http://ierd.prd.org.mx/c
oy128/hlb.htm). ierd.prd.org.mx. Archived from the original (http://ierd.prd.org.mx/coy128/hlb.
htm) on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2009.
43. "Constitución Mexicana de 1857" (http://www.tlahui.com/politic/politi99/politi8/con1857.htm).
www.tlahui.com. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
44. "Leyes Constitucionales de 1836" (https://archive.today/20120723211610/http://www.cervan
tesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01361697524573725088802/p0000001.htm).
Cervantesvirtual.com. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.cervantesvi
rtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01361697524573725088802/p0000001.htm) on 23 July 2012.
Retrieved 17 July 2013.
45. Werner 2001, pp. 386–.
46. Susan Toby Evans; David L. Webster (2013). Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central
America: An Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=6ba_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT5
4). Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-136-80186-0.
47. Colin M. MacLachlan (13 April 2015). Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=fqdKCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT39). Harvard University Press.
p. 39. ISBN 978-0-674-28643-6.
48. Carmack, Robert M.; Gasco, Janine L.; Gossen, Gary H. (2016). The Legacy of
Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. Routledge. ISBN 978-
1-317-34678-4.
49. Diehl, Richard A. (2004). The Olmecs: America's First Civilization. Thames & Hudson.
pp. 9–25. ISBN 978-0-500-02119-4.
50. "MAPPED: THE 6 CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION" (https://mapscaping.com/blogs/geo-candy/
mapped-the-6-cradles-of-civilization). Mapscaping. 30 May 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
51. Sampson, Geoffrey (1985). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Stanford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1756-4.
52. Cowgill, George L. (21 October 1997). "State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico". Annual
Review of Anthropology. 26 (1): 129–161. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.26.1.129). OCLC 202300854 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2
02300854). S2CID 53663189 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53663189).
53. "Ancient Civilizations of Mexico" (https://ancientcivilizationsworld.com/mexico/). Ancient
Civilizations World. 12 January 2017. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
54. "The word "Azteca" was NOT created by Von Humboldt!" (https://mexika.org/2014/05/31/the-
word-azteca-was-not-created-by-von-humboldt/). Mexicka.org. 31 May 2014. Retrieved
13 July 2019.
55. León Portilla, Miguel (10 May 2009). "Los aztecas, disquisiciones sobre un gentilico" (http://
www.revistas.unam.mx/index.php/ecn/article/view/9231). Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl. 31
(31).
56. Berdan, et al. (1996), Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC
57. Coe, Michael D.; Rex Koontz (2002). Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs (https://archive.
org/details/mexicofromolmecs0000coem) (5th edition, revised and enlarged ed.). London
and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28346-2. OCLC 50131575 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/50131575).
58. "The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice" (http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/aztecs/sacrifice.htm).
Natural History. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
59. Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of
Mesoamerica (https://books.google.com/books?id=J2UkAQAAIAAJ) (3rd ed.). San Diego,
CA: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-739065-9. OCLC 25832740 (https://www.worldcat.org/
oclc/25832740).
60. Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0140441239
61. Townsend, Camilla (2006). Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of
Mexico. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-3406-0.
62. Cortés, Hernán. Five Letterss to the Emperor. Trans. J. Bayard Morris. New York: W.W.
Norton 1969
63. Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. True History of the Conquest of Mexico. various editions. Abridge
version translated by J.M. Cohen, The Conquest of New Spain. London: Penguin Books
1963.
64. Fuentes, Patricia de. The Conquistadors: First-Person ccounts of the Conquest of Mexico.
Norman: Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.
65. Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de. Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards
and the Beginning of Evangelical Law. Trans. Douglass K. Ballentine. El Paso: Texas
Western Press 1969.
66. Altman, Ida; Cline, S. L.; Pescador, Juan Javier (2003). "Narratives of the Conquest". The
Early History of Greater Mexico. Prentice Hall. pp. 73–96. ISBN 978-0-13-091543-6.
67. León-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico.
Boston: Beacon Press 1992.
68. Lockhart, James. We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico. Berkeley:
University of California Press 1993.
69. True Peters, Stephanie (2004). Smallpox in the New World (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA18). Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-1637-1.i
70. Flight, Colette (17 February 2011). "Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge" (https://www.bbc.co.
uk/history/british/empire_seapower/smallpox_01.shtml). BBC News | History. Retrieved
30 December 2011.
71. Koplow, David A. (2003). Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge (https://archive.
org/details/smallpoxfighttoe00kopl). University of California Press. p. 270 (https://archive.org/
details/smallpoxfighttoe00kopl/page/n283). ISBN 978-0-520-23732-2.
72. "Smallpox: Conquered Killer" (http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-hu
man-body/human-diseases/smallpox-article/). National Geographic. 2 December 2009.
Retrieved 30 December 2011.
73. Baker, Andy (2013). Shaping the Developing World: The West, the South, and the Natural
World (https://books.google.com/books?id=WzRzAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324). p. 324.
ISBN 9781483311081.
74. Gibson, Charles (1964). The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the
Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810 (https://archive.org/details/aztecsunderspani00gibs)
(Reprinted 1976 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0196-9.
OCLC 190295 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/190295).
75. Chuchiak, John F. IV, "Inquisition" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn
1997, pp. 704–708
76. Salvucci, Linda. "Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)". Encyclopedia of Latin American History and
Culture, vol. 1, pp. 11–12. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
77. McCaa, Robert (8 December 1997). "The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution" (htt
p://users.pop.umn.edu/~rmccaa/mxpoprev/cambridg3.htm). University of Minnesota.edu.
Retrieved 13 July 2019.
78. Sluyter, Andrew (2012). Black Ranching Frontiers: African Cattle Herders of the Atlantic
World, 1500–1900 (https://books.google.com/books?id=fjt50jcGNu4C&pg=PA240). Yale
University Press. p. 240. ISBN 9780300179927. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
79. Russell, James W. (2009). Class and Race Formation in North America (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=PZgR6ubuUXcC&pg=PA26). University of Toronto Press. p. 26.
ISBN 9780802096784. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
80. Carrillo, Rubén. "Asia llega a América. Migración e influencia cultural asiática en Nueva
España (1565–1815)" (http://www.raco.cat/index.php/asiademica/article/download/286846/3
75066). www.raco.cat. Asiadémica. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
81. The Penguin Atlas of World Population History, pp. 291–92.
82. Lerner, Victoria. "Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793–1810)" (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20181113062234/http://aleph.org.mx/jspui/bitstream/56789/2980
9/1/17-067-1968-0327.pdf) [Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793–1810)]
(PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico City: El Colegia de México. Archived from the original (http://alep
h.org.mx/jspui/bitstream/56789/29809/1/17-067-1968-0327.pdf) (PDF) on 13 November
2018. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
83. Cline, Sarah (1 August 2015). "Guadalupe and the Castas". Mexican Studies/Estudios
Mexicanos. 31 (2): 218–247. doi:10.1525/mex.2015.31.2.218 (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fme
x.2015.31.2.218). S2CID 7995543 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7995543).
84. Cope, R. Douglas. The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico
City, 1660–1720. Madison, Wis.: U of Wisconsin, 1994.
85. Vinson III, Ben (2017). Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial
Mexico (https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/before-mestizaje/0715B9B73FD9C23DC0F
301D73959870F). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02643-8.
86. Sierra Silva, Pablo Miguel. Urban Slavery in Colonial Mexico: Puebla de los Angeles 1531-
1706. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018.
87. Deans-Smith, Susan. "Bourbon Reforms" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn 1997, p. 156
 88. "God intervened through Our Lady of Guadalupe to evangelize the Americas, explains
Guadalupe expert" (https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/god_intervened_through_o
ur_lady_of_guadalupe_to_evangelize_the_americas_explains_guadalupe_expert),
Catholic News Agency, 11 August 2009, retrieved 14 July 2019
89. "Everything You Need To Know About La Virgen De Guadalupe" (https://www.huffpost.com/
entry/virgen-de-guadalupe_n_4434582), Huff Post Latino Voices, 12 December 2013,
retrieved 14 July 2019
90. Ortiz-Ramirez, Eduardo A. The Virgin of Guadalupe and Mexican Nationalism: Expressions
of Criollo Patriotism in Colonial Images of the Virgin of Guadalupe (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=NEvkyV2y2r0C&pg=PA6). p. 6. ISBN 9780549596509. Retrieved 9 February
2017.
91. "Economy of New Spain" (https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/mexico/history-3-5.ht
m), Global Security.org, 9 July 2011, retrieved 14 July 2019
92. Sempa, Francis P. "China, Spanish America, and the 'Birth of Globalization' " (https://thedipl
omat.com/2017/01/china-spanish-america-and-the-birth-of-globalization/). The Diplomat.
Retrieved 7 February 2017. "Mexico City, the authors [Peter Gordon, Juan Jose Morales]
note, was the 'first world city,' the precursor to London, New York, and Hong Kong, where
'Asia, Europe, and the Americas all met, and where people intermingled and exchanged
everything from genes to textiles'."
93. Schmal, John P. (17 July 2003). "The Indigenous People of Zacatecas" (http://latinola.com/st
ory.php?story=1109). Latino LA: Comunidad. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
94. Charlotte M. Gradie (2000). "The Tepehuan Revolt of 1616: Militarism, Evangelism, and
Colonialism in Seventeenth-Century Nueva Vizcaya". The Americas. Salt Lake City:
University of Utah Press. 58 (2): 302–303. doi:10.1353/tam.2001.0109 (https://doi.org/10.135
3%2Ftam.2001.0109). S2CID 144896113 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144896
113).
95. Wasserstrom, Robert (1980). "Ethnic Violence and Indigenous Protest: The Tzeltal (Maya)
Rebellion of 1712". Journal of Latin American Studies. 12: 1–19.
doi:10.1017/S0022216X00017533 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022216X00017533).
96. Taylor, William B. (1 June 1979). Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican
Villages (1st ed.). Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804711128.
97. White, Benjamin (31 January 2017). "Campeche, Mexico – largest pirate attack in history,
now UNESCO listed" (http://insearchoflostplaces.com/2017/01/campeche-mexico/). In
Search of Lost Places. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
98. Knispel, Sandra (13 December 2017). "The mysterious aftermath of an infamous pirate raid"
(https://www.rochester.edu/newscenter/pablo-sierra-silva-mysterious-aftermath-infamous-pir
ate-raid-287352/). University of Rochester Newsletter. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
99. "First Printing Press in the Americas was Established in Mexico" (https://www.latinobookrevi
ew.com/first-printing-press-in-the-americas-was-established-in-mexico). Latino Book
Review. 2019. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
100. "UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO IS THE OLDEST UNIVERSITY IN NORTH AMERICA" (https://
www.vallartadaily.com/university-mexico-oldest-university-north-america/). Vallarta Daily
News. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
101. "Mexico City's Alameda Central: the inspiration behind NYC's Central Park?" (https://www.ci
tyexpress.com/en/travel-blog/mexico-citys-alameda-central-the-inspiration-behind-nycs-cent
ral-park). City Express blog. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
102. "Oldest Public Library in the Americas is in Mexico" (https://www.latinobookreview.com/olde
st-library-in-the-americas-is-in-mexico.html). Latino Book Review. 2019. Retrieved 14 July
2019.
103. "Academy of San Carlos" (https://www.mexicoescultura.com/recinto/66495/en/academy-of-s
an-carlos.html). Mexico es Cultura. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
104. "Vanadium Element Facts" (https://www.chemicool.com/elements/vanadium.html).
Chemicool Periodic Table. 18 October 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
105. Archibald, Anna (27 July 2015). "EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE
HISTORY OF TEQUILA" (https://www.liquor.com/articles/history-of-tequila/#gs.p5o3m9).
Liquor.com. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
106. Galvez, Francisco (27 June 2017). "A brief History of Charreria" (https://charroazteca.com/bri
ef-history-charreria/). Charro Azteca. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
107. "Miguel Hidalgo Biography" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16045a.htm). Catholic
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 September 2007.
108. "Grito de Dolores" (https://www.britannica.com/event/Grito-de-Dolores). Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
109. Angel Miranda Basurto (2002). La Evolucíon de Mėxico [The Evolution of Mexico] (in
Spanish) (6th ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. p. 358. ISBN 970-07-3678-4.
110. Guevarra, Rudy P. (2011). "Filipinos in Nueva España: Filipino-Mexican Relations,
Mestizaje, and Identity in Colonial and Contemporary Mexico" (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/4
56194/pdf). Journal of Asian American Studies. 14 (3): 414. doi:10.1353/jaas.2011.0029 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjaas.2011.0029). S2CID 144426711 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:144426711). "According to Ricardo Pinzon, these two Filipino soldiers—
Francisco Mongoy and Isidoro Montes de Oca—were so distinguished in battle that they are
regarded as folk heroes in Mexico. General Vicente Guerrero later became the first president
of Mexico of African descent. See Floro L. Mercene, “Central America: Filipinos in Mexican
History,” (Ezilon Infobase, 28 January 2005)"
111. Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=xYEGswEACAAJ). Cambridge University Press. p. 133.
ISBN 9781107507180.
112. Hale, Charles A. Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora. New Haven: Yale University Press
1968. p. 224
113. "Ways of ending slavery" (http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160).
Encyclopædia Britannica.
114. Costeloe, Michael P. "Pastry War" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture,
vol. 4, p. 318. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
115. Weber, David J., The Mexican Frontier, 1821–1846: The American Southwest under Mexico,
University of New Mexico Press, 1982
116. Britton, John A. "Liberalism" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 739
117. Hamnett, Brian. "Benito Juárez" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn
1997, pp. 719–20
118. Britton, "Liberalism" p. 740.
119. Sullivan, Paul. "Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy
Dearborn 1997, pp. 736–38
120. Adela M. Olvera (2 February 2018). "El Porfiriato en Mexico" (https://www.inside-mexico.co
m/el-porfiriato-en-mexico/) [The Porfiriato in Mexico]. Inside Mexico.com (in Spanish).
Retrieved 18 July 2019.
121. Hart, John Mason. Empire and Revolution: The Americans in Mexico since the Civil War.
Berkeley: University of California Press Du 2002
122. Buchenau, Jürgen. "Científicos". Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997,
pp. 260–265
123. Schmidt, Arthur, "José Ives Limantour" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, pp. 746–49. Fitzroy and
Dearborn 1997.
124. "cientifico" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/cientifico). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
7 February 2017.
125. Brenner, Anita (1 January 1984). The Wind that Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican
Revolution of 1910–1942 (New ed.). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292790247.
126. Benjamin, Thomas. La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and
History. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000
127. Matute, Alvaro. "Mexican Revolution: May 1917 – December 1920" in Encyclopedia of
Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 862–864.
128. "The Mexican Revolution" (https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/investigations/505_me
xicanrevolution.html). Public Broadcasting Service. 20 November 1910. Retrieved 17 July
2013.
129. Robert McCaa. "Missing millions: the human cost of the Mexican Revolution" (http://www.his
t.umn.edu/~rmccaa/missmill/). University of Minnesota Population Center. Retrieved 17 July
2013.
130. "The Mexican Revolution and the United States in the Collections of the Library of
Congress, U.S. Involvement Before 1913" (http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-a
nd-the-united-states/us-involvement-before-1913.html). Library of Congress. Retrieved
18 July 2019.
131. "Punitive Expedition in Mexico, 1916–1917" (https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/1
08653.htm). U.S. Department of State archive. 20 January 2009. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
132. "ZIMMERMANN TELEGRAM" (https://www.theworldwar.org/explore/centennial-commemora
tion/us-enters-war/zimmermann-telegram). The National WWI Museum and Memorial. 2
March 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
133. Rafael Hernández Ángeles. "85º ANIVERSARIO DE LA FUNDACIÓN DEL PARTIDO
NACIONAL REVOLUCIONARIO (PNR)" (https://inehrm.gob.mx/es/inehrm/Articulo_85_aniv
ersario_de_la_Fundacion_del_Partido_Nacional_Revolucionario_PNR) [85th anniversary
of the founding of the National Revolutionary Party (PRN)]. Instituto Nacional de Estudios
Historicos de las Revoluciones de Mexico (in Spanish). Retrieved 18 July 2019.
134. "The Mexican Miracle: 1940–1968" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070403000322/http://ww
w.emayzine.com/lectures/mex9.html). World History from 1500. Emayzine. Archived from the
original (http://www.emayzine.com/lectures/mex9.html) on 3 April 2007. Retrieved
30 September 2007.
135. Elena Poniatowska (1975). Massacre in Mexico (https://books.google.com/books?id=CmnD
dj7eP-wC). Viking, New York. ISBN 978-0-8262-0817-0.
136. Kennedy, Duncan (19 July 2008). "Mexico's long forgotten dirty war" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/
2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/7513651.stm). BBC News. Retrieved
17 July 2013.
137. Krauze, Enrique (January–February 2006). "Furthering Democracy in Mexico" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20060110074536/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85106/enriq
ue-krauze/furthering-democracy-in-mexico.html). Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original
(http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060101faessay85106/enrique-krauze/furthering-democracy-i
n-mexico.html?) on 10 January 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
138. Schedler, Andreas (2006). Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition
(https://books.google.com/books?id=I-QPAQAAMAAJ). L. Rienner Publishers. ISBN 978-1-
58826-440-4.
139. Crandall, R.; Paz and Roett (2004). "Mexico's Domestic Economy: Policy Options and
Choices" (https://books.google.com/books?id=I8jgyZQliQgC). Mexico's Democracy at Work
(https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160). Lynne Reinner Publishers.
p. 160 (https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160). ISBN 978-0-8018-
5655-6.
140. " "Mexico The 1988 Elections" (Sources: The Library of the Congress Country Studies, CIA
World Factbook)" (http://www.photius.com/countries/mexico/government/mexico_governmen
t_the_1988_elections.html). Photius Coutsoukis. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
141. Gomez Romero, Luis (5 October 2018). "Massacres, disappearances and 1968: Mexicans
remember the victims of a 'perfect dictatorship' " (https://theconversation.com/massacres-dis
appearances-and-1968-mexicans-remember-the-victims-of-a-perfect-dictatorship-104196).
The Conversation.
142. País, Ediciones El (1 September 1990). "Vargas Llosa: "México es la dictadura perfecta" " (h
ttps://elpais.com/diario/1990/09/01/cultura/652140001_850215.html). El País.
143. Reding, Andrew (1991). "Mexico: The Crumbling of the "Perfect Dictatorship" ". World Policy
Journal. 8 (2): 255–284. JSTOR 40209208 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209208).
144. Cruz Vasconcelos, Gerardo. "Desempeño Histórico 1914–2004" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060703181721/http://www.imef.org.mx/NR/rdonlyres/F722BEDD-A8DE-49BA-AF4F-1A
00889CE618/1192/CAPITULOI1.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.imef.org.mx/NR/rdonlyres/F722BEDD-A8DE-49BA-AF4F-1A00889CE618/1192/CAPIT
ULOI1.pdf) (PDF) on 3 July 2006. Retrieved 17 February 2007.
145. Valles Ruiz, Rosa María (June 2016). "Elecciones presidenciales 2006 en México. La
perspectiva de la prensa escrita" (http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid
=S2448-49112016000100031) [2006 presidential Elections in Mexico. The Perspective of
the Press]. Revista mexicana de opinión pública (in Spanish) (20): 31–51.
146. Reséndiz, Francisco (2006). "Rinde AMLO protesta como "presidente legítimo" " (http://ww
w.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/389114.html). El Universal (in Spanish).
147. "Enrique Pena Nieto wins Mexican presidential election" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/
worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/mexico/9369278/Enrique-Pena-Nieto-wins-Mexi
can-presidential-election.html). Telegraph.co.uk. 2 July 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
148. Sieff, Kevin. "López Obrador, winner of Mexican election, given broad mandate" (https://ww
w.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/lopez-obrador-a-leftist-wins-sweeping-mandate-i
n-mexican-presidential-election/2018/07/02/4c5e1de4-7be3-11e8-ac4e-421ef7165923_stor
y.html). Washington Post.
149. Sharma, Gaurav (10 May 2018). "Mexico's Oil And Gas Industry Privatization Efforts Nearing
Critical Phase" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/gauravsharma/2018/05/10/mexicos-oil-and-ga
s-industry-privatization-efforts-nearing-critical-phase/). Forbes. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
150. Barrera Diaz, Cyntia; Villamil, Justin; Still, Amy (14 February 2020). "Pemex Ex-CEO Arrest
Puts AMLO in Delicate Situation" (https://www.rigzone.com/news/wire/pemex_exceo_arrest
_puts_amlo_in_delicate_situation-14-feb-2020-161099-article/). Rigzone. Bloomberg.
Retrieved 4 June 2020.
151. "Mexico's presidential front runner on high alert for election fraud ahead of Sunday's vote" (h
ttps://www.scmp.com/news/world/americas/article/2153214/mexicos-presidential-front-runne
r-high-alert-election-fraud). South China Morning Post. Associated Press. 30 June 2018.
Retrieved 4 June 2020.
152. "Mexico's 2018 Elections: Results and Potential Implications" (https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF1
0867.pdf) (PDF). fas.org. 17 July 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
153. "Mexico's López Obrador sworn in as first leftist president in decades" (https://www.bbc.com/
news/world-latin-america-46415993). BBC News. 2 December 2018.
154. "COVID-19 in Mexico - COVID-19 Very High - Level 4: COVID-19 Very High - Travel Health
Notices | Travelers' Health | CDC" (https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/covid-4/coronavirus
-mexico). wwwnc.cdc.gov.
155. "Nord-Amèrica, in Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana" (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/2016051519221
6/http://www.grec.cat/). Grec.cat. Archived from the original (http://www.grec.cat/) on 15 May
2016. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
156. Parsons, Alan; Jonathan Schaffer (May 2004). Geopolitics of oil and natural gas. Economic
Perspectives. U.S. Department of State.
157. Vargas, Jorge A. (2011). Mexico and the Law of the Sea: Contributions and Compromises (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=MuN7xR6wR-4C&pg=PA405). p. 405.
ISBN 9789004206205.
158. "Mexico Topography" (http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Mexico-TOPOGRAP
HY.html). Nationsencyclopedia.com. 16 October 2007. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
159. "Ocupa México cuarto lugar mundial de biodiversidad" (http://eleconomista.com.mx/socieda
d/2011/11/05/ocupa-mexico-cuarto-lugar-mundial-biodiversidad). El Economista (in
Spanish). Retrieved 5 February 2017.
160. "Biodiversidad de México" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071007045210/http://cruzadabos
quesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html). SEMARNAT. Archived from the original (http://cruzadab
osquesagua.semarnat.gob.mx/iii.html) on 7 October 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
161. "Biodiversidad en México" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071007013648/http://oregon.cone
vyt.org.mx/actividades/diversidad/lectura_biodiversidad.htm). CONEVYT. Archived from the
original (http://oregon.conevyt.org.mx/actividades/diversidad/lectura_biodiversidad.htm) on 7
October 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
162. "Sistema Nacional sobre la Biodiversidad en México" (http://www.conabio.gob.mx/institucio
n/snib/doctos/acerca.html). CONABIO. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
163. "Mexico's 'devastating' forest loss" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1854188.stm). BBC
News. 4 March 2002. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
164. Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston,
J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen,
P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.;
Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.;
Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.;
Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.;
Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (8
December 2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining
forests have high ecosystem integrity" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC77230
57). Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.5978G). doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 (https://doi.org/
10.1038%2Fs41467-020-19493-3). PMC 7723057 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC7723057). PMID 33293507 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33293507).
165. Hayden, Cori. 2003. When Nature Goes Public: The Making and Unmaking of
Bioproscpecting in Mexico. Princeton University Press.
166. Laveaga, Gabriela Soto (2009). Jungle Laboratories: Mexican Peasants, National Projects,
and the Making of the Pill. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9196-8.
167. https://www.sipuebla.com. "Living México – The most complete online guide for information
on Mexico" (http://www.livingmexico.com/government.html). www.livingmexico.com.
Retrieved 27 January 2019.
168. "Articles 50 to 79" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/i
ndex.php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of
the Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.m
x/index.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
169. "Third Title, First Chapter, About Electoral systems" (https://web.archive.org/web/200710250
20343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf) (PDF). Código
Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral
Institutions and Procedures) (in Spanish). Congress of the Union of the United Mexican
States. 15 August 1990. Archived from the original (http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/file
s_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf) (PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
170. "Third Title, First Chapter, About Electoral systems, Article 11–1" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20071025020343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf)
(PDF). Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of
Electoral Institutions and Procedures) (in Spanish). Congress of the Union of the United
Mexican States. 15 August 1990. Archived from the original (http://normateca.ife.org.mx/nor
manet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf) (PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
171. "Fourth Title, Second Chapter, About coalitions, Article 59–1" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0071025020343/http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/files_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf) (PDF).
Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral
Institutions and Procedures) (in Spanish). Congress of the Union of the United Mexican
States. 15 August 1990. Archived from the original (http://normateca.ife.org.mx/normanet/file
s_otros/COFIPE/cofipe.pdf) (PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
172. "Articles 80 to 93" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/i
ndex.php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of
the Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.m
x/index.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
173. "Articles 90 to 107" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.m
x/index.php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of
the Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.m
x/index.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
174. Niko Vorobyov, ed. (2019). Dopeworld: Adventures in Drug Lands (https://books.google.com/
books?id=lHUKBAAAQBAJ&q=taiwan+far-right+NP&pg=PA44). Hachette UK.
ISBN 9781317755098. "... Mexico spent most of the twentieth century governed by the
Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI, a bigtent, catch-all alliance that included everyone
..."
175. "Entrevista a la Lic. Beatriz Paredes Rangel, Presidenta dle Comité Ejecutivo Nacional del
PRI" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217142341/http://www.pri.org.mx/PriistasTrabajand
o/saladeprensa/comunicados/noticia.aspx?x=1485). 17 December 2008. Archived from the
original (http://www.pri.org.mx/PriistasTrabajando/saladeprensa/comunicados/noticia.aspx?
x=1485) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
176. "Miembros Titulares" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080714033103/http://www.odca.org.mx/
miembros.html). ODCA. 14 July 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.odca.org.mx/mi
embros.html) on 14 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
177. "Estatuto del Partido de la Revolución Democrática" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130116
235928/http://www.prd.org.mx/portal/documentos/estatuto_xi.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.prd.org.mx/portal/documentos/estatuto_xi.pdf) (PDF) on 16 January
2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
178. Ginger Thompson (9 March 2004). "Former Mexican President Reveals '88 Presidential
Election Was Rigged" (http://tech.mit.edu/V124/N11/wn-mexico-11.11w.html). The
Tech.com. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
179. "Historia del Partido Acción Nacional" (https://noticieros.televisa.com/mexico/historia-partido
-accion-nacional/). Televisa.News. 14 September 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
180. "¿Qué es Morena, y cuándo se fundó" (https://www.dineroenimagen.com/actualidad/que-es-
morena-y-cuando-se-fundo/101166) [What is Morena, and when was it founded?]. Dinero en
Imagen (in Spanish). 5 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
181. Camp, Generals in the Palacio p.6
182. Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (5 February 1917). "Article 89, Section
10" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070825041639/http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/p
df/1.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). Chamber of Deputies. Archived from the original (http://www.cd
dhcu.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/1.pdf) (PDF) on 25 August 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
183. Internal Rules of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (10 August 2001). "Article 2, Section 1" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20080611012801/http://www.sre.gob.mx/acerca/marco_normativo/r
eglamento.htm) (in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.sre.gob.mx/acerca/marco_normativo/reglamento.htm) on 11 June 2008. Retrieved
28 March 2009.
184. Palacios Treviño, Jorge. "La Doctrina Estrada y el Principio de la No-Intervención" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090206085102/http://diplomaticosescritores.org/obras/DOCTRINAES
TRADA.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (http://www.diplomaticosescritore
s.org/obras/DOCTRINAESTRADA.pdf) (PDF) on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
185. UN (7 November 1945). "United Nations Member States" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009
0417145758/http://www.un.org/members/list.shtml). UN official website. Archived from the
original (https://www.un.org/members/list.shtml#m) on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
186. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 145.
187. Organization of Ibero-American States. "Members" (http://www.oei.es/acercaoei.htm) (in
Spanish). OEI official website. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
188. OPANAL. "Members" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090814205200/http://opanal.org/opana
l/about/about-i.htm). OPANAL official website. Archived from the original (http://www.opanal.
org/opanal/about/about-i.htm) on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
189. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (7 March 2007). "El Presidente Felipe Calderón Hinojosa en la
Ceremonia de Entrega de la Secretaría Pro Témpore del Grupo de Río" (https://web.archive.
org/web/20090823035712/http://portal2.sre.gob.mx/gruporio/index.php?option=com_content
&task=view&id=2&Itemid=2) (in Spanish). Gobierno Federal. Archived from the original (htt
p://portal2.sre.gob.mx/gruporio/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=2)
on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
190. United Nations (2008). "Regular Budget Payments of Largest Payers" (http://www.globalpoli
cy.org/finance/tables/reg-budget/large08.htm). Global Policy. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
191. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (18 May 1994). "Members" (htt
p://www.oecd.org/document/58/0,3343,en_2649_201185_1889402_1_1_1_1,00.html).
OECD official website. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
192. "Chile joins the OECD's Economic Club" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/business/201
0/01/100112_chile_oecd_biz.shtml). BBC News. 12 January 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
193. "Japan's Regional Diplomacy, Latin America and the Caribbean" (http://www.mofa.go.jp/poli
cy/other/bluebook/2006/05.pdf) (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 4 April
2009.
194. "Latin America: Region is losing ground to competitors" (https://web.archive.org/web/200710
24190633/http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098). Oxford
Analytica. Archived from the original (http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemI
D=130098) on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
195. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215.
196. Maggie Farley (22 July 2005). "Mexico, Canada Introduce Third Plan to Expand Security
Council" (https://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/22/world/fg-unreform22). Los Angeles Times.
Retrieved 4 April 2009.
197. "Bilateral Trade" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090827020501/http://usembassy-mexico.go
v/eng/eataglance_trade.html). Embassy of the U.S. in Mexico. 2006. Archived from the
original (http://usembassy-mexico.gov/eng/eataglance_trade.html) on 27 August 2009.
Retrieved 28 March 2009.
198. Kim Richard Nossal (29 June – 2 July 1999). "Lonely Superpower or Unapologetic
Hyperpower? Analyzing American Power in the Post-Cold War Era" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20190526100449/http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.htm). Queen's
University. Archived from the original (http://post.queensu.ca/~nossalk/papers/hyperpower.ht
m) on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
199. Renata Keller (2009). "Capitalizing on Castro: Mexico's Foreign Relations with Cuba, 1959–
1969" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110513114515/http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llila
s/ilassa/2009/keller.pdf) (PDF). Latin American Network Information Center. Archived from
the original (http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llilas/ilassa/2009/keller.pdf) (PDF) on 13
May 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
200. Salaverry, Jorge (11 March 1988). "Evolution of Mexican Foreign Policy" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090313091909/http://www.heritage.org/Research/LatinAmerica/bg638.cfm).
The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original (http://www.heritage.org/research/latina
merica/bg638.cfm) on 13 March 2009. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
201. "El Salvador in the 1980s" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501065903/http://historicaltext
archive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=345). Historical Text Archive. Archived from
the original (http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=345) on 1
May 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2009.
202. Dirección General de Coordinación Política (2 December 2008). "Se hará política exterior
de Estado: Patricia Espinosa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110513104203/http://www.sen
ado.gob.mx/gace.php?sesion=2008%2F12%2F04%2F1&documento=4) (in Spanish).
Senate of the Republic. Archived from the original (http://www.senado.gob.mx/gace.php?ses
ion=2008/12/04/1&documento=4) on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
203. Ana Maria Palacio (2018). "Mexico's Foreign Policy during the Presidency of Enrique Peña
Nieto" (http://pacificallianceblog.com/mexicos-foreign-policy-presidency-enrique-pena-niet
o/). Shaping the Pacific Alliance. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
204. Greg Weeks (15 February 2019). "AMLO's cautious foreign policy" (https://theglobalamerica
ns.org/2019/02/amlos-cautious-foreign-policy/). Global Americans. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
205. Camp, Roderic Ai. Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico. New York:
Oxford University Press 1992, p.6
206. Liewen, Edwin. Mexican Militarism. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1968
207. Loke. "Capacitarán a militares en combates con rifles láser | Ediciones Impresas Milenio" (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20100514075604/http://impreso.milenio.com/node/8696274).
Impreso.milenio.com. Archived from the original (http://impreso.milenio.com/node/8696274)
on 14 May 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
208. "Mexican Naval missile (in Spanish)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130702201536/http://w
ww.expreso.com.mx/PortalNovo/sitio/nota.php?cod_idioma=3&cod_conteudo=9320&cod=2
74&tipoINICIO=&codconteudoINICIO=9320). Expreso.com.mx. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.expreso.com.mx/PortalNovo/sitio/nota.php?cod_idioma=3&cod_conteudo=9320&c
od=274&tipoINICIO=&codconteudoINICIO=9320) on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
209. "Buque logístico multipropósito" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041111032722/http://www.s
emar.gob.mx/informes/nueva_realidad_2004/pag_20.htm) (in Spanish). 11 November 2004.
Archived from the original (http://www.semar.gob.mx/informes/nueva_realidad_2004/pag_2
0.htm) on 11 November 2004. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
210. "The 5.56 X 45 mm: 2006" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110807101157/http://www.thegun
zone.com/556dw-15.html). Thegunzone.com. Archived from the original (http://www.thegunz
one.com/556dw-15.html) on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
211. "Hydra Technologies Surprises UAV Industry with Mexican-Made System, Earns Coveted
Award at AUVSI's Unmanned Systems North America 2007 Show in D.C" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20110403144418/http://www2.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104).
.prnewswire.com. Archived from the original (http://www2.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?
ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/09-07-2007/0004658596&E) on 3 April 2011. Retrieved
30 May 2010.
212. "Mexican navy 2006 activities official report" (http://www.semar.gob.mx/boletin/2006/bol_225
_06.htm). Semar.gob.mx. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
213. "Strategy on recent equipment purchases: The Mexican Armed Forces in Transition" (http://
www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub638.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 17 July 2013.
214. "Text of the Treaty of Tlatelolco" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110430200457/http://www.o
panal.org/opanal/Tlatelolco/Tlatelolco-i.htm). Opanal.org. 27 November 1963. Archived from
the original (http://www.opanal.org/opanal/Tlatelolco/Tlatelolco-i.htm) on 30 April 2011.
Retrieved 9 March 2011.
215. "instituto nacional de investigaciones nucleares" (http://www.inin.gob.mx/). Inin.gob.mx.
Retrieved 9 March 2011.
216. "Mexico to slash weapons-grade uranium" (http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2010/04/
13/Mexico-to-slash-weapons-grade-uranium/UPI-91401271180679/). UPI.com. Retrieved
9 March 2011.
217. "Russia and US sign plutonium pact" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8618066.stm).
BBC News. 13 April 2010.
218. "Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons" (https://
treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&cla
ng=_en). United Nations Treaty Collection. 7 July 2017.
219. Gustavo Iruegas (27 April 2007). "Adiós a la neutralidad" (http://www.jornada.unam.mx/200
7/04/27/index.php?section=opinion&article=023a2pol). La Jornada (in Spanish). Retrieved
4 April 2009.
220. Ricardo Gómez & Andrea Merlos (20 April 2007). "Diputados, en Favor de Derogar
Neutralidad en Guerras" (http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/150273.html) (in Spanish).
El Universal. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
221. "An Inside Look at Mexican Guns and Arms Trafficking" (https://web.archive.org/web/201011
25114503/http://mexidata.info/id2684.html). Archived from the original (http://mexidata.info/id
2684.html) on 25 November 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
222. "Mexico Police and Law Enforcement Organizations" (http://www.photius.com/countries/mex
ico/national_security/mexico_national_security_police_and_law_enfor~516.html).
Photius.com. 1 January 1994. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
223. "Agencia Federal de Investigacion. Procuraduría General de la República" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20070501122159/http://www.pgr.gob.mx/Combate%20a%20la%20Delincuenci
a/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigaci
on.asp). 1 May 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.pgr.gob.mx/Combate%20a%20l
a%20Delincuencia/Agencia%20Federal%20de%20Investigacion/Agencia%20Federal%20
de%20Investigacion.asp) on 1 May 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
224. "Mexico" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico). Britannica Online
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
225. "Big, expensive and weirdly spineless" (https://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cf
m?story_id=10696136). The Economist. 14 February 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
226. "Global Integrity Report" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111003124001/http://report.globalint
egrity.org/globalindex/results.cfm). Report.globalintegrity.org. Archived from the original (htt
p://report.globalintegrity.org/globalindex/results.cfm) on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 8 August
2011.
227. McKinley, JC Jr (7 March 2008). "Mexico's Congress Passes Overhaul of Justice Laws" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/07/world/americas/07mexico.html?_r=1&oref=slogin). The
New York Times. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
228. "Mexico Boosts Force in War with Drug Gang" (http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/07/17/
world/main5167018.shtml). Cbsnews.com. 17 July 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
229. "100,000 foot soldiers in Mexican cartels" (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/mar/
03/100000-foot-soldiers-in-cartels/). The Washington Times. 3 March 2009. Retrieved 7 May
2012.
230. Franco, Yanira (1 October 2015). "Uno de cada cinco, víctima de algún delito: Inegi" (https://
www.milenio.com/policia/uno-de-cada-cinco-victima-de-algun-delito-inegi) [One in five,
victim of a crime: Inegi]. Milenio (in Spanish). Mexico City. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
231. "Mexico Travel Advisory" (https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvi
sories/mexico-travel-advisory.html). Travel.State.Gov. U.S. Department of State — Bureau of
Consular Affairs. 17 December 2019. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
232. Olivares Alonso, Emir (5 February 2018), "Gobierno de Calderón mantiene récord en
violaciones a derechos" (https://www.jornada.com.mx/2018/02/05/politica/003n1pol#)
[Government of Calderon has a record of violations of rights], La Jornada (in Spanish),
Mexico City, retrieved 11 July 2019
233. "International Narcotics Control Strategy Report" (https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/
2008/vol1/html/100777.htm). Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs.
2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
234. "Mexico country profile" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm).
BBC News. 29 November 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
235. "More Than 30,000 Killed in Mexico's Drug Violence" (http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/1
2/16/killed-mexicos-drug-violence/). Fox News. AP. 1 February 2010. Retrieved 9 March
2011.
236. "Mexican president: We're not losing drug war" (http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29413556).
NBC News. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
237. Gómez, Natalia (22 October 2007). "Otorgará Iniciativa Mérida 500 mdd a México en primer
año" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071030115906/http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/4
56623.html). El Universal. Archived from the original (http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/
456623.html) on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
238. "Freedom of Expression in Mexico" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130723210845/http://ww
w.pen.org/campaign/freedom-expression-mexico). PEN American Center. Archived from the
original (http://www.pen.org/campaign/freedom-expression-mexico) on 23 July 2013.
239. Alcázar, Jesús (17 July 2014). "Más de 100 periodistas asesinados en México desde el año
2000" (http://www.elmundo.es/internacional/2014/06/17/53a089ccca47415c528b45a4.html)
(in Spanish). El Mundo (Spain). EFE.
240. Tuckman, Jo (21 November 2014). "Mexicans in biggest protest yet over missing students"
(https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/mexicans-protesting-about-missing-studen
ts-scuffle-with-police). The Guardian. Mexico City. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
241. Amanda Briney (8 October 2018). "Mexico's 31 States and One Federal District" (https://ww
w.thoughtco.com/states-of-mexico-1435213). Thought.Co. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
242. "Article 116" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.
php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of the
Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.mx/in
dex.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
243. "Article 112" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.
php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of the
Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.mx/in
dex.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
244. "Federal District is now officially Mexico City: The change brings more autonomy for the
country's capital" (http://mexiconewsdaily.com/news/federal-district-is-now-officially-mexico-
city/). Mexico News Daily. 30 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
245. "Article 115" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061113175736/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.
php?idseccion=12). Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of the
Union of the United Mexican States. Archived from the original (http://constitucion.gob.mx/in
dex.php?idseccion=12) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
246. Caleb Silver (7 June 2019). "Top 20 Economies in the World" (https://www.investopedia.co
m/insights/worlds-top-economies/). Investopedia.com. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
247. "Total GNI Atlas Method 2009, World Bank" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101105181216/h
ttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNI.pdf) (PDF). Archived
from the original (http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNI.pdf)
(PDF) on 5 November 2010. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
248. Andrew Jacobs; Matt Richtel (11 December 2017). "A Nasty, Nafta-Related Surprise:
Mexico's Soaring Obesity" (https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/11/health/obesity-mexico-naft
a.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171212130727/http
s://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/11/health/obesity-mexico-nafta.html) from the original on 12
December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
249. "GNI per capita 2009, Atlas method and PPP, World Bank" (http://siteresources.worldbank.or
g/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 27 December 2010.
250. "Reporte ECLAC" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070615205535/http://www.eclac.org/prens
a/noticias/comunicados/0/27580/GDPchartforprelimoverview_ENG.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish).
Archived from the original (http://www.eclac.org/prensa/noticias/comunicados/0/27580/GDP
chartforprelimoverview_ENG.pdf) (PDF) on 15 June 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
251. Hufbauer, G.C.; Schott, J.J. (1 January 2005), "Chapter 1, Overview" (http://www.iie.com/publ
ications/chapters_preview/332/01iie3349.pdf) (PDF), NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and
Challenges (https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1), Washington, DC:
Institute for International Economics (published October 2005), pp. 1–78 (https://archive.org/
details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1), ISBN 978-0-88132-334-4
252. "Mexico 2050: The World's Fifth Largest Economy" (https://web.archive.org/web/201008191
35700/http://thecatalist.org/2010/03/mexico-2050-the-world%C2%B4s-fifth-largest-
economy). 17 March 2010. Archived from the original (http://thecatalist.org/2010/03/mexico-2
050-the-world%C2%B4s-fifth-largest-economy/) on 19 August 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
253. "World in 2050 – The BRICs and beyond: prospects, challenges and opportunities" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20130222040853/http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/world-2050/assets/p
wc-world-in-2050-report-january-2013.pdf) (PDF). PwC Economics. Archived from the
original (http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/world-2050/assets/pwc-world-in-2050-report-january
-2013.pdf) (PDF) on 22 February 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
254. "How much should you earn in Mexico to belong to the middle or upper class?" (https://them
azatlanpost.com/2019/04/11/how-much-should-you-earn-in-mexico-to-belong-to-the-middle-
or-upper-class/). The Mazatlan Post. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
255. Smith, Noah (26 August 2019). "Mexico Is Solidly Middle Class (No Matter What Trump
Says)" (https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-08-26/mexico-s-economic-growth-
lifts-it-into-middle-class-status). Bloomberg.
256. "Human Development Report 2009" (http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/269/hdr_20
09_en_complete.pdf) (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations.
p. 118. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
257. "CONEVAL Informe 2011" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131021025820/http://web.coneva
l.gob.mx/Informes/Evaluaci%C3%B3n%202011/Informe%20de%20Evaluaci%C3%B3n%20
de%20la%20Pol%C3%ADtica%20de%20Desarrollo%20Social%202011/Informe_de_evalu
acion_de_politica_social_2011.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://web.coneval.go
b.mx/Informes/Evaluaci%C3%B3n%202011/Informe%20de%20Evaluaci%C3%B3n%20d
e%20la%20Pol%C3%ADtica%20de%20Desarrollo%20Social%202011/Informe_de_evalua
cion_de_politica_social_2011.pdf) (PDF) on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
258. Gentilini, Ugo; Sumner, Andy (24 July 2012). "Should poverty be defined by a single
international poverty line, or country by country? (and what difference does it make?)" (http
s://oxfamblogs.org/fp2p/should-poverty-be-defined-by-a-single-international-poverty-line-or-c
ountry-by-country-and-what-difference-does-it-make/). From Poverty to Power. Oxfam.
Retrieved 4 June 2020.
259. Michael Blastland (31 July 2009). "Just what is poor?" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/
8177864.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 27 August 2019. The "economic distance" concept,
and a level of income set at 60% of the median household income
260. "Under Pressure: The Squeezed Middle Class" (https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD-middle
-class-2019-main-findings.pdf) (PDF). Paris: OECD Publishing. 2019. Retrieved 4 June
2020.
261. Income inequality (http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/soc_glance-2011-en/06/01/index.html?c
ontentType=&itemId=/content/chapter/soc_glance-2011-16-en&containerItemId=/content/ser
ial/19991290&accessItemIds=/content/book/soc_glance-2011-en&mimeType=text/html).
Society at a Glance 2011: Social Indicators. OECD. 12 April 2011. ISBN 9789264098527.
Retrieved 16 March 2013.
262. "Perspectivas OCDE: México; Reformas para el Cambio" (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/35/
8/49363879.pdf) (PDF). OECD. January 2012. pp. 35–36. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
263. "Goldman Sachs Paper No.153 Relevant Emerging Markets" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0100331050553/http://www.chicagobooth.edu/alumni/clubs/pakistan/docs/next11dream-mar
ch%20%2707-goldmansachs.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.chicagoboot
h.edu/alumni/clubs/pakistan/docs/next11dream-march%20%2707-goldmansachs.pdf) (PDF)
on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
264. "Sobresale Nuevo León por su alto nivel de vida" (http://busquedas.gruporeforma.com/utileri
as/imdservicios3w.dll?JPrintS&file=mty/norte01/00393/00393608.htm&palabra=). El Norte
(in Spanish). 2006.
265. "Hoy entra en vigor el aumento en el salario mínimo" (https://www.forbes.com.mx/hoy-entra-
en-vigor-el-aumento-en-el-salario-minimo/) [The increase in the minimum wage starts
today]. Forbes Mexico (in Spanish). 1 January 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.
266. "La Población Indigena en México" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131009152736/http://ww
w.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacio
n_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf) (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI).
Archived from the original (http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/pr
oductos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf) (PDF) on 9 October 2013.
Retrieved 17 July 2013.
267. "Mexican Consumer Electronics Industry Second Largest Supplier of Electronics to the U.S
– MEXICO CITY, Oct. 6, 2011/PRNewswire-USNewswire/" (http://www.prnewswire.com/new
s-releases/mexican-consumer-electronics-industry-second-largest-supplier-of-electronics-to-
the-us-market-131233479.html). Prnewswire.com. 6 October 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
268. "Mexico tops U.S., Canadian car makers" (http://www.upi.com/Business_News/2008/12/11/
Mexico_tops_US_Canadian_car_makers/UPI-17741229011704/). Upi.com. 11 December
2008. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
269. Gereffi, G; Martínez, M (2005). "Mexico's Economic Transformation under NAFTA" (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=KlPiswEACAAJ). In Crandall, R; Paz, G; Roett, R (eds.). Mexico's
Democracy at Work: Political and Economic Dynamics (https://archive.org/details/mexicosde
mocracy0000unse). Lynne Reiner Publishers (published 30 September 2004). ISBN 978-1-
58826-300-1.
270. Hufbauer, G.C.; Schott, J.J . (1 January 2005). "Chapter 6, The Automotive Sector" (http://ww
w.iie.com/publications/chapters_preview/332/06iie3349.pdf) (PDF). NAFTA Revisited:
Achievements and Challenges (https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1).
Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics (published October 2005). pp. 1–78
(https://archive.org/details/naftarevisitedac00hufb/page/1). ISBN 978-0-88132-334-4.
271. García, Daniela (7 September 2016). "Inauguran Kia Motors en Pesquería" (https://www.mile
nio.com/estados/inauguran-kia-motors-en-pesqueria) [Kia Motors launched in Pesquería].
Milenio (in Spanish). Pesquería. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
272. "Audi inaugura planta automotriz en Puebla" (http://www.autoexplora.com/autoexplora-drive
-style/noticias/nacionales/audi-inaugura-planta-automotriz-en-puebla/) [Audi opens
automotive plant in Puebla]. Autoexplora (in Spanish). 30 September 2016. Retrieved
4 June 2020.
273. "Automaker Kia plans $1 bn assembly plant in Mexico" (http://www.mexiconews.net/index.p
hp/sid/225153337). Mexico News.Net. 28 August 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
274. DINA Camiones Company. "History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110559/http://w
ww.dina.com.mx/history.html). Archived from the original (http://www.dina.com.mx/history.htm
l) on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2009.
275. Jeremy Korzeniewski. "London 2008: Mastretta MXT will be Mexico's first homegrown car"
(http://www.autoblog.com/2008/07/25/london-2008-mastretta-mxt-will-be-mexicos-first-home
grown-car/). Retrieved 30 July 2008.
276. "Korea's Balance of Payments" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501111207/http://www.ko
reauspartnership.org/pdf/Koreas%20Balance%20of%20Payments.pdf) (PDF). Archived from
the original (http://www.koreauspartnership.org/pdf/Koreas%20Balance%20of%20Payment
s.pdf) (PDF) on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
277. "Major Foreign Holders Of Treasury Securities" (http://www.ustreas.gov/tic/mfh.txt). U.S.
Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
278. Thompson, Adam (20 June 2006). "Mexico, Economics: The US casts a long shadow" (http
s://archive.today/20121023061552/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/f53c9268-005a-11db-8078-0000
779e2340,dwp_uuid=bfb8911e-ff83-11da-93a0-0000779e2340.html). Financial Times.
Archived from the original (https://www.ft.com/cms/s/f53c9268-005a-11db-8078-0000779e23
40,dwp_uuid=bfb8911e-ff83-11da-93a0-0000779e2340.html) on 23 October 2012.
279. "Workers' Remittances to Mexico – Business Frontier, Issue 1, 2004 – FRB Dallas" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20040625021724/http://dallasfed.org/research/busfront/bus0401.html).
Dallasfed.org. 10 July 2003. Archived from the original (http://dallasfed.org/research/busfron
t/bus0401.html) on 25 June 2004. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
280. "Free Preview of Members-Only Content" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120307204352/htt
p://www.stratfor.com/global_market_brief_mexico_sees_decline_remittances). Stratfor. 30
August 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.stratfor.com/global_market_brief_mexico
_sees_decline_remittances) on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
281. "Slowdown hits Mexico remittances" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7855021.stm).
BBC News. 27 January 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
282. "Mexico – Telecoms Infrastructure, Operators, Regulations – Statistics and Analyses" (http
s://www.budde.com.au/Research/Mexico-Telecoms-Infrastructure-Operators-Regulations-St
atistics-and-Analyses). Budde.com. 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
283. "Communications" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/). CIA
Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
284. "Satmex. Linking the Americas" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090915211310/http://www.s
atmex.com.mx/english/?opcion=0). 15 September 2009. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.satmex.com.mx/english/?opcion=0) on 15 September 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
285. Source: Arianespace (14 February 2002). "Mexican Operator Satmex Has Chosen
Arianespace to Launch Its New Satmex 6 Satellite" (http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.ht
ml?pid=7420). Spaceref.com. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
286. "Televisa Brings 2006 FIFA World Cup to Mexico in HD With Snell & Wilcox Kahuna SD/HD
Production Switcher" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071214054201/http://www.snellwilcox.
com/news_events/press_releases/203). Snellwilcox.com. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203) on 14 December 2007. Retrieved
30 May 2010.
287. América Economia. "Top 500 Companies in Latin America" (http://www.americaeconomia.co
m/PLT_WRITE-PAGE.asp?SessionId=&Language=0&Modality=0&DateView=&NamePage
=SearchResultArti&Section=1&Content=28380&Style=15624) (Requires subscription).
Retrieved 16 February 2007.
288. "Fortune Global 500 2010: 64. Pemex" (https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global50
0/2010/snapshots/6385.html). Fortune. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
289. "FT Non-Public 150 – the full list" (https://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/5de6ef96-8b95-11db-a61f-000
0779e2340.html). 14 December 2006. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
290. Energy Information Administration. "Top World Oil Net Exporters and Producers" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20070216112638/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.h
tml). Archived from the original (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables1_2.html)
on 16 February 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2007.
291. "EIA" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060309021853/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Mex
ico/Background.html). Eia.doe.gov. Archived from the original (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/
cabs/Mexico/Background.html) on 9 March 2006. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
292. Sener & GTZ 2006
293. "Perspectiva Del Mercado De La Energía Renovable En México" (https://wayback.archive-it.
org/all/20081003033523/http://cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/Pres-Elvira-RenEnergyMeeting
_es.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://cec.org/files/PDF/ECONOMY/Pres-Elvira-R
enEnergyMeeting_es.pdf) (PDF) on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
294. SENER 2009b
295. Sonora Energy Group Hermosillo
296. Coerver, Don M.; Pasztor, Suzanne B.; Buffington, Robert (2004). Mexico: An Encyclopedia
of Contemporary Culture and History (https://books.google.com/books?id=YSred4NyOKoC&
pg=PA161). ABC-CLIO. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-57607-132-8.
297. Summerfield, Devine & Levi (1998), p. 285
298. Summerfield, Devine & Levi (1998), p. 286
299. Forest & Altbach (2006), p. 882
300. Fortes & Lomnitz (1990), p. 18
301. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995" (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureate
s/1995/index.html). Nobelprize.org. Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
302. Thomson, Elizabeth A. (18 October 1995). "Molina wins Nobel Prize for ozone work" (http://
web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1995/molina-1018.html). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Retrieved 2 January 2009.
303. Carramiñana, Alberto (2007). "Unravelling unidentified γ-ray sources with the large
millimeter telescope" (https://books.google.com/books?id=_U9jCFy5hTUC&pg=PA527).
The Multi-Messenger Approach to High-Energy Gamma-Ray Sources. pp. 527–530.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6118-9_79 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-6118-9_79).
ISBN 978-1-4020-6117-2.
304. "Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?" (https://www.
wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html). www.wipo.int. Retrieved
2 September 2021.
305. "Global Innovation Index 2019" (https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/inde
x.html). www.wipo.int. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
306. "RTD - Item" (https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898). ec.europa.eu. Retrieved
2 September 2021.
307. "Global Innovation Index" (https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global
-innovation-index-2930). INSEAD Knowledge. 28 October 2013. Retrieved 2 September
2021.
308. UNWTO Tourism Highlights. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). 2017.
doi:10.18111/9789284419029 (https://doi.org/10.18111%2F9789284419029). ISBN 978-92-
844-1902-9.
309. SECTUR (2006). "Turismo de internación 2001–2005, Visitantes internacionales hacia
México" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080610233248/http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb/sectur/
sect_Estadisticas_del_Sector) (in Spanish). Secretaría de Turismo (SECTUR). Archived
from the original (http://www.sectur.gob.mx/wb/sectur/sect_Estadisticas_del_Sector) on 10
June 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2008. pp. 5
310. "The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017" (http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_
TTCR_2017_web_0401.pdf) (PDF). World Economic Forum. April 2017.
311. "Cabo Fishing Information – Sport Fishing in Los Cabos" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
0502144017/http://icabo.com/what-to-do/cabo-fishing.aspx). icabo.com. Archived from the
original (http://icabo.com/what-to-do/cabo-fishing.aspx) on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 23 April
2014.
312. "Mexico Infrastructure, power and Communications" (http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/e
conomies/Americas/Mexico-INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-
COMMUNICATIONS.html). National Economies Encyclopedia. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
313. "CIA World Factbook" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/). CIA.
Retrieved 20 December 2010.
314. "Infraestructura Carretera" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070716114353/http://dgaf.sct.gob.
mx/fileadmin/EST_BASICA/EST_BASICA_2005/EST2005_12INFRA.pdf) (PDF).
dgaf.sct.gob.mx. México: Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes. Archived from the
original (http://dgaf.sct.gob.mx/fileadmin/EST_BASICA/EST_BASICA_2005/EST2005_12IN
FRA.pdf) (PDF) on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
315. "Infrastructure, Power and Communications, Mexic" (http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/ec
onomies/Americas/Mexico-INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html).
Encyclopedia of the Nations. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
316. "Mexico reviving travel by train" (https://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/business/article
s/0106mextrain06.html). Azcentral.com. 6 January 2006. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
317. "Bullet Train To Mexico City Looks To Be Back On Track ?" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
10430022112/http://guadalajarareporter.com/news-mainmenu-82/regional-mainmenu-85/32
49-bullet-train-to-mexico-city-looks-to-be-back-on-track-.html). Guadalajara Reporter. 17
October 2003. Archived from the original (http://guadalajarareporter.com/news-mainmenu-8
2/regional-mainmenu-85/3249-bullet-train-to-mexico-city-looks-to-be-back-on-track-.html) on
30 April 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
318. "Project for a Mexico City – Guadalajara High Speed Line. Rail transport engineering, public
transport engineering" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501154553/http://www.systra.com/
Project-for-a-Mexico-City-Guadalajara-High-Speed-Line?lang=fr). Systra. Archived from the
original (http://www.systra.com/Project-for-a-Mexico-City-Guadalajara-High-Speed-Line?lan
g=fr) on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
319. "Slim to invest in Santa Cruz" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120118011900/http://www.acc
essmylibrary.com/article-1G1-127506564/slim-invest-santa-cruz.html). The America's
Intelligence Wire. 21 January 2005. Archived from the original (http://www.accessmylibrary.c
om/article-1G1-127506564/slim-invest-santa-cruz.html) on 18 January 2012.
320. "Mexico Real Estate In Yucatan to Benefit from New Bullet Train" (http://www.articlealley.co
m/article_1717563_33.html). Articlealley.com. 25 August 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
321. "Acerca del AICM. Posicionamiento del Aeropuerto Internacional de la Ciudad de México
(AICM) con los 50 aeropuertos más importantes del mundo" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
080531064833/http://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/Estadisticas/index.php?Publicacion
=169). AICM. Archived from the original (http://www.aicm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/Estadistica
s/index.php?Publicacion=169) on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
322. "Statistics Mexico City airport" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180114021902/https://www.ai
cm.com.mx/acercadelaicm/archivos/files/Estadisticas/Estadisticas2017_En.pdf) (PDF).
Mexico City International Airport. Archived from the original (https://www.aicm.com.mx/acerc
adelaicm/archivos/files/Estadisticas/Estadisticas2017_En.pdf) (PDF) on 14 January 2018.
Retrieved 12 January 2018.
323. "Diagnósticos del agua" (https://www.aguas.org.mx/sitio/panorama-del-agua/diagnosticos-d
el-agua.html). Consejo Consultivo del Agua.
324. Valadez, Blanca (29 January 2014). "Sin acceso a agua potable 22 millones de mexicanos"
(https://www.milenio.com/estados/acceso-agua-potable-22-millones-mexicanos) [Without
access to drinking water 22 million Mexicans]. Milenio (in Spanish). Mexico City. Retrieved
4 June 2020.
325. "En México se desperdicia el 43.2% de agua" (https://agua.org.mx/en-mexico-se-desperdici
a-el-432-de-agua/) [43.2% of water is wasted in Mexico]. Agua.org.mx (in Spanish). Mexico
City: Fondo para la Comunicación y la Educación Ambiental. El Informador. 4 October 2010.
Retrieved 4 June 2020.
326. "En México, solo el 57% de las aguas residuales son tratadas correctamente" (https://www.i
agua.es/noticias/unam/investigadores-unam-senalan-necesidad-tratar-aguas-residuales-me
xico) [In Mexico, only 57% of wastewater is treated correctly]. iAgua (in Spanish). 13 August
2018.
327. Enciso L., Angelica (3 October 2019). "Bajó 60% disponiblidad de agua per cápita en 60
años" (https://www.jornada.com.mx/2019/10/03/sociedad/035n2soc) [Per capita water
availability dropped 60% in 60 years]. La Jornada (in Spanish).
328. "México cuenta con 123.5 millones de habitantes" (https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/politic
a/Mexico-cuenta-con-123.5-millones-de-habitantes-20170710-0116.html) [Mexico has 123.5
million inhabitants]. El Economista (in Spanish). Notimex. 10 July 2017. Retrieved 4 June
2020.
329. "Spanish Language History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050417234656/http://www.toda
ytranslations.com/index.asp-Q-Page-E-Spanish-Language-History--13053095). Today
Translations. Archived from the original (http://www.todaytranslations.com/index.asp-Q-Page
-E-Spanish-Language-History--13053095) on 17 April 2005. Retrieved 1 October 2007.
330. "en el censo de 1930 el gobierno mexicano dejó de clasificar a la población del país en tres
categorías raciales, blanco, mestizo e indígena, y adoptó una nueva clasificación étnica que
distinguía a los hablantes de lenguas indígenas del resto de la población, es decir de los
hablantes de español" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmult
icultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestiz
aje.html). Archived from the original (http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierd
o/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html) on 23 August 2013.
331. Fuentes-Nieva, Ricardo (6 July 2017). "Ser blanco" (https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/entrada
-de-opinion/articulo/ricardo-fuentes-nieva/nacion/2017/07/6/ser-blanco) [Be white]. El
Universal (in Spanish).
332. Solís, Arturo (7 August 2018). "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres
blanco" (https://www.forbes.com.mx/inegi-lo-confirma-en-mexico-te-va-mejor-si-eres-blanc
o/) [Proven with data: in Mexico you do better if you are white]. Forbes México (in Spanish).
333. "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag.7 (http://
www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf),
CONAPRED, Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
334. "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico" (http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfile
s/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf), "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved
on 28 April 2017.
335. "DOCUMENTO INFORMATIVO SOBRE DISCRIMINACIÓN RACIAL EN MÉXICO" (http://w
ww.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/Dossier%20DISC-RACIAL.pdf), CONAPRED,
Mexico, 21 March 2011, retrieved on 28 April 2017.
336. "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" (http://www.inegi.org.mx/sal
adeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0180709120023/http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.
pdf) 9 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, INEGI, 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
337. "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017" (https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/salad
eprensa/boletines/2018/EstSociodemo/ENADIS2017_08.PDF), CNDH, 6 August 2018,
Retrieved on 9 August 2018.
338. "Table 1: Total migrant stock at mid-year by origin and by major area, region, country or area
of destination, 2017" (http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/esti
mates2/data/UN_MigrantStockByOriginAndDestination_2017.xlsx). United Nations,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 9 September
2018.
339. "Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015 Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20151210212235/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/
encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf) (PDF). INEGI. p. 1.
Archived from the original (http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hoga
res/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf) (PDF) on 10 December 2015. Retrieved
9 September 2018.
340. Smith, Dr. Claire M. (August 2010). "These are our Numbers: Civilian Americans Overseas
and Voter Turnout" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131024051944/https://www.overseasvote
foundation.org/files/counting%20american%20civilians%20abroad.pdf) (PDF). OVF
Research Newsletter. Overseas Vote Foundation. Archived from the original (https://www.ov
erseasvotefoundation.org/files/counting%20american%20civilians%20abroad.pdf) (PDF) on
24 October 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2018. "Previous research indicates that the
number of U.S. Americans living in Mexico is around 1 million, with 600,000 of those living
in Mexico City."
341. "Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural" (https://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articul
os2/GarciaRE.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). December 2005. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20090327124211/https://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articulos2/GarciaRE.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
342. "Los Menonitas en México" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180910094730/http://www.funda
cionunam.org.mx/arte-y-cultura/los-menonitas-en-mexico/). Fundación UNAM. 28 August
2013. Archived from the original (http://www.fundacionunam.org.mx/arte-y-cultura/los-menon
itas-en-mexico/) on 10 September 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
343. "México atrae a españoles desempleados" (https://expansion.mx/mi-carrera/2013/04/23/esp
anoles-buscan-suerte-en-mexico). CNN. 24 April 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
344. "Crece 580% migración a México" (https://www.elsoldemexico.com.mx/mexico/crece-580-mi
gracion-a-mexico-1534027.html). El Sol de México. 25 March 2018. Retrieved 9 September
2018.
345. "Por la crisis, llegan a México más venezolanos expulsados" (http://www.milenio.com/intern
acional/por-la-crisis-llegan-a-mexico-mas-venezolanos-expulsados). Milenio. 5 May 2017.
Retrieved 9 September 2018.
346. "Una crisis migratoria en América del Sur: la salida de venezolanos pone a prueba la
hospitalidad de países vecinos" (https://www.lapatilla.com/2018/07/19/migracion-venezolan
a-prueba-hospitalidad-de-america-latina/). La Patilla. 19 July 2018. Retrieved 9 September
2018.
347. "Japoneses hacen de Guanajuato su hogar" (https://www.elsoldemexico.com.mx/republica/s
ociedad/japoneses-hacen-de-guanajuato-su-hogar-396083.html). El Sol de México. 4
December 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
348. "Pesquería, el municipio de NL 'inundado' de coreanos" (https://lasillarota.com/pesqueria-el-
municipio-de-nl-inundado-de-coreanos/231414). El Sol de México. 27 June 2018. Retrieved
9 September 2018.
349. Wimmer, Andreas, 2002. Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict: Shadows of Modernity,
Cambridge University Press page 115
350. Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution and indigenismo: Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 in
The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 78–85
351. Hall Steckel, Richard; R. Haines, Michael (2000). A population history of North America (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA621). Cambridge University Press.
p. 621. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
352. "John P. Schmal, SomosPrimos.com" (http://www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm).
somosprimos.com.
353. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). "North America: Mexico" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-fa
ctbook/countries/mexico/). The World Factbook. Ethnic groups. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
"mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60%, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 30%, white
9%, other 1%"
354. "mestizo (people)" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/377246/mestizo).
Britannica.com. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
355. Pla Brugat, Dolores (2011). "Más desindianización que mestizaje. Una relectura de los
censos generales de población" (https://www.dimensionantropologica.inah.gob.mx/?p=740
1) [More deindianization than miscegenation. A rereading of the general population
censuses]. Dimensión Antropológica (in Spanish). Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de
Antropología e Historia. 53 (September–December): 69–91. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
356. "México sin mestizaje: una reinterpretación de nuestra historia" (https://descargacultura.una
m.mx/app1?sharedItem=6730790), UNAM, 2016, Retrieved on 13 March 2019.
357. "Al respecto no debe olvidarse que en estos países buena parte de las personas
consideradas biológicamente blancas son mestizas en el aspecto cultural, el que aquí nos
interesa (p. 196)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131022220348/http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/
105/10503808.pdf) (PDF). Redalyc.org. 16 March 2005. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.redalyc.org/pdf/105/10503808.pdf) (PDF) on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
358. Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto. (1996) "Pluralismo cultural y redefinicion del estado en México".
in Coloquio sobre derechos indígenas, Oaxaca, IOC.[1] (http://courses.cit.cornell.edu/iard40
10/documents/Pluralismo_cultural_y_redefinicion_del_estado_en_Mexico.pdf) p. 2
359. Anchondo, Sandra; de Haro, Martha (4 July 2016). "El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad
cultural sí importa" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010154747/http://istmo.mx/2016/
07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/) [Miscegenation is a myth,
cultural identity does matter]. ISTMO (in Spanish). IPADE Business School. Archived from
the original (http://istmo.mx/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-impor
ta/) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
360. Navarrete Linares, Federico (2016). Mexico Racista (https://books.google.com/books?id=FC
_4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT86). Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86.
ISBN 9786073143646. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
361. Schwartz-Marín, Ernesto; Silva-Zolezzi, Irma (2010). " "The Map of the Mexican's Genome":
Overlapping national identity, and population genomics" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12394
-010-0074-7). Identity in the Information Society. 3 (3): 489–514. doi:10.1007/s12394-010-
0074-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12394-010-0074-7). hdl:10871/33766 (https://hdl.handl
e.net/10871%2F33766).
362. R. Martínez & C. De La Torre (2008): "Racial Appearance And Income In Contemporary
Mexico, pag 9 note 1" (https://www.clutejournals.com/index.php/JDM/article/download/4993/
5084), Journal of Diversity Management, 2008, Retrieved 01 April 2021.
363. Navarrete Linares, Federico. "El mestizaje en Mexico" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017080
1102632/http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteel
mestizaje.pdf) [The miscegenation in Mexico] (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original
(http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaj
e.pdf) (PDF) on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
364. "Indicadores seleccionados sobre la población hablante de lengua indígena, 1950 a 2005"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20120118010024/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espa
nol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325). Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original (http://www.
inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325) on 18 January
2012. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
365. "Síntesis de Resultados" (http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/sintesis_resultados_2005.pdf)
(PDF). Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. 2006. Retrieved
22 December 2010.
366. "¿Qué es y cómo se determina un hogar indígena?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501
220757/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid
=58) [What is and how an indigenous home is determined?]. Preguntas frecuentes [Frequent
questions] (in Spanish). CDI. Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos
Indígenas [CDI. National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples). 23
February 2009. Archived from the original (http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58) on 1 May 2011.
367. "Sistema de información e indicadores sobre la población indígena de México" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20110501220616/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&vi
ew=category&id=38&Itemid=54) [Information system and indicators on the indigenous
population of Mexico]. Indicadores y estadísticas [Indicators and statistics] (in Spanish). CDI.
Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas [CDI. National Commission
for the Development of Indigenous Peoples. Archived from the original (http://www.cdi.gob.m
x/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=54) on 1 May 2011.
368. "Encuesta Intercensal 2015" (http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogare
s/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170422033628/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/esp
eciales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf) 22 April 2017 at the Wayback
Machine, "INEGI", Mexico, December 2015. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
369. "Indicadores socioeconómicos de los pueblos indígenas" (https://web.archive.org/web/2004
1115115005/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91) [Socio-economic indicators
of indigenous peoples]. Información (in Spanish). Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de
los Pueblos Indígenas. Archived from the original (http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_secc
ion=91) on 15 November 2004 – via cdi.gob.mx.
370. Navarrete Linares, Federico (2008). Los pueblos indígenas de México (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20111130051239/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=do
c_view&gid=62&Itemid=24) [Indigenous peoples of Mexico] (in Spanish). México: CDI.
ISBN 978-970-753-157-4. Archived from the original (http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?opti
on=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24) on 30 November 2011 – via
cdi.gob.mx.
371. Villarreal, Andrés (October 2010). "Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico".
American Sociological Review. American Sociological Association. 75 (5): 652–678.
doi:10.1177/0003122410378232 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122410378232).
JSTOR 20799484 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20799484). S2CID 145295212 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:145295212).
372. Ortiz-Hernández, Luis; Compeán-Dardón, Sandra; Verde-Flota, Elizabeth; Flores-Martínez,
Maricela Nanet (April 2011). "Racism and mental health among university students in
Mexico City" (https://doi.org/10.1590%2Fs0036-36342011000200005). Salud Pública de
México. 53 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005 (https://doi.org/10.1590%
2Fs0036-36342011000200005). PMID 21537803 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2153780
3).
373. "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell" (http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstre
am/handle/123456789/3525/JASC%2520IBD%2520MMSI%25202016%2520V1.0.pdf?seq
uence=6&isAllowed=y), INEGI, 3 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
374. Navarrete Linares, Federico. "El mestizaje y las culturas" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
0823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultur
al/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html) [Mixed race and cultures]. México Multicultural
(in Spanish). Mexico: UNAM. Archived from the original (http://www.nacionmulticultural.una
m.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html) on
23 August 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
375. Sherburne Friend Cook; Woodrow Borah (1998). Ensayos sobre historia de la población.
México y el Caribe 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=DSCVztyTANcC&pg=PA223).
Siglo XXI. p. 223. ISBN 9789682301063. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
376. San Miguel, G. (November 2000). "Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII:
Acatzingo, 1792" (http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-810420
00000100018) [To be «mestizo» in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo,
1792]. Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad
Nacional de Jujuy (in Spanish) (13): 325–342.
377. Howard F. Cline (1963). THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=XPl8c4XINgoC&q=northern+spanish). Harvard University Press. p. 104.
ISBN 9780674497061. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
378. "Presentación de la Encuesta Intercensal- Principales resultados" (http://www.inegi.org.mx/e
st/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.
pdf) (PDF). INEGI. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
379. "Principales resultados—Encuesta Intercensal 2015" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017031
3192927/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei
2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf) [Main results — Intercensal Survey 2015] (PDF) (in
Spanish). INEGI. 2015. Archived from the original (http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/pr
oyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf) (PDF) on 13
March 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
380. "Tabulados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015" (http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/tabuladosb
asicos/LeerArchivo.aspx?ct=51553&c=33725&s=est&f=1). INEGI. Retrieved 24 December
2015.
381. "Find Local Contractors – Home Remodeling Contractors on Ecnext" (http://goliath.ecnext.c
om/coms2/gi_0199-536840/Marin-Guzman-Roberto-and-Zidane.html). goliath.ecnext.com.
382. Langley, William (7 July 2007). "The biggest enchilada" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/comme
nt/personal-view/3641163/The-biggest-enchilada.html). The Telegraph. Retrieved
28 February 2015.
383. Tatiana Seijas (2014). Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indian (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&q=Asians+in+Mexico&pg=PA21). Cambridge
University Press. p. 21. ISBN 9781107063129.
384. "Latin America's lost histories revealed in modern DNA" (https://www.sciencemag.org/news/
2018/04/latin-america-s-lost-histories-revealed-modern-dna). Science | AAAS. 12 April
2018.
385. "Filipinos in Mexican History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071015180841/http://www.mb.
com.ph/issues/2005/01/28/OPED2005012827368.html). Archived from the original (http://w
ww.mb.com.ph/issues/2005/01/28/OPED2005012827368.html) on 15 October 2007.
386. Chao Romero, Robert (2011). "1. Introduction" (https://books.google.com/books?id=U3GQ7
o3HV1cC&q=chinese+in+mexico+second+largest+immigrant+group&pg=PA1). The
Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940. University of Arizona Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780816508198.
Retrieved 1 October 2016.
387. "Yearbook of Migration and Remittances: Mexico 2018" (https://www.bbvaresearch.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/09/1809_AnuarioMigracionRemesas_2018.pdf) (PDF). BBVA
Research. 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
388. "Mexican Migrants in the United States" (https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-im
migrants-united-states). Migration Policy Institute. 17 March 2016. Retrieved 9 September
2018.
389. "Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin" (https://archive.today/20200214060959/https://f
actfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_B
03001&prodType=table). U.S. Census Bureau. 2016. Archived from the original (https://factfi
nder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_B030
01&prodType=table) on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
390. "2011 National Household Survey" (https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/
Ap-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=5&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GID=0&G
K=1&GRP=0&PID=105411&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temp
oral=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=). Statistics Canada. 8 May 2013.
Retrieved 9 September 2018.
391. Spanish → Mexico (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/spa/) at Ethnologue (18th ed.,
2015)
392. Werner 2001, pp. 443, 444, 445.
393. INALI [Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas] (14 January 2008). "Catálogo de las
lenguas indígenas nacionales: Variantes lingüísticas de México con sus
autodenominaciones y referencias geoestadísticas" (http://www.inali.gob.mx/pdf/CLIN_com
pleto.pdf) (PDF online facsimile). Diario Oficial de la Federación (in Spanish). Mexico City.
652 (9): 22–78 (first section), 1–96 (second section), 1–112 (third section). OCLC 46461036
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46461036).
394. "Indigenous Languages in Mexico: Speakers Aged Three or Older" (http://cuentame.inegi.or
g.mx/hipertexto/todas_lenguas.htm). National Institute of Statistics and Geography. 2015.
Retrieved 11 September 2018.
395. "Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20130921054016/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Edespig/diagnostico_y_persp
ectivas/leyes_declaraciones/2%20LENGUA%20Y%20CULTURA/Ley%20general%20de%
20derechos%20linguisticos.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). 2003. Archived from the original (http://
www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Edespig/diagnostico_y_perspectivas/leyes_declaracione
s/2%20LENGUA%20Y%20CULTURA/Ley%20general%20de%20derechos%20linguistico
s.pdf) (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
396. "Model of Accreditation and Certification of Indigenous Languages" (https://site.inali.gob.mx/
pdf/MODELO_DE_ACREDITACION_Y_CERTIFICACION_EN_MATERIA_DE_LENGUAS
_INDIGENAS.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). National Indigenous Languages Institute. October
2012. p. 7. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
397. "The Mennonite Old Colony Vision: Under siege in Mexico and the Canadian Connection"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20070205052716/http://www.hshs.mb.ca/mennonite_old_colon
y_vision.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.hshs.mb.ca/mennonite_old_colon
y_vision.pdf) (PDF) on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
398. Venetian (Mexico) (https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/vec/) at Ethnologue (18th ed.,
2015)
399. "English in Mexico: An examination of policy, perceptions and influencing factors" (https://ei.
britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/latin-america-research/English%20in%20Mexico.pdf)
(PDF). British Council. May 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
400. Becerril, Isabel (27 April 2015). "En México sólo 5% de la población habla inglés: IMCO" (htt
p://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/economia/en-mexico-solo-de-la-poblacion-habla-ingles-imco.h
tml) (in Spanish). El Financiero. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
401. "Une Langue Pour Apprendre" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181113062358/https://www.fr
ancophonie.org/IMG/pdf/2e.pdf) (PDF) (in French). Organisation internationale de la
Francophonie. 6 September 2010. p. 132. Archived from the original (https://www.francopho
nie.org/IMG/pdf/2e.pdf) (PDF) on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
402. "Cours de français" (https://mx.ambafrance.org/Cours-de-francais,6567) (in French).
Ambassade de France à Mexico. 19 March 2013. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
403. Simon-Clerc, Nathalie (2 November 2016). "Le Mexique, l'acteur qui monte dans la
francophonie d'Amérique" (http://loutardeliberee.com/mexique-lacteur-monte-francophonie-d
amerique/) (in French). L'Outarde Libérée. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
404. Olvera, Graciela; Martínez, Armando (25 January 2021). "Catolicismo y otras religiones
pierden creyentes en México" (https://www.milenio.com/politica/comunidad/catolicismo-pier
de-creyentes-censo-inegi-2021). Milenio (in Spanish). Retrieved 25 March 2021.
405. The Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe in 1531 (https://www.michaeljournal.org/articles/ro
man-catholic-church/item/the-apparition-of-our-lady-of-guadalupe-in-1531),
michaeljournal.org, 1 October 2002
406. Manuel Olimón Nolasco (2002). La búsqueda de Juan Diego (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=_6BaAAAAMAAJ). Plaza & Janés. ISBN 9789681105433.
407. "The Largest Catholic Communities" (https://archive.today/20120629135604/http://www.adh
erents.com/largecom/com_romcath.html). Adherents.com. Archived from the original on 29
June 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2007.
408. "Church attendance" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060901122224/http://www.ns.umich.ed
u/htdocs/releases/print.php?Releases%2F1997%2FDec97%2Fchr121097a). Study of
worldwide rates of religiosity. University of Michigan. 1997. Archived from the original (http://
www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/print.php?Releases/1997/Dec97/chr121097a) on 1
September 2006. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
409. "Our Lady of Guadalupe" (http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=456). Catholic
Online. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
410. Cite error: The named reference 2010-census was invoked but never defined (see
the help page).
411. "Mexico, Country profile" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100825063153/http://newsroom.ld
s.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/mexico). The Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Days
Saints Newsroom. Archived from the original (http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/con
tact-us/mexico) on 25 August 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
412. "Cristianismos orientales: persecución, muerte, migración y cambio – Resonancias –
Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales" (https://www.iis.unam.mx/blog/cristianismos-orientales
-persecucion-muerte-migracion-y-cambio/), "UNAM", Mexico DF, 29 November 2019.
Retrieved on 28 November 2020.
413. Primack, Karen (1998). Jews in places you never thought of (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=GhD0JZAOTHUC&q=jews+came+to+mexico+in+1521&pg=PA77). KTAV Publishing
House, Inc. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-88125-608-6.
414. Jacobo Grinberg Zylberbaum (1989). Los chamanes de México (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=1QVZAAAAMAAJ&q=chamanes+en+M%C3%A9xico) (University of Texas ed.).
Mexico City: UNAM School of Psychology. ISBN 9686022015.
415. Castells Ballarin, Pilar (June 2008). "La Santa Muerte y la cultura de los derechos
humanos" (https://doi.org/10.29043%2Fliminar.v6i1.263). LiminaR. 6 (1): 13–25.
doi:10.29043/liminar.v6i1.263 (https://doi.org/10.29043%2Fliminar.v6i1.263).
416. "En Chamula, cambiar religión se considera delito" (https://web.archive.org/web/200906160
41417/http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/11/11/042n3est.php). 16 June 2009. Archived from
the original (http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2005/11/11/042n3est.php) on 16 June 2009.
417. "pol4" (http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2000/06/03/pol4.html). www.jornada.unam.mx.
418. "mas-hilo" (http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2001/07/22/mas-hilo.html). www.jornada.unam.mx.
419. Simons, Marlise (29 September 1979). "Mexico to End Work of U.S. Translators With
Indians" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1979/09/29/mexico-to-end-work-of-
us-translators-with-indians/918451eb-96c9-4b77-835b-8a3dfed38a1d/). The Washington
Post.
420. "Mexico – Health Care and Social Security" (http://countrystudies.us/mexico/63.htm).
Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
421. "Health Care in Mexico" (http://www.expatforum.com/articles/health/health-care-in-mexico.ht
ml). Expatforum.com. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
422. "Health Care Issues Mexico" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130813094826/http://globerov
e.com/mexico/health-care-issues-mexico/695). Kwintessential.co.uk. Archived from the
original (http://globerove.com/mexico/health-care-issues-mexico/695) on 13 August 2013.
Retrieved 4 November 2009.
423. "Sistema Nacional de Información en Salud – Infraestructura" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0100609031712/http://www.sinais.salud.gob.mx/medicinaprivada/index.html).
Sinais.salud.gob.mx. Archived from the original (http://sinais.salud.gob.mx/medicinaprivada/i
ndex.html) on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
424. "INEGI literacy report −14, 2005" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110722225624/http://www.i
negi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu15&s=est&c=3283).
Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original (http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/ruti
nas/ept.asp?t=medu15&s=est&c=3283) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
425. "INEGI literacy report 15+, 2005" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110722225628/http://www.i
negi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu16&s=est&c=3284).
Inegi.gob.mx. Archived from the original (http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/ruti
nas/ept.asp?t=medu16&s=est&c=3284) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
426. "Mexico: Youth Literacy Rate" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100719073513/http://globalis.
gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=41&Country=MX). Global Virtual University.
Archived from the original (http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator_detail.cfm?IndicatorID=41&
Country=MX) on 19 July 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
427. "Mexico Literacy Rate 1980-2021" (https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/MEX/mexico/liter
acy-rate). www.macrotrends.net.
428. "Nombran al Tec de Monterrey como la mejor universidad privada de México" (https://www.t
elediario.mx/nacional/nombran-al-tec-de-monterrey-como-la-mejor-universidad-privada-de-
mexico). Telediario CDMX (in Spanish). 19 June 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
429. "Recruiter's scoreboard Highlights" (https://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/MB_
06_Scoreboard.pdf) (PDF). The Wall Street Journal/Harris Interactive survey of corporate
recruiters on business schools. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
430. Porter, Susie S. (2018). From Angel to Office Worker: Middle-Class Identity and Female
Consciousness in Mexico, 1890–1950. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-4962-0649-7.
431. Porter, Susie S. (2003). Working Women in Mexico City: Public Discourses and Material
Conditions, 1879-1931. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2268-2.
432. Morton, Ward M. Woman Suffrage in Mexico. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1962
433. "Presenta AMLO Gabinete para Presidencia 2018–2024 #GabineteAMLO – AMLO" (https://l
opezobrador.org.mx/2017/12/14/presenta-amlo-gabinete-para-presidencia-2018-2024/).
Retrieved 3 March 2021.
434. Solomon, Daina Beth (6 March 2020). " 'Despicable' – Women seethe over Mexican leader's
wobbly response to violence" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-women-antiviolence-mexic
o-idUSKBN20T2ZN). Reuters – via www.reuters.com.
435. "Why Latin America treats "femicides" differently from other murders" (https://www.economis
t.com/the-americas/2020/03/05/why-latin-america-treats-femicides-differently-from-other-mur
ders). The Economist (5 May 2020). Monterrey. 5 May 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
436. "Femicide and Impunity in Mexico: A context of structural and generalized violence" (http://w
ww2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/CDDandCMDPDH_forthesession_Mexico_
CEDAW52.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 12 March 2014.
437. "Wave Of Femicide Surges Across Mexico, Killing 6 Women Per Day" (https://www.huffingto
npost.com/2015/01/08/mexico-femicide_n_6437156.html). Huffington Post. 8 January 2015.
Retrieved 14 September 2015.
438. Finkler, Kaja (1997). "Gender, domestic violence and sickness in Mexico". Social Science &
Medicine. 45 (8): 1147–1160. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(97)00023-3 (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2Fs0277-9536%2897%2900023-3). PMID 9381229 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/93812
29).
439. Villegas, Paulina (9 March 2020). "In Mexico, Women Go on Strike Nationwide to Protest
Violence" (https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/09/world/americas/mexico-women-strike-prote
st.html). The New York Times. Mexico City. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
440. Doubek, James (9 March 2020). "Mexican Women Stay Home To Protest Femicides In 'A
Day Without Us' " (https://www.npr.org/2020/03/09/813699719/mexican-women-stay-home-t
o-protest-femicides-in-a-day-without-us). NPR. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
441. Vasconcelos, José (1997). La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (https://archive.org/details/
cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160). Didier T. Jaén (translator). The Johns Hopkins
University Press. p. 160 (https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160).
ISBN 978-0-8018-5655-6.
442. Phelan, John Leddy (1 August 1956). "México y lo Mexicano" (https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00
182168-36.3.309). Hispanic American Historical Review. 36 (3): 309–318.
doi:10.1215/00182168-36.3.309 (https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-36.3.309).
JSTOR 2509215 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2509215).
443. Widdiefield, Stacie G. The Embodiment of the National in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexican
Painting. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1996
444. "Rockefeller Controversy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071011103154/http://www.diego-ri
vera.org/rockefellercontroversy.html). Diego Rivera Prints. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.diego-rivera.org/rockefellercontroversy.html) on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2 October
2007.
445. UNESCO World Heritage Centre (29 June 2007). "UNESCO" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/ne
ws/364). Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
446. "Arquitectura mexicana" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171015150356/http://www.arqhys.c
om/arquitectura-mexicana.html). www.arqhys.com. Archived from the original (http://www.arq
hys.com/arquitectura-mexicana.html) on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
447. Endicott, Katherine (14 October 2006). "The Mexican garden revisited" (http://www.sfgate.co
m/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/14/HOG51LMROS1.DTL). San Francisco Chronicle.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110919002659/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/articl
e.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F10%2F14%2FHOG51LMROS1.DTL) from the original on
19 September 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
448. Casanova, Rosa and Adriana Konzevik. Mexico: A Photographic History: A Selective
Catalogue of the Fototeca Nacional of the INAH. Mexico City: INAH/RM 2007. ISBN 978-
968-5208-75-8.
449. Mraz, John (2009). Looking for Mexico: Modern Visual Culture and National Identity. Duke
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9220-0.
450. Debroise, Olivier (2001). Mexican Suite: A History of Photography in Mexico. University of
Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71611-7.
451. Curl, John (20 August 2009). "Aztec Poetry (1): Introduction" (https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/a
ztecs/home/aztec-poetry-1-intro). Aztecs at Mexicolore. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
452. González Echevarría, Roberto; Hill, Ruth, "Latin American literature" (https://www.britannica.
com/art/Latin-American-literature), Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 14 July 2019
453. Allen, Shundalyn (16 September 2017), "7 Notable Mexican Authors Who Changed History"
(https://www.grammarly.com/blog/mexican-authors-who-changed-history/), Grammarly Blog,
retrieved 11 July 2019
454. Coerver, Don M.; Pasztor, Suzanne B.; Buffington, Robert (2004). Mexico: An Encyclopedia
of Contemporary Culture and History (https://books.google.com/books?id=YSred4NyOKoC&
pg=PA90). ABC-CLIO. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-57607-132-8.
455. "Televisa Brings 2006 FIFA World Cup to Mexico in HD With Snell & Wilcox Kahuna SD/HD
Production Switcher" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060811082252/http://www.snellwilcox.
com/news_events/press_releases/203). Press release. Snell & Wilcox. 27 June 2006.
Archived from the original (http://www.snellwilcox.com/news_events/press_releases/203) on
11 August 2006. Retrieved 30 September 2007.
456. "El mole símbolo de la mexicanidad" (http://www.cultura.gob.mx/turismocultural/cuadernos/p
df12/articulo4.pdf) (PDF). CONACULTA. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
457. La Crónica de Hoy (20 September 2005). "Presentan en París candidatura de gastronomía
mexicana" (http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?id_nota=203109).
458. esmas.com (25 November 2005). "Cocina mexicana, fuera de la UNESCO" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20121023074402/http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/mexico/492975.ht
ml). Archived from the original (http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/mexico/492975.htm
l) on 23 October 2012.
459. Cocina, fiesta y cantos mexicanos reconocidos por UNESCO (http://www.eluniversal.com.m
x/notas/723787.html), El Universal (Mexico City) (newspaper), 16 November 2010
460. "Latina chef Daniela Soto-Innes is youngest to be named 'World's Best Female Chef' " (http
s://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/latina-chef-daniela-soto-innes-youngest-be-named-world
-s-n998946), NBC News, 26 April 2019, retrieved 12 July 2019
461. University of Puget Sound. "History and influences of Mexican food" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20111208232651/http://projects.ups.edu/jlago/spring2003/250a/jlkeller/). Archived from
the original (http://projects.ups.edu/jlago/spring2003/250a/jlkeller/) on 8 December 2011.
462. "Introduction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080401234658/http://www.femexfut.org.mx/port
alv2/%2814g40ea2rgh3vmihgs231hak%29/default.aspx?s=135). Federacion Mexicana de
Futbol. Archived from the original (http://www.femexfut.org.mx/portalv2/%2814g40ea2rgh3v
mihgs231hak%29/default.aspx?s=135) on 1 April 2008.
463. "Mexico – List of Final Tables" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150402011950/http://www.rss
sf.com/tablesm/mexhist.html). Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Archived from the
original (http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/mexhist.html) on 2 April 2015.
464. "Mexico – List of Champions" (http://www.rsssf.com/tablesm/mexchamp.html).
Rec.Sports.Soccer Statistics Foundation.
465. "CNNSI.com – 2002 World Cup — World Cup Hall of Fame: Antonio Carbajal —
Wednesday May 08, 2002 10:46 PM" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110430031228/http://s
portsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/world/2002/world_cup/hof/carbajal/).
Sportsillustrated.cnn.com. 8 May 2002. Archived from the original (http://sportsillustrated.cn
n.com/soccer/world/2002/world_cup/hof/carbajal/) on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
466. "Hugo Sánchez donó trofeos pichichi y mejor jugador CONCACAF al Real Madrid" (http://w
ww.terra.com/deportes/articulo/html/fox507174.htm) (in Spanish). Terra.com. 14 January
2008. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
467. "Los mejores deportistas mexicanos de la historia" (https://www.marca.com/claro-mx/otros-d
eportes/2018/10/12/5bc012eb46163f49598b45b1.html) [The best Mexican athletes in
history], Marca Claro (in Spanish), 12 October 2018, retrieved 11 July 2019
468. "México, una historia de éxito en la Serie Mundial de Ligas Menores" (https://www.mediotie
mpo.com/beisbol/mexico-historia-exito-serie-mundial-ligas-menores) [Mexico, a history of
success in the Minor League World Series], Medio Tiempo (in Spanish), 25 August 2010,
retrieved 12 July 2019
469. "México es Campeón en el Mundial Sub-23 de beisbol" (https://www.mediotiempo.com/beis
bol/mexico-es-campeon-en-el-mundial-sub-23-de-beisbol) [Mexico is the World Baseball
Champion in the Under-23 bracket], Medio Tiempo (in Spanish), 29 October 2018, retrieved
12 July 2019
470. "2016 Binational Olympics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043448/http://www.sandi
egometro.com/2003/dec/coverstory2.html). San Diego Metropolitan. December 2003.
Archived from the original (http://www.sandiegometro.com/2003/dec/coverstory2.html) on 30
September 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
471. "About CONCACAF" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071006070253/http://www.concacaf.co
m/about.asp). The Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association
Football (CONCACAF). Archived from the original (http://www.concacaf.com/about.asp) on 6
October 2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
472. "FIBA – Mexico to host 2015 FIBA Americas Championship" (http://www.fiba.com/news/FIB
A-Mexico-to-host-2015-FIBA-Americas-Championship). FIBA. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
473. "LOS TOROS EN MÉXICO" (https://www.donquijote.org/es/cultura-mexicana/tradiciones/tor
os/) [Bullfighting in Mexico], Don Quijote (in Spanish), retrieved 11 July 2019
474. "Los medallistas que ha tenido el Box Olímpico mexicano" (https://mexico.as.com/mexico/20
16/08/16/album/1471303609_523251.html) [The Mexican Olympic boxing medal winners],
Caliente.mx (in Spanish), 15 August 2016, retrieved 11 July 2019

Bibliography
Camp, Roderic A. Politics in Mexico: Democratic Consolidation Or Decline? (Oxford
University Press, 2014)
Davis, Diane. Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century (Temple University
Press, 2010)
Domínguez, Jorge I (2004). "The Scholarly Study of Mexican Politics". Mexican
Studies/Estudios Mexicanos. 20 (2): 377–410. doi:10.1525/msem.2004.20.2.377 (https://doi.
org/10.1525%2Fmsem.2004.20.2.377).
Edmonds-Poli, Emily, and David Shirk. Contemporary Mexican Politics (Rowman and
Littlefield 2009)
Kirkwood, Burton. The History of Mexico (Greenwood, 2000) online edition (https://www.que
stia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15456726)
Krauze, Enrique (1998). Mexico: Biography of Power: A history of Modern Mexico 1810–
1996 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZuuPAAZcKtYC). New York: Harper Perennial.
p. 896. ISBN 978-0-06-092917-6.
Kumar, Satish; Bellis, Claire; Zlojutro, Mark; Melton, Phillip E; Blangero, John; Curran,
Joanne E (2011). "Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a
reappraisal of Native American origins" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC321
7880). BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 293. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-293 (https://doi.or
g/10.1186%2F1471-2148-11-293). PMC 3217880 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC3217880). PMID 21978175 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21978175).
Levy, Santiago. Good intentions, bad outcomes: Social policy, informality, and economic
growth in Mexico (Brookings Institution Press, 2010)
Meyer, Michael C.; Beezley, William H., eds. (2000). The Oxford History of Mexico (https://arc
hive.org/details/isbn_9780195112283). Oxford University Press. p. 736 (https://archive.org/d
etails/isbn_9780195112283/page/n149). ISBN 978-0-19-511228-3.
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. The Course of Mexican
History (7th ed.) (Oxford University Press, 2002) online edition (https://www.questia.com/PM.
qst?a=o&d=113260662)
Russell, Philip (2010). The history of Mexico: from pre-conquest to present (http://www.routle
dge.com/books/details/9780415872379/). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-87237-9. Retrieved
9 July 2010.
Tannenbaum, Frank. Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Bread (2013)
 Werner, Michael S. ed. Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society & Culture (2 vol 1997)
1440pp online edition (https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98882479)
Werner, Michael S. (January 2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=Qxp-GWiDPioC&pg=PA386). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-57958-337-8.

External links
Government

The Government of Mexico (https://www.gob.mx/)

Mexico Tourism Official Website |VisitMexico (https://web.archive.org/web/2012060406293
1/http://www.visitmexico.com/en-i0/)

General information

Mexico (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/). The World Factbook.

Central Intelligence Agency.
Mexico (https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085229/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govp
ubs/for/mexico.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Mexico (https://curlie.org/Regional/North_America/Mexico) at Curlie
Mexico (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1205074.stm) from the BBC
News
Mexico (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico) at Encyclopædia
Britannica
Wikimedia Atlas of Mexico
Geographic data related to Mexico (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/114686) at
OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for Mexico (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?C
ountry=MX) from International Futures

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexico&oldid=1045881135"

This page was last edited on 22 September 2021, at 22:43 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.