Republic of the Philippines properties such as drug resistance, mating ability, and toxins
Department of Education production. They are small enough to be conveniently
Region III – Central Luzon
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
City of Balanga, Bataan
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter, 1st Semester
Week1 (Day1-4)
LECTURE:
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Many people are unaware that humans have been practicing
genetic engineering since the ancient times. Selective breeding
or classical breeding in agricultural crops and livestock has
altered the genetic make-up of these organisms over the
centuries in such a way that they no longer resemble their non-
domesticated relatives. This practice has been common long
before genes were discovered.
Genetic engineering involves the use of molecular techniques
to modify the traits of a target organism. The modification of
traits may involve; 1. Introduction of new traits into an
organism as to enhancement of present traits by increasing the
expression of the desired gene or by disrupting the inhibition of
the desired genes’ expression.
Genetic engineering includes classical breeding which is
considered as the traditional way of genetic engineering which
practices the mating of organisms with desirable qualities and
Recombinant DNA technology (rDNA), a modern technique of
genetic engineering. Recombinant DNA technology is the
joining together of DNA molecules from two different species.
The recombined DNA molecule is inserted into a host organism
to produce new genetic combinations that are of value to
science, medicine, agriculture, and industry
The general outline of recombinant DNA are as follows;
I. Cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes (REs)
as shown on steps 2 on the diagram. Restriction enzymes are
called ‘molecular scissors’ cutting the DNA at specific target
sequences leaving a single-stranded overhang at the site of
the cleavage (step 2). These overhangs of the donor DNA
(gene of interest) will be paired with other overhangs (vector
DNA).
II. Selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which would
propagate the recombinant DNA (shown on step 1). The
most commonly used as vectors are plasmids (circular DNA
molecules that originated from bacteria, viruses and yeast
cells). Plasmids are not part of the main cellular genome, but
they carry genes that provide the host cell with useful
1|P age
manipulated experimentally and furthermore, they will
carry extra DNA that is spliced to them.
III. Ligation (join together) of the gene of interest (eg. from
animal) with the vector (cut bacterial plasmid) as shown on
step 3 of the above diagram. The resulting molecule is
called recombinant DNA. It is recombinant in the sense
that it is composed of DNA from two different sources.
IV. Transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell (that
would carry out replication to make huge copies of the
recombined plasmid). In the above diagram as shown in
steps 4, the host cell is a bacterium known also as
recombinant bacterium which will undergo cloning or
replication of recombinant DNA.
V. Selection process to screen which cells actually contain the
gene of interest. The next step after cloning, therefore, is to
find and isolate that clone among other members of the
library. If the library encompasses the whole genome of an
organism, then somewhere within that library will be the
desired clone.
VI. Sequencing of the gene to find out the primary structure
of the protein. Once a segment of DNA has been cloned,
its nucleotide sequence can be determined. The nucleotide
sequence is the most fundamental level of knowledge of a
gene or genome. It is the blueprint that contains the
instructions for building an organism, and no
understanding of genetic function or evolution could be
complete without obtaining this information.
After the process of recombinant DNA, these plasmids or
gene copies will now be introduced to its host organisms to
confer upon them the desired trait. A gene for pest
resistance for example, as shown from the image above,
may be isolated, cloned and inserted into plant cell.
Alternatively, bacterial cells may express the inserted gene
to produce protein products. Some important human
proteins like hormones and enzymes are produced by this
technique.
These are some ways in which these plasmids may be
introduced into host organisms.
1. Biolistic. In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire
DNA-coated pellets on plant tissues. Cells that survive the
‘bombardment’, and are able to take up the expression
plasmid coated pellets and acquire the ability to express the
designed protein.
2. Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock Treatment. Heat Shock
Treatment is a process used to transfer plasmid DNA into
bacteria. The target cells are pre-treated before the
procedure to increase the pore sizes of their plasma
membranes. This pretreatment (usually with CaCl2) is said
to make the cells “competent” for accepting the plasmid
DNA. After the cells are made competent, they are
incubated with the desired plasmid at about 4°C for about
30min. The plasmids concentrate near the cells during this
time. Afterwards, a “Heat Shock” is done on the plasmid-
cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1 minute then back
to 4°C for 2 minutes. The rapid rise and drop of temperature
are believed to increase and decrease the pore sizes in the
membrane. The plasmid DNA near the membrane surface is
taken into the cells by this process. The cells that took up
the plasmids acquire new traits and are said to be
“transformed”.
3. Electroporation. This technique follows a similar
methodology as Heat Shock Treatment, but, the expansion
of the membrane pores is done through an electric “shock”.
This method is commonly used for insertion of genes into
mammalian cells.
Name: ________________ School: _____________
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter - Week 1, Day 1-4 (Outline the steps involved in
genetic engineering and discuss the applications of
Recombinant DNA Technology)
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Identify how each of the traits was introduced or
developed. Choose either CLASSICAL BREEDING or
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY.
_____________1. Macapuno trait in coconuts
_____________2. Flavr-Savr (Delayed-ripening tomatoes)
_____________3. Human Insulin-producing bacteria
_____________4. Guapple (Large-sized guava)
_____________5. Wagyu Beef (Beef with good fat
distribution)
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Arrange the following steps on DNA
recombination into sequence by writing nos. 1-5.
___ Expression of the gene to produce the desired product.
___ Insertion of the selected DNA into a cloning vector to
create an rDNA or chimeric DNA.
___ Generation of DNA fragments & selection of the desired
piece of DNA.
___ Introduction of the recombinant vectors into host cells.
___ Multiplication & selection of clones containing the
recombinant molecules.
ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Make a diagram on the steps showing the process
of recombinant DNA.
ACTIVITY 4
Direction: Identify the following products of Recombinant
DNA technology being asked for in this activity 4 by
completing the missing letters in each item.
1. These are bacterial enzymes that can cut/split DNA at
specific sites
_ _ s t _ _ _ t i_ n _ _ d _ n_ c _ e a s _ s
2. The cut DNA fragments are covalently joined together by
_______. DNA _ _ _ a_ e
3. It is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically
separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate
independently, commonly used as a vector for gene
multiplication
___s__d
4. These are the viruses that replicate within the bacteria.
__ct____p_a_es
5. These are vectors possessing the characteristics of both
plasmid & bacteriophages.
_o_m__s
2|P age
ACTIVITY 5
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer in applying
DNA technology.
1. Scientist have discovered how to put together a
bacteriophage with the protein coat of phage T2 and the
DNA of phage T4. If this composite phage were allowed to
infect the bacterium, the phages produced in the host cell
would have_______.
a. The protein and DNA of T2
b. The protein and DNA of T4
c. The protein of T2 and the DNA of T4
d. The protein of T4 and the DNA of T2
2. A geneticist found that a particular mutation had no effect on
the polypeptide coded by a gene. This mutation probably
involved
a. Deletion of one nucleotide
b. Alteration of the start codon
c. Substitution of one nucleotide
d. Insertion of one nucleotide
3. Which of the following correctly ranks the structures in order
of size, from largest to smallest?
a. Gene-chromosome-nucleotide-codon
b. Chromosome-gene-codon-nucleotide
c. Nucleotide-chromosome-gene-codon
d. Chromosome-nucleotide-gene-codon
4. The nucleotide sequence of a DNA codon is GTA. A
messenger RNA molecule with a complementary codon is
transcribed from the DNA. In the process of protein
synthesis, a transfer RNA pairs with the mRNA codon. What
is the nucleotide sequence of the tRNA codon?
a. CAT b. CUT c. GUA d. CAU
5. Which of the following would be considered a transgenic
organism?
a. a bacterium that has received genes via conjugation
b. a human given a corrected human blood-clotting gene
c. a fern grown in cell culture from a single fern root cell
d. a rat with rabbit hemoglobin genes
6. A microbiologist found that some bacteria infected by
phages had developed the ability to make a particular amino
acid that they could not make before. The new ability was
probably a result of
a. Transformation c. Mutation
b. Transduction d. Conjugation
7. When a typical restriction enzyme cuts a DNA molecule, the
cuts are uneven, so that the DNA fragments have single-
stranded ends. These ends are useful in recombinant DNA
work because
a. They enable a cell to recognize fragments produced by
the enzyme
b. They serve as starting points for DNA replication
c. The fragments will bond to other fragments with
complementary ends.
d. They enable researchers to use fragments as molecular
probes.
8. A biologist isolated a gene from a human cell, attached it to a
plasmid, and inserted the plasmid into a bacterium. The
bacterium made a new protein, but it was nothing like the
protein normally produced in a human cell. Why?
a. The bacterium had undergone transformation
b. The gene contained introns
c. The gene did not have sticky ends
d. The gene did not come from genomic library
9. A paleontologist has recovered a bit of organic material from
the 400-year-old preserved skin of extinct dodo. She would
like to compare DNA from the sample with DNA from living
birds. Which of the following would be most useful for
increasing the amount of DNA available for testing?
a. Restriction fragment analysis
b. Electrophoresis
c. Molecular Probe Analysis
d. Polymerase Chain Reaction
10. The control of gene expression is more complex in
multicellular eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because ____.
a. Eukaryotic cells are much smaller
b. In a multicellular eukaryote, different cells are
specialized for different function
c. Prokaryotes are restricted to stable environments
d. Eukaryotes have fewer genes, so each gene must do
several jobs.
ACTIVITY 6
Direction: Answer the following questions in relation to
Recombinant DNA technology as comprehensive as possible.
1. Discuss how PCR may be used for the detection of disease-
causing pathogens in a population specifically in detecting
viruses like dengue and COVID -19.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2. Discuss how the cloning and expression of certain genes
allows for massive production of the desired product.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Week2 (Day1-4)
LECTURE:
EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF DIVERSITY
3|P age
History of Life on Earth and Mechanism of Evolution
The Earth is around 4.5 billion years old. What was Earth like
million years ago? When did the first living organism evolved?
By studying the Earth’s geological timeline, we will be able to
trace the processes by which fossils and living organisms have
evolved since the time that life started until the present day.
The Earth’s history is divided into eons, eras, periods, and
epochs. The geologic time scale is a record of the life forms and
geological events in Earth’s history. Scientists
developed the time scale by developing by studying the rock
layers and fossils worldwide. Radioactive dating was used to
determine the absolute divisions in the time scale.
When we try to understand the history of the Earth and how
our planet changed over time as describes on our geological
timeline, we also try to understand how biological processes
that take place have caused disruptions in the organismal
equilibrium. These biological changes that happens through
the course of geological events that shaped our planet until
today is explained through the process of evolution.
Basic Mechanism of Evolution
1. Natural selection – This mechanism of evolution was
proposed two naturalists- Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell
Wallace in the mid-nineteenth century.
Natural selection was governed with these three principles.
First, the characteristics of organisms are inherited, or passed
from parent to offspring. Second, more offspring are
produced than can survive (resources for survival and
reproduction are limited). Thus, there is a competition for
those resources in each generation. Third, offspring vary
among each other regarding their characteristics and those
variations are inherited. Out of these three principles, Darwin
and Wallace reasoned that offspring with inherited
characteristics that allow them to best compete for limited
resources will survive and have more offspring than those
individual with variations that are less able to compete. Since
characteristics are inherited, these traits will be better
represented in the next generation. These will lead to change
in populations over generations in a process that Darwin
called “descent with modification”. These principles were
presented on the book of Darwin “On the Origin of Species”
which was published in 1859.
2. Mutation- this is a change in the DNA sequence of the gene.
Mutation is a source of new alleles in the population. A
mutation can change one allele into another, but the net effect
is change in frequency. The change in frequency resulting
from mutation is small, so its effect on evolution is small also
unless it interacts with one of the other factors such as
selection. The outcomes or effect of mutation in an
organisms’ phenotype or appearance are as follows:
a. It may affect the phenotype of organism in a way that
gives it reduced fitness- lower likelihood of survival,
resulting in fewer offspring.
b. It may produce a phenotype with a beneficial effect on
fitness
c. Neutral mutations will have no effect on fitness.
3. Genetic Drift- It is simple the effect of change. Another way
a population’s allele can change. It is most important in small
populations because drift would be completely absent in a
population with infinite individuals. Genetic drift occurs
because the alleles in an offspring generation are a random
sample of the alleles in the parent generation. Alleles may or
may not make it to the next generation due to chance events
including mortality of an individual, events affecting finding
 a mate and even the events affecting which gametes end up
in fertilization. If one individual in a population of ten
individuals happens to die before it leaves any offspring to
the next generation, all its genes- a tenth of the population’s
gene pool will be suddenly lost.
4. Gene Flow- The flow of alleles in and out of the population
resulting from the migration of individuals or gametes. While
some populations are stable, others experience more flux.
Many plants, for example, send their seeds far and wide, by
winds or guts of animals; these seeds may introduce alleles
common in the source population to a new population in
which they are rare. Gene flow can occur when an individual
travels from one geographic location to another and joins a
different population of the species.
5. Recombination- It occurs during meiosis when
chromosomes exchange genes. This process ultimately leads
to the formation of unique gametes with chromosomes that
are different from those in parents. This is one of the
important means to promote and increase genetic diversity
between generations.
Types of Fossils
And What They Tell Us About the Dinosaurs
Fossils can be divided into two categories, fossilized body parts
(bones, claws, teeth, skin, embryos, etc.) and fossilized traces,
called ichnofossils (which are footprints, nests, dung,
toothmarks, etc.), that record the movements and behaviors of
the dinosaurs.
1. Petrified fossils form when minerals replace the structure of
an organism. This process, called permineralization, occurs
when groundwater solutions saturate the remains of buried
plants or animals. As the water evaporates the minerals
remain, eventually filling in the spaces left as the organism
slowly decays.
2. A mold fossil is a fossilized imprint made in the substrate.
The substrate is the rock or sediment on which a fossil
makes its mark. Unlike cast fossils, mold fossils are hollow.
Due to the way this type of fossil is formed, the resulting
image is a negative image of the part of the organism’s body
that made the impression. In other words, it is backwards.
Common mold fossils include skin, leaves, teeth, claws and
embryos.
3. Cast fossils are like mold fossils in that they formed, at least
in part, with an imprint made in a rock or sediment.
However, cast fossils go one step further. Once the hollow
mold is present, they are subsequently filled in with minerals
that later harden for form solid rock. In other words, mold
fossils take up negative space and cast fossils take up
positive space. Cast fossils also include skin, leaves, teeth,
class and embryos.
4. Trace fossils, also called ichnofossils, do not contain
information about the organism itself. Rather, they contain
information on traces left by the organism. Common
examples of trace fossils include burrows, nests, footprints,
dung and tooth marks. These are the most common type of
fossil, and can sometimes offer more information on how
the organism lived (e.g. how it hunted and how it rested)
than fossilized body parts can.
5. A carbonaceous film or carbon film is an organism outline
of a fossil. It is a type of fossil found in any rock when
organic material is compressed, leaving only a carbon
residue or film. When an organism is buried under many
layers of sediment, pressure and heat increase during
diagenesis and if the organism lacks a hard skeleton, it will
only leave this thin film of carbon residue on rock surfaces.
4|P age
Name: ________________ School: _____________
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter - Week 2, Day 1-4 (Describe general features of
the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted dates
and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics
and explain the mechanisms that produce change in
populations from generation to generation)
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Answer the following questions about your
knowledge regarding the history of life on Earth.
1. What is the age of the Earth?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
2. What was the Earth million years ago?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Note: If you have an internet connection, you can watch a short
clip to have an idea regarding the activity.
I. Geologic Time Scale
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nofyRleo3Vc)
II. “Four Ways to Understand the Earth’s Age.”
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkxWmhtFGs&spfreload=10)
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Match the geological time under column A with
its corresponding era found in Column B.
Column A Column B
_______ 1. Cretaceous a. Paleozoic
_______ 2. Jurassic b. Mesozoic
_______ 3. Cambrian c. Cenozoic
_______ 4. Quaternary
_______ 5. Silurian
_______ 6. Triassic
_______ 7. Ordovician
ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Identify the types of fossils which are the evidence
of organisms that lived in the past. Choose your answer on the
choices found inside the table.
Cast Molds Petrified
Original Remains Carbon Film Trace
1. It was made when a mold is filled in.
2. A fossilized impression made in a substrate- negative image
of an organism
3. These are carbon impressions in the sedimentary rocks.
4. These were preserved wholly i.e. frozen in ice, trapped in
tar pits.
5. These record the movements and behaviors of the organism.
6. These were organic materials converted into stones.
 ACTIVITY 4
Direction: Give the meaning of the following items which
are the ways of fossilization. There are six ways that
organisms can turn into fossils, including:
1. Unaltered preservation
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Permineralization/ Petrification
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Replacement
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. Carbonization or Coalification
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
5. Recrystallization
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
6. Authigenic preservation
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 5
Direction: Practice to make a fossil from a natural and man-
made object.
I. Choose the object you want to make a fossil of. Any
natural object (shells, leaves, animal bone) will do as long
as it fits in the container. If you choose leaves, be sure it
is not dry.
II. Coat the object with petroleum jelly. This will keep the
object from sticking to the plaster when you try to remove
it. Coat it thoroughly.
III. Mix plaster and water in a bowl. Follow the directions on
the plaster of Paris packaging. Mix them together
thoroughly and let the concoction sit for a few minutes
without stirring. You should need about 2x more water
than plaster, but you can adjust the ratio as you see fit.
IV. Press the object into the plaster of Paris. Be careful not to
push too hard! Now your part is done; all it has to do is
dry. Set it aside and check it the next day; drying will take
at least one day.
V. Remove the object. After you've waited 24 hours, pop
your natural item out of the plaster of Paris. It's just like a
shell that was enveloped in soil for thousands of years. It
was disintegrated and this image was left behind.
ACTIVITY 6
Direction: Explain the following mechanisms that change
gene and genotype frequencies of population. Use your own
words in your explanation.
1. Mutation
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
2. Selection
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
5|P age
3. Gene Flow
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
4. Genetic Drift
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Week3 (Day1-2)
LECTURE:
EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF BIODIVERSITY
Patterns of Descent with Modification
Biological evolution is a powerful and important process. It is
a process which, over billions of years, gradually selects the
organisms that are better adapted to their environment to
continuously change life and make all living organisms in our
world the way they are today. Evolution is not a finished event
wherein humans are the final product. Rather, it is a continuing
process which has been changing and forming life on Earth for
billions of years and continues to do so for as long as organisms
are born, dying, and competing for what they need to survive
and reproduce.
Core Concepts:
• Species - Ernst Mayer’s definition: “Species are groups of
interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively
isolated from other such groups.”
- Is a closely related organism that are very similar and
capable of producing fertile offspring.
• Reproductive Isolating Mechanism
The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection
of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors, and physiological
processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of
different species from producing offspring or ensure that
any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the
integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related
species
1. Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms
- prevent fertilization and zygote formation.
- happens before fertilization occurs between gametes.
1.1 Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation
- occurs when two species that could interbreed do not
because the species live in different areas. The two
species live in different habitats and will not
encounter one another: each is isolated from the other
species.
1.2 Temporal or seasonal isolation
- different groups may not be reproductively mature.
For example, two populations of plants may produce
flowers in different seasons, making mating between
the populations impossible
1.3 Behavioral isolation
- patterns of courtship is different. For example, eastern
& western meadowlark songs differ.
1.4 Mechanical isolation
- differences in reproductive organs prevent successful
interbreeding. Mechanical isolation occurs when
mating is physically impossible.
1.5 Gametic isolation
- incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent
fertilization. Often this occurs because the female
immune system recognizes sperm as foreign and
attacks it.
2. Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms
- allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids
are formed. In these cases, the zygote formed is called a
hybrid. However, even after a hybrid zygote forms,
reproduction may still not be successful.
2.1 Hybrid inviability - fertilized egg fails to develop past
the early embryonic stages. For example, when tigers
and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to develop
but the pregnancy ends in miscarriage or stillborn.
2.2 Hybrid inviability - their hybrids are sterile because
gonads develop abnormally or there is abnormal
segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. A horse
and a donkey may produce a hybrid offspring, a mule.
Mules are sterile.
2.2 Hybrid breakdown - F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous
and viable, but F2 contains many weak or sterile
individuals
• Speciation - is the evolutionary process by which
populations evolve to become distinct species. It is the
process by which new species develop from existing
species.
A. Allopatric Speciation
- allo – other, patric – place; ‘other place’
- Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation
occurs when some members of a population
become geographically separated from the other
members thereby preventing gene flow. Examples
of geographic barriers are bodies of water and
mountain ranges.
B. Sympatric Speciation
• sym – same, patric – place; ‘same place’
• occurs when members of a population that initially
occupy the same habitat within the same range
diverge into two or more different species. It
involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead
to the reproductive isolation of a group of
individuals. Example is change in chromosome
number (polyploidization).
C. Parapatric Speciation
- para – beside, patric – place; ‘beside each other’
• occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate
species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow
occurs but with great distances is reduced. There is
also abrupt change in the environment over a
geographic border and strong disruptive selection
must also happen.
Note: The present-day species evolved from earlier species and that the
relatedness of organisms is the result of common ancestry. This can be
supported by morphological and anatomical data, homology, biogeography,
DNA, and protein sequences (molecular data), and embryology.
6|P age
Name: ________________ School: _____________
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter - Week 3, Day 1-2 (Show patterns of descent
with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today)
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Compare and contrast the following evolutionary
terms based on your own understanding. Write your answer on
the spaces provided for each item.
1. Species vs. Speciation
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Descent with modification vs. Common Ancestry
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. Reproductive Isolating Mechanism vs. Mode of Speciation
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
5. Macroevolution vs. Microevolution
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Based on the description, identify the specific
isolating mechanisms for the ff given:
1. Two species of garter snakes live in the same region but
one lives in water and the other on land.
2. Two species of meadowlarks with different mating songs
3. When tigers and leopards are crossed, the zygote begins to
develop but the pregnancy ends in miscarriage or stillborn
4. Mule is the sterile offspring of a horse and a donkey
5. Two species of plants flower at different months
6. Least fly catcher is seen in open woods, farms and orchards
while Acadian fly catcher is found in deciduous forests
particularly in beech trees and swampy woods.
7. Wood frog usually mates in late March when water
temperature is about 7.2 0C while Leopard frog usually
mates in mid-April when water temperature is 12.8 0C.
8. Black sage and White sage grow in the same areas, but
hybrids rarely form because flowers of two species have
become specialized for distinct pollinator. Black sage
flowers are pollinated by small bees while white sage
flowers are pollinated by large bees.
9. Blue-footed boobies select their mates only after an
elaborate courtship ritual, which is unique to them
10. Sea urchins of more than one species might reproduce in
the same place at the same time, but the sperm of species A
might be incompatible with the ova of species B and vice
versa.
 ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Based on the descriptions, identify the mode of
speciation for the ff given:
1. Some grasses that grow around mines are tolerant of heavy
metals in soil. Meanwhile, neighboring grasses don't live in
polluted soil, but they occupy a continuous geographic
population. The two grasses have evolved different
flowering times (niche).
2. The apple maggot lays its eggs inside an apple, causing it to
rot. As the apple falls from the tree, the maggots dig in the
ground and emerge as flies later. The original hawthorn
species still only lays its eggs in hawthorn apples.
3. When Arizona's Grand Canyon formed, squirrels and other
small mammals that had once been part of a single
population could no longer contact and reproduce with each
other across this new geographic barrier.
4. Within the past 2 million years in Lake Malawi, over 400
species of fish have descended from a single common
ancestral species. Some of these species may have
developed when fluctuating water levels isolated small sub-
populations of the original ancestral species and prevented
interbreeding
5. Plants that live on boundaries between very distinct
climates may flower at different times in response to their
different environments, making them unable to interbreed.
ACTIVITY 4
Direction: Read the article below and answer the questions
that follow.
The Beak of the Pinch
The 13 species of finches in the Galápagos Island have different
beaks adapted to different diets. DNA evidence indicates that
the Galápagos finch species are all more related to one another
than any one is to a species on the mainland; they all evolved
from one ancestral species. Traits like the size and shape of
beaks can change when the environment and thus the food
supply changes.
Habitats and ecological niches are constantly changing. In
1977, because of drought, large seeds were abundant and birds
with large, strong beaks had a competitive advantage. Over
generations, the average beak depth changed. In 1983, abundant
precipitation allowed vines to flourish. During the 1985
drought, smaller seeds were more abundant, so that birds with
smaller beaks had a competitive advantage, survived well, and
their offspring had smaller beaks. Evolutionary change can
occur rapidly, in only a few generations, if there is genetic
variation among individuals in a population and if natural
selection acting on this variation is strong.
Species are defined as populations whose members do not
interbreed with members of other populations. Reproductive
isolation can result in speciation. Song and appearance both
played a role in keeping members of different species from
mating with each other. It is likely that a finch species arrived
on one island from the mainland, then as descendants populated
other islands, their traits changed over time. If the changes
included traits in mating, they became distinct species.
Review Questions:
1. What evidence did scientists use to determine that all 13
species of finches on the Galápagos have one common
ancestor?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
7|P age
2. How did the population of ground finches change because of
environmental changes?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
3. Does evolution happen quickly or slowly? Explain further.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. What is the definition of a species?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
5. How did one ancestral population give rise to many species,
each with different adaptations?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 5
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best answer.
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best
answer.
1. Mules are sterile because they cannot produce functional
gametes. This is evidence that
a. Horses and donkeys are members of the same species.
b. Horses and donkeys are separated by genetic drift.
c. Horses and donkeys are separated by a prezygotic barrier.
d. Horses and donkeys are separated by a postzygotic
barrier.
2. In which mode of speciation does a new species emerge
from within the geographic range of its ancestor?
a. Allopatric speciation
b. Parapatric speciation
c. Sympatric speciation
d. Mechanical isolation
3. Which of the following statements about biological species
is(are) correct?
I. Biological species is a group of individuals whose
members interbreed with one another.
II. Biological species are the model used for grouping
extinct forms of life.
III. Members of biological species produce viable, fertile
offspring.
a. I only c. II only
b. I and III d. II and III
4. The following isolating mechanisms prevent fertilization
and formation of zygote except
a. Temporal isolation c. Hybrid breakdown
b. Gametic isolation d. Ecological isolation
5. Genetic drift can be defined as:
a. changes in the gene pool due to random.
b. the movement of individuals from land to water
c. gene flow
d. continental shift of the plates on the Earth’s surface
 Week3 (Day3-4)
Father of Paleontology
LECTURE Theory of Catastrophism =
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT boundaries represent floods,
droughts, etc. that destroyed
“A major obstacle in the acceptance of the idea that organisms many species living at that
change over time was the belief of the general public in the time.
doctrine of creationism.” According to him, fossils are
remains of extinct life forms
Core Concepts:
• Early scientists who contributed in shaping and developing George Cuvier
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Cuvier)
evolutionary thought.

Theory of Gradualism =
Profound changes can result
from cumulative effect of
Proposed that the Earth was
shaped by geological forces
occurring over very long
periods of time and is
MILLIONS not THOUSANDS
of years old.

James Hutton
• Swedish naturalist and explorer that was the first to frame (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton)
principles for defining natural genera and species of
organisms and to create a uniform system for naming them, Principles of Geology = argued
known as binomial nomenclature. that the formation of Earth's
crust took place through
countless small changes
• Linnaean System of Classification
occurring over vast periods of
❖ The most influential early classification system was time, all according to known
developed by Carolus Linnaeus. In fact, all modern natural laws. His
classification systems have their roots in Linnaeus’ "uniformitarian" proposal was
system. In 1735, he published his classification system that the forces molding the
in a work called Systema Naturae (“System of planet today have operated
Nature”). continuously throughout its
history.
❖ The taxa are below:
Kingdom - This is the highest taxon in Linnaean Charles Lyell
taxonomy, representing major divisions of (Source: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/717890/view/sir-charles-lyell-
british-geologist)
organisms. Kingdoms of organisms include the plant
and animal kingdoms. One of first scientists to
Phylum (plural, phyla) - This taxon is a division of a recognize that living things
kingdom. Phyla in the animal kingdom include changed over time and that all
species were descended from
chordates (animals with an internal skeleton) and other species.
arthropods (animals with an external skeleton). Lamarckism
Class - This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes - He proposed that the
in the chordate phylum include mammals and birds. characteristics that an animal
o Order - This taxon is a division of a class. Orders acquired during its lifetime in
in the mammal class include rodents and primates. response to life’s struggles or
Family - This taxon is a division of an order. felt needs could be passed on
Families in the primate order include hominids (apes to its offspring
and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons). 1809- Published his ideas about
“Inheritance of Acquired
Genus - This taxon is a division of a family. Genera Characteristics”
in the hominid family include Homo (humans) and
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Pan (chimpanzees). (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck)
Species - This taxon is below the genus and the
lowest taxon in Linnaeus’ system. Species in the The inheritance of such a characteristic means its reappearance in one or
Pan genus include Pan troglodytes (common more individuals in the next or in succeeding generations. An example
would be found in the supposed inheritance of a change brought about by
chimpanzees) and Pan paniscus (pygmy the use and disuse of a special organ.
chimpanzees).

An English cleric, scholar, and influential

economist in the fields of political
economy and demography.
Author of the 1798 book, An Essay on
the Principle of Population.
He observed that an increase in a nation's
food production improved the wellbeing
of the populace, but the improvement was
temporary because it led to population
growth, which in turn restored the original
per capita production level.

Thomas Robert Malthus

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus)
8|P age
 ACTIVITY 2
Charles Robert Darwin was a Direction: Give specific example(s) that explain Jean Baptiste
British naturalist and biologist
Lamarck’s theory on evolutionary change.
known for his theory of evolution
and his understanding of the
process of natural selection. A. Principle of use and disuse
Although Charles Darwin __________________________________________________
originally went to college to be a __________________________________________________
physician, he changed career __________________________________________________
paths when he realized that he __________________________________________________
couldn't stomach the sight of
blood. B. Inheritance of acquired characteristics
__________________________________________________
Charles Darwin __________________________________________________
(Source: https://www.biography.com/scientist/charles-darwin) __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Evolution of Darwin’s Theory
ACTIVITY 3
• His voyage and his observations led him to write ‘The
Origin of Species Direction: Read the article below and answer the questions
• In 1831, 22-year-old Charles Darwin left England as that follow.
naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle for 5-year voyage
around the world. His mission is to chart the South The Origin of Species: The Making of a Theory
American coastline
Darwin and Wallace independently embarked on
• He noticed plants and animals were different from those
voyages and made observations of the natural world. In 1852,
he knew in Europe
Alfred Russel Wallace left the Amazon, but lost his specimens
• He wrote thousands of pages of observations and and research notes in a fire. Special creation was the idea that
collected vast number of specimens. God specially created each species in its present form and
• He spent a month observing life on the Galapagos Islands constant. Darwin discovered the origin of species 20 years
and realized that each island has different rainfall and before Wallace (in 1832) during his voyage on the HMS
vegetation and its own unique assortment of plant and Beagle.
animal species. In South America, Darwin noticed fossils of species
• He collected 14 species of finches and hypothesized that that were like, but different from, modern species. On the
the Galapagos had be colonized by organisms from the Galápagos Islands, Darwin noticed differences among animals
mainland that had then diversified on the various. that lived on different islands: the tortoises had different shells
• In 1859, his book On the Origin of Species by Means of and the mockingbirds had different colorations.
Natural Selection was published. It presented evidence
and proposed a mechanism for evolution that he called Darwin realized that species might change and that
NATURAL SELECTION. organisms today arose from older species. Darwin shared
• It took Darwin years to form his theory of evolution by accounts of his voyage but was reluctant to share his ideas
natural selection about species changing over time because they were in
opposition to the widely accepted idea of special creation.

Name: ________________ School: _____________ Darwin and Wallace met in 1853, just before
Wallace’s second research trip. From his observations of
species in the Malay Archipelago and the Amazon, Wallace
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 concluded that new species arise near similar species. Wallace
1st Quarter - Week 3, Day 3-4 found more evidence in the patterns of distribution of species,
(Trace the development of evolutionary thought) variations among species, and vestigial structures. Vestigial
structures are evidence that species are a modified form of an
ACTIVITY 1 older species. The Wallace Line splits the Malay Archipelago
Direction: Identify scientists who contributed on shaping and according to the distribution of species. Charles Lyell and
developing evolutionary thought based on the statement(s) other geologists of the time argued that landforms had looked
below. Choose the letter of the correct answer different throughout Earth’s history. Individuals within a
species vary in small ways. Thomas Malthus’ writing about
A. Carolus Linnaeus population influenced Wallace.
B. Thomas Malthus Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
C. Georges Cuvier independently discovered the natural origin of species and
D. James Hutton formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection based
E. Charles Lyell on distinct sets of observations and facts. Darwin published
On the Origin of Species in 1859. Wallace also published a
1. He proposed the theory of gradualism. book about evolution, titled Darwinism
2. His focus of studies include fossils, paleontology, and the
theory of Catastrophism. Review Questions:
3. His study about evolutionary thought gave importance to
principles of geology. 1. What was the predominant view about the origin of species
4. He wrote “An Essay on the Principle of Population”, which in the mid-1800s?
explained his predictions and changed the view of many ________________________________________________
people. ________________________________________________
5. He proposed a new system of organization for plants, ________________________________________________
animals, and minerals based upon their similarities

9|P age
 2. What did Darwin notice about the tortoises and the ACTIVITY 5
mockingbirds?
________________________________________________ Direction: On a separate sheet of paper, write an essay about
________________________________________________ Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Make sure
________________________________________________ that you will be able to include the following in your output.
3. What evidence did Darwin use to support his idea that A. Descent with modification
species come from other species? B. Existence of variation
________________________________________________ C. Struggle for existence
________________________________________________ D. Artificial selection, natural selection, and adaptation
________________________________________________
Week4 (Day1-4)
4. What did Wallace conclude about where new species arise?
________________________________________________
LECTURE
________________________________________________
PIECES OF EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
________________________________________________
5. What observations and facts did Wallace use to support his In the previous lessons, it is said that evolution is the process
idea? of change in species over time. Some changes are easily
________________________________________________ visible. Other changes occur so gradually through time and are
________________________________________________ not easily observed.
________________________________________________
Concrete Evidence of Evolution and How to Infer Using its
ACTIVITY 4
Evolutionary Relationship
Direction: Choose and encircle the letter of the best answer. A. Fossils - are preserved remnants of once living organisms
trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen in ice or embedded in
1. Catastrophism, meaning the regular occurrence of amber. The most common fossils are bones, shells and
geological or meteorological disturbances (catastrophes), seeds or pollen grains. Most fossils are formed in
was Cuvier's attempt to explain the existence of sedimentary rock. Paleontologists (a specialist in the
a. Evolution. study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or
b. The fossil records geologic times), use the fossils found in rocks to track the
c. Uniformitarianism evolutionary history of many organisms.
d. The origin of new species
e. Natural selection
2. Which of the following represents an idea that Darwin
learned from the writings of Thomas Malthus?
a. Technological innovation in agricultural practices will
permit exponential growth of the human population into
the foreseeable future.
By identifying the age of rocks in which fossils appear,
b. Populations tend to increase at a faster rate than their
we can obtain an accurate idea of how old the fossils are.
food supply normally allows.
Geologists use Relative dating rocks were dated by their
c. Earth changed over the years through a series of
position with respect to one another; rocks in deeper strata
catastrophic upheavals.
are generally older. On the other hand, in absolute dating
d. The environment is responsible for natural selection.
rocks are dated by measuring the degree of decay of
e. Earth is more than 10,000 years old.
certain radioisotopes contained in the rock; the older the
3. In the mid-1900s, the Soviet geneticist Lysenko believed rock, the more its isotopes have decayed. Since
that his winter wheat plants, exposed to ever-colder radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate unchanged by
temperatures, would eventually give rise to ever more cold- temperature or pressure, the isotopes in a rock act as an
tolerant winter wheat. Lysenko's attempts in this regard internal clock, determining the time after the rock was
were most in agreement with the ideas of formed. Hence, the records found in the rocks show a
a. Cuvier. b. Hutton. c. Lamarck. gradual evolutionary descent from simpler to more
d. Darwin. e. Lyell. complex life forms. Furthermore, the fossil record
provides a clear record of the major evolutionary
4. Which of the following ideas is not included in Darwin’s
transitions that have occurred through time.
theory?
a. All organisms that have ever existed arose through B. Embryology
evolutionary modifications of ancestral species.
An embryo is an organism in its initial phases of
b. The great variety of species live today resulted from the
development. While embryology is the study of the
diversification of ancestral species.
development of the anatomy of an organism to its
c. Natural selection drives some evolutionary change.
adult form also gives evidence of relatedness between
d. Natural selection preserves favorable traits.
now widely different groups of organisms. Scientists
e. Natural selection eliminates adaptive traits.
observed that at some point during the development
process, embryos of many different animals appeared so
5. Which of the following statements is not compatible with
similar that it was difficult to tell them apart. During
Darwin’s theory?
development, at some time all vertebrates have a
a. All organisms have arisen by descent with modification.
supporting dorsal rod, called a notochord, and
b. Evolution has altered and diversified ancestral species.
demonstrate paired pharyngeal pouches. This could
c. Evolution occurs in individuals rather than in groups.
indicate that an organism passes through some of the
d. Natural selection eliminates unsuccessful variations.
embryonic stages that its ancestors passed through. Then
e. Evolution occurs in because some individuals function
better than others in a particular environment
10 | P a g e
 numerous variations occur in ways appropriate to an
organism’s final form.
However, the similarities in the early stages of embryo
development are further evidence that living organisms
have evolved from earlier living things and that they do
share a common ancestry.
D.
Haeckel's 1874 version of vertebrate embryonic development. The top row
shows an early stage common to all groups, the second row shows a middle
stage of development, and the bottom row shows a late-stage embryo.
(Adapted from [Gilbert, 1997]).
C. Anatomical Evidence
In comparing the anatomy and the development of
organisms, it shows a unity of plan among those that are
closely related. The more body structures that two species
have in common, the more closely they are related. It
adopts the idea of “descent from a common ancestor”.
Similar structures in different species irrespective of their
functions are called homologous structures. Homology
seems to indicate descent from common ancestor. The
limb skeletons of vertebrates is homologous structures.
https://www.geo.arizona.edu/Antevs/nats104/00lect12Homologous.jpg
Analogous structures are structures which are different
in appearance but have the similar function. Analogy does
not indicate common ancestry. Examples of are the limbs
of insects and mammals, and wings of butterflies and
birds.
11 | P a g e
Vestigial structures seem like to give more evidence for
evolutionary change. Vestigial structures are anatomical
features that are usually reduced and have no function in
many organisms. These are organs that were previously
functional in the ancestors of the species but are only
remnants in the present-day species. For example, skeletal
extremities discovered in certain snakes have no known
use to these animals. In humans, appendix is thought to
have no use, but in other mammals it aids in the digestion
of cellulose.
Biochemical
Living organisms shared numerous related biochemical
molecules, such as DNA, ATP, amino acids, and
enzymes. This finding supports descent from a common
ancestor. The more closely linked organisms are the more
related is their biochemical genetic makeup.
1. DNA/Nucleic acids
Genes are in the chromosomes, which are made of DNA
or deoxyribonucleic acid. The more closely related two
living organisms are, the more similar the sequence of
their DNA molecules will be.
The phylogenetic tree of the hemoglobin gene (with its
branches) shows the number of nucleotide changes that
have occurred.
Source:https://evidenceforevolution13bio.weebly.com/bi
ogeography.html
2. Proteins
Proteins are molecules that are used to build up and
repair body parts. Scientists believe that the more
similar the structure of protein molecules of different
organisms is, the more related they are and the more
recent the existence of their common ancestor.
Unrelated species have different amino acids.
E. Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the geographic distributions
of organisms. Darwin’s trip around South America
allowed him to observe the diversity of organisms in
different areas and the resemblance of such species of
birds and tortoises in an island to nearby mainland.
Darwin believed that the group of organisms in each
island is adapted to a distinct way of life. The common
ancestors of these organisms had come from one place,
expanding out into other accessible regions.
Part 2
Choices:
A. Homologous Structures
B. Analogous Structures
C. Vestigial Structures
Description:
____ 1. These are structures serve the same function but
originated independently in different groups of
organisms that do not share a common ancestor.
____ 2. These are anatomical features that are fully developed
in one group of organisms but are reduced and may
have no function in related groups.
____ 3. These are structures that are anatomically similar
because they are inherited from a common ancestor.
____ 4. Example of these structures are the wings of birds and
insects
____ 5. Both the tail bone and wisdom teeth in human are
examples of these structures

ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Describe how the embryos changed for each of
Pangolins share similar characteristics with anteaters and armadillos these organisms from their earliest to latest stages

Name: ________________ School: _____________

ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

1st Quarter, Week 4, Day 1 & 2
(Explain evidences of evolution e.g., biogeography,
fossil record, DNA/protein sequences, homology,
and embryology)

ACTIVITY 1

Direction: Choose the best answer for each description below.

Write the letter of your answer before each item.
Part 1
Choices:
A. Evidence from molecular biology
B. Structural evidences: homology, analogy, vestigial
structures Source: Biology (12th Edition by Sylvia S. Mader and Michael Windelspecht)
C. Evidence from biogeography
D. Evidence from embryology
E. Evidence from fossils Species Anatomical Changes From Early to
Late Stages
Description: Salamander

____ 1. The range and distribution of plants and animals in

different places throughout the world and how, and Tortoise
when, they came to be distributed as they are today
____ 2. The records found in the rocks show a gradual
evolutionary descent from simpler to more complex Chick
life forms.
____ 3. Darwin was able to show how descent from a
common ancestor can explain anatomical similarities Human
among organisms.
____ 4. All living organisms use the same basic biochemical
molecules, including DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
RNA (ribonucleic acid), and ATP (adenosine Does this suggest an evolutionary relationship? Explain how
triphosphate these embryos can be used as evidence of a common ancestor
____ 5. Common structures are shared in the embryo stage between each of these four organisms.
and disappear by the time the embryo reaches the __________________________________________________
juvenile or adult form. __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
12 | P a g e
 ACTIVITY 3 Brief Background: Changes in Bone Structures with Time
Direction: Read the descriptions below and compare the The changes in horses over the last 55 million years have been
anatomy of the butterfly and bird wing by answering the given shown by studies of large numbers of fossils. The earliest kind
questions below. of horse was small and had teeth that were adapted to
browsing on young shoots of trees and shrubs. The present-
day horse is much larger and has larger teeth that are adapted
to grazing on the tough leaves of grasses. Early horses were
adapted to living in wooded, swampy areas where more toes
were an advantage. The single-hoofed toes of the present-day
horse allow it to travel fast in the plains.

1. Examine the pictures below. They show fossils of the front

foot bones and the teeth of horses. The foot bones at the
upper right of each diagram indicate the relative bone sizes
Description for Butterfly: of each kind of horse.
A butterfly has four wings – two on each side. They are broken
2. Look for and color the following kinds of bones for each
into two forewings and two hindwings. The wings are attached
fossil horse.
to the second and third thoracic segments (the meso- and meta-
a. Color the toe bones red, these are marked for you with an
thorax). When a butterfly is in flight, the wings move up and
x.
down in a figure-eight pattern. Butterfly wings are made up of
b. Color the foot bones blue, these are marked with a y.
two chitinous layers (membranes). Each wing is covered by
c. Color the ankle bones green, these are marked with a w.
thousands upon thousands of colorful scales and hairs. These
d. Color the heel bones yellow, these are marked with a z.
wing scales are tiny overlapping pieces of chitin on a butterfly
or moth wing. They are outgrowths of the body wall and are
modified, plate-like setae (hairs). Most butterflies have
different patterns on the front and back of their wings.

Source: (https://australianbutterflies.com/what-are-butterfly-wings-made-
of/#:~:text=Butterfly%20wings%20are%20made%20up%20of%20two%20chitonous%20l
ayers%20(membranes).&text=These%20wing%20scales%20are%20tiny,and%20back%20
of%20their%20wings.)

Description for Birds:

Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal,
which means they walk on two legs. Flight is used by birds
as a means of locomotion to find food and mates and to
avoid predators. Although not all modern birds can fly, they
all evolved from ancestors that could. Wings are an obvious
adaptation for flight. They are modified front legs. Birds
move their wings using muscles in the chest. These muscles
are quite large, making up as much as 35 percent of a bird’s
body weight.

Guide Questions:
3. Using the pictures, make measurements to fill in the Table
1. What is the function of each of these structures? below:
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ EQUUS HYDRACOTHERIUM MYOHIPPUS METYCHIPPUS
__________________________________________________ No.
of toe
__________________________________________________ bones
No.
2. How are they different in form? Give specific differences of
__________________________________________________ foot
__________________________________________________ bones
__________________________________________________ No.
__________________________________________________ of
ankle
bones
No.
Week4 (Day3-4) of
Name: ________________ School: _____________ heel
bones

ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

4. Using the information above, answer the following
1st Quarter, Week 4, Day 3 & 4
(Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms questions:
using the evidence of evolution) A. Describe the overall changes in foot length, number of toes,
and size of toes in the horse over time.
ACTIVITY 1 _______________________________________________
Direction: Compare the leg structures and tooth structures of _______________________________________________
the horse species shown below. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

13 | P a g e
B. How would natural selection have caused changes in the
size, feet, and teeth of the horse?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
C. What environmental changes happened from the time of the
earliest to the most recent horses?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
D. How did the species adapt through time?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Study the chart below and do the procedure that
follows.
14 | P a g e
All living organisms have DNA which codes for sequences of
amino acids which form proteins. Proteins that are essential
for life such as Cytochrome C (a protein that helps in cellular
respiration) take a long time to mutate. This allows us to see
evolutionary relationships between distantly related (have a
distant ancestor) organisms.
**For organisms who are closely related (have a recent
ancestor) proteins that mutate quickly must be examined. In this
activity, you will be comparing the amino acid sequences in
Cytochrome-C Proteins in different species to determine how
closely they are related.
Procedure:
1. Find the human, rhesus monkey, kangaroo, snapping turtle,
bullfrog, and tuna on the "Amino Acid Sequences in
Cytochrome-C Proteins from 20 Different Species" chart
provided and underline/highlight their names.
2. Compare the human amino acid sequence with each of these
five animals by counting the number of times an amino acid
in that animal’s cytochrome c is different from the amino
acid in that same position of the human sequence.
For example, the number of differences between human and
dog =10.
Number of amino acid differences between human and
a. Rhesus monkey - ______
b. Kangaroo - ______
c. Snapping turtle - ______
d. Bullfrog - ______
e. Tuna - ______
3. The cladogram diagram below shows the relationship of
selected animals based on their shared anatomical features.
For example, out of seven key traits, all these animals have
a dorsal nerve cord, but only humans, monkeys and
kangaroos have mammary glands.
A complete list of anatomical traits compared is below:
o Dorsal nerve cord and notochord: in all seven species
o Paired appendages and spinal column: in all species
except lamprey
o Paired legs: in all species except lamprey and tuna
o Amnion: in all species except lamprey, tuna, and
bullfrogs
o Mammary glands: in kangaroo, rhesus monkeys, and
humans only
o Placenta: in rhesus monkeys and humans only
o Foramen magnum positioned forward (indicating
bipedalism): in humans only
Record the total number of amino acid differences between
humans and each animal shown below.
Write your answer in the hexagon below the arrow pointing
to the name of that animal.
4. Does the data from the amino acid sequence generally agree
with the anatomical data that was used to make the
cladogram?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
15 | P a g e
5. Do organisms with fewer shared anatomical traits also have
more amino acid differences?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
6. Based on the molecular data, how does the "human-
monkey" relationship compare to the "duck-chicken"
relationship (which shows three amino acid differences)?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
7. If the molecular data, the structural similarities, and the
fossil record all support the same pattern of relationships,
can we be confident that the pattern is accurate? Why or
why not?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
8. Neurospora (bread mold) and Saccharomycetes (baker’s
yeast) are both fungi. Chickens and turkeys are both birds.
What can you say about the inferred evolutionary
relationships between the two birds compared to the
relationship between the two fungi? Explain your reasoning.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Week5 (Day1-4)
LECTURE
TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS
Through evolution, all species are related to one another, more
or less distantly. This is not an insignificant announcement.
Although it appears that most have nothing in common, they
share the different characteristics of life like the ability to
reproduce or make something of themselves.
Latest estimates of the biological diversity of the planet
indicate that there are as low as half a million or as high as
100 million species, or possibly more. To effectively research
the myriad organisms that occupy the biosphere, we attempt to
classify species into groups that represent evolutionary
relationships.
Structural and developmental characteristics and
relatedness of DNA sequences
Anatomy and embryology
Anatomical features shared between organisms (including
ones that are visible only during embryonic development) can
indicate a shared evolutionary ancestry. There are more
closely related species groups with more recent common
ancestors, and each group would appear to share the
characteristics that were present in their last common ancestor.
If a particular physical feature, such as a complex bone
structure or a body plan, is shared by two or more animals,
they may all have inherited this feature from a common
ancestor. It is said that physical characteristics shared due to
evolutionary history (a common ancestor) are homologous. To
give one example, the forelimbs of whales, humans, and birds
are homologous structures.
Not all physical traits that appear identical are indicators of
shared ancestors. Instead, some physical similarities are
analogous: in different species, they developed independently
because the organisms lived in similar environments or
encountered similar selective pressures. A duck and a platypus
are similar in that they both lay eggs, however, the egg laying
capability likely developed independently rather than from a Figure 2. The taxonomic classification system uses a hierarchical
common ancestor. model to organize living organisms into increasingly specific
categories. The common dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a subspecies of
Molecular biology Canis lupus, which also includes the wolf and dingo. (credit “dog”:
modification of work by Janneke
Structural homologies, similarities may reflect shared Source:https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms-
evolutionary ancestry between biological molecules. prodcms/media/documents/Biology2e-WEB_ICOFkGu.pdf
Similarities and variations in various species between the
Figure 3 demonstrates how the levels move with other species
"same" gene (that is, a pair of homologous genes) will help us
toward specificity. Note how the dog shares a domain, like
decide how closely the organisms are related.
plants and butterflies, with the largest diversity of species. At
DNA evidence for evolutionary relationships
each sub-level, since they are more closely related, the species
All living organisms share the same genetic material (DNA), become more similar. Scientists have traditionally categorized
identical genetic codes, and the same basic gene expression organisms using characteristics, but as DNA technology has
mechanism at the most basic level (transcription and been developed, they have determined more precise
translation). The sequences of associated (or homologous) phylogenies.
genes are also contrasted by biologists. If the "same" gene is
found in two animals, it is because they inherited it from a
shared ancestor. In general, the more DNA similarities between
the two species in homologous genes, the more closely related
the species is.
It is possible to examine segments of DNA using gel
electrophoresis, in which fragments of DNA are separated by
size. Fragments are represented by horizontal bands. Bands
between samples that are identical in size will be on the same
horizontal line and suggest that the sequence of DNA is shared.
The more fragments two samples share, the more related they
are to each other. (figure1)

Taxonomy vs. Systematics

Systematics is the study of the diversification of life forms over
time, both past and present, and their relationships between
other species. On the other hand, taxonomy is the science of Figure 3. At each sublevel in the taxonomic classification system,
organizing and categorizing living organisms into classes called organisms become more similar. Dogs and wolves are the same
taxa. species because they can breed and produce viable offspring, but they
Both a systematist and a taxonomist provide scientific names; are different enough to be classified as different subspecies.
give detailed descriptions of organisms; collects and keeps Source: https://d3bxy9euw4e147.cloudfront.net/oscms-
volumes of specimens; offer classifications for the organisms prodcms/media/documents/Biology2e-WEB_ICOFkGu.pdf
by constructing identification keys and data on their occurrence
and distribution. However, it is the systematist that investigates The following table shows four species that are classified using the
Linnaean system of classification. Features are used as bases for
on evolutionary histories and considers environmental classification.
adaptation of species.
Taxonomic Classification
The method of taxonomic classification (also referred to as the
Linnaean system after the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus,
Zoologist, and doctor) uses a hierarchical model. Moving from
the point of origin, the groups become more precise until the
branch terminates as a single species. For a start, scientists split
species into three large groups after the usual beginning of all
life. Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are groups called domains.
After domains, the following categories of increasing
specificity are kingdoms: phylum, class, order, family, genus,
and species (Figure 2)

16 | P a g e
Phylogeny Cladistics
Phylogeny is the study of relationships and their evolutionary
The most common way to integrate information into
development among different groups of organisms. A
phylogenetic trees is called cladistics. Based on features of
phylogeny is commonly represented by a phylogenetic tree
ancestor and descendant species, cladistics explains theories
called a tree diagram. An early example of a phylogenetic tree
about how organisms are linked. In the 1950s, a scientist named
is the "Tree of Life" by Darwin (Figure 4).
Willi Hennig established cladistics. It became very popular over
the next few decades, and is still used widely today.

Cladistics is derived from the term clade. A clade is a

collection of organisms that include an ancestor species and all
of their descendants. A diagram showing evolutionary
relationships is called a cladogram within one or more clades.
A clade is a relative concept. How a clade is described
depends on the species that you are interested in classifying.
Small clades may have as few as two species and a shared
ancestor. Many more species and their shared ancestors may
be found in the larger clades. (Figures 7 & 8)

Darwin was attempting to explain in this diagram how he felt

evolution had happened. The tree reveals how animals, from
the bottom of the tree to the top, developed over time. They
developed new branches on the tree of life as species evolved.
Eventually, some of these species branched into more
descendant species. Others died without leaving any heirs or
went extinct.

To reflect evolutionary history, modern biologists still use

phylogenetic trees. Figure 5 shows a basic phylogenetic tree.
Genetically related species represent the tips of the branches.
Common ancestors reflect the branching points.

The ancestor to which two descendant species shared before

they took separate evolutionary paths is a common ancestor.
Species 1 and 2 have shared a more recent common ancestor
with each other in the tree than with species 3 (Figure 5).
Species 1 and 2 are, thus, more closely related to each other
than to species 3.
Figure7. Clade
Source:
https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstancei
d=4464&dataid=41803&FileName=LAB%20Review%20Cladistics

Figure 8. Vertebrate Clade

Source:
https://www.chino.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstancei
d=4464&dataid=41803&FileName=LAB%20Review%20Cladistics.pdf

17 | P a g e
A monophyletic group (clade) can be separated from the root ____ 6. Cannabis sativa
with a single cut, whereas a non-monophyletic group (not a ____ 7. Aeropyrum pernix.
clade) needs two or more cuts. In Figure 9, grouping 1 is ____ 8. Ignisphaera aggregans
monophyletic; grouping 2 is paraphyletic while grouping 3 is ____ 9. Staphylococcus aureus
polyphyletic. ____ 10. Sulfolobus tokodaii

ACTIVITY3
Direction: Construct a phylogenetic Tree of Life and tell
multiple lines of evidence that converge to tell the story of
Mammalia as a branch in the big Tree of Life.
Mammalia (Mammals)

Prototheria
Monotremata (Egg-laying mammals)
Ornithorhynchidae (Platypus)
Tachyglossidae (Echidnas)
Theria
Eutheria (Placentals)
Afrotheria (Golden mole, hyrax, shrew,
Name: ________________ School: _____________ elephant, manatee, aardvark)
Carnivora (Dog, cat, mongoose, hyena,
ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 skunk, otter, weasel, bear, pinniped)
Cetartiodactyla (Whale, dolphin,
1st Quarter - Week 5, Day 1- 4 (Explain how the structural hippopotamus, ruminantes, pig)
and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA Chiroptera (Bats) Dermoptera (Flying
sequences are used in classifying living things) lemur) Edentata (Sloth, armadillo, anteater)
Insectivora (Hedgehog, shrew, moles)
ACTIVITY 1 Lagomorpha (Rabbits and hares)
Direction: Identify the term that’s being describe by Perissodactyla (Odd-toed ungulates: horses,
unscrambling the letter zebra, rhinoceros, tapir)
Pholidota (Pangolins) Primates (Old and
1. The evolutionary history of a species or group of species New World monkeys, hominid, gibbon,
(GLPHYYONE) lemur) Rodentia (Rats, mice, guinea pig,
chinchilla, capybara, porcupine, squirrel)
2. The study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of all Scandentia (Tree shrews)
relationships among them. (ETISSASYCTM)
3. A similarity due to ancestry. (GOOOLYMH) Metatheria (Marsupials)
Dasyuromorphia (Marsupial mice,
4. A yardstick for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary Tasmanian devil, dunnart)
change based on the observation that some genes and other Didelphimorphia (Opossums)
regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates Diprotodontia (Possums, tree kangaroo,
(MUEOCLRLA KOCCL) wallaby, koala)
Microbiotheria (Monito del monte)
5. The existence of a wide range of
Notoryctemorphia (Marsupial moles)
different types of organisms in a given place at a given time. Paucituberculata (Shrew opossums)
(RDYBIOSIITVE) Peramelemorphia (Bandicoots)
6. A study of living things that focuses primarily on evolution.
(URTIOAEVLYNO YLBIOOG) ACTIVITY4
Direction: Write on the space before the number the BEST
7. The science of naming, describing, and classifying answer to the given statement.
organisms and includes all plants, animals, and
microorganisms of the world. (OAYMTNXO) ____1. The following data shows the presence of four
8. The science that investigates how a variety of interacting enzymes across three species. Which of the following
processes generate an organism’s heterogeneous shapes, phylogenetic trees best represents this data?
size, and structural features that arise on the trajectory from
Species Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme
embryo to adult, or more generally throughout a life cycle.
1 2 3 4
(ADLNTLEVPEMOE YLOIGOB) Manatee present present absent present
Otter absent absent present absent
ACTIVITY2 Elephant present present absent present
Direction: Identify the biological domain of the given living
thing, then write A for Archaea, B for Bacteria and E for a) Manatee c) Manatee
Elephant Otter
Eukarya.
Otter Elephant
____ 1. Psilocybe semilanceata
____ 2. Felis catus
____ 3. Equus caballus
____ 4. Escherichia coli
____ 5. Pseudomonas aeruginosa

18 | P a g e
 ACTIVITY 5
Manatee Elephant
b) Elephant Otter
d) Direction: Describe in your own words the lines of evidence
Otter and how these are used to infer evolutionary relationships.
Manatee

____2. Based on the phylogenetic tree below, which statement
best describes a relationship between the common
ancestor and the other organisms?
1. Fossil evidence.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
2. Homologies
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

3. Biogeography
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

4. Molecular clocks
a. Rhesus monkeys have the exact same DNA as ________________________________________________
the common ancestor. ________________________________________________
b. The common ancestor is more closely related ________________________________________________
to humans than baboons.
c. Chimpanzees were the first organisms to 5. Genetics
evolve from the common ancestor. ________________________________________________
d. The common ancestor shares DNA with each ________________________________________________
of the other organisms. ________________________________________________

____3. Based on the phylogenetic tree below, which of the ACTIVITY 6

following species has hair? Direction: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. What is the connection of phylogeny and classification?

Explain.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
a. Species I c. Species III
b. Species II d. Species IV 2. Some organisms that appear very closely related on a
phylogenetic tree may not actually be closely related. Why
____ 4. The following data shows four amino acids found is this?
across three species. Which phylogenetic tree best ________________________________________________
represents the information in the chart? ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Species Amino Acid Sequence ________________________________________________
Manatee Arg - Lys - His - Lys ________________________________________________
Otter Lys - Glu - His - Lys ________________________________________________
Elephant Arg - Lys - His - Lys
3. Why is it so important for scientists to distinguish between
a) Manatee Manatee homologous and analogous characteristics before building
Otter Elephant
c) phylogenetic trees?
Elephant Otter ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
b) Elephant d) Manatee Elephant ________________________________________________
Otter

Manatee Otter

19 | P a g e
Name: ________________ School: _____________ ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Fill in the blank. Give what is being asked.
ACTIVITY SHEET IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
1st Quarter - Week 6 (Day 1-4)

Learning Competency with Code:

• identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a

specific taxon relative to other taxa 1. A dichotomous key to these species shows above.
STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15 Complete the missing information for sections 5a and 5b.
- describe the Linnean system of classification
- classify organisms into a hierarchy 1. a. has small wings…………….……….. Go to 2
- construct and use dichotomous keys for b. has large wings……………………… Go to 3
identification
• describe species diversity and cladistics, including
2. a. has a single pair of wings……………. Species
the types of evidence and procedures that can be
A
used to establish evolutionary relationships
b. has a double pair of wings……….….. Species B
STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16
- demonstrate how shared derived characters can
be used to reveal degrees of relationship 3. a. has a single pair of wings…………… Go to 4
- build cladograms to infer evolutionary b. has a double pair of wings………….… Species C
relatedness

The practice of classification is almost everywhere such 4. a. has spots……………………………. Go to 5

that, humans tend to classify almost everything. For b. does not have spots………………… Species
instance, one can describe the clothes to wear, types of D
utensils used in the kitchen and even the type of footwear.
Classification becomes an essential part of everyday life and 5. a. _____________________ Species E
the habit can be quite useful. In the past humans have b. _____________________ Species F
classified living organisms based on their general form and
economic use. The type of classification may not be that
systematic as compared to the ones we used today. 2. Use the key to identify the drawings of species A, B, C and
However, it does not deny the fact that they were useful. D, Place the letter of each species on the line located below
Early taxonomists (e.g. Emperor Shen Nung of China the drawing of the species.
around 3000BC) have classified plants based on practical
uses—for food, as herbal medicine, for shelter and others.
How about you? How do you classify the items you
encounter every day?

ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Fill in the inverted pyramid with the correct
hierarchy of Linnean system with its corresponding example. 3. Base your answers to the following questions on the bird
Then construct your own Mnemonic of the Linnean System. head diagrams below and the dichotomous key that
follows. Birds are labeled A, B, C and D.
Example of Mnemonic: Most Vegetables Eat More Juice So
Usually Never Pee (Planets of the Solar System)

1. a. beak longer than head…………… Go to 2

b. beak shorter than head………….. Go to 3

2. a. streaked feathers…………………. Dunlin

b. non streaked feathers………..…….. Black
skimmer

3. a. hooked beak………….………….. Go to 4
b. non hooked beak ……………..…… Baird’s
sparrow

4. a. striped head………………………. Osprey

b. no striped-on head….…………… Bald Eagle

Mnemonic: ______________________________________

20 | P a g e
3.1. Based on the dichotomous key, which bird is a Baird’s 2. Next, find organisms
sparrow? that have more than one
a. A c. C difference, B differs
b. B d. D from C by 2 features, so
the last common
3.2. Which characteristic could be best be used to distinguish ancestor of this pair
between birds B and C? lived before the
a. Beak shape c. Stripe on head common ancestor of
b. Beak length d. Shape of eye A&B and C&F. Draw a
dot to represent the
common ancestor of
ACTIVITY 4 both these pair and link
Constructing a phylogenic tree. In this activity, there are six them together.
beetle-like organism labelled A to F. Organisms D&E also
differ by just two
features, so they are
closely related to each
other but not to the
other organisms, D & E
are paired up by linking
them with a common
ancestor. Establish
I. Complete the table below listing the features of the organisms which organisms differ
by 3 or 4
Body Color Head Antennae Jaws Spots on Color
Shape Color present? visible? back? of characteristics. In this
Spots way, we can confirm
A Oval 5. White 12. Yes 19. Black the earlier assumption
B 1. Yellow 8. 13. 16 Yes 23 of the relationship
C Round 6. 9. No 17 20 24
between A, B, C and F
D 2. Pink 10. 14. No No None
E 3. 7. Black Yes 18 21 25 3. Next, look for
F 4. Orange 11. 15 Yes 22 White organisms that differ by
5 features. These are
II. Record the number of differences of their characteristics in beetles A&D, C&E and
the table below (15pts) E&F. When these
groups are linked by a
B C D E F common ancestor the
A tree is complete.
B
C ACTIVITY 5
D Building a Cladogram
E Cladograms are diagrams which depict the relationships
between different groups of taxa called “clades”. By depicting
To create the tree, Drawing Area these relationships, cladograms reconstruct the evolutionary
proceed as follows: history (phylogeny) of the taxa. Cladograms are constructed
1. Start by finding the by grouping organisms together based on their shared derived
closest relatives – the characteristics.
pair or pairs of
organisms that have Both cladograms and phylogenetic trees show the
the least differences relationships between organisms, but their main difference is
between them. In this how they compare them. Cladograms are concerned with the
case, beetles A and B way organisms are related to common ancestors through
have only 1 difference, shared characteristics. Phylogenetic trees compare organisms
so they are the closest over evolutionary time and the amount of change that has
relatives. C & F also occurred over time to figure out the relationships. Both
have 1 difference, so cladograms and phylogenetic trees are drawn using lines to
they are very close show relationships. The difference is that the length of the
relatives as well. Place lines in a phylogenetic tree represents time while the lines in
the pairs at the top of cladograms are the same length because it only compares the
the tree. The last characteristics.
common ancestor of A EXAMPLE:
and B lived relatively Given these characteristics and taxa
recently. Mark a dot
under A and B, Characteristics Shark Bullfrog Kangaroo Human
showing the separation Vertebrae X X X X
of evolutionary lines 2 pairs of
X X X
leading to the limbs
contemporary forms of Mammary
X X
A & B. Do it as well to glands
C&F. Placenta X

21 | P a g e
Draw a Venn diagram. Start with the characteristic that is
shared by all the taxa on the outside. Inside each box, write
the taxa that have only that set of characteristic.

Placenta: Human

Mammary glands: kangaroo

2 pairs of limbs: Bullfrog

Vertebrae: Shark

Task: Convert it to a Cladogram:

1. Dorsal nerve cord (running along the back or "dorsal"

body surface); Notochord (a flexible but supporting
cartilage like rod running along the back or "dorsal"
surface)
2. Paired appendages (legs, arms, wings, fins, flippers,
antennae); Vertebral column ("backbone")
3. Paired legs
4. Amnion (a membrane that holds in the amniotic fluid
surrounding the embryo; may or may not be inside an
egg shell)
5. Mammary glands (milk-secreting glands that nourish the
young)
6. Placenta (structure attached to inside of uterus of mother,
and joined to the embryo by the umbilical cord; provides
nourishment and oxygen to the embryo)
7. Canine teeth short (same length as other teeth) Foramen
magnum forward (spinal cord opening, located forward,
under skull)

22 | P a g e