380

SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS

By D. J. Weeks* and W. J. Allen*
The main object of the work reported here was to find a rational design method for
granule-fed single-screw extruders used for plastics processing.
The first half of the paper contains a brief review of the literature on extrusion theory.
Also the existing theory of Newtonian melt flow is extended to the granule-fed extruder
and predictions of the behaviour of granule-fed machines are made. In addition the extruder
flow equation for non-Newtonian 'power law' fluids is solved.
In the second part of the paper are described experiments on polythene extrusion which
demonstrate that qualitatively this non-Newtonian polymer behaves as predicted in the
fist part. An adequate correlation of flow results for the melt zones of the screws used is
obtained, using an 'apparent' viscosity with a shear rate correction to allow for non-
Newtonian behaviour.
Outputs can be predicted within about 25 per cent using the design method recommended
as a result of the work, but power consumption predictions tend to be low, and further
attention must be given to that aspect.

INTRODUCTION Diameter of die oritice.

A SCREW EXTRUDER has to melt plastics granules and present Power consumption of a screw.
a homogeneous melt to the die at a desired temperature Force at the barrel wall tangentially to the barrel.
and with sufficient pressure to force it out. T o design a Force at the barrel wall in direction x.
screw for this, both the output for different delivery pres- Force at the barrel wall in direction z.
sures and the melt temperature must be predictable. Since Gravitational constant.
the melt is heated both by conduction and mechanical Screw channel depth.
work, predicting melt temperature demands in turn predic- Distance from the barrel or screw wall of the
tion of power consumption and the rate of heat transfer point of zero velocity gradient.
from barrel to melt. Screw channel depth at the filling point or gel
Screws are often designed empirically at present, a point.
method not to be despised considering the number of Screw channel depth at the delivery end of the
extruders successfully working in the world. The consider- screw.
able success obtained is largely due to the accommodating Ratio of power law pressure term to apparent
nature of polymers. If heat cannot be put in by mechanical viscosity pressure term.
work it can be put in by conduction, and raising the melt Die length.
pressure to the required value is not difficult with viscous Screw channel length.
melts. This practical success tends to mask ignorance of Screw channel length, rearward section.
fundamentals. However, appreciation of screw mechanics Screw channel length, forward section.
is a necessity if the art is to improve. The ultimate goal is a Rotational speed of a screw.
reliable quantitative design method and it is hoped that the Exponent of power law.
work reported here will help towards it. Pressure in the screw channel.
Pressure at the exit end of the screw.
Notation Pressure drop across a die.
b Screw channel width. Volumetric flow rate through screw channel.
C Constant of power law equation. Volumetric flow rate through a die.
D Barrel diameter. Shear stress.
The M S . of this paper was first received at the Institution on 12th Swept volume of one turn of the screw.
October 1961 and in its revised form, as accepted by the Council Screw fight width, measured at 90" to channel
for publication, on 15th August 1962. axis.
* Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd, Plastics Division, Welwyn
Garden City, H e m . Barrel velocity relative to the screw, in direction x.
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 38 1

U Fluid velocity across the channel in direction x,

relative to the screw.
W Barrel velocity relative to the screw, in direction z. SCREW
/
W Fluid velocity along the channel in direction z
relative to the screw.
W' Fluid velocity along the channel in direction z
relative to the barrel.
Distance across the channel from side to side. VELOCITY OF BARREL COMPONENT VELOCITY U
RELATIVE TO SCREW ACROSS SCREW C H A N N E L
Distance across the channel from top to bottom.
Distance along the channel.
Helix angle of a screw. COMPONENT VELOCITY W
Clearance between screw flight and barrel wall. ALONG SCREW C H A N N E L

Volumetric efficiency of the screw feed pocket.

BARREL
Angle of taper of a channel. tan 8 = h- - h 2 or
I
-.
h1-h2
21
II. Viscosity, or apparent viscosity for a non-New-
tonian fluid.
pUl,pw2 Apparent viscosity of their respective zones, for
power consumption calculation.
PC Average apparent viscosity of the material for Fig. 1. Diagrammatic sketch of single-screw extruder and
flow calculation. unrolled screw channel showing notation
P
C
L
W Apparent viscosity at the screw channel wall.
PF Apparent viscosity between the screw flight crest balance equation, for a viscous Newtonian fluid which
and barrel wall. adheres to its boundaries.
p&? Bulk density of granules fed to extruder. p a 2 ~ p a 2 ~ ap
-- +- ---
=0 . . .
(1)
Pm Density of polymer melt. g ax2 g a y az
Rowell and Finlayson (I)* seem to have been the first
THEORY to solve this for an extruder, and it has been done in dif-
The problem splits conveniently into flow and power ferent ways several times since. Rowell and Finlayson also
consumption, though the two are in fact linked. proposed a simpler solution based on one-dimensional
It is assumed that the fluid material being extruded flow which ignores the retarding effect of the side walls on
adheres to its boundaries and is sheared internally. One or flow in the primary solution, i.e. assumes infinite width,
two polymers such as P.V.C. (polyvinylchloride) under but gives a correction for side effects which can be applied
certain conditions may not adhere to the boundaries and later. The correction is s m a l l for channels with high width
the mechanics of flow would then be quite different. to depth ratio.
The primary solution for a channel under these condi-
Flow tions is derived from the following equation, dropping the
Most work has been done on flow. The topics covered here partial notation for convenience.
are Newtonian melt extrusion, the effects of granule feed, pd2w dP
and non-Newtonian melt extrusion. gdy2-- & -- 0 . . .
. (2)
Integrating twice with respect to y to obtain w, using
Isothermal melt extrusion: Bow through a section of channel
boundary conditions y = 0, w = 0, and y = h, w = W.
Fig. 1 is a diagram of a single-screw extruder showing also
the channel unrolled. It is easier to visualize what happens
if the screw is assumed to be stationary and the barrel
rotates to give the same relative velocity. The barrel moves Flow Q in volume per unit time, for channel width b, is
over the channel in the direction shown, dragging fluid
close to it around the screw and towards the exit. This drag wb dy. Performing this integration,
velocity can be resolved in directions along and at right
angles to the channel. The latter velocity at the barrel
wall creates an opposite component deeper in the channel
so a vortex is set up across the channel axis. Though im- or in dimensionless form
postant for mixing and homogenizing this contributes Q - ----
- 1 gh2 dP
nothing to delivery and will be ignored for the present. Wbh-2 12pWdz . . - (4)
The axial flow is governed by the Navier-Stokes force *A numerical list of references is given in Appendix ZV.
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382 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

The term Q/Wbh is flow per unit time divided by screw been derived by Mohr, Saxton, and Jepson (2) by solving
swept volume per unit time and can be looked on as the Navier-Stokes equation in the transverse direction.
'volumetric efficiency' of the channel.
Equations (3) and (4) describe the essentials of axial melt
flow in extruder screw channels. When there is no pressure
gradient dP/& = 0, relative velocity increases linearly This procedure is analogous to that used for the axial
from the screw root to the barrel wall (equation ( 3 ) and velocity. Integration gives
Fig. 2u) and Q/ Wbh = 9 (equation (4)). When the pressure
dY2-Yh) dp
gradient is negative the familiar parabolic velocity profile
given by the last term of equation (3) and shown in Fig. 2b
u= -+
UY
h 2p dx ' ' *
(9
is superimposed on the linear to give the profile shown in Since net flow per unit length of channel is zero in the
Fig. 2c, and Q / Wbh > 4. As the pressure gradient increases transverse direction, by integrating as before
from zero to positive values the velocity profile changes
from the linear (Fig. 2a) through that in Fig. 2d to that in
Fig. 2e, and Q/Wbh changes from 0.5 to 0. At the last
condition when Q/ Wbh = 0, dP/dz is a maximum and its g d- P = -3U
gh2 d P hence _
value is given by -- = 6 (equation (4)). 2p dx h2
PW dz Substituting
One further point on the topic of flow must be brought
out. It appears from Fig. 2e for example that a portion of
fluid continues to move backwards relative to the screw
indefinitely, and will finish up eventually in the feed pocket. This profile is shown in Fig. 2f and is similar to that in
In fact this is incorrect owing to the transverse velocities Fig. 2e.
mentioned earlier which form a vortex across the channel Qualitative confirmation of the existence of these flow
and carry material from close to the screw, where it moves patterns was given by Kennaway (3), and Eccher and
backwards relative to the screw, to a point close to the Valentinotti (4) have also made quantitative velocity
barrel where it moves forwards, so the rearward velocity measurements.
shown in Fig. 2d is not applied indefinitely to any one Correlation of data of Rowell and Finlayson and some
portion of fluid. An approximate expression for the trans- obtained by McKelvey (5) against equation (4) gives good
verse velocity distribution in the centre of the channel has results providing the channel width correction suggested
by Rowell and Finlayson is used, together with a channel
length based on the mean diameter of the screw, i.e. the
diameter of a point halfway between screw root and barrel
wall. This accounts for screw curvature to a first order.

Isothermal melt extrusion: constant pitch and depth screw

W- The relation between output, screw length and delivery
pressure for a constant pitch and depth or 'parallel' screw
=AREA B is given by equation (4), except that dP/& is replaced by
,/: / , PJI, P, being exit pressure and I channel length.
The pressure gradients in this type of screw are linear
a Linear velocity profile.
and the slope increases as the delivery pressure increases
and output decreases.
Suppose that a high delivery pressure is wanted at
b Parabolic profile.
specified values of Q and W and channel area, Q/Wbh is
negative: w = o fixed and equation (4) shows that dP/& varies inversely
c Superimposed profile.
with h2, so that for high delivery pressure it is an advantage
Q > -:-
1 d P negative.
to use a small h and large b. Also the equation shows that
-
Wbh if Q is to be more independent of delivery pressure a
2 dz
d Superimposed profile. small h should be used.
1 dP positive. Equation (4) yields a further point of interest. For con-
-Q < -:-
Wbh 2 dz gh2 dP
stant Q/Wbh, the term -- is constant, and if heating of
e Superimposed profile. PW dz
hQ = 0:-d P maximum.
m the fluid occurs with consequent decrease of viscosity, the
dz value of dP1d.z must also decrease. Therefore in a screw of
f Cross flow. constant pitch and depth running at constant speed the
Fig. 2. Velocity profiles for different flow conditions pressure gradient is proportional to the viscosity.
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 383
HELICAL
Isothermal melt extrusion: compression screws HELICAL LENGTH 1 I HELICAL LENG?H I1 LENGTH /2

The dimensionless numbers used above also serve to h 1 sh,

7 c
1
explain what happens in compression type screws, where
the screw channel depth decreases towards the delivery end.
The effect of decreasing h in the direction of flow is to a C
curve the pressure gradients and to decrease total output Q H E L I C A L LENGTH I
HELICAL
HELICAL LENGTH /?,LENGTH 12
but also to make it less dependent on delivery pressure. Y I-_ il

Q, W and b are practically constant at all points in the

screw. Consequently as h decreases the value of Q/Wbh
increases, so QlWbh increases from the feed end of the b d
screw to the delivery end.
It can be demonstrated (Appendix I) that dP/& increases a Parallel screw.
for Q/Wbh < 5- and decreases for Q/Wbh > f with a Q
-- 1 ghz P,
point of inflection at Q/Wbh = f . If pressures at the feed Wbh 2 12pW I
and delivery ends are both zero, then the pressure gradient b Compression screw.
down the screw starts as a rising curve whose slope &-Jl-%) = 1---
h2 gh2P,tan 8
increases for Q / Wbh < f , and decreases for Q/Wbh > 3. At hi 6vW
Q/ Wbh = 3 the slope of the pressure curve dP/dz is zero, tan 0 = hi
- -hz
1
from equation (4),and pressure is a maximum at this point.
Beyond this point in the delivery direction, pressure c Compression-parallel screw.
decreases.
As delivery pressure rises, output Q decreases and the
& I
(1 $2 2 tan 8 - 1 - 1
h2 2, -
hi2
12
h2
+- h2 gh2Pe tan 0
tan 8-- -
hi 6pW
hi -hz
position of maximum pressure (Q/Wbh = 3) moves for- tan 0 = -
11
ward towards the delivery end. For high delivery pressures
Q/Wbh < f for the whole of the screw and the pressure . d Double parallel screw.
gradient is then a continuously rising curve with no maxi-
mum. The screw output is given by the equation with
Fig. 36 and the pressure gradients described are illustrated Fig. 3. Output expressions for various screw shapes:
in Fig. 4e. melt-fed or melt-controlled screws
A parallel or so-called ‘metering’ section at the front of a
screw will give a linear pressure gradient along the length
of the parallel section, and a stepped or ‘double parallel’ An important distinction between two states of operation
screw will have a pressure gradient which is the combina- of granule-fed extruder screws must first be made. These
tion of two straight lines. Fig. 3 illustrates these types of states are ‘feed controlled’ and ‘melt controlled’, defined as
screw, together with the expressions relating delivery follows.
pressure and output, which are derived in Appendix I. With a feed-controlled screw the feed section governs
An abbreviated form of this discussion has already been output. This situation arises when the delivery or melt end
published by Kennaway and one of the present authors (6). has the capacity to convey more than the feed end will allow
Similar conclusions on pressure distribution were reached to enter.
by Mori and Ototaki (7). A melt-controlled screw is one where the melt end of the
screw governs output, and the feed section can pass more
into the screw than the melt end can convey.
Granule-fed extruder: Newtonian melt There is a point in a screw where the material has gelled
sufficiently to behave as a viscous liquid, when its behaviour
The differences between this and the melt-fed extruder are can be explained within limits by the equations in Fig. 3.
that : Before this gel point the more or less solid material is
(1) With melt fed extruders, screw channels usually are conveyed probably by friction and in melt-controlled
full for the screw length. This is not true with granule- screws it is a matter of common observation that the solid
fed extruders because the bulk density of the granules is becomes compacted. Compacting is in effect a rise in pres-
lower than the density of the melt, and in any case the sure, but it will be neglected for the moment. Also for the
feed section does not normally allow sufficient material purposes of explanation the gel point will be assumed
to enter the screw to fdl the channel completely. Whether stationary and constant viscosity will be taken.
the channels are full or not depends on screw and feed Imagine a screw of constant pitch and depth extruding
section geometry, the material, and delivery pressure. with zero delivery pressure. If the feed section of the machine
(2) Because the material is being melted differences of were a perfect conveying device the maximum weight of
temperature and physical properties must exist in it. granules it would take in would be that weight which would
(3) The flow laws governing the movement of material entirely fill the vacant volume of the screw. This weight is
along the screw are likely to change as the material melts. given by NSFp, where N is revolutions per unit time
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384 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

of the screw, S, the swept volume per turn of the screw, Suppose a die is put on the barrel so that pressure is
and pg the bulk density of the granules. needed to push the flow Q through the die. The channel of
In practice all feed pockets will pass only a proportion of the screw will now fill back from the delivery end to a point
the theoretical maximum, and feed section efficiency 7 is where the pressure demand is satisfied as shown in Fig. 4a.
defined as the actual weight passed, divided by the weight
of granules which would entirely fill the swept volume.
Actual weight passed is given by Qpm where Q is the
volumetric flow rate of melt, and p m the melt density.
Hence
Q = 7 N S p -P g . . . . (7)
Pm
The feed efficiency 7 is in practice independent of screw
speed but varies for different materials and different feed
pockets. A figure of 0.3 is a good average. For any particular
extruder and feed material, the feed section efficiency can be
found easily by removing the barrel forward of the feed
pocket and measuring output from the screw.
For the constant pitch and depth screw being considered,
the combined effects of feed-section performance and
reduction in total space occupied by the polymer as melting
takes place cause the screw channel at the delivery end to be
I
c
LENGTH -
Medium-compression screw.
partly empty, when delivery pressure is zero.

/ FEED-CONTROLLED
OUTPUT FROM
MELT -CONTROLLED
OUTPUT FROM
EQUATION ( 7 ) FIG. 3

I LENGTH
a Parallel screw.
PRESSURE -
d General output-pressure characteristic.

t
w
a
3
v)
W
a
n

I LENGTH
LENGTH ----t

b Low-compression screw. e Melt-controlled or melt-fed compression screw.

Fig. 4. Pressure and output profiles for granule-fed screws
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS
The length of filled channel will be given by equation (4).
This can happen without affecting the rate of flow of
granules into the screw at the hopper, so the screw is still
feed controlled and output remains unchanged.
With increasing delivery pressure the channel fills further
back, Q remains the same, and the screw is feed controlled
until the channel fitls at the gel point (Fig. 4a). For greater
delivery pressure the screw will be melt controlled, Q will
decrease and the pressure gradient increase. The output-
pressure relation is shown in Fig. 4d.
Output should be proportional to screw speed for a feed-
controlled screw, and also for a melt-controlled screw under
the assumptions made. If the gel point of a melt-controlled
screw moved forward with increase of speed instead of
remaining stationary as assumed, the ratio of output to
screw speed would decrease however.
Next, consider a screw the channel depth of which is
decreased steadily but slightly towards the delivery end, so
that even for the smallest values of h at the delivery end,
Q/Wbh is less than 3. The pressure gradients would be
curves with decreasing slopes towards the delivery end
(Fig. 4b) but with this exception: that if Q/Wbh < 3 in a
decreasing depth screw the gradient will increase, as
demonstrated in Appendix I. Apart from changing the
shapes of the pressure gradients, the effects of changing
channel delivery pressure and speed would be the same as
with a constant pitch and depth screw.
Next, suppose h changes more than in the above screw,
by a factor of about 2$/1 so that at some point Q/Wbh is ;f.
The pressure gradients for such a screw are shown in Fig. 4c
but this time the phenomenon of maximum pressure in the
barrel can be obtained. Again, output and screw speed
should be proportional.
A further case remains. For large reductions in h the
delivery end restricts the feed end ( Q is less than the feed-
section delivery rate) even at zero delivery pressure. The
progression of events for changing delivery pressure is
identical with a melt-fed extruder, as described in the
previous section, and illustrated in Fig. 4e.
Constant depth variable pitch screws should exhibit
broadly similar properties except that the point of inflection
on the pressure curve at Q/Wbh = 3 will not exist.
A stepped screw should exhibit two straight pressure
lines of different slope providing the channel is fill in the
deeper part, as is usual.
The conclusions which may be drawn from this analysis
are as follows:
First, screws which are feed controlled at zero delivery
pressure will continue to give the same output with in-
creasing delivery pressure until the channel fills at the gel
point. For greater delivery pressures than this such a screw
is melt-controlled and output begins to drop (Fig. 44.
Secondly, the output of a screw which is melt controlled
even at zero pressure decreases continuously with increasing
delivery pressure.
Thirdly, output should be proportional to screw speed
under the assumptions made.
Fourthly, interest in higher screw speeds raises another
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385
important point. Thrust-bearing capacity and barrel
strength impose a limit on the pressure which can be tolerated
in the barrel or die of an extruder. Increasing screw speed
and output increases die pressure though not quite in
proportion (8), and beyond a certain output or pressure the
die has to be altered to keep pressure below the maximum.
Then, a shorter length of channel is needed to supply the
pressure. Consequently a screw which is melt controlled at
low screw speed often becomes feed controlled at high speed.
Finally, greater mechanical working of the melt would
be expected with a melt-controlled screw than a feed-con-
trolled screw. Whether a screw will be feed- or melt-con-
trolled is clearly important. It depends on pressure, screw
speed, channel dimensions, melt viscosity, and the position
of the gel point. The big diaculty is to find the exact
position of the gel point. However, it is easy to find how a
screw is operating in a particular case by comparing output
without the die, and output with it.
Non-Newtonian melt flow
The discussion so far has related only to Newtonian fluids
with which the shear rate is directly proportional to shear
stress, the proportionality constant being the viscosity.
Hence if shear rate is plotted against shear stress the result
is a straight line.
With a non-Newtonian fluid, however, the shear rate-
shear stress plot is curved. There are two common ways of
dealing with the situation. An ‘apparent viscosity’ can be
used, which is the slope of a line joining the origin and a
point on the curve corresponding to a particular shear rate.
Alternatively an expression can be fitted to the shear rate-
shear stress curve and integrated across the channel and
along the screw to give a more general but more complicated
solution. The effects of melt elasticity and compressibility
are ignored in both cases. For the second approach it is
usual to use a power expression of the form
where dw/dy is shear rate, c is a constant, and S is shear
stress, to fit the shear rate-shear stress curve, though in fact
many other types of expression can and have been used.
Non-Newtonian behaviour has such a marked effect on
flow for materials such as polythene and polystyrene that it
must be taken into account. For Q/Wbh # shear rate+
varies across the channel, being generally greater close to
one wall, so the average viscosity of the whole varies with
Q/Wbh. This will distort the pressure gradients but qualita-
tively the shape of the pressure gradients and variations of
output with delivery pressure should be similar to the
Newtonian fluid case.
Appendix I1 gives a solution of the flow equation for a
power law fluid, adopting a somewhat different method from
that outlined earlier for Newtonian fluids. The change was
necessary in order to make clear the meaning of the variables
in the final solution. The solution is plotted non-dimension-
ally in Fig. 5 (inset) for different values of the power-law
exponent. The dimensionless numbers involved are
Vol4 No 4 1962
386 D. J. WEEKS A N D W. J. ALLEN
Fig. 5 . Dimensionless relations for $ow of non-Newtonian liquids in extruder screw channels
Q/Wbh as before and w (z)
chnfl d P
. This latter number
reduces to the Newtonian expression for n = 1 when
- -. For other values of n the number will remain
cl-1
g c
dimensionless because the dimensions of c vary with n.
The essentials of this solution have already been published
(6). Hattori (9) has proposed a similar solution.
The apparent viscosity approach is to be preferred for
practical design, since it permits the use of the simpler
Newtonian flow expressions given in Figs 3 and 4 for
approximate design. Therefore in Appendix I1 the analytical
solution reached is used to derive a relation between the
average apparent viscosity in the screw channel and that
at the channel wall: for different values of Q/Wbh and n.
This is plotted also in Fig. 5 . If flow data are plotted in the
form of apparent viscosity versus (Newtonian) shear rate, as
is usual, it is an easy matter to find apparent viscosity at the
channel wall since the shear rate at the wall can be calculated
(equation (9)). Consequently apparent viscosity in the
channel can be found with Fig. 5. This process is described
more fully in Appendix 11, and is used in the second part
of the paper.
Summay of flow theory
To sum up, a generalized flow theory for granule-fed
extruders with common types of screw has been advanced
here, but the effects on this theory of such factors as tem-
perature gradients, granule feeding and melting, shear
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heating, and non-Newtonian flow presented in practical
extrusion are complex, and these must be examined and
understood before reliable quantitative design is possible.
Experiments to try and resolve some of these points are
described later in the paper.
Power consumption
Power is consumed both in the screw channel and over the
flight crests.
Equations for power consumption in an extruder appear
to have been given first by Mallouk and McKelvey (10)
and improved equations taking account of transverse flow
were published later by Mohr and Mallouk (11). They apply
best where the channel width/height ratio is high. For
simplicity all relative velocities are given at the barrel wall,
not the mean diameter.
Referring to Fig. 6 the power required depends on the
force F acting tangentially to the barrel. Axial components
only cause end thrust. Taking a segment of length dz down
the channel and width b, the force at 90"to the screw axis is
the sum of the components of the forces F, along the channel
and F, at right angles to the channel.
Force along the screw channel F, = shear stress x area
="(")
g d~ wall
b&
Differentiating equation (3) to obtain dw/dy and sub-
stituting y = h
Vo14 No 4 196-7
 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 387

Hence force along the channel F, = !! ( 4 - a ) b dz.

g h Wbh
The component of this force tangentially to the barrel is

E
gE
h (4-6.e)
Wbh b dz cos u

Using equations (5) and (6) similarly, the force across the
screw channel F, when resolved normal to the screw axis is

, H E L I C A L LENGTH
HELICAL
Power expended in the screw channel = velocity x force

m A m

W
a C Substituting U = W tan a and simplifying

HELICAL Channel power =

I
r
HELICAL LENGTH 1
4 i . -
H E L I C A L LENGTH I , LENGTH 12
H

Power expended over length dz of flight =

pf W2t dz
b d
velocity xshear stressxarea = -~
g 6 cos2 a
Notes Total power consumption for an elemental length dz of
are apparent viscosities at the average shear rates of their
p, P I , p a channel
respective zones.
pf is apparent viscosity at the average shear rate over the flights.
Flight clearance 6. Helix angle a.
h1 -h2 h1 -h2
tan 0 = -
I O r - 11 Equation (10) is essentially the solution reached by Mohr
W is relative velocity based on barrel diameter. and Mallouk (11).
a Parallel screw. Use of equation (10) often leads to the conclusion that for
flight clearances used in practice, the amount of work over
the flights is greater than in the channel and consequently
b Compression screw. considerable heating up occurs which lowers the viscosity
pf W2tl there. However, a non-Newtonian fluid behaves better
under these circumstances than a Newtonian, since the far
c Compression-parallel screw. higher shear rate on the flight tops reduces viscosity anyway
which reduces the heating effect considerably.
Using different apparent viscosities for the channel and
flights, expressions have been developed for the power con-
sumption of the more common profiles of screw extruding
d Double parallel screw. non-Newtonian melt. These are given in Fig. 6. The
integration for a compression screw is given in Appendix I.
The expressions in Fig. 6 do not apply to a granule-fed
extruder until the polymer is molten, and there is no
published theory which will take into account compacting,
Fig. 6. Power consumption of melt-fed extruder screws transmission and melting of granules as yet, though a
start on this problem has been made by Squires (12).
Melt temperature prediction depends both on power
From equation (4) consumption and on heat transfer between the melt and
gh d P the barrel and screw, and any method of prediction awaits
further work on both problems.
The second part of the paper which follows describes
so experimental work directed mainly towards finding a
($) wall =F(4-%) . . . (9)
practical design method for granule-fed extruders working
non-Newtonian polymers.
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vol 4 hTo 4 1962

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388 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Objects
(1) To ascertain whether the flow theory outlined earlier
applies to granule fed extruders working non-Newtonian
polymers.
(2) To devise a method for predicting output of granule-
fed extruders.
(3) To examine the power consumption of extruder
screws.
Apparatus
A 2-in. extruder was used for the more important part of
this work. Measurements were made with three screws of
the same length but different compression ratio. The
compressionratio is the area of flight at the feed end divided
by the area at the delivery end.
The extruder barrel had eight pressure, melt temperature,
and barrel temperature measuring points at 3-in. intervals
along its length. Pressure was measured with mercury-
f l e d Bourdon tube gauges and melt temperature by
bleeding a quantity of melt through an annulus between a
thermo-couple sheath and a tube, the flow being controlled
by a crude valve. Preliminary tests indicated that with the
Fig. 7. View of 2-in. extruder barrel
J O U R N A L M E C H A N I C A L ENGINEERING SCIENCE
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valve open this arrangement gave a good indication of melt
temperature providing that no large granules were present.
Barrel temperature was measured with thermocouples,
the tips of which were Q in. to in. from the inner wall,
and screw temperature could be measured approximately
with a probe inserted through the gearbox into the screw-
cooling passage. No screw cooling was used, but the feed
hopper was kept cool by circulating water.
A belt tension torquemeter which has been described
elsewhere (13) was used to give power consumption.
Melt temperature at the die was measured with an internal
thermocouple and the die itself consisted.of a &in. diameter
hole with an adjustable restrictor in it so that die pressure
could be set to any desired value. Fig. 7 shows the extruder
barrel with pressure gauges.
A la-in. extruder for which several screws were available
was also used, but the melt pressures and temperatures
were only measured at the die.
Essential dimensions of all screws used are given in
Appendix 111.
T o interpret the results of measurements on the screws
the flow properties of the polymer at different temperatures
and shear rates must be found. This was done by the
common viscometric technique of measuring the pressure
VoI 4 No 4 1962
 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS
required to force polymer at different temperatures through
circular holes (8). I n each case the polymer and die were
maintained at the same temperature. Three dies of dif-
ferent diameters were used.
Experiments
Flow constants of the melt from index 2 polythene were
measured between 125°C and 190°C. Two sets of measure-
ments were taken. The first, covering shear rates up to
100 sec-1 was intended for use with flow and power
expressions in the screw channels, and care was taken by
correct selection of die and flow conditions to minimize the
shear heating effect as the polymer flowed through the die.
The second group of measurements covered shear rates
between 500 sec-1 and 2000 sec-1 and was intended for
calculation of power consumption over the screw flight
crests. For this work a small-diameter die had to be used
with high pressure drop, and s i d c a n t shear heating was
unavoidable.
T o examine screw characteristics, experiments with the
2-in. machine were run at 20,50 and 80 revlmin with each
of the three screws available, and at each speed a range of
die pressure up to about 6000 lb/% was used. At 80 rev/&
it was found with the lower compression screws that the
material was not gelled properly at low delivery pressure
and therefore results were obtained at high pressure only.
The barrel was maintained at approximately 160°C for
most of the experiments by adjustment of electric heaters, or
air cooling when necessary.
120 140 160 180
MELT TEMPERATURE~C
SHEAR STRESS log
Fig. 8. Shear stress-shear rate plot and variation of n with temperature
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
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389
The dependent variables measured were melt temperature
and pressure along the screw and in the die, barrel tempera-
ture, output and power consumption. As the screw rotated
the pressure reading on each gauge fluctuated owing to the
pressure gradients along and across the channel. T o allow
for this effect the extremes of the fluctuations were noted
and the average taken.
A series of experiments was done with the 13-in. extruder
using three screws, to test the accuracy of the method of
flow prediction proposed as a result of the 2-in. extruder
work.
Flow results
Flow constants of polymer
If Q , is the volumetric rate of flow through a circular hole
of diameter D , and length L,, with pressure drop P,, the
wall shear stress is P,D,/4Lv and for a Newtonian fluid the
wall shear rate is 32Q,/nDV3 (14).
n+3 32Qv
For a non-Newtonian fluid the shear rate is --
4 nD,3'
but since n is not known at the outset and has to be found
by re-plotting, it has become common viscometric practice
to use the equivalent Newtonian shear rate 32Qw/nDw3,so
that in fact the shear rate values are in error by (n+3)/4.
The same convention will be used here, because later on
equivalent Newtonian shear rate values will be applied to
these plots to fmd apparent viscosity so that the error will
tend to cancel out.
The results are shown in Figs 8 and 9. Log shear stress
OC
4Lv
V o l 4 No 4 1962
390 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN
1 .o
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
10 20 30 405060 80100
SHEAR RATE-sac-'
Fig, 9. Apparent viscosity of polythene melt flow index 2
is plotted against log shear rate in Fig. 8 for shear rates less
than 100 sec-1, and the slope of these lines gives the power
law exponent n which is plotted against temperature in the
inset of Fig. 8. For these low shear rate results the maximum
shear heating effect was not greater than 4°C (see (8) for
calculation of shear heating).
In Fig. 9, apparent viscosity is plotted against shear rate.
There is a discontinuity between the groups of results
below 100 sec-1 and above 500 sec-1. This has been
discovered before by other workers (15) (16)when it has
been accompanied by a roughening of the extrudate,
thought to be due to tearing of the polymer in the die
entry at high shear rate. No extrudate roughening was found
during these measurements, perhaps because the die was
long enough to mask the roughening effect. Another reason
for the discontinuity may well be shear heating, which
caused between 10°C and 21°C average temperature rise in
the higher shear rate group. No shear heating corrections
have been made to the results.
Owing to the shear heating error the group of results
above 500 sec-1 was only used for viscosity above the flight
crests in power consumption calculations. For flow correla-
tion and for power consumption in the screw channel the
lower shear rate group was used, where shear heating was
slight.
Screw pow characteristics
In Figs 10-12 are plotted the measurements of melt
pressure on the three 2-in. screws. The corresponding
outputs are plotted against pressure at the front of the
screw in Fig. 13.
Examination shows the similarity between the pressure
gradients measured and the gradients predicted in an earlier
IOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE
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H O L E DIES
Pv PRESSURE DROP D,, DIAMETER
L v D I E LENGTH Qv VOLUMETRIC
FLOW RATE
4Lv
SHEAR RATE AT O R I F I C E WALL =
(EQUIVALENT N E W T O N I A N VALUE) tt
200 300400500 1000 2000 5000
section, and variation of output with pressure is generally as
predicted also.
The constant pitch and depth screw becomes melt
controlled and output begins to drop when the channel fills
at a point behind the first heater where the barrel tempera-
ture can be expected to drop rapidly below the melting
point of the polymer, though at higher delivery pressures
still the point at which pressure begins to rise is forced even
further back towards the hopper.
The medium-compression and high-compression screws
are melt controlled for all delivery pressures. The point at
which pressure starts to rise is nearly stationary for the
high-compression screw under all conditions but this is
not true for the medium-compression screw.
Particularly remarkable is the fact that there are no violent
changes of pressure gradient early in the measured lengths
of the screws which would be expected if the viscosity of
the polymer were changing rapidly, as it must do on melting.
The reason is thought to be that a proportion of granules
is melted quickly in the first two or three turns of a melt
controlled screw beyond the hopper by work done in
compressing and forwarding granules, and the screw is
consequently working a mixture of granules and melt,
which behaves qualitatively like a melt. This is asserted
because when the rearmost melt-temperature bleed points
were opened melt issued forth with occasional unmolten
granules, and the melt temperatures registered were all
above 110°C. Now it is almost certain that these readings
close to the feed hopper were not true averages, because if
large unmolten granules were present at this point they
would not be able to escape through the temperature bleeds,
so the bleeds measured only the temperature of the molten
part. Unfortunately it was difficult to measure the tempera-
ture of a representative sample at this point because a hole
V o l 4 No 4 1962
 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 39 1

Fig. 11. Pressure gradients for medium-compression screw,

2.511
Gauge point no.
Axial distance from
delivery end of screw, It can be concluded that the explanation of the mechanics
in.
of flow in a granule-fed extruder given in the first part of
the paper is qualitatively correct.
Fig. 10. Pressure gradients for constant pitch and depth screw

which would allow large granules to pass through it would Correlation of results
drop the pressure too much and upset extrusion conditions.
However, there is little doubt that if granules existed close Correlation using the power law directly has the disadvan-
tage that the exponent n varies with polymer temperature
to the hopper at the first bleed point they were contained
(Fig. 8) and so, as melt temperature varies down the screw,
in a sea of melt and the fluid behaved like a melt. The
points must be correlated to different curves in Fig. 5.
reason for the presence of quantities of melt at this early
Consequently correlation was done using equation (4),
stage is discussed further in the section on power consump-
with apparent viscosity pc
tion below. But the effect is that the pressure gradients are
similar to those predicted for isothermal melt extrusion --Q - 1 gh2 dP -
over the measured screw length. Wbh 2 12pc,Wdz * (4)
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392 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

Results for the constant pitch and depth screw at

80 rev/min have been omitted from the correlation as the
polymer was never fully molten when issuing from the die.
Fig. 14 shows the correlation obtained. Eleven per cent
of the points have a deviation greater than 20 per cent from
the theoretical line, and all the points lie within 25 per cent
of the theoretical.
Apart from experimental error there are several good
reasons which would lead one to expect deviations from the
theoretical, the most important of which is the inhomo-
geneity of the melt. It is felt that the correlation is good
under these circumstances, and is a satisfactory basis for
devising a method of predicting output from a screw.

Output prediction
Polymer granules are subjected to several processes in a
screw extruder. They are compressed, sheared either
internally or on the surface, melted by shear and heat
conduction, and the melt is compressed. A flow prediction
which takes account of the effects of all these operations is
going to be complicated, so the simplest approach has been
tried first. The isothermal melt-flow theory equations
given in Fig. 3 have been applied taking account of non-
Newtonian behaviour by using an apparent viscosity
corrected for shear rate.
To discover the accuracy with which this melt-flow theory
can be applied to output prediction, theory was compared
with practice for the results on the 2-in. extruder and also
for the la-in. extruder. Certain simplifying assumptions
were made as it was felt that rigour was not justified.
(1) For all melt-controlled screws it was assumed that
pressure began to rise when the barrel temperature
reached the softening point of the polymer (about 11SoC)
irrespective of delivery pressure.
(2) An average viscosity was taken for the whole
screw, being the viscosity corrected for shear rate at a
point -$ of the molten section length back from the
delivery end of the screw and at 160°C, which was the
P6lNTS ~
intended average barrel temperature during these trials.
Fig. 12. Pressure gradients for high-compression screw, 4.811 The melt was assumed to be homogeneous and shear
heating was ignored.
(3) The mean diameter basis used for the earlier
The apparent viscosity pcwas determined as described in correlation was dropped in favour of screw outer diameter
Appendix 11, which takes care of the variation of n, so that since this made calculation much easier.
all points can be correlated to the one line represented by (4) Leakage flow was ignored. This does not introduce
this equation. a great error, since radial clearances were only about
At gauge points 3, 5 and 7 in large scale plots of Figs 0.002 in.
10-12, pressure gradients were measured for all screws and
all speeds, and relative velocities and path lengths were Predicted outputs (solid lines) are plotted against
determined from the mean diameter. The volumetric flow measured values in Figs 13 and 15. At low die pressure
rate of the melt Q was obtained from the measured gravi- agreement is good in most cases. The accuracy of some
metric extrusion rate using the data for melt density given predictions decreases as die pressure increases. Seven of the
by Hunter and Oakes as quoted by Willbourn (17). 75 results (about 9 per cent) have a deviation greater than
The polymer temperature used was that given by the 25 per cent from the predicted outputs, and four of these
bleed measurement at each station given in Table 2. The errors were contributed by the 4-8/1 compression, lbin.
radial clearances of the screws used were small so leakage diameter, small pitch screw at 22 revlmin. This is an unusual
flow could be ignored. screw which would not be met in normal practice and too
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 393

a Constant pitch and depth screw. b Medium-compressionscrew 25/1. c High-compression screw 4.8/1.
Fig. 13. Outputdelivery pressure predictions

much signlficance should not therefore be attached to this
error. I n general it seems fair to conclude that generally
the accuracy of the method of prediction used is better than
25 per cent for the screws tried.
This may be too high for some purposes but in the present
state of the art it is probably good enough for most applica-
tions: it could perhaps be improved by modifying the
0.7
theory to take account of the other factors enumerated above
but only at the expense of complication. The authors feel
that even then important but difficult variables such as
shear heating, melt inhomogeneity and movement of the
gel point would be neglected and consequently they doubt
the justification for such additional complications.
Output prediction is recommended using the assump-
tions already made. The full implications of the different
variables available in screw design will not be discussed
here as the topic is a lengthy one.

Power consumption results

When material was bled from the barrel close to the
hopper the temperature was greater than 110°C and
certainly the bled material was mostly molten. It was
suspected that in fact large granules were present which
were not ejected through the bleed temperature measuring
points and a true average was not therefore obtained, but it
is still true that a significant proportion of molten material
was present. Fig. 16 shows the horsepower required to
raise the temperature of polythene above 15°C by mech-
anical work. It is in fact a total heat curve for the polymer.
It can be seen that by far the greater part of the heat used
is needed for melting. Consequently it would appear that
with melt-conaolled screws a significant proportion of the
work is done on the polymer in the first two or three turns
of the screw where granules are compressed, before the
-1 0 1 2 3 4 6 zone is reached where the material behaves as a liquid. In
gh2 2 this region it could not have been melted by conduction of
W
< dz
heat since the hopper section was cooled.
Fig. 14. Apparent viscosity cmrelatim As a check on this, the power consumption for the molten
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394 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06
P
(II
a
.-I 0.05
0
c
2 0.04
I-
3
0
0.0 3

0.02

0.01

C
PRESSURE - Ib/in2
(I Itin. saew 2.66/1. b l+in. screw 44/1. c l+h. screw 2-65/1.
Fig. 15. Outputdelivery pressure predictions

zone was calculatedusing the expressions in Fig. 6. Viscosity
was taken at the intended barrel temperature of 160°C, the
Newtonian shear rate at the wall for the appropriate
Q/Wbh being used for shear rate correction (equation (9)).
For tapering screws a channel depth one-third of the way
back from the delivery end of the tapering section was
used in calculating Q/Wbh. For calculation of power
consumed over the flightsthe viscosity data at high shear rate
(i.e. greater than 500 sec-1) were used, in Fig. 9. A sample
comparison of calculated and actual power consumption
is given in Fig. 17.
MELT TEMPERATURE -"C
Fig. 16. Mechanical work required to raise polythene
temperature above 15°C
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
The calculated power consumption for the molten section
was in all cases less than the measured power consumption
tending to confirm that a proportion of the work is done on
granules in the first few turns of the screw.
This state of affairs has the beneficial result that the
material can be treated as molten for most of the screw
length, which makes possible reasonably accurate prediction
of flow, but it means also that to predict power consumption
this work done in the first few turns of the screw must be
taken into account, and as yet the mechanics in this region
are not well enough understood to allow any rational
prediction to be made, so further research is needed. For
practical purposes a factor of about 1-5 to 2.5 gives about
the right answer. There are signs that the problem will
yield to attack on the lines of a dimensionless correlation
of results for geometrically similar screws.
Turning to screw design, once the required flow has been
decided, the size of motor needed for the extruder can be
found from plots like Fig. 16, assuming that all the heat is
to be supplied by mechanical work, so that barrel heating
and cooling devices need be used only for final temperature
adjustment. Using the screw to raise polymer temperature
is generally more satisfactory than barrel heating as it
gives better homogeneity.
As already indicated the difficulty then is to make sure
that a screw designed for a particular flow will in fact absorb
the power required, and also produce a thermally homo-
geneous melt. However, in the designer's favour is the fact
that viscosity, and consequently shear heating, increase
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 395

.-~ ----. gradients and variation of output with delivery pressure

have been confirmed qualitatively with polythene granules.
(2) For the greater part of an extruder barrel the poly-
thene behaves as a melt, the explanation being most
probably that some melting occurs quickly through com-
pacting and mechanical work in the first two or three turns
of a melt-controlled screw, and granules which are present
subsequently are transported in a sea of molten material.
(3) Flow through a screw can be correlated with the
Newtonian flow equation, using an apparent viscosity
which has been corrected for non-Newtonian behaviour.
(4) The viscosity data required for this can be obtained
by simple extrusion experiments through a circular die.
( 5 ) A method for output prediction can be recommended
on the above basis, which should give results to better
than 25 per cent in most cases.
(6) The strong evidence that a significant proportion of
the power consumption occurs in the first turn or two of a
melt-controlled screw makes the prediction of power con-
sumption difficult for a particular screw with the present
state of knowledge, and more work is needed. In the mean-
time broad recommendations for design can be made which
should lead to satisfactory results.

DELIVERY PRESSURE- lblhz ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

- - - MCalculated
easured hp.
hp, melt zone.
The authors would like to thank Mr W. R. D. Manning
of I.C.I. Plastics Division and Mr A. Kennaway of B.T.R.
Fig. 17. Power consumption:4-811 CompresSiOn screw Industries Ltd for considerable help and encouragement;
2 in. diameter Mr J. Messer for assistance in the experimental work;
and the Directors of I.C.I. Plastics Division for permission
to publish this work.
with decrease of temperature, and this provides a compen-
sating mechanism to ensure the same order of melt tempera-
ture for a wide variety of screw operating conditions, so that APPENDIX I
the difIiculty is not so much actual power consumption as INTEGRATED NEWTONIAN FLOW AND POWER
producing the homogeneous melt. To achieve this end, at EQUATIONS FOR SCREWS
the moment only general recommendations based on Flow in a tapering channel
experience can be given. Providing that the rate of taper is small, as it always is on extruder
It is recommended that the power consumption for the screws, the acceleration forces on the polymer are small compared
with the viscous forces and can be ignored (Fig. 18).
melt zone alone should be calculated as this will give a If the helical channel were unrolled for the whole of its length it
lower limit of power consumption. Where possible melt- would appear as shown on the sketch. The angle of taper is 8.
controlled screws with compression ratios above 311 and Equation (4) gives
length/diameter ratios of about 20 should be used as an
insurance against inadequate power consumption and
inhomogeneity. Many people use mixing heads at the At a point z along the channel, measured from the gel or filling
delivery ends of their extruders with lower compression point, if the channel depth is h
ratio screws also, to give the desired result. hi-h
tano=-
2
dh = --tan e
Conclusions
The theoretical operation of single-screw extruders with
Newtonian and non-Newtonian melts and the effects of
granule feed have been examined, assuming that the molten
material adheres to its boundaries. A theory for the flow of
non-Newtonian melt in an extruder has been developed.
Experimentshave been carried out with polythene granules
and a comparison made with theory, from which the
following conclusions are drawn.
(1) The predictions made about the shape of pressure Fig. 18
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I

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396 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

Changing the variable in equation (4) from z to h A P P E N D I X I1

F L O W O F NON-NEWTONIAN 'POWER LAW' FLUIDS
I N EXTRUDER S C R E W S
Separating the variables and integrating between the limits Derivation of jlow curves
h = hl, P = 0 and h = 112, P = P e The assumption of one-dimensional flow is made, as with
Newtonian flow.
By resolving forces acting along the channel axis on a small
as given in Fig. 36. element of fluid in steady flow, as is done in deriving the Navier-
It can be shown that a point of inflection exists in the pressure Stoke equations, one obtains:
gradient at Q/Wbh = 4. From equation (4) ddvS- ddz
- P . . _- . . . .
(11)
2hz Wbh3 For Newtonian flow, substitution of
dP
Variation of - along a screw depends on the function within the
dz
brackets.
Let
--A
1 = f
gives equation (2) in the main text.
For non-Newtonian 'power law' flow, the relation used is:
2h2 Wbh3
df=39-1
dh Wbh4 h3
as discussed in the paper.
The point of inflection in the pressure gradient is given by Integrating equation (1 1) with respect to y,
df_-
dh - 0, when
Wbh
=1 2
3
dP
S = Y x + A
Q 1 d f .
For -> -3 - IS positive. The basis of the solution of this equation for non-Newtonian flow
Wbh 3 dh is the selection of the position y = 0 such that S = 0 when y = 0.
Q 1 df dP
For - < -Y - is negative and - increases with increasing z. The physical significance of this for a particular flow condition is
Wbh 3 dh dz shown in Fig. 19.
Flow in a compression-parallel or metering section screw Iw,
This screw is sketched in Fig. 3c. l/,/,/r
If Pm is the pressure at the junction of the compression and the
parallel sections, we have
gh h2 gh2Pmtan 0
( 1 - Z ) = 1--h7-Tw-
I &sB .
P, can be eliminated from this pair of equations to give
i ,/y ,,////,,
..

//

Fig. 19
which is the result given in Fig. 3c.
The distance of the reference axis y = 0 from the barrel wall is
Flow in a double parallel or stepped screw designated h'. From the imposed boundary condition, A = 0 and so
This screw is shown in Fig. 3d.
Providing that the step is not so abrupt that acceleration forces s = y - ddzP
become important, this case can be dealt with similarly. Substituting for S and integrating further

Eliminating Pmas before

The equation for velocity through a slit of depth 2h' with

Power consumption in a compression type screw stationary walls, under the influence of a pressure gradient -is
dP the
From equation (10) dz
same as this, and the velocity is symmetrical about y = 0. Follow-
dE
dz
= E 6w'(il(l+
g h
tan? a) ing the general treatment for slit flow, w will be taken relative to
the barrel wall and will be designated w' to distinguish it from
Referring to Fig. 18 velocity relative to the screw.
hi -h dz 1 Substituting boundary conditions w' = 0, y = h'
t a n 0 =-, so - = --
Z dh tan 0
Changing variable from z to h
w2t Changing sign to make velocity positive in the rearward direction
d_E= p b W 2 j4(1+tan2 a)-- 6Q -W
dh ghtan 0 Wbhj g 6 cosz a tan 6' for convenience
Integrating and substituting the limits h = h l , E = 0, h = 122,
E=E
W' = n+l (c)"
dz [(h')ntl--ynti] . .
4(1+tan2a)lnhl--6a(1-1)]+-- pf W2tl
g tan 0 hz Wb h h g 6 ~ 0 a~ 2 [(h')n+l-(h-h')fl+l] . (14)
The other equations in Fig. 6 are obtained by combining this . .
expression with equation (10) in the text. T o obtain flow, equation (13) must be integrated. Referring to
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 SCREW EXTRUSION OF PLASTICS 391

Fig. 19 the net flow through the extruder is obtained by sub-

tracting volume B from volume A, for the particular case being
considered here where h' < h.
h'
Volume A = Wb(2h'-h) - , w'b dy
h-h
= W6(2h'-h)--
cb
n+l
(-)d z
dp n

-(h-h')(h')n+l+-
n+2
Volume B = 2
Sa"' w'bdy-2Wb(h-hh') SCREW

Fig. 21
= 2cb (K)"[ih')n+I(h-h')-
n+l dz
-2Wb(h-h') For h'/h < 1 equation (18) is obtained again, with
Subtracting these volumes to give Q, simplifying and writing the
answer non-dimensionally
Q
-I--+ 1 1 h'
Wbh( n+2) n + 2 h
Writing equation (14) non -dimensionally
The relation between -Q and
Wbh %(g)" obtained from these
sets of equations is plotted in Fig. 5 for various values of n. T o
apply these curves it must generally be assumed that the values of
c and n found for a fluid in linear flow will still apply in one direc-
. .
I t is evident that h'/h is a function of - (g)n, so that the
tion of a complex flow such as that in an extruder.

flow is described completely by - (z)n

consequence the flow parameters may be plotted, similarly to the
and by -.Wbh
Q In
Shear rate correctionfor apparent viscosity determination
Having completed the analysis above, it is possible to determine
the shear rate correction which should be applied to give the
correct apparent viscosity if it is desired to use apparent viscosity.
Newtonian, on two axes. T h e construction of the solution for Referring to Fig. 5, a value of Q1
.- Wbh corresponds to a particular
h'/h < 1 with positive pressure gradient has been described. A dp n
similar approach gives the solution for h'/h > 1 with positive value of -
&n+l
(a) and also to
pressure gradient. The flow expression is identical with equation corresponding apparent viscosity to give flow in the screw channel.
(15) but equation (16) is changed to If k is the ratio of these values, equating them

Fig. 20 indicates the way in which the solution is built up.

Now from equation (12)
'L-w 4 $ = C ( Y z dj P n

Multiplying by (h/h')n

Substituting equation (19)

1./-.SCREW.-
Fig. 20
To draw the curves in Fig. 5, for a particular value of n, values Hence
of h'/h were selected, (g)n was calculated from equation Since h' dP/& is the wall shear stress and ($)wall is the wall
(16) or (17) and the corresponding Q/Wbh calculated from shear rate, their ratio is the apparent viscosity at the wall pw/g.
equation (15).
For a negative pressure gradient, that is in the region where Hence
Q/Wbh > 4,h' has to be redefined as the distance between the
screw surface and the point of maximum velocity relative to the The relation between k and - Q can be found from the
(;)''-'
screw, as shown in Fig. 21. Wbh
h' foregoing equations (15) to (18), which allows the ratio pc/pw to
Flow Q is given by w6 dy which non-dimensionally simpli- be plotted (Fig. 5).
Jh'-h
Flow data are ordinarily plotted as apparent viscosity versus
(Newtonian) shear rate, as is Fig. 9. To find the apparent viscosity
in the channel pc/g, equation (9) in the text must first be used to
calculate Newtonian wall shear rate for the value of Q/Wbh
concerned. The apparent viscosity-shear rate data will then give
pw/g at the appropriate temperature, and Fig. 5 can be used then
to give pJg.
J O U R N A L MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G S C l E N C E Vo14 No 4 1962

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 APPENDIX 111
DETAILS OF SCREWS USED I N EXPERIMENTS

Table 1. Details of screws used in experiments

-
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Description of Diameter Total Helix Flight Channel Helical Flight Flight Helical Flight tan 9
screw D,in. number angle width width fight depth depth length depth length clearance,
of at dia. (pitch-t) length. hop.per delivery of at pr essure 6, in.
turns D,as t, In. XCoS a, Total seFon, end, constant pressure nse
degrees b, in. turns in. h2, in. depth n:e point
< ?~D/cos
a, section, pou?, to exit,
in. h, in. hr, In. 1, in.
Constant 2 in. pitch
constant depth 16.219 17.6 0.25 1.67 107.0 0.25 0.25 - 0.25 77.0 0.002
2 in. pitch 2.511
steady compression 16.219 17.6 0.25 1.67 107.0 0.375 0.13 - 0.306 77.0 oa02
2 in. pitch 4.8511
compression
parallel 16.219 17.6 0.25 1.67 107.0 0.375 0.065 39.5 0.234 77.0 0~002 4.61 x 10-3
3 in. pitch 2.66/1
steady compression 9.0 0.125 0.494 116.0 0.188 0.063 - 0.149 81-5 0,003 1.08x 10-3
la in. pitch 2.65/1
double parallel 17.6 0.156 1.043 59.8 0.3 0.093 21.7 0.3 41.5 0.003 -
Q in. pitch 4.811
compression parallel 29.0 9.0 0.125 0.494 116.0 0.174 0.032 25.6 0.118 81.5 0.003 1.59x 10-3

Note: Helical lengths are calculated at barrel diameter. All screws had single-start threads.

4
Y,
a
 399

DIE BARREL TEMPERATURES OC BLEED T E M P E R A T U R E S OC GAUGE

PRESSURE POINTS H.P.
Ib/in2 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

20 I 000 /$2Av $?\+?; w 5 ' Mi\q>-@-mq60.37 5

2 0 2000 \
2
' v\ 5 q \bv\5b/ \ S M \ b M\ b H \ b M \ b H \ b y 0.625

50
80
~ 80

DIE GAUGE
REV BARREL TEMPERATURES OC
BLEED TEMPERATURES
POINTS W.P.
Ib/in2 I I 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 1 10

JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE V o l 4 No 4 1962

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400 D. J. WEEKS AND W. J. ALLEN

APPENDIX IV (9) HATTORI, T. 1959Jap. SOC.mech. Eng., vol. 2, (7),p. 475.

REFERENCES (10) MALLOUK, R. S. and MCKELVEY, J. M. 1953 Ind. Engng
(I) ROWELL, H. S. and FINLAYSON, D. 1922 and 1928 Engineer- Chem., vol. 45, p. 983.
ing, Lond., vol. 114, p. 606, and vol. 126, pp. 249 and 385. (11) MOHR,W. D. and MALLOUK, R. S. 1959 Ind. Engng Chem.,
(2) Mom, W. D., SAXTON, R. L. and JEPSON, C. H. 1957 vol. 51, p. 765.
Ind. Engng Chem., vol. 49, p. 1852. (12) SQUIRES, J. 1959 ‘Processing of thermoplastics’, ed. E.
(3) KENNAWAY, A. 1957 ‘Plastics progress’ (Illiffe). Bernhardt (Reinhold).
(4) ECCHER,S. and VALENTINOTTI, A. 1958 Ind. Engng Chem., (13) ALLEN,W. J . and HILLMAN, D. A. 1957 Plastics, vol. 22,
vol. 50, p. 829. no. 241, p. 423.
(5) MCKELVEY, J. M. 1953 Ind. Engng Chem., vol. 45, p. 978. (14) REINER,M. 1949 ‘Deformation and flow’(Lewis).
(6) KENNAWAY, A. and WEEKS, D. J. 1958 and 1960 ‘Polythene’, (15) CLEGG, P. L. 1957 British Plastics, p. 535; 1958 Plast. Inst.
ed. Renfrew and Morgan (Iliffe). Trans., vol. 25, p. 131.
(7) MORI,Y.and OTOTAKI, N. 1955 Chem. Eng.Japan, vol. 19, (16) TORDELLA, J. P. 19543. appl. Phys., vol. 25, p. 1118.
p. 9. (17) WILLBOURN, A. H. 1957 ‘Polythene’, ed. Renfrew and
(8) WEEKS, D. J. 1958 British Plastics, p. 156. Morgan (Iliffe).

JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE V o l 4 No 4 1962

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