Chapter One Sr Introduction -— Properties of Fluids. 11 GENERAL The term hydraulics is generally used to specify that branch of mechanics which is concerned with the laws controlling the behavior of water and other liquids in the states of rest and motion, The three branches into which hydraulics is subdivided are + (a) hydrostatics which is the study of liquids at rest, (b) hydrokinetics which deals with the geometry of motion of liquids without considering the forces causing that motion, and (c) hydrodynamics which deals with the forces exerted by or upon liquids in motion including relations between velocities and accelerations involved in such fluid motion. For two centuries, the study of hydrodynamics has been con- fined to that branch of mathematics which deals on the considera-_ tion of an ideal fluid (frictionless, cohesionless and inelastic) that is sometimes assumed to be weightless. This mathematical proach, without consideration of all the p produced results which are of limit the start of theproperties as density, viscosity, cohesion, and and that it is possible to analyze and correlate the tf properties and arrive at a unified course of general f} known as fluid mechanics. ‘The discussion in this text will center on one liq However, the consideration of other important fluids s and air, especially in pipe and orifice flow, will be incl warrant a more general treatment of the subject and significant and useful to engineering students and prac} ‘The fundamental laws of fluid mechanics will be sively in this reference text. 12 DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID The two states of matter are the solid and the fi latter being commonly divided into the liquid and ge In a solid, the molecules are spaced closer than that of a and the intermolecular attraction in a solid is sufficiently that it tends to retain its form unlike in a fluid. In intermolecular attraction is relatively weak, while ina ga molecular attraction is very weak. This explains why li freely and why gases tend to fill completely any which they are placed. og A better distinction between these states of m made on the basis of their behavior under various ty A solid, when subjected t6 tension, compression of may be deformed but may be restored back to its c long as the limit of elasticity is not exceeded.REMARK: A vapor is a gas whose temperatuy a re and press such that the gas is very near the liquid state Ia dealing with Bases or vapors it is necessary to take into account th anges, in volume, pressure and temperature since these eee affect their molecular structures. (See Section 18 for dic. cussion on vapor pressure.) 13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS The properties of fluids which are of fundamental import- ance in the study of hydraulics are as follows: Weight W: The earth’s gravitational pull upon a body. Its dimension is newton (N) in the SI units. Mass M: The quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body. The dimension used for the mass in the SI units is the kilogram (Kg) which is a base unit. REMARK: The basic relation between the weight and the mass of a body is mew (1.1) g or W=Mg where g = 9.81 m/s?, the acceleration of gravity at sea level. ‘The weight of a body varies directly as the amount of g which, at sea level, from the equator to the poles, has an extreme variation of only one-half percent. On the otherhand, the weight decreases with an increase in eleva- tion from sea level and this change is approx thirtieth per cent for each kilometer n“y (12) and W= Vw. In SI units: Dimension of w is newton per cubic meter (N/m). Density p (rho): The mass of fluid contained in a unit volume, or wee PSV sive. 8 0) at and wpe. i In SI units: Dimension of p is kilogram per cubic meter (Kg/m*). REMARK: The specific weight and density of a fluid both decrease with an increase in temperature which causes the molecular activity and spacing to likewise increase. On the otherhand, with the application of additional i to increase the amount of mole- weight and density of the fluid. More commonly, the specific weight of a gas is com- puted through the combination of the Boyle's and Charles’ laws! which gives ve ie‘The specific gravity should not be confused e density since these are two different properties tae stance, the first one being dimensionless and the having the dimensions Kg/m? or g/cm’, In the $1 units, however, these two are numerically equal if the density 1s expressed in g/em?. For example, water has a specific Gravity of unity and a density of 1 g/em?, 14 PROPERTIES OF WATER (a) Specific Weight of Water ‘The specific weight of water is dependent on its temperature, “purity”, and the pressure under which it exists. The maximum density, and thus specific weight, of water occurs at a temperature of 4°C and so at different temperature the specific weight is expectedly smaller. The table shown below gives une specific weight of water under normal atmospheric pressure of 101.3 KPa and at various temperatures. It will be noted that for ordinary ranges of temperature the value of the specific weight of water is ‘approximately 9810 N/m?. This value is normally used in engi- neering problems. Salt water (or sea water) is heavier than fresh water due to the impurities it contains. For general commpalalis the specific weight of sea water is taken as 10,100 N/m?. SPECIFIC WEIGHT OF PURE WATER Specific Weight | Temperature w (KN/m?) ee a) oe Ea(b) Compressibility and Elasticity of Water 4 The compressibility of water or an it ¢ ly other |i ries i versely as its volume modulus of elasticity, also ae vat balk modulus® , This modulus is defined as ws B= —v 22 “ay where p is the unit pressure in Pa, v is the specific volume in m*/kg, In SI units: Dimensions of E, is the same as that of p which is N/m? or Pa since v/dv is dimensionless. ‘The bulk modulus at or near atmospheric pressure is the one that is of interest in most engineering applications. It is one property of fluids which depends on pressure and temperature. The table below gives some values of E, for water at different Pressures and temperatures. It will be observed that at a given temperature, E, increases with pressure. Another important factor to note is that, for any one pressure, Ey has a maximum value at 50°C and therefore the compressibility of water is, in- versely, a minimum under this temperature. BULK MODULUS OF WATER, MN/m? Pressure ‘Temperature, °C MPa (abs) 0 20 | 50 90 150REMARKS: Within ordinary ranges of pressure at any % temperature, the value of Ey does not vary tog, aoa and the following formula may be used to approximate it, oy 4p “ans oe My or By 1 (tay where 4p =P; — Pi, 4V=¥, —V3, the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the extreme values within the range ic The value of E, in equation (1.7a) gives only the mean for this pressure range. As an example, for a value of E, of 2200 MPa, it may be seen that corresponding to an increase of 7 MPa on the pressure of water will compress it by 7/2200 or about __ 0.3 per cent of its original volume. From this it canbe maintained that water is highly incompressible although in reality, it is 100 times more compressible than steel In engineering problems, a value of E, = 2070 MPais used for water. 15 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as that property of a fluid which deter mines the amount of its resistance to a shearing stress. All i possess viscosity so that when they are in motion certain nD are exhibited. This property is basically due to | interaction among fluid molecules and, when ti effects as shear stresses betweenYim) c This, velocity profile (or velocity distribution) shows the relative motion between any two adjacent layers, Layers 1 and 2, as shown, have elemental thickness of dy and velocities V, and V3, respectively, where V, = V, + dV. The shearing stress, denoted by 7 (tau), has been observed experimentally to vary directly as the rate of change of the velocity” along the direction perpendicu- lar to the direction of fluid motion, and so FIGURE 1 vs10 In the SI units the dimension of v Is N/m oF Pa, while thy: viscosity 4 has dimensions of d dd F, T and L representing force, time and length, respectively, The numerical value of j is expressed in newton-second Per square meter (N-s/m’) or pascal-second (Pa-8), E From experimental results, it has been shown that, with increasing temperature, the viscosity of liquids decreases, while for gases, viscosity increases. However, pressure has no evident effect on the viscosity of fluid except for very high pressures and in the case of some mineral oils, REMARK; Poiseuille and Reynolds have developed a practi: cal formula for the determination of p for water, 1.78 x 10° #* 1+ 0.03368 T + 0.00021 T* Pas (1.9) where T is the temperature of water in °C, L6 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY Owing to the continual appearance of the ratio of the visco- sity to the density, u/p, in the studies of fluid motion under steady state, this ratio has been designated by v (nu) and ¢ tl By 4 the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, ;The table below gives th lynamic and ke nF viscosities of water at different mspeiene “ ie VALUES OF u and» FOR PURE WATER ‘Temperature Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity (x10° Pas) » (x 10° m’/s) EXAMPLE: A fuel oil having a viscosity of 0.297 Pas flows through a circular pipe 15 cm in diameter. At the center of the pipe the velocity is 1.20 m/s and decreases to a minimum value at the pipe al. The vals of he eeSe 17 COHESION, ADHESION: TENSION s CAPILLARITY roe ee In liquids, the molecules, are held togeth molecular attraction which, as previously 5 rte ae that they only withstand a slight tensile sca’ re Dopey of the liquid which enables it to resist tensile stress is known as cohesion while the property which enables it to another body is called adhesion. bie 7On the free surface of a liquid or in a surface which is incon tact with another immiscible liquid, the noticeable tension effects depend basically upon the relative amounts of cohesion and ad- hesion between liquid molecules. This tension effect, known as surface tension, manifests itself as an imaginary “skin” (or film) over the surface which could support small loads. For example a razor blade placed carefully upon a wate: surface will not sink but will be supported by the liquid’s surface tension. The magni- tude of the surface tension, denoted as 0(sigma), is the force in the surface normal to a line of unit length drawn in the liquid surface ahd so, has dimensions of N/m. The surface tension decreases with * increasing temperature since-it is mainly dependent on the inter- molecular cohesive forces. The fluid, usually a gas, in contact with the surface of a liquid is also a necessary factor used in the deter- mination of the amount of O . The table below lists the surface tension on the surface of water in contact with air at different temperatures. SURFACE TENSION OF WATER IN CONTACT WITH AIR4 EXAMPLE: Develop @ surface of a droplet of droplet, Assume the drop! relationship between the surface tension in. liquid and the excess pressure inside Jet to have a spherical shape. ‘ SOLUTION: In reality, it is the surface tension in the surface of droplet that causes the pressure inside to be greater than pressure of the air outside. nw A 8 circular projection of2. the pressure force P due to the eXCeS6 Pressure p, . Since these forces are in equilibrium, the summation gives P-T=0 2 p 1 _xdo-0 = 4a Peta 2 (1.11) Equation (1.11) indicates that the excess pressure p increases. as the diameter d of the droplet decreases. Another property of liquids that is due to intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces is capillarity, a phenomenon which arises when surfaces of liquids come in contact with vertical solid surfaces. When cohesion has a greater effect than adhesion, the liquid surface will be depressed at the point of contact; if adhe sion predominates, the liquid will wet the solid surface with which it is in contact and rise at the point of contact. For example, water ‘wets solid surfaces but mercury does not. Fig. 4 shows two vertical glass tubes placed separately in water and mercury. At the point of contact water rises while sneeci falls.16 depression) h, Be apillary rise (or dep) nh, consider — ae ie roy red of liquid above the liquid surface ag, Fig. Aa) ane Mrorces on this mass are: ‘The fore HE lifting” force L due to the surface tension g, ang 2) the gravity force G. For equilibrium, we have L-G=0 2Qnrocos 0 — mr *hw =O p= Agcos (122) mt i or where r is the inside radius of the tube in meter (m) and w is the specific weight of the liquid in N/m*. For clean glass tubes the angle of contact @ for water is 0°, while for mercury it has 4 value of 140°. The rise or depression h is observed to increase with a decreasing inner radius r. REMARK: Gibson gives a value of 8 = 25°32! and g = 0.073 N/m for water in contact with glass and air. These values reduce equation (1.12) into h = 0.185 say where h and r are both in centimeters, _ For mercury, Gibson has @ = 12852! and o'= 0.526 N/m reducing equation (1.12) to ,continual projection of molecules in u surface and these gas molecules, i conte yt the Fe nabs of exerting a pressure known as the gt {1O%4 Saco, the liquid, Since this pressure is Primarily depend POF Pressure of cur activities of the vaporized gud i wl nage om teat For boiling to occur, the temperature of the liquid raised to such a point that the vapor praenale deta wile e mie aoe on the liquid, This simply states thai Point of a liquid is dependent both ep oth on its temperature and The table below shows a comparative value of the vapor Pressures of some selected liquids at 20°C, VAPOR PRESSURE AT 20°C Mercury 0.0170 N/m? (abs) Water 2,840 . Kerosene 8,200 Carbon Tetracholoride 12,100 Gasoline 55,000 19 PROPERTIES OF AIR Since air is widely used in engineering applications a brief discussion of its properties is in proper order here. Air, being a fluid, has all the properties mentioned in the previous sections (Sections 1.8 to 1.6), differing mainly from a liquid in terms of its specific weight and density which vary very greatly with changes ; in pressure and temperature’. 8 is ' In the footnote under Section 1.8 it is to be noted 2 state of gas follows the equation Z18 a trom which the specific weight of a gas may be computed ag ws pe = th where each variable in this equation has been properly before. (Actually, equations 1.4 and 1.15 are one and deca ‘The specific weight and density of air under different tem. peratures are given in the table below. For other gases, thee properties are found in the Appendix. SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND DENSITY OF AIR ‘Temperature Density Specific Weight °c p (Ke/m*) ww (N/m?) 0 1.293 12.68 10 1,248 12.24 20 1.205 11.82 30 1.165 11.43 40 1,128 11.06 60 1.060 10.40 80 | 1.000 9.81 100 0,946 9.28 REMARK: If a gas is compressed or allowed to expand with: out loss of heat through the walls of its container, ‘ and the special change in volume is said to be adiabatic pressure-volume relation is given as *expansion of the gas, the change Volum . isothermal. The cremains we soe mee Boyle's law under this condition as. io PY ™ Poo = const, (1.47) In equations (1.16) and (1.17), the ubscript. (0) defines the initial state of tue gaye UMMA zero As in liquids, the viscosity p of gases changes with tempera- ture and practically unaffected by pressure. However, the kinematic viscosity » of gases which depends upon the density p is both affected by pressure and temperature, Values of the viscosity p of air at various temperatures are tabulated below. The kinematic viscosity is not included since it can readily be computed with the use of equation (1.10) and the values of the density p previously tabulated. DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF AIR20 EXAMPLE: * Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of chlorine gas at 26°C and under a pressure of 600 KPa absolute, ‘The gas constant R. for chlorine is 117 N-m/Kg-K. SOLUTION: 1. Use equation (1.14) to get the density eo RT 600. 2 * “17 (25 +275) p = 17.2Kg/m?. 2, Equation (1.15) gives the specific weight Ww ps : w = 17.2% 9,81 or 169 N/m*. 8. The specific volume, using equation (1.5), is ves v= Tey oF 0.088 m* Kg, EXERCISE PROBLEMS 1. If a certain gasoline of its density, specitic volume, and. A cubic meter of air at 101.3 . At a depth of 8.km in the oc . The kinematic viscosity of 1 ft” /sec is equivalent tohow — . If 6.30 m* of a certain oll weighs 43, a specific weight, density and spect vo Ny “lewlate the . The density of aleoholis 790 Kgfm ent thin ol weight, specific gravity and Specific ier a KPa N. What is its specific volume? Sn 18°C weighs 12 ean the pressure is 82, MPa. Assume the specific weight at the tee Ges 10.10 KN/m* and that the average bulk modulus is 2344 MPa for that pressure range. (a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the surface and at that depth? (b) What will be the specific volume at that depth? (c) What will be the specific weight'at that depth? . To two significant figures what is the bulk modulus of water in KN/m? at 50°C under a pressure of 30 MN/m2? . If the dynamic viscosity of water at 20 deg. C is 1x 10° N.s/m?, what is the kinematic viscosity in the English units? many stokes? (1 stoke = 1 cm’ /sec). . -A volume of 450 liters of a certain fluid weighs 3.50 KN. Compute the mass density. (1 m? = 0 . Compute the number of watts one horsepower. (1 cial cm/sec; 1 lb = a oyChapter Two ————— Principles of Hydrostatics IL1 INTENSITY OF PRESSURE, p The intensity of pressure (Known also as the unit pressure or simply pressure)" is the force per unit of area, Ie dA an elemental part of a total area A, and dF is the force acting on this element of area, then the intensity of pressure is written ag dF jy eee (21) and F = spda. However, if the intensity of pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire area A, equation (2.1) gives the total force simplyREMARK; It should be noted ” represents only the average meas ‘over the entire area A. ie not the same 1.2 LAW OF PASCAL ‘The law of Pascal” on fluid statics states that “ in a fluid at rest, the preamure la the same in all dsetions?™ o evident due to the non-existence of tangential or shear stresses between adjacent surfaces in a fluid at rest and 60, as ated, the forces acting on any sisface fw mide Ould sabe a always normal to the surface. "To prove the above law analytically, we take a small element of volume in a fluid at rest having a triangular section and dimen: sions as shown in Fig.°2.1, Assume that the thickness of this elemental volume: perpendicular to the plane of the paper is uni form and equal to dz. Fx = PxdAy24 / ‘The forces on Oi od oy rane i or , eine iy 1 Bh ot Bl Az), where Py. Py tnd pate, ly, the Intensities! of pressure acting on the elemental areag dA, and d Bes thefluld wo we have der consideration is at rest or in eq (a) 2F,=0 dF, — dF cos 6 = O px (dy dz) = p(dl dz) cos 0 pxdy = p(dl cos 0). Since dy = dl cos 0, then p, = p. (b) EFy=0 dFy — dF sin @ =O Py (dx dz) = p(dl dz) sin 0 and since dx = dl sin 0, we get Py = p. From these results, we have shown that Py = Py =P which — prove that the pressure at any point in a fluid asthe ane in every direction. 1L8 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A LIQUID'small prism of this liquid with crow 2% uniform sectional area of at 1 and 2 and with be Lan lat the distances of points Lanne ae é topes beh, and h,, respectively, the tov catene a FIGURE 2.2 hs hana acting’ on tht ie et tne ee at the ends, dF, = p,dA and dF, = p,dA, where p, and p, are the unit pressures at ends 1 and 2, respectively, and (2) the y force or weight dW = w(dV), where the elemental26. dF, —dW sin 0 —dF, =O ¢ p,dA — w(LdA) sin 0 —p,dA=O or P, —P, = wh where h = L sin 6. Equation (2.3) shows. that the difference in pressure bety any two points in a homogeneous fluid (constant w) at rest directly as the difference in depth or elevation of the two po REMARKS: (i) If points 1 and 2 lie along the same tal plane (h = O) then the pressures at these points equal. Conversely, all points having equal pressures ke along a horizontal plane. (ii) If point 1 lies along plane AB, assuming the free surface is exposed to the atmospheric pres Pa, then p; = p, and the intensity of pressure at po now becomes P2=Pg+wh. Since point 2 may now be considered as a gen Point in the liquid below the free surface, then ‘sure at a vertical distance h is % P=P, + wh.