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ArticleTitle Effects of butanol–gasoline blends on SI engine performance, fuel consumption, and emission
characteristics at partial engine speeds
Article Sub-Title
Article CopyRight The Author(s)
(This will be the copyright line in the final PDF)
Journal Name International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering
Corresponding Author Family Name Le
Particle
Given Name Minh Duc
Suffix
Division Faculty of Transportation Mechanical Engineering
Organization The University of Danang, University of Science and Technology
Address 54 Nguyen Luong Bang, Danang, Vietnam
Phone +84 0511 3736945
Fax
Email minhducle@dut.udn.vn
URL
ORCID

Author Family Name Huynh

Particle
Given Name Tan Tien
Suffix
Division Faculty of Transportation Mechanical Engineering
Organization The University of Danang, University of Science and Technology
Address 54 Nguyen Luong Bang, Danang, Vietnam
Phone
Fax
Email
URL
ORCID
Author Family Name Duong
Particle
Given Name Dinh Nghia
Suffix
Division Faculty of Transportation Mechanical Engineering
Organization The University of Danang, University of Science and Technology
Address 54 Nguyen Luong Bang, Danang, Vietnam
Phone
Fax
Email
URL
 ORCID

Received 19 January 2019

Schedule Revised
Accepted 17 June 2019
Abstract The effects of using butanol–gasoline-blended fuels on performance, fuel consumption, and emission
characteristics of a four-cylinder spark-ignition engine were experimentally investigated. The butanol-
blending fraction was varied from 10 to 50% by volume. The engine speeds were tested at 2250 and
4250 rpm, while the throttle positions were set at 30% and 70%. The engine performance, specific fuel
consumption, and emission properties have been carried out and compared. The results show that, at high
throttle position, the flame propagation speed of combustion process as using the butanol–gasoline blends
decreases as increasing the butanol-blending fraction and this becomes more obvious with the increase of
engine speed. The engine brake torque and power are improved, as the butanol-blending fraction is less
than 30% at low open throttle position, while those are gradually decayed as increasing throttle opening
level. A significant reduction is observed in specific fuel consumption, as the butanol-blending fraction is
less than 30% for all the tests. The emissions of CO, HC, and CO2 in the case of using butanol–gasoline
blends are much better than those in the case of using pure gasoline. However, NOx emission is worse than
that of the pure gasoline for all the test blends.
Keywords (separated by '-') Renewable energy - Butanol–gasoline blend - Fuel consumption - Pollutant emissions - Biofuel
Footnote Information
 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40095-019-0309-9

1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH

2 Efects of butanol–gasoline blends on SI engine performance, fuel

3 consumption, and emission characteristics at partial engine speeds
4 Tan Tien Huynh1 · Minh Duc Le1 · Dinh Nghia Duong1

5 Received: 19 January 2019 / Accepted: 17 June 2019

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6 © The Author(s) 2019

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Author Proof

7 Abstract
8 The efects of using butanol–gasoline-blended fuels on performance, fuel consumption, and emission characteristics of a

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9 four-cylinder spark-ignition engine were experimentally investigated. The butanol-blending fraction was varied from 10 to
AQ1 10
AQ2 50% by volume. The engine speeds were tested at 2250 and 4250 rpm, while the throttle positions were set at 30% and 70%.

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11 The engine performance, speciic fuel consumption, and emission properties have been carried out and compared. The results
12 show that, at high throttle position, the lame propagation speed of combustion process as using the butanol–gasoline blends
13 decreases as increasing the butanol-blending fraction and this becomes more obvious with the increase of engine speed. The AQ3
14 engine brake torque and power are improved, as the butanol-blending fraction is less than 30% at low open throttle position,

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15 while those are gradually decayed as increasing throttle opening level. A signiicant reduction is observed in speciic fuel
16 consumption, as the butanol-blending fraction is less than 30% for all the tests. The emissions of CO, HC, and CO2 in the
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17 case of using butanol–gasoline blends are much better than those in the case of using pure gasoline. However, NOx emission
18 is worse than that of the pure gasoline for all the test blends.

19 Keywords Renewable energy · Butanol–gasoline blend · Fuel consumption · Pollutant emissions · Biofuel
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20 Abbreviations Introduction 38
21 AFR Air/fuel ratio
22 RAFR Relative air/fuel ratio The greenhouse efect is a big concern in our modern world 39
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23 Bu Percentage of butanol in the fuel (in volume) for the last few decades, as it is signiicantly inluenced by 40
24 BSFC Brake-speciic fuel consumption the pollutant emissions generated from the combustion of 41
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25 CA Crank angle degree fossil fuels [1]. Consequently, the automotive industry inves- 42
26 CO Carbon monoxide tigators turn their attention to the alcohol as an alternative 43
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27 CO2 Carbon dioxide fuel in an internal combustion engine for the purposes of 44
28 ECU Engine control unit reducing the carbon-based fossil fuels and protecting the 45
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29 EFI Electronic fuel injection depletion of oil reserves [2–5]. 46

30 DI Direct injection To enhance the combustion eiciency and reduce the 47
31 Me Brake torque emissions, the alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, and 48
32 Ne Engine power butanol) have been investigated and widely used as alter- 49
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33 NOx Nitrogen oxides native green fuels in spark-ignition (SI) engines [4, 6–11]. 50
34 PFI Port fuel injection Particularly, methanol can be produced based on many 51
35 PI Port injection ways, such as coal, natural gas, coke-oven gas, hydrogen, 52
36 SI Spark ignition and biomass, while ethanol can be extracted from biomass 53
37 n Engine speed feedstocks, e.g., corn, sugarcane, barley, and so on [12–14]. 54
It is well known that biomass processing is the most cost- 55
efective way to produce the methanol and ethanol [15, 16]. 56
A1 * Minh Duc Le
A2 minhducle@dut.udn.vn Using methanol in SI engines could induce lower reactivity 57
of organic emissions when compared to that of pure gaso- 58
1
A3 Faculty of Transportation Mechanical Engineering, line and, therefore, reduces the emission products [17, 18]. 59
A4 The University of Danang, University of Science However, the methanol combustion induces corrosion on the 60
A5 and Technology, 54 Nguyen Luong Bang, Danang, Vietnam

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

61 components, which are made of copper, brass, or aluminum and CO emissions as using butanol–gasoline blends, while 114
62 [19]. Since producing methanol is mostly required either a slight diference was recorded on HC and CO2 emissions. 115
63 coal- or petroleum-based fuels, ethanol has been widely used Yang et al. [35] claimed that butanol is a promising alterna- 116
64 in biofuel and blending agents as a commercial fuel [20–23]. tive fuel by performing butanol–gasoline blends (e.g., 30% 117
65 Ethanol can be used in diferent types of internal combustion and 35% butanol by volume) without modifying a carburetor 118
66 engines, even without any modiication made for the engine. SI engine. Results indicated that the energy can be saved by 119
67 Besides, ethanol– and methanol–gasoline blends burn in a reducing 14% in brake-speciic energy consumption and the 120
68 cleaner manner and release fewer emissions compared to emissions are signiicantly reduced compared to pure gaso- 121
69 those of pure gasoline [21, 24, 25]. In addition, methanol line. However, the NOx emission is gradually increased as 122
70 and ethanol have a greater enthalpy of vaporization, larger increasing butanol-blending fraction. 123
71 octane number, faster lame speed, and less stoichiometric Although there are many types of research concerning 124

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72 air/fuel ratio compared to those of pure gasoline [26–28]. n-butanol–gasoline blends in SI engines, the relationship 125
73 Compared to methanol and ethanol, butanol has a lower between the engine speed, throttle position, and butanol- 126

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74 vapor pressure, better blending ability, and greater energy blending fraction, which affect the performance, fuel
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75 density when used in IC engines [7, 27, 29–31]. There- consumption, and emissions of the engine, has not been 128

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76 fore, these prominent characteristics of butanol would help completely investigated at the same time. Besides, the infor- 129
77 improve the engine performance and pollutant emissions. mation of comparison between diferent butanol–gasoline 130

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78 Many investigators have examined the performance and blends and pure gasoline is still limited. Therefore, this study 131
79 emissions of IC engines using butanol. For instance, Feng presents the experimental results conducted with diferent 132
80 et al. [32] studied the performance and pollutant emissions throttle positions and engine speeds as well as butanol- 133
81 on an SI engine fueled with the butanol–gasoline blend. blending fractions. The engine performance in terms of in- 134
82 The experiment was carried out at full load (for an engine cylinder pressure, brake torque, power, and brake-speciic 135
83
84
speed ranged from 3500 to 9000 rpm) and partial loads
(at the engine speed of 6500 rpm and 8500 rpm) for 35% D
fuel consumption has been examined and compared for both
butanol–gasoline blends and pure gasoline. The blending
136
137
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85 butanol-blending fraction. An additional of 1% H2O was ratio applied of n-butanol–gasoline in fuel mixture is cov- 138
86 added into the blends to recover the engine performance ered for the range of 10–50 vol. %. In addition, the emission 139
87 and control the NOx emission. The results showed that the characteristics of the engine in term of CO, HC, CO2, and 140
88 engine torque, brake-specific energy consumption, CO, NOx have been presented and discussed.
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141
89 and HC emissions are better than those of pure gasoline.
90 The efects of the butanol–gasoline blend on engine per-
91 formance, fuel economy, and emissions are similar to those Experimental methods 142
occurred at the engine full load and partial loads. Singh
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92
93 et al. [33] performed a study on butanol–gasoline blends Apparatus 143
for a powering-duty transportation SI engine. The experi-
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94
95 ments were conducted at four diferent engine speeds of The experiments were conducted at the Internal Combustion 144
96 1500, 2500, 3500, and 4500 rpm, while the engine torque Engine Laboratory of The Danang University, University 145
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97 was controlled less than 66 Nm. The engine performance, of Science and Technology. Figure 1 shows the schematic 146
98 emissions, and combustion characteristics were revealed diagram of the experimental setup. A 4-cylinder, 16-valve, 147
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99 using diferent butanol-blending fraction in the blend, e.g., 1.6-L spark-ignition Daewoo engine, model A16DMS with 148
100 5, 10, 20, 50, and 75%. The authors concluded that the per- a compression ratio of 9.5 was used to perform experiments. 149
101 formance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of the To examine the efects of using butanol–gasoline blends on 150
102 engine using butanol–gasoline blends are similar to those the engine performance and emission characteristics, there 151
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103 as using gasoline. The performance of an SI engine using is no modiication made for the test engine. The speciica- 152
104 gasoline and two butanol-blending fractions (i.e., 20% and tions of the test engine are given in Table 1. An eddy-current 153
105 40% butanol by mass) at low and medium engine speeds and dynamometer (model APA 204/08) was used to measure 154
106 loads were reported by Galloni et al. [34]. Results showed torque and power of the engine. An inline mass low meter 155
107 that the engine torque and thermal eiciency are slightly (model DN-80; AVL) was used to measure the air-intake 156
108 decreased as increasing the butanol-blending fraction. consumption. A leveling and measuring fuel consumption 157
109 The burning rate of lean mixtures increases with increas- device (model 733 s; AVL) was used to control the fuel con- 158
110 ing butanol-blending fraction and there is no adjustment sumption and fuel temperature. A throttle actuator (model 159
111 needed for spark advance as changing the pure gasoline- THA-100; AVL) was used to control the open throttles at 160
112 to-butanol–gasoline blends. Compared to the use of pure diferent engine speeds. A gas analyzer (model KEG-500) 161
113 gasoline, there is no signiicant change were made on NOx was used to estimate simultaneously the air–fuel equivalence 162

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Fig. 1 Experimental setup. 1. Computer center 2. Puma data-process-
ing center 3. Throttle valve-opening controller THA-100 4. Air low
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9. Engine’s water coolant-conditioning controller 10. Engine’s lubri-
cant supplying system AVL554 11. 204/8 APA dynamometer 12.
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meter 5. Catch gas at caster 6. Leveling and measuring fuel consump- Engine 13. Test base 14. Damper system 15. Gas analyzer KEG-500
tion AVL733s 7. Data acquisition 8. Sensors mounted on the engine

Table 1 Speciications of the test engine could help archive a lean burning for the engine due to limi- 176
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Engine type DOHC

Number of cylinders/arrangement 4 cylinders/inline
Bore (mm) × Stroke (mm) 79.0 × 81.5
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tation of AFR control [36]. The engine torque, power, fuel 177
consumption, and pollutant emissions of an engine using 178
butanol–gasoline-blended fuels were investigated and 179
compared to those of using pure gasoline under the opera- 180

Compression ratio 9.5:1 tions without any modiication to the engine. The engine 181
Maximum output 80 kW at 6000 rpm was fueled with diferent butanol–gasoline blends of Bu0, 182
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Maximum torque 145 Nm at 3400 rpm Bu10, Bu15, Bu20, Bu25, Bu30, Bu40, and Bu50, indicating 183
Fuel system Electronic fuel injection the content of butanol in diferent volume ratios (e.g., Bu10 184
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contains 10% butanol and 90% gasoline in volume). Two dif- 185
ferent wide open throttles (WOT) positions of 30% and 70% 186
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163 ratio based on the composition of the exhaust. A pressure were set for the experiments, while the engine speed was 187
164 transducer (model IndiSet 620; AVL) mounted on the cyl- tested at 2250 rpm and 4250 rpm. The properties of gasoline 188
165 inder head near the spark plug was used to detect the in- and butanol are given in Table 2. The operating parameter 189
166 cylinder pressure. The AVL 553 and AVL 554 devices were (e.g., relative air/fuel ratio and in-cylinder pressure), engine 190
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167 used as cooling system and lubricant system for the test rig, performance factors (e.g., brake toque, power, and fuel con- 191
168 respectively. sumption) and pollutant emissions (e.g., HC, CO, NOx, and 192
CO2) were measured and compared for the test fuels. 193
169 Testing strategy

170 In this study, an original fuel injection strategy controlled Results and discussion 194
171 by the ECU was set to control the fuel injection timing and
172 ignition system based on the use of pure gasoline. The stoi- In-cylinder pressure 195
173 chiometric air/fuel ratio (AFR) of butanol and gasoline is
174 11.12 and 14.7, respectively. Therefore, the butanol–gasoline The relative air/fuel ratio (RAFR) during the tests for dif- 196
175 blends are always run at a higher AFR. This coniguration ferent butanol–gasoline blends at opening throttle levels 197

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

Table 2 Properties for Butanol and gasoline fuel [40–44] The temporal variation of in-cylinder pressure for vari- 216

Fuel property Butanol Gasoline ous butanol–gasoline blends at the opening throttle levels 217
of 30% and 70% and engine speed of 2250 and 4250 rpm is 218
Formula C4H9OH C8H15 shown in Fig. 3. For clarity presentation, four butanol–gaso- 219
Octane number 96 90–99 line blends are selected to compare as Bu0, Bu10, Bu30, and 220
Composition (C, H, O) (% mass) 65, 13.5, 21.5 86, 14, 0 Bu50. To compare the combustion characteristics of blended 221
Density (kg/m3) at 20 °C 810 745 fuels to pure gasoline (i.e., Bu0), the in-cylinder pressure is 222
Boiling point (°C) 117.7 25-215 considered to be one of the most important parameters. In 223
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) at 25 °C 582 223.2 the case of using pure gasoline, it is observed that the in- 224
Saturation pressure (kPa) at 38 °C 2.27 31.01 cylinder pressure increases as increasing the open throttle 225
Low heating value (MJ/kg) 33.3 43 level. As illustrated in Figs. 3a–d, at a ixed open throttle, 226
Auto ignition temperature (°C) 385 420

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the maximum in-cylinder pressure increases with increas- 227
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 11.12 14.7 ing the engine speed. As shown in Fig. 3a (30% of WOT, 228

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n = 2250 rpm), the maximum in-cylinder pressure exhibits
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229
a slight increment of 5%, as the butanol-blending fraction is 230

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low (e.g., Bu10) compared to the pure gasoline (i.e., Bu0). 231
However, as the butanol blend ratio increases, the maximum 232
in-cylinder pressure is decreased gradually. For instance, the

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233
peak value of in-cylinder pressure is reduced by 12% and 234
19% as using Bu30 and Bu50, respectively, compared to 235
that of using pure gasoline (i.e., Bu0). As the engine speed 236
increases, in Fig. 3b (n = 4250 rpm), the increasing rate of 237

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in-cylinder pressure when using Bu10 and Bu30 is about
8% and 6%, respectively, compared to pure gasoline. It is
238
239
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also shown that when the addition of butanol goes beyond 240
30% in the blend (e.g., Bu50), the peak value of in-cylinder 241
pressure starts to decrease consequently. For instance, the 242
reduction of maximum in-cylinder pressure for the case of 243
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Bu50 is about 6% compared to that of Bu0 case. 244

At a high throttle position (i.e., 70% of WOT) and an 245
engine speed of n = 2250 rpm (Fig. 3c), the peak value of 246
Fig. 2 Relative air–fuel ratio during the test with diferent butanol– in-cylinder pressure in the case of Bu0 exhibits a larger value
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247
gasoline-blended fuels compared to that of the other butanol–gasoline blends. The 248
peak value of in-cylinder pressure is decreased gradually, as
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249
increasing the butanol-blending fraction. For instance, the 250
198 of 30% and 70% is shown in Fig. 2. As shown in Fig. 2, reduction of maximum in-cylinder pressure for the case of 251
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199 the RAFR increases as increasing the butanol–gasoline Bu10, Bu30, and Bu50 is about 11.5, 13, and 17%, respec- 252
200 blends compared to that of pure gasoline for both cases tively, compared to that of Bu0 case. This is because the 253
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201 of low and high throttle opens. For low throttle position butanol–gasoline blends have a lower heating value com- 254
202 (i.e., 30% of WOT), at any ixed butanol-blending frac- pared to that of pure gasoline (Table 2). 255
203 tion, the RAFR decreases as increasing the engine speed. Similar to that occurred in Fig. 3c, at the engine speed 256
204 For instance, the RAFR at n = 2250 rpm is reduced about of n = 4250 rpm (as shown in Fig. 3d), the peak value of in- 257
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205 16, 10, and 14% as the butanol blend ratio of 10, 30, and cylinder pressure drops as increasing the butanol-blending 258
206 50%, respectively, compared to that at n = 4250 rpm. In fraction due to the low heating value of the blends and non- 259
207 contrast, at high throttle position (i.e., 70% of WOT), for homogeneous of the fuel mixture. This is because lean air/ 260
208 any ixed butanol-blending fraction, the RAFR increases fuel mixtures (Fig. 2) burn more slowly than stoichiometric 261
209 with increasing the engine speed. For instance, the incre- mixtures leading to lower peak pressures appearance. In this 262
210 ment of RAFR at n = 4250 rpm is about 16, 19, and 9% study, the formation of in-cylinder pressure can be used to 263
211 for Bu10, Bu30, and Bu50, respectively, compared to that explain the behavior of laminar lame speed (or lame propa- 264
212 at n = 2250 rpm. In other words, the RAFR in the case of gation speed) when using diferent blends, since the spark- 265
213 using butanol–gasoline blends at either low or high throt- ignition timing is ixed. As shown in Fig. 3c, d, the lame 266
214 tle position exhibit a higher value than that in the case of propagation speed of the blend fuels decreases as increasing 267
215 using pure gasoline; therefore, the fuel mixture is leaner. the butanol-blending fraction. This happens more obvious 268

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Fig. 3 In-cylinder pressure of

engine using diferent butanol–
gasoline-blended fuels

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

269 as increasing the engine speed due to the greater latent heat butanol–gasoline blends. A higher percentage of butanol in 301
270 of vaporization in the blends. blends causes a non-homogeneous mixture and might lead 302
to an incomplete combustion; therefore, the brake torque is 303
271 Brake torque and power reduced appropriately. 304
Figure 5 presents the power of engine for the diferent 305
272 The output brake toque (Me) of the engine using diferent blends studied. As illustrated in Fig. 5, the power of engine 306
273 butanol–gasoline blends at the opening throttle levels of 30% exhibits a scenario similar to that presented in brake torque 307
274 and 70% and engine speeds of n = 2250 and 4250 rpm is for all the tests (Fig. 4). The power of engine increases 308
275 shown in Fig. 4. signiicantly as increasing the throttle opening due to the 309
276 As shown in Fig. 4, the brake torque values increase rap- increment of air-intake eiciency for all the test cases of 310
277 idly as increasing the throttle valve opening for all the test butanol–gasoline blends. For example, at 30% of WOT, for 311

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278 cases. For instance, at the butanol-blending fraction of 20%, the case of Bu25, the power of the engine is about 21 and 312
279 the brake torque is about 89 and 103 Nm as 30% and 70% 35 kW for the engine speed of n = 2250 rpm and 4250 rpm, 313

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280 of WOT, respectively, at the engine speed of n = 2250 rpm, respectively. Similarity, at 70% of WOT, the engine power
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281 while it is about 78 and 113 Nm as an open throttle of 30% is approximately 24 and 49 kW for the engine speed of 315

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282 and 70%, respectively, at the engine speed of n = 4250 rpm. n = 2250 and 4250 rpm, respectively, at the butanol-blending 316
283 In general, at low throttle position (i.e., 30% of WOT), the fraction of 25%. It is also observed that, at a low throttle 317
brake torque is slightly increased with increasing the per- position (i.e., 30% of WOT), a slight increment of engine

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284 318
285 centage of butanol in butanol–gasoline blended and reaches power occurred; since the butanol-blending fraction is less 319
286 a peak at Bu25. For instance, the increment of brake torque than 30%, then it is decreased slightly as butanol–gasoline 320
287 at Bu25 is about 5% and 6% compared to pure gasoline at ratio goes beyond 30%. This is because of the distribution 321
288 n = 2250 and 4250 rpm, respectively. When the butanol- of fuel vapor in the combustion chamber that the moment of 322
289
290
blending fraction goes beyond 30%, the brake torque starts
to decrease slightly, as the RAFR increases rapidly (Fig. 2). D
ignition at low opening throttle-level condition might be bet-
ter than that of the higher one. Therefore, the performance
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324
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291 At high throttle position (i.e., 70% of WOT), the brake is improved appropriately. Besides that, at a high throttle 325
292 torque decreases gradually as increasing the butanol–gaso- position (e.g., 70% of WOT), the power of the engine is 326
293 line blend ratio. This is because the pure gasoline exhibits a decreased as increasing the butanol-blending fraction due 327
294 low value of the latent heat and a high value of the saturation to the higher heat of evaporation of butanol–gasoline blends 328
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295 vapor pressure as compared to those of butanol [37–41]. compared to that of pure gasoline (Table 2). 329
296 For instance, as shown in Table 2, the low heating value
297 and saturation vapor pressure of the pure gasoline are 43 Speciic fuel consumption 330
and 31.01, respectively, while those of butanol are 33.3 and
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298
299 2.27, respectively. Therefore, the evaporation time of pure The brake-speciic fuel consumption (BSFC) of the engine 331
gasoline after injecting is shorter when compared to that of using diferent butanol–gasoline blends at various opening
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300 332
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Fig. 4 Brake torque of engine using diferent butanol–gasoline- Fig. 5 Power of engine using diferent butanol–gasoline-blended
blended fuels fuels

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Fig. 6 Speciic fuel consumptions for diferent butanol–gasoline-
blended fuels Fig. 7 Carbon-monoxide emissions for diferent butanol–gasoline-

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blended fuels

333 throttle levels and engine speeds is shown in Fig. 6. The

334 BSFC (g/kWh) is deined as the ratio of the rate of fuel emission decreases gradually with increasing butanol con- 365
335 consumption (g/h) and the brake power (kW). As shown centration in blends. This is because the butanol–gasoline 366
336
337
in Fig. 6, the BSFC in the cases of using butanol–gasoline
blend exhibits a signiicant reduction compared to that in
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blend fuel burns more thoroughly than pure gasoline due
to its higher RAFR (Fig. 2) and lower carbon content. At
367
368
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338 the case of using pure gasoline, since the blends ratio is less higher RAFR, i.e., higher oxygen in the air, the CO emis- 369
339 than 30%, which results from the decrease of brake torque sions are lower than that at lower RAFR. In addition, a 370
340 and power (as shown in Figs. 4 and 5). For instance, at 30% higher percentage of butanol in blends leads lower carbon 371
341 of WOT and Bu20, the reduction on BSFC is about 3.6% content compared to that in pure gasoline, so that the CO 372
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342 and 8.4% for the engine speeds of n = 2250 and 4250 rpm, emissions (as using butanol–gasoline blends) are lower 373
343 respectively. At 70% of WOT and Bu20, the BSFC is than those exhibited in pure gasoline case. This observa- 374
344 reduced by 1.5% and 4.3% for the engine speeds of n = 2250 tion is well agreed with several studies before [36, 37, 43]. 375
345 and 4250 rpm, respectively. However, as the butanol concen- In other words, the CO emission is signiicantly inluenced 376
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346 tration in the blend is greater than 30%, the BSFC starts to by the properties of fuel (i.e., butanol–gasoline blends). 377
347 increase rapidly. It means that for the same operating condi- Figure  8 shows the hydrocarbon (HC) emissions of 378
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348 tions, the engine needs to burn more butanol–gasoline blend butanol–gasoline blends and pure gasoline at diferent 379
349 than pure gasoline. This is because of the disadvantages of throttle positions and engine speeds. It is well known that 380
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350 butanol, which are the lower air-to-fuel ratio for stoichio- the HC emissions mainly result from engine misiring and 381
351 metric mixtures and lower heating value when compared to poor/incomplete combustion. Besides that, the amount of 382
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352 those of pure gasoline (Table 2). unburned HC depends on the engine operating conditions 383
and fuel properties [36, 42]. As illustrated in Fig. 8, at 384
353 Emission characteristics 30% of WOT, the higher butanol blend ratio, the lower 385
the HC emission for a butanol concentration in blend less 386
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354 The carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the toxic gas need than 30%. However, when the butanol concentration goes 387
355 to be reduced and controlled for the SI engine. The CO beyond 30%, due to the burning of small fuel quantity, a 388
356 could induce incomplete combustion and poor air–fuel lower temperature occurs during combustion; therefore, 389
357 management [36]. The existence of oxygen in fuel exhibits it induces poor vaporization and mixing of fuel and air. 390
358 a major efect on CO emission in the SI engine [42]. Fig- Consequently, incomplete combustion of inhomogeneous 391
359 ure 7 presents CO emissions of butanol–gasoline blends charge leads to increment of HC emissions. At 70% of 392
360 and pure gasoline at diferent throttle positions of 30% WOT and engine speed of n = 2250 rpm, the trend of HC 393
361 and 70% and engine speeds of n = 2250 and 4250 rpm. emission displays the same as that of CO emission, since 394
362 It is observed that CO emissions of using butanol–gaso- the butanol–gasoline blend fuel contents lower carbon and 395
363 line blends at various opening throttle levels are much better combustion process than pure gasoline. It is also 396
364 lower than that of using pure gasoline. In addition, the CO shown that, at an engine speed of n = 4250 rpm, the HC 397

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

links unlike carbon contents in the butanol and gasoline 413

fuels (Table 2). It is also found that CO2 emission in the 414
case of high throttle position (i.e., 70% of WOT) and engine 415
speed of n = 4250 rpm is lower than that in the case of low 416
throttle position (30% of WOT) for any butanol–gasoline 417
blend ratio. This can be explained that the engine operated 418
at low opening throttle level using butanol–gasoline blends 419
can provide higher eiciency of combustion process than 420
that at high throttle position. 421
The formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) as using 422
butanol–gasoline blends and pure gasoline is revealed 423

F
in Fig.  10. It is well known that the NOx is depended 424
on many factors, such as engine load, temperature, com- 425

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bustion chamber content, and mixture density [36, 42].
Author Proof

426
As shown in Fig. 10, NOx emission in the case of using 427

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butanol–gasoline blends is signiicantly higher than that 428
Fig. 8 Unburned hydrocarbon emissions for diferent butanol–gaso-
line-blended fuels
in the pure gasoline case at all the test blends and engine 429
speeds. It is also shown that the NOx emission in the case

PR
430
of WOT 70% is greater than that in the case of WOT 30%. 431
398 emission at high throttle position exhibits a similar sce- Particularly, at a ixed opening throttle level, the increment 432
399 nario like that at a lower one. of NOx emission at low engine speed is signiicantly lower 433
400 Figure 9 presents the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions than that at a high engine speed as the butanol-blending 434
401
402
for all the test fuels at diferent opening throttle levels and
engine speeds. The observation on results shows that low D
fraction less than 30%. For instance, for WOT 30% and
Bu25, the increment of NOx emission is about 22% and
435
436
TE
403 engine speed (i.e., n = 2250  rpm) provides higher CO2 47% compared to that of pure gasoline (i.e., Bu0) at the 437
404 emissions compared to that of high engine speed (i.e., engine speeds of n = 2250 and 4250 rpm, respectively. 438
405 n = 4250 rpm) due to the increase of oxygen content and While, for WOT 70% and Bu25, this value is about 33% 439
406 extra lean mixture. As shown in Fig. 9, it is worth noting and 52% at the engine speeds of n = 2250 and 4250 rpm, 440
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407 that the CO2 emission exhibits a reduction with increas- respectively. The observation on NOx emission is induced 441
408 ing the butanol–gasoline blend ratio due to the lean mix- by (1) the effects of advancing the spark timing, this 442
409 ture condition (Fig. 2). For instance, at the engine speed of might bring the combustion gas temperature in the case 443
410 n = 4250 rpm, the CO2 emissions with the use of Bu40 at of butanol–gasoline blends is higher than that in the case
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444
411 30% and 70% of WOT are decreased by 9% and 8%, respec- of pure gasoline [44] and (2) the butanol–gasoline blend 445
412 tively, compared with that of pure gasoline. This reduction contains oxygen and a low stoichiometric AFR (Table 2).
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446
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Fig. 9 Carbon dioxide emissions for diferent butanol–gasoline- Fig. 10 Nitrogen oxide emissions for diferent butanol–gasoline-
blended fuels blended fuels

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 International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering

447 The testing strategy for the engine was set for pure gaso- Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative 492
line and it is not possible to adjust the AFR, as mentioned Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecom- 493
448
mons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu- 494
449 in Sect. 2.2. In other words, the AFR was kept at the same tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate 495
450 value for a given condition; therefore, the combustion was credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the 496
451 relatively leaner and more oxygen to produce NOx. Con- Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 497
452 sequently, the NOx emission is increased appropriately
453 as increasing the concentration of butanol in the blends.
454 Further research is, therefore, required to reduce the NOx References 498
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