ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

3rd CED

Chapter One
Classifications of Hydraulic Structures

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Hydraulic Structures I
 1.1 Introduction

Hydraulic Structures:
→ Engineering constructions designed and mechanically fit for managing and utilizing
water resources to the best of advantage of the human being and environment.
→ The broadest definition of hydraulic structures is: "all structures in contact with water"
→ The principal hydraulic structures can be grouped under the following main categories
• Heading-up or Control of water
Weirs
Regulators
Barrages
• Conveyance and Navigation works
Navigation locks and channels
• Storage Works
Dams are constructed to store water by creating artificial lakes called
reservoirs
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 1.2 Different types of hydraulic structures
 Dams  Canals, (Navigation and  Hydropower stations
Water Conveyance),
(Spawning canals)
 Intakes  Other conveyance  Earth retaining structures
structures like pipelines
 Outlets  Drop structures, Culverts  Other river training
and siphons structures
 Spillways  Steel structures like gates,  Bridges, aqueducts
valves, air vessels, air
vents, silt outlets
 Energy Dissipaters: Stilling  Diversion work structures  Tunnels
basins, Plunge pools, Flip (Diversion dams and Weirs,
Buckets, Ski Jumps, Aprons river intakes, settling
basins)
 Navigation structures-  Fish ladders and passes  Irrigation structures
Locks, Ship-lifts and
inclined plane, inland ports

 Pumping stations  Check dams  Levees and canal dikes

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Dam Structure,

Dam Structures includes:

 Reservoir

 Dam

 Intake and outlet Structures

 Spillway structures

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Components of reservoir and dam structure
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 1.3 Storage components

• Live storage:- the volume of storage in which water will be taken for demand using
service outlet

• Dead storage:- the portion of the storage capacity from which water is not normally
withdrawn, in accordance with operating agreements. It is the storage that lies
below the invert of the lowest outlet and thus cannot be evacuated by gravity.

• Bottom outlet:- mainly used to discharge the water from the reservoir for the
environmental flow and for flushing of sediments.

• Service outlet:- It is used to discharge the required amount of water for

downstream beneficiaries as their need.

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7
The specific main functions of dams and reservoirs
 Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.

 Water storage for days, weeks, months, years and over years for power
generation and sediment control.

 Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation

purposes)

 Flood control

 Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow

augmentation)

 Preservation and breeding of useful aquatic life, etc.

 Recreation and multipurpose.

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Some drawbacks of reservoirs:
 Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley

 Change of ground water level

 Strong influence on sediment balance and river morphology

 Change in water temperature

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 1.4 Reservoir Planning
→ The absence of natural storage of adequate capacities necessitates construction of
some artificial storage works.
→ In rainy season there is excess flow down the valley in a river.
→ An impounding reservoir can be constructed in the valley to store this excess water
which will meet the demand in dry periods.
→ Before any dam is built, certain hydrological information is necessary regarding river
discharge, rate and character of siltation, and the location and duration of flooding.
→ A critical concern in rivers is the magnitude and duration of discharge with respect to
time.
→ Feasibility studies are necessary in assessing the water budget for future industrial
operations.

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→ Relevant studies involve meteorological monitoring, hydrological measurements,
reservoir capacity, safe yield, and flood frequency.
→ Questions that need to be confronted during dam site investigation include the depth
at which adequate foundation materials exist, the strength of the rocks and soils, and
the likelihood of water leakage.
→ By analysis of storage data, availability of water is ascertained before any project is
contemplated.
→ The next step in reservoir planning is to fix the reservoir capacity.
→ The reservoir has to provide sufficient storage for various purposes, namely dead
storage to contain silt deposition, storage to account for evaporation loss, Live storage
to meet the downstream demands for irrigation domestic or industrial supply, power
generation, etc.

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 cont…

→The basis of fixing storage capacity for dead storage and evaporation loss depends
upon the amount of incoming sediment and the annual evaporation loss
respectively.
→ The live storage capacity of a reservoir depends on the demand for various
purposes.
→It can be arrived at by plotting the mass curves of demand and inflow of accumulated
flow or rainfall plotted against time.
→The capacity of the reservoir is fixed in such a way as to take care of the demands
during the minimum flow period in the driest year on record.
→In some cases it is necessary to cover a period of successive dry years to consider
storing of sufficient water to meet the demand during periods of prolonged drought.

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:
.
Reservoir capacity computation and developing
elevation - area/capacity curve.

 Average area (trapezoidal formula):- the storage volume b/n two

contours of areas A1 and A2:

h
 V1  A1  A2 
2
Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by:

h
V   A1  2 A2  .....  2 An1  An 
2
 Cone formula:- the storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1
and A2:

V1 
h
3
A1  A2  A1 A2  The total volume is: V  V1  V2  ....  Vn   V

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 Prismoidal Formula:- the storage volume between three successive contours:

h
V1   A1  4 A2  A3  And the total volume is given by:
3

h
V  A1  An   4 A2  A4  A6  ...  2 A3  A5  A7  ...
3

This method is applicable for only odd data. If the data is even, the last part can be
computed using trapezoidal formula.

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Reservoir capacity curve

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 Mass curve
9000

8000 Inflow
Demand_1
7000 Tang 2
Dem_2
6000 Tang 3
Dem_3
Volum e (M ill M 3)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
Jan-86 Jun-86 Dec-86 Jun-87 Dec-87 Jun-88 Dec-88

Time (months)

Reading assignment: Mass Inflow and Curve

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 1.5 Classification of Dams

 Dams are classified based on different criteria such as:

 Classification based on function served

 Classification based on hydraulic design

 Classification based on material used

 Classification based on rigidity

 Classification based on structural behaviour

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 Classification based on function served

• Storage dam :- Constructed to impound surplus flood water for use in dry
period.

• Diversion dam :- a dam of smaller height constructed to raise water level of the
river and not for storage or equalization of flow.

• Detention dam :- Constructed to store water during floods and release it

gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes.

• Debris dams:- Constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel and floating
woods and the water that passes over the dam is relatively clear.

• Coffer dams :- Constructed to divert the water during period of construction.

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 Classification based on hydraulic design
• Overflow dam
• Non-overflow dam
 Classification based on construction materials used
• Masonry dams
• Concrete dams
• Earth dams
• Rock-fill dams
• Timber dams
• Steel dams
 Classification based on rigidity
• Rigid dam
• Non-rigid dam
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 Based on structural design:-

 Gravity dams

 Rock-fill dams

 Buttress dams

 Earth dams

 Timber dams

 Arch dams

 Steel dams

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21
Buttress Dam

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Arch Dam

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 Earth dam

Principal variants of earth-fill and earth-fill/rock-fill embankment dams (values of m are only
indicative)
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 General characteristics of embankment dams

 Earth-fill Embankment dams

 Consisting more than 50 % of compacted earth-fill

 Constructed uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers and at

controlled moisture content

 Designed to resist load by mechanism of embankment stability

 It resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil.

 They are strictly non-overflow types.

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 Rock-fill Embankment dams

 Consisting more than 50 % of compacted rock-fill

 Includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earth-fill or a slender

concrete or bituminous membrane

 Rock-fill dams require foundation stronger than those for earth dams

 Rock-fill dams are quite economical when a large quantity of rock is easily
available near the site

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Principal variants rock-fill embankment dams (values of m are only indicative)

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 General Characteristics of Concrete dams

 Gravity dams:-
 Depends on self-weight to resist the action of water stored on the upstream
side

 Constructed of concrete, approximately triangular in section to ensure

stability

 It may be curved or straight in plan

 It is best suited to sites with relatively sound rock foundation

 They are quite suitable for the gorges with very steep slopes

 Low dams (H < 15 m) might be constructed on alluvial foundation with proper

cut-offs and foundation treatment

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 Buttress dams:
 Consists of a continuous up stream face supported at regular intervals by
down stream buttresses.

 It normally needs up to 60 % less concrete than gravity dam of the same

height, but needs form work and reinforcement.

 Buttresses are triangular concrete walls that transmit the water pressure
from the deck slab to the foundation.

 Buttresses are compression members.

 The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the

buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.

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 Arch dams:
 Loads resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted through abutments.

 Quite suitable for narrow gorges with strong edges that are capable of
resisting the trust produced by the arch action.

 Requires solid and strong abutments

 An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the up stream.

 The system of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam

but the section is comparatively thinner.

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Principal variant of concrete dams
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Relative advantages of the concrete dams:

 Are not sensitive to overtopping.

 can accommodate crest spillway hence cost of separate spillway is

reduced.

 Outlet pipe works, valves and other auxiliary works can be provided with in
the body of the dam.

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Relative disadvantages of the concrete dams:

 Requiring sound rock foundations

 Requires importation of proposed material to the site

 Traditional mass concrete construction is labour intensive and relatively

discontinuous and requires certain skills.

 Compacted unit costs are very much higher than for embankment fills

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 1.6 Selection of sites and dam types
 Topography:- should be located where the river has narrow gorge which opens
out upstream to create a large reservoir.
 Suitable foundation ;
 Spillway site: - a good site for spillway should exist at or near the dam site.
 Availability of construction materials;
 Water tightness of reservoir ;
 Submergence area: - the area submerged on the upstream of the dam should
be small and should not submerge costly land and property.
 Accessibility: - the site should be easily accessed for transportation of
construction material.
 Environmental consideration: - the area should be free from mosquito and
others.
 Sediment rate: - the incoming water should be relatively free from sediment in
order to increase the life span of the reservoir.
 Minimum over all cost: - it should be relatively minimum cost including
maintenance and operation.

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 Characteristics of the site with type of Dam
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→ While selecting a site for spillway the following points should be taken into
consideration:
→ The spillway must be a part of the dam itself (not for embankment dams) or it may
be located at a separate site,
→ The location depends on the foundation and the topography of the area. Good
rock foundation is always desirable and the topography should permit easy
diversion of the flood waters passing over the spillway, back into the original
stream channel.

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 1.7 Dam site investigation

 The items of investigation required mainly for a dam structure are listed below:
1. General planning and preparation of location maps: before undertaking actual
investigation it is necessary to prepare location maps indicating
• likely dam and spillway site,
• proposed relocation of approach roads,
• quarry sites for construction material,
• stream gauging stations,
• proposed camp site,
• existing utilities like lines of communication, transmission lines, rail/road
communication,
• other important features.

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 cont…
2. Hydrologic investigation:
• collection and analysis of stream flow and precipitation records,
• assessment of available yield, estimation of flood peaks,
• determination of spillway capacity and
• ground water studies.
3. Topographic survey:
• detailed survey for the dam site covering sufficient area on the u/s and d/s as well as
above the likely height of the dam on both the banks,
• detailed survey for areas proposed for constructing spillway, diversion tunnels,
outlets, power houses etc
• preparation of detailed maps to various scales based on the data collected.

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4. Surface geologic investigation:
• identification of boundary and nature of deposits and overburden;
• the characteristic, structure, strike of rock beds;
• shape and magnitude of folds and fault zones.
5. Subsurface or foundation exploration:
• drilling holes,
• driving shafts and drifts,
• geophysical prospecting using latest techniques.
6. Seismic surveys.
7. Construction material survey:
• location and estimate of quantities of available construction material,
• estimates need to be supported by laboratory tests to determine suitability of
various materials for construction of dam and other structures.

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 1.8 Data collection
 The collection of relevant data is the first state in the formulation of a project.
i. Physical data
→ General plan
• obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area
• carryout limited surveys to include additional information in this plan
• the plan must include the dam site, spillway site, irrigable area, catchment area of
the stream, locality to be supplied with potable water (if any) map scale may vary
from 1:1000 – 1:10,1000
• features to be included in the map
o contour at 0.5 – 1.5m interval
o location of existing works, if any, affected by the proposed development,
o proposed relocation of roads, railways, transmission lines, etc.
o additional transportation facilities such as access roads, cableways, etc.
required for the execution of the project.
o location of stream gauging station, water sampling and meteorological
stations, if any, in the area. 40
 cont…

→ Larger plans for dam and spillway sites

o This should be in the scale of 1:500 - 1:1000 with contours as small as possible

o The plans should show the following

 over-banks
 location of elevation of all features such as buildings, roads, etc.
 location and number of test pits and boreholes
ii. hydrologic data
data needed:
• monthly flow, momentary peak flow of a stream at or near the dam site
• annual sediment load

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 cont…

• if available, the following information is necessary

• Maximum observed flood level in the system
• Report on damage caused by flooding
• Data for estimating water demand
o number of people to be served

o approximate maximum and minimum daily water demand

o irrigation water requirement

o other water requirements (industries, livestock, etc.)

iii. Meteorological Data

• Average monthly temperature
• Average monthly rainfall
• Maximum recorded storm intensities
• Annual rate of evaporation

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iv. Geologic Data: geological map of the entire catchment area.
• Dam and Spillway sites
• Subsurface investigation should be carried out by an experienced geologist
o geologic sections of selected dam site
o quality of the overburden material if an earth dam is to be built
• shearing strength of the overburden material and the dam material
• permeability of the overburden material
• quantity and quality of the overburden material for construction purposes
• presence, orientation and extent of joint planes, seams, caverns, and solution
channel.
• strength of the rock (Hardness, etc.) if a concrete dam is to be built.
• reservoir site
• check the existence of cracks
• banks should be checked for possible zones of landslides

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 cont..
v. Earthquake information on past seismic activity in the area should be obtained
vi. Agricultural data
• for irrigation purposes, the following data are essential for determining of water
requirement
• the size of the area to be irrigated
• soil structure
• possible types of crops
• soil types

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vii. Material type
• Soil, sand and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good quality and
sufficient quantity for dam construction. Therefore, possible quarry sites for these
materials should be identified with in a reasonable distance from the construction
site.
• Selection of a suitable burrow area is influenced by
• Thickness of top organic soil which has to be discarded
• Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil
• Quantity of oversize cobbles which could have to be removed from the soil
• Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity
absorption, abrasion soundness etc.

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viii. Miscellaneous data
• Erosion in the catchment area
• Identify exception sources of erosion
• Transport
• Existing facilities and rates
• Local labor
• Availability and rates

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 Environmental, Social, Economical and Political investigation

→ The environmental, economic and other socio-political issues associated with reservoir
development must in all instances be acknowledged at the outset and fully addressed
thereafter.
→This is especially important in the case of the larger high-profile projects and all other,
large or lesser, sited in environmentally or politically sensitive locations.
→ Environmental impacts and other socio-political considerations can extend across a
diverse spectrum of issues.
→ Socio-political considerations may range from population displacement, with
consequent economic impacts, to the preservation of cultural or heritage sites; from the
consequences of sedimentation and/or of changing flood regimes to altered patterns of
disease.

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 cont…..
→ It is necessary to examine the complex relationships between human society and
its surrounding environment, paying particular attention to issues relating to the local
and regional environment, especially the use and misuse of water resources and the
policies governing resource use.
→ Various types of surveys based on functional and technical requirements should be
carried out for selecting a site for the dam and reservoir.
→ Functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural physical
characteristics and the purpose of the reservoir. Catchment hydrology, available head and
storage volume etc. must be matched to operational parameters set by the nature and
scale of the project served.
→ Technical acceptability is dictated by the presence of a satisfactory site for a dam, the
availability of materials suitable for dam construction, and by the integrity of the
reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
→To these must be added an assessment of the anticipated environmental consequences
of construction and operation of the dam.
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 Stages in Project Planning and Implementation

Strategic Planning:
Project Initiative

Field Reconnaissance Mapping, Surveys, Data collection

Feasibility study and report Technical resources, options, etc.

Phase 1 dam site evaluation: reservoir site evaluation

Confirmation of dam type

Phase 2 dam site

investigations

Dam design

Construction foundation
feedback

Fig, Stages in dam site appraisal and project development 49