Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

A review on carbon-based self-sensing cementitious composites

Jinsheng Han a, Jinlong Pan a,⇑, Jingming Cai a,b, Xiaopeng Li c
a
Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures of Ministry of Education, School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, PR China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, KU Leuven, Bruges 8200, Belgium
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

The applications of different carbon fillers in cementitious composites were studied.

The factors affecting the cementitious composites preparation and application were discussed.

The current conductive theories, equivalent circuit models and main applications were summarized.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Self-sensing cementitious composite is a kind of cementitious material which possesses both mechanical
Received 9 July 2020 and sensing properties. The stress and strain state of the structure can be analyzed by monitoring its elec-
Received in revised form 28 August 2020 trical resistivity. This paper discussed the preparation, theory research, and application of self-sensing
Accepted 30 August 2020
cementitious composites made with carbon-based materials. The applications of different types of carbon
Available online 18 September 2020
conductive fillers in cementitious composites as well as the influence factor were also investigated. The
factors include the fillers’ dispersion, electrode arrangement and electrical resistivity measurement
Keywords:
methods, curing age, moisture content and temperature, etc. The conductive theory, equivalent circuit
Carbon fillers
Cementitious composites
model of the composites and the current application forms were summarized. The challenges were finally
Electrical resistivity discussed in the development and application of the self-sensing cementitious composites.
Influence factors Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Theory research
Application

1. Introduction
As the most widely man-made material in the world, concrete
have been widely used in buildings, bridges, roads and dams for
over two hundred years. However, concrete structure is prone to
cracking due to its inherent brittleness, which will reduce its dura-
bility and even cause catastrophic disasters [1]. Therefore, struc-
tural health monitor (SHM) is of great significance for detecting
and estimating the service conditions of concrete structures, which
has attracted many attention from both researchers and engineers
[2]. Traditional SHM mainly includes non-destructive detection
technology, e.g., resistance strain gauge, optical fiber sensors and
piezoelectric ceramic sensors. Even though the SHM have seen
recently success in the field of civil engineering, it was also noticed
that traditional sensors have the disadvantages of low authenticity,
low durability, high construction requirement and poor compati-
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Southeast Univer-
sity, Nanjing, China.
E-mail address: cejlpan@seu.edu.cn (J. Pan).
bility with concrete structure, which limit their further application
in large-scale concrete structures [2,3].
In the 1990s, a self-sensing cementitious composite that com-
bined structure and sensing functions began to attract people’s
attention. The material is made by adding conductive fillers into
the cement matrix, and to detect the stress, damage and deforma-
tion in real-time by analyzing voltages, currents, capacitances and
other signals of the matrix [4]. The emergence of self-sensing
cementitious composite provides a new method for SHM, which
can effectively overcome the defects of traditional sensors [1,5].
Currently, the commonly used conductive fillers are steel fiber,
steel slag [6,7], metal oxide [8], nickel powder [3,9,10], carbon fiber
[11,12], carbon nanotube [13], carbon black [14] and graphene
[15], etc. Metals and their oxides are easily affected by the external
environment, which leads to the change of resistivity and affects
the accuracy of sensing performance [6]. By contrast, the
carbon conductive fillers have better durability, excellent alkali
resistance and conductive performance, which make them be ideal
conductive fillers [11–13].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120764
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Han et al.
In order to summarize the recent progress of carbon-based self-
sensing cementitious composites, this paper reviewed the prepara-
tion processes, fundamental theories and potential applications of
self-sensing cementitious composites. The influences of different
carbon-based conductive fillers, i.e., carbon fiber, carbon
nanotubes, carbon black and graphene, on the self-sensing perfor-
mance were discussed. The influences of the fillers’ dispersion,
electrode arrangement and electrical resistivity measurement
methods, curing age, moisture content and temperature on the
performance were analyzed during the preparation and application
process. As the supplement and expansion of experimental
researches, the conductive theory and equivalent circuit model of
the composites were summarized. Finally, the current application
forms and challenges of the self-sensing cementitious composites
in SHM were summarized.
2. Effect of carbon conductive fillers on the sensing
performance
2.1. Effect of single-doped carbon conductive filler on the sensing
performance
2.1.1. Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber (CF) is a fiber material with excellent properties
such as high-temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, electri-
cal conductivity and thermal conductivity. It has high strength
and modulus in the fiber axis and is a good conductive filler. D.D.
L. Chung et al. [16,17] added CF into cement mortar to monitor
the stress–strain conditions by observing the changes in the elec-
trical resistivity of specimens. They found that the electrical resis-
tivity decreases with the increase of stress under compressive
stress, and the electrical resistivity increases with the increase of
stress under tensile stress [18,19]. This phenomenon is named as
piezoresistive effect, it is caused by the insertion and extraction
of fibers [16]. In the process of compression to failure, the change
of resistivity can be divided into three stages, which are gradual
decline stage, constant stage and rapid increase stage [20]. During
the gradual decline stage, the original pores and microcracks inside
the material are compacted, the CF becomes closer and the resistiv-
ity decreases. During the constant stage, the microcracks occur
inside the material while the increased contacts of CFs and the
development of cracks maintained a balanced state, thus the resis-
tivity remained unchanged. The rapid increase stage is defined as
when new cracks gradually emerge and expand, which causes
the resistivity increased rapidly [21].
Different content of CF has different effects on the electrical
resistivity of cementitious composites, the higher the content,
the lower the resistivity. As shown in Fig. 1, there is a sudden
changing region on the curves. In this region, a small increase in
the content of CF will lead to a sharp decrease in resistivity or a
sharp increase in conductivity, which is named the percolation
threshold [22]. The greater the CF length and aspect ratio, the
higher the conductivity as well as the smaller the percolation
threshold [23,24]. Different raw materials and mix ratios also
result in different percolation threshold [25,26].
CF self-sensing cementitious composites can not only monitor
the structure health in real-time, but also improve the mechanical
properties of the matrix in a certain extent. Hardy et al. [26] con-
firmed that CNFs could bridge the nano cracks and improve the
tensile strength and stiffness of the matrix by SEM analysis. How-
ever, CF is a hydrophobic material with a large aspect ratio and is
difficult to disperse in water. When the CF content is high, it is easy
to form an agglomeration in the matrix, which will decrease the
mechanical properties and reduce the fluidity of the fresh paste
[26]. Also, CF has a higher cost compared with other conductive fil-
2
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
0.007 800
15 mm
Conductivity 10 mm 700
0.006
Electrical conductivity / (S/cm)
Volumetric resistivity / ( ·cm)
5 mm
1 mm 600
0.005
500
0.004 Percolation
threshold 400
0.003
Resistivity 300
0.002 Aspect ratio of 10-12 200
Aspect ratio of 2-3
0.001 100
0.000 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
CF content / vol%
Fig. 1. Relationship between conductivity and CF content, length and aspect ratio
[27].
lers (e.g. carbon black), which limits its large-scale application in
real construction projects.
2.1.2. Carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or multi-walled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) are one-dimensional nanomaterials that have been
widely used in construction materials and circuit fields due to their
lightweight, excellent mechanical properties, good electrical con-
ductivity and stable chemical properties [28]. CNT has been widely
studied as an excellent conductive filler in self-sensing cementi-
tious composites.
Under compressive loading conditions, the resistivity of the CNT
self-sensing cementitious composite decreases with the increase of
stress, which indicates that the composite has a piezoresistive
effect [13]. The sensitivity of the piezoresistive effect depends on
the connectivity of the conductive network in the matrix. The con-
nectivity is affected by factors such as the content of CNT and the
water-binder ratio [29]. In the case of different water-binder ratios,
the optimal CNT contents corresponding to the optimal sensitivity,
linearity and repeatability of sensing performance are different
[30–34].
In addition to having good sensing performance for quasi-static
stress and strain, the composite has good sensing performance for
dynamic load [35], and the crack development in the matrix can
also be monitored [31,36,37]. Compared with other carbon con-
ductive fillers, CNT is considered to be the best conductive filler
for cementitious composites [31,33,38,39]. As a nanomaterial, it
can fill the pores and improve the bending property, compressive
strength, ultimate strain and other mechanical properties of com-
posites [40].
The addition of CNT can not only meet the electrical conductiv-
ity requirement of cementitious composite, but also improve the
mechanical properties effectively. However, due to its huge specific
surface area and Van der Waals force, aggregation is more likely to
occur [41,42]. In addition, the high cost of CNT also limits its
application.
2.1.3. Carbon black
Carbon black (CB) or nano carbon black (NCB) has good conduc-
tivity, higher specific surface area and lower cost. CB self-sensing
cementitious composite can monitor quasi-static and dynamic
loads on the matrix, which meets the requirement of piezoresistive
effect [14,43]. Especially under compressive loading conditions, CB
will diffuse in the matrix and conducive to the connection of con-
ductive network [44].
J. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

Compared with CF and CNT, the addition of CB has less benefits Table 1
on mechanical properties of the matrix. Yıldırım et al. [45] added The basic properties of different carbon conductive fillers [38].

CB to ECC, and found that CB could improve the mechanical and Conductive filler Properties
sensing performance of ECC in a certain extent. However, the MWCNTs Outer mean diameter 10–15 nm
improvement was affected by loading conditions and curing age. Mean agglomerate size 200–500 lm
It was suggested to mix both CF and CB to improve the sensing per- Weight loss at 105℃ <1%
formance. Ding et al. [46] mixed NCB into concrete beam and found C content >90 wt%
Apparent density 50–150 kg/m3
that the compressive strength of concrete increased slightly with Length 0.1–10 lm
the increase of NCB, while the influences on the bending strength
CNFs Fiber diameter (average) 150 nm
are negligible. Surface area 20–30 m2/g
CB can be used as a good conductive filler because of its better Dispersive surface energy 120-140mJ/m2
dispersion and lower cost. However, due to the small particle size Density 1.0 g/cm3
of CB, a large content of CB is required to form a conductive path in Moisture <5 wt%
matrix. However, for composite mechanical properties, because of GNP Diameter (average) 15 lm
the poor mechanical properties of CB, a lot of CB power is like the Purity 97 wt%
Surface area 100 m2/g
‘‘defects” in the matrix, which brings adverse effects on the
Density 1.8 g/cm3
mechanical properties [47,48]. Therefore, CB is usually mixed with
CB Particle size (average) 30 nm
other conductive fillers to prepare self-sensing cementitious
Density 1.8 g/cm3
composite.

2.1.4. Graphene
CF can establish the conductive network to improve the conductiv-
Graphene or graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) is a single sheet
ity and CB increases the active contact points to improve the sen-
material made of carbon atoms with extremely high strength and
sitivity [58]. Since the cost of CB is much lower than that of CF, the
excellent electrical conductivity. It has great advantages in the
mixing of CB and CF can reduce the cost, and the reduction of CF
mechanical properties of composites and the formation of conduc-
also improves the fluidity and working performance of the fresh
tive networks.
paste [44].
The addition of graphene can improve the conductivity of the
In the application of mixed with CB and CNT, Han et al. [60,61]
matrix and make the matrix has a piezoresistivity effect. Compared
added the botryoid hybrid nanocarbon materials (BHNCM) to
with other fillers, graphene can improve the pressure-sensitivity
cementitious composite to make full use of the positive synergistic
better [49]. Graphene self-sensing cementitious composite has
effect between CNT and CB, which not only improved the mechan-
strong anti-interference ability. When the graphene content is
ical properties of the matrix, but also achieved better sensing per-
higher than the percolation threshold, other factors such as the
formances (e.g. fast sampling rate, high sensitivity and good
water-binder ratio, curing age and moisture content have little
repeatability). As shown in Fig. 3(a) and (b), the BHNCMs look like
influence on its sensing performance [50]. Graphene can also
grape clusters, and CNTs and CBs are similar to grape branches and
reduce the porosity of matrix [51], and improve the mechanical
grapes, respectively.
properties [52,53]. In addition, it can improve the heat resistance,
Compared with adding CF or CNT alone, mixing CNT and CF can
thermal diffusivity and thermal stability of the matrix [54].
improve the signal quality, the reliability and sensitivity of sensing
As a conductive filler, graphene not only enables the composite
performance. Because the sizes of CNT and CF are different, CNTs
to have sensing performance, but also quantifies the damage
help reduce the gaps in CFs conduction path [29,62].
degree of the material. Le et al. [55] established the relationship
To sum up, mixing different types of conductive fillers into
between damage degree and the resistivity by using the mathe-
cementitious composites at a certain ratio can not only improve
matical analogy between the 2D static field and the 2D static field
the conductivity, but also improve the sensitivity of sensing perfor-
under antiplane shear load. Graphene has the potential for electro-
mance in a certain extent. At the same time, a reasonable collocation
static dissipation (ESD) applications due to its unique electrical
of the size distribution of conductive fillers can not only play the
conductivity [56]. However, the difficulties in making graphene
bridging role of the fillers with a large aspect ratio, but also exert
and the high cost greatly limit its development as conductive filler.
the filling effect of nano-particles. The proportion of different types
In summary, various types of carbon conductive fillers enable
of conductive fillers is affected by the properties of raw materials,
cementitious composites to have self-sensing properties. Table 1
types of admixture and water-binder ratio, etc. Therefore, it will
and Fig. 2 show the basic properties and microstructure of different
be one of the following research directions to exactly match the
carbon conductive fillers. Different carbon conductive fillers have
types and proportions of conductive fillers in different matrix.
great differences in shape, size, influence on mechanical properties,
percolation threshold and cost, etc. Therefore, the various conduc-
tive fillers should be reasonably utilized in the application process 3. Influence factors
according to the engineering requirements.
In the process of composites preparation, resistivity measure-
2.2. Effect of mixed carbon conductive fillers on the sensing ment and application, many factors will affect the mechanical
performance properties and sensing properties, such as fillers’ dispersion, elec-
trode arrangement and electrical resistivity measurement meth-
In order to overcome the deficiency of single-doped conductive ods, curing age, moisture content, temperatures and so on. The
fillers, different proportions and types of carbon conductive fillers influence mechanism of the above factors and the improvement
are mixed into cementitious composites. Mixed fillers enable the measures will be discussed in detail.
composite to have better mechanical properties and sensing per-
formance [46]. 3.1. Dispersion of conductive filler
When CB and CF are mixed into cementitious composite in a
certain proportion, the composite has both good conductivity and Carbon conductive fillers have become the key materials for the
improved sensitivity of piezoresistive effect [58,59]. This is because preparation of self-sensing cementitious composites due to their
3
J. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

Fig. 2. SEM scanning images of different carbon conductive fillers [57].

Fig. 3. SEM images of BHNCM and its sensors [61].

4
J. Han et al.
excellent properties, but carbon fillers are hydrophobic materials
with poor dispersion performance in water. Especially, CF and
CNT with large aspect ratio tend to form agglomerations in the
matrix [63], which not only reduces the mechanical properties of
the composites, but also increases the resistivity and affects the
sensing performance [64,65]. Therefore, how to disperse carbon fil-
lers in the matrix becomes the most critical problem in the
preparation.
The dispersion of conductive filler is usually affected by several
factors [41,66], such as (1) the morphological parameters of the fil-
ler itself, including length, roughness, softness and mixing content,
(2) the viscosity of the medium in which the conductive filler is
located, (3) properties of conductive filler surface. As the morphol-
ogy of conductive filler is the major factor affecting the sensing
performance of composites, the morphology is seldom changed
in dispersion treatment. The methods to improve the dispersion
of fillers have been proposed, which are by increasing the viscosity
of the medium and improving the wettability of filler surface.
At present, the main dispersion methods are physical dispersion
and chemical treatment. The physical methods include changing
the mixing sequence of raw materials and ultrasonic treatment
[26,31,32,67]. Chemical methods include the use of surfactant
[68,69], admixture and functionalization of conductive fillers
[70–72]. Chuah et al. [41] and Parveen et al. [66] both reviewed
the dispersion of carbon nanomaterials in cementitious compos-
ites. This paper supplemented them and discussed some typical
dispersion methods.
In order to ensure the quality of dispersion, physical dispersion
and chemical treatment are usually used in combination. The com-
bination of changing the mixing order and chemical treatment is to
improve the filler dispersion. Han and Ou [58] utilized both meth-
ods of changing mixing order of raw materials and adding chemical
dispersant when preparing CF and CB cementitious composite. The
dispersion method is as follows: first, carbon fiber, dispersant,
water reducer and water were mixed and stirred for 3 min, and
then carbon black, silicon powder, cement and defoamer were
added and mixed well, the dispersed self-sensing cementitious
composite was obtained finally.
The combination of ultrasonic treatment and chemical treat-
ment is the most commonly used dispersion method at present
[62,73]. Ultrasonic treatment is the most commonly used physical
dispersion method. The ultrasonic frequency used for dispersion is
20–30 kHz, which can produce ultrasonic cavitation effect when
propagating in liquid. Ultrasonic cavitation can make the micro-
bubbles vibrate violently and release huge energy. In this process,
the fillers diffuse and homogenize with each other, and it also
increases the roughness of the filler surface to a certain extent,
which makes the fillers evenly disperse in the liquid [26,74]. How-
ever, it requires reasonable control of the input of acoustic energy,
excessive ultrasonic action may lead to the fracture of CF or CNT,
affecting the properties of conductive fillers [75].
As a surfactant, methyl cellulose can improve the dispersibility
of filler and is the most commonly used surfactant at present. It can
form a stable film on the surface of filler, which can not only pre-
vent filler accumulation, but also reduce the surface tension
[68,69]. In addition, admixtures (e.g. superplasticizer, polycarboxy-
late, lignosulfonate and acrylate copolymer ammonium salt) can
also improve the dispersion [65,76,77].
The functional treatment of conductive filler is to modify the
surface of filler with some chemical methods to improve the wet-
tability of the surface. D.D.L. Chung et al. [18,78] treated the sur-
face of CF with ozone. They exposed the CF to a strong oxidizing
environment at 160 °C with ozone content of 0.6%, which improved
the contact angle between CF surface and water, and increased the
dispersion of CF in the matrix. Li et al. [72] soaked CNT in the mix-
ture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, and obtained the modified CNT.
5
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
Sun et al. [79] socked the 3 g of CNT powders in concentrated sul-
phuric acid at 0 °C and stirred them for 30 min, then put 15 g of
potassium permanganate into them and stirred, at last, they
washed it with water to be neutral, and the functional CNT was
obtained. Luo et al. [33] proposed a combinational chemical tech-
nology for functionalizing the surface of CNT by Fenton reagent
oxidation and ultraviolet radiation. The advantage of functional
treatment is that the operation is relatively simple and the reaction
time is short. However, due to the difficulty in controlling the
degree of functional treatment, it is easy to cause adverse effects
on the strength and conductivity of the filler.
In addition, reasonable combination of particle size grading of
raw materials can also improve the dispersion in a certain extent.
For example, the dispersion of filler was improved by adding sili-
con powder and fly ash and other materials with small particle
sizes [15,80,81].
This paper summarized the different dispersion methods, their
advantages and disadvantages, as shown in Tables 2 and 3. In the
current studies, most researchers used the combination of ultra-
sonic dispersion and surfactant to improve the dispersion, but it
is necessary to control the time of ultrasonic dispersion rationally
to avoid causing some defects of the filler. The effect of surfactant
on the long-term performance of cementitious composites is not
clear, so the content of surfactant should be determined reasonably
to avoid the adverse effect of excessive surfactant on cementitious
composites.
3.2. The electrode arrangement and resistivity measurement method
The electrode arrangement and resistivity measurement
method are important factors affecting measurement accuracy.
As shown in Fig. 4, according to the number of electrodes, the mea-
surement method can be divided into four-electrode method and
two-electrode method. The four-electrode method refers to that
four electrodes are laid on the same side of the tested part, two
electrodes on the outside are used to apply the current, and two
electrodes on the inside are used to measure the voltage. Ohm’s
law is used to determine the resistivity. The two-electrode method
is to set the current and voltage terminals on the same electrode.
According to the position of the electrode, it can be divided into
surface sticking type and internal embedding type. According to
the different currents, the measurement methods can be divided
into direct current (DC) measurement and alternating current
(AC) measurement.
For the number of electrodes, the four-electrode method can
effectively reduce the contact resistance between electrodes and
matrix thus will improve the result accuracy. Only when the sensor
volume is small, the two-electrode method is recommended to
measure the resistivity [61]. In terms of electrode arrangement,
the resistance measured by the surface sticking type is larger than
that measured by the embedded type, because the embedded type
electrode can well contact with the conductive filler, which
reduces the contact resistance [83]. However, the operation of
embedded electrode is complicated, if the contact surface between
the electrode and the matrix is not handled properly, the integrity
of the composites may be affected and the mechanical properties
may be reduced.
Due to the existence of ionic conductivity in self-sensing
cementitious composites [84], the adoption of DC measurement
will lead to polarization [85], which results in the increase of the
resistivity, while AC measurement can effectively prevent polariza-
tion [37,86]. Another characteristic of AC measurement is that the
impedance value can be changed by adjusting the AC frequency.
The higher the AC frequency is, the closer the measured impedance
is to the resistivity measured by DC [6,87]. In the application of AC
measurement, the internal change of the composites can be ana-
J. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

Table 2
Summary of different dispersion methods.

Ref. Cement Conductive Dispersion method

matrix filler
Physical Chemical
[58] paste CF + CB Changing the mixing sequence (first admixing Methyl cellulose (0.2 wt%)
method)
[26] mortar CNF Ultrasonic treatment (240 W at a 90% pulse Superplasticizer (0.0012 wt%)
rate, 3 cycles of 8 min sonication with a 20 min
rest)
[62,76] paste CF + CNT Ultrasonic treatment (CNFs for 15 min, CNTs Superplasticizer (1.2 wt%)
for 30 min)
High speed manual mixer mixing Methyl cellulose (0.4 wt%)
[68] mortar CF Mixer mixing (5 min) Methyl cellulose (0.4 wt%)
[18] paste CF Mixer mixing (5 min) Ozone functional treatment (exposure to O3 gas for 10 min at 160 ℃)
[72] paste CNT, CF Rotating mixer mixing (5 min) Functional treatment with sulfuric acid and nitric acid (1000 ml sulfuric and nitric
acid (3:1 by volume, respectively) + Dispersant (0.4 wt%)
[79] paste CNT Mixer mixing 3 g of CNT was added into H2SO4 for 30 min at 0 °C. 15 g KMnO4 was added and
the water bath temperature under 20 °C for 8 h. Then they were filtered and
washed by water until neutral.
[33] paste CNT Ultrasonic treatment (60 W, 60℃, 40 kHz) Fenton reagent oxidation (nH2O2 : Fe2+ = 12, C(Fe2+) = 0.3 mol L1) and ultraviolet
radiation (280 nm ultraviolet rays, 1 h) + Superplasticizer
[73] paste MWCNT Ultrasonic treatment Aqueous surfactant (surfactant to MWCNTs weight ratio of 4.0)
[82] paste CNT Ultrasonic treatment (0.9 A, 40 V, 50 W for Polycarboxylate + Lignosulfonate
12 min)
[45] ECC CF,CNT, CB Mixer mixing (10 min at 300 rpm) Superplasticizer (9.0, 17.0, 15.0 kg/m3) and Methyl cellulose (0.2 wt%)

Table 3 operation, the surface sticking electrode is usually used. For non-
Advantages and disadvantages of different dispersion methods. contact resistance measurement, its operation is inconvenient,
Dispersion methods The The and it has certain requirements on the shape of the tested part.
advantages disadvantages At present, the commonly used methods are: DC two-electrode
Physical Changing the The operation Poor dispersion method [95,96], DC four-electrode method [14,97] and AC four-
dispersion mixing sequence is simple electrode method [12,48], as shown in Fig. 4. The electrode
Ultrasonic Good It may cause arrangement and resistivity measurement methods have their
treatment dispersion some CFs and
own advantages and disadvantages, which should be reasonably
effect CNTs to fracture.
Chemical methods Surfactant The operation Less content determined according to the shape, position and function of
Admixture is simple cannot meet the cementitious composites, so as to adapt to local conditions.
requirement of
dispersion, but
more dosage can
3.3. Curing age
affect other
performance of
composite, such The microstructure of cementitious composites will affect its
as setting time, macroscopic properties, while the microstructure changes contin-
strength and so
uously with the growth of the curing age [98]. The longer the cur-
on.
Functionalization The operation It is hard to ing age, the higher the degree of hydration with more hydration
of conductive is relatively control the degree products filled the internal pores of the matrix. With the increase
fillers simple and of functional of curing age, the internal structure is more compact and the con-
the reaction treatment and ductive path inside the matrix also changes, which affect the sens-
time is short easy to cause
ing performance [25,99,100].
some defects on
the filler surface. The resistivity of the composites is influenced by the curing age.
Other methods Combination of The operation Poor dispersion The longer the curing age, the higher the resistivity [101]. At early
particle size is simple and it is affected curing age, there are a lot of solution containing ions because of the
grading by the particle
low hydration degree, meanwhile, the composite has a higher
size
porosity. Therefore, the ionic conduction can be carried out easily,
while ionic conduction is an important part of the conduction path
of cementitious composites [102]. Therefore, in the early curing
lyzed by adjusting the frequency of AC [88–90]. For example, age, the resistivity is low, and the longer the age, the higher the
cement hydration, ion migration, steel corrosion and concrete car- resistivity [99].
bonization can be analyzed by AC measurement [91–93]. Sensitivity of sensing performance is also influenced by curing
In addition, in order to overcome the contact resistance caused age. Galao et al. [25] compared the sensing performance of cement
by the existing electrode arrangement, some researchers invented slurry containing 2 wt% CNF at the age of 7 d, 14 d and 28 d, respec-
a non-contacting electrical resistivity measurement device. As tively. The results showed that the sensitivity was low when the
shown in Fig. 5, it adopted the transformer principle to remove age was 7 d and 14 d, while the sensitivity was higher at the age
the electrodes in the test and make the measurement more accu- of 28 d. Yıldırım et al. [45] compared the ECC sensing performance
rate [91,94]. with curing ages of 7 d, 28 d, 90 d and 180 d, respectively. The
For the position of the electrode, although the resistance mea- results showed that the sensing performance sensitivity was the
sured by the surface sticking electrode is relatively large, it does highest at curing age of 28 d under four-point bending, and the
not affect the resistivity measurement. For the purpose of simple sensitivity was also affected by the type of fillers and the loading
6
J. Han et al.
Fig. 4. Different electrode arrangements and resistivity measurement methods [14,48].
Fig. 5. Noncontacting electrical resistivity measurement equivalent circuit [94].
conditions. The change of sensitivity with age may be related to the
bond strength between conductive filler and cement matrix [100].
When studying the sensing performance of self-sensing cemen-
titious composites, appropriate curing age should be determined to
reduce the influence of pore structure changes on the sensing
performance.
3.4. Moisture content
The conductive paths of self-sensing cementitious composites
mainly include overlapping fillers conduction, tunneling effect
conduction and free ionic conduction [103], among which ionic
conductive is most easily affected by the moisture content of the
matrix. When the ambient humidity changes, the internal moisture
content will also change, which will influence the conductive path
and affect the sensing performance of the composites [87,104].
The resistivity of the composites varies with moisture content,
but the variation trend is influenced by the type of conductive fil-
ler. For CB cementitious composite, the resistivity increases with
the increase of moisture content [105], because CB can absorb
water, which will increase the contact resistance between particles
and reduce the electronic conductivity and hole conductivity in the
composites [102]. For CF and CNT cementitious composite, the
resistivity decreases with the increase of moisture content since
the increase of moisture content will increase the ionic conductiv-
ity [106].
The influence of moisture content on the resistivity is also
related to the content of the conductive filler. For the CF or CNT
composite with a conductive filler content lower than the percola-
tion threshold, the increase of moisture content is beneficial for the
conductivity while be harmful for the sensitivity [39], since the
increase of moisture content interferes with the electron conduc-
tion during the measurement [107]. With the increase of conduc-
tive filler content, the influence of moisture content will
gradually weaken [84].
The increase of moisture content also increases the polarization
effect, which will decrease the repeatability of sensing perfor-
mance [85,108].
7
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
The effect of moisture content of self-sensing cementitious
composites on its sensing performance is influenced by the type
and amount of conductive fillers. Therefore, the humidity in the
engineering application area should be considered, and the influ-
ence of the change of moisture content on the sensing performance
should be reduced by adjusting the type and content of conductive
fillers.
3.5. Temperature
The effect of temperature on the sensing performance of self-
sensing cementitious composites is mainly reflected in three
aspects, which are resistivity-temperature effect, electrothermal
effect and Seebeck effect.
For the resistivity-temperature effect, the resistivity of the com-
posites varies with temperatures. In this process, temperature
change has two effects, on the one hand, due to thermal expansion
and cold contraction, temperature change will change the spacing
between conductive fillers and the distribution of the conductive
network, which will affect the sensing performance. On the other
hand, temperature change will change the barrier of the electronic
transition and the conductivity of tunneling effect, which will
affect the sensing performance. These two effects interaction make
the composite exhibit two behaviors, i.e., the resistivity increases
with the increase or decrease of the temperature. The specific
behavior should be determined according to the type of filler, tem-
perature range, matrix and so on [109].
For the electrothermal effect, the carbon-based self-sensing
cementitious composite has the characteristic of heating under
the action of an electric field. However, in order to prevent polar-
ization effect, the applied current is weak. Moreover, in order to
achieve better sensing performance, the resistivity of the specimen
is low and the composite has very low heat in measurement [37].
Therefore, the electrothermal effect is ignored in the study of self-
sensing performance.
Seebeck effect refers to the phenomenon that the electrons
move from the high temperature end to the low temperature end
and form an electromotive force in the material due to the effect
of temperature difference [110,111]. Due to the presence of See-
beck effect on cementitious composite, the composite can be used
as a temperature sensor [111]. However, the electromotive force
generated by Seebeck effect is low, which makes it difficult to
influence the applied electric field in the resistivity measurement.
Therefore, in the application process of self-sensing cementi-
tious composites, the effect of temperature on the sensing perfor-
mance is mainly caused by the resistivity-temperature effect.
Within a certain temperature range, the resistivity decreases
with the increase of temperature [43,112,113]. However, the sta-
bility and repeatability of its sensing performance do not change
monotonically with increasing temperature. Hong et al. [108] stud-
ied the sensing performance of carbon self-sensing cementitious
composites at 40℃, 20℃, 0℃, 20℃, 40℃, 60℃ and 80℃, respec-
tively. It was found that the stability and repeatability were the
J. Han et al.
best when the temperatures were set to be 20 °C and 40 °C, and
slightly worse when the temperatures were 60 °C and 80 °C, while
they were the worst when the temperature was below 0 °C.
Temperature has an important effect on the resistivity of com-
posites, and it shows positive or negative effects under different
conditions, but its piezoresistive effect still meets the linearity
and repeatability requirements of SHM [43,113]. Therefore, it is
of significance to determine the resistivity-temperature effects
under different conditions for the research of sensing performance.
3.6. Other factors
In addition to the above factors, other factors also have consid-
erable effects on the sensing performance, such as load mode and
frequency, size effect of specimens, creep of materials under long-
term load, freeze–thaw cycle, chloride ion corrosion, etc., which
still need further study for clarifying the mechanisms [25,45,62].
4. Current conduction theories for self-sensing cementitious
composites
The research of carbon-based self-sensing cementitious com-
posites urgently needs the corresponding conduction theory. At
present, there are four main current conduction theories, namely
percolation theory, tunnel effect theory, electric field emission the-
ory and effective medium theory. In this paper, the concepts of
these theories were introduced and their applications in the con-
ductive behavior of cementitious composites were discussed. An
appropriate equivalent circuit model is of great significance for
understanding the conductive behavior of composites and analyz-
ing the changes in structure. Based on the foundation of the equiv-
alent circuit model, this paper summarized three types of models
and discussed their applications.
4.1. Conduction theory
Researchers have conducted extensive research on the conduc-
tion theory of composites, and relatively mature theories include
percolation theory, tunnel effect theory, electric field emission the-
ory and effective medium theory.
The percolation theory is used to explain the relationship
between resistivity and conductive fillers, it explains the macro-
scopic conductive behavior of the composites. According to the
theory, the conductive behavior is caused by conductive particles.
When the physical contact or clearance is within 1 nm, the parti-
cles form the conductive network inside of the composite. When
the conductive filler content exceeds a certain threshold, the con-
ductive particles are interconnected into an infinite cluster to form
a percolation conductive path, resulting in a sudden change in
resistivity. In this case, the filler content is the percolation thresh-
old [114].
However, when the conductive fillers content is low and the
conductive network has not been formed, the conductive behavior
of composites can also occur, which cannot be explained by the
percolation theory, so the tunnel effect theory is introduced.
According to the tunneling theory, the conductive behavior is not
conducted by direct contact of the fillers, but the electron’s transi-
tion between the adjacent particles under the external electric
field. It is generally believed that when the gap of the conductive
fillers is between 1 nm and 10 nm, tunneling conduction will occur
[115].
When analyzing the relationship between the current and volt-
age of the composites, it is found that sometimes the ratio of the
two is not constant, which does not conform to the Ohm’s law,
so the electric field emission theory is introduced. Electric field
8
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
emission theory believes that when the applied electric field is
large, the powerful electric field between conductive fillers can
generate the emission electric field, leading to the increase of cur-
rent and the non-ohmic characteristic relationship between volt-
age and current [116].
In order to explain the conductive behavior under different con-
ditions, a more applicable effective medium theory is suggested.
The effective medium theory believes each particle of the compos-
ites is in an effective medium with the same conductivity. The con-
ductivity of the composites can be determined by analyzing the
conductivity of different phases [117].
In this paper, the main equations, applicability, characteristics
and disadvantages of different conduction theories are summa-
rized, as shown in Tables 4 and 5.
In fact, the conductive behavior of cementitious composites is
the result of the interaction of multiple theories which play differ-
ent leading roles at different contents of conductive fillers [122].
In porous non-uniform cementitious composites, ionic conduc-
tion is an important component in conductive behavior. Therefore,
the conduction of cementitious composites mainly includes ion
conduction and electron conduction. Among them, ionic conduc-
tive carriers are the ions in the matrix, such as Ca2+, Na+, K+, OH
and SO2 4 , etc. The electron conductive carriers are electrons and
holes [123]. The external factors mainly affect the sensing perfor-
mance of the matrix by affecting the internal ionic conduction,
electron conduction and hole conduction. The current conduction
theories are only applicable to the directional electron movement
of conductive filler to form current, but not ionic conduction.
Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the interrelationship between
the various conduction theories and consider the role of ion con-
duction in conduction. It is urgent to consider the various factors
that affect the conductive behavior, and propose a more general
conduction theory.
4.2. Equivalent circuit model
With the development of electrical monitoring technology, ana-
lyzing the changes of electrical signals can not only determine the
stress and strain of the structure, but also determine the changes of
microstructure. It is the most common method to analyze the
changes of electrical signals by combining the AC impedance spec-
troscopy (ACIS) and the equivalent circuit model. ACIS can be used
to analyze the microstructure of cementitious composites. How-
ever, the results of the ACIS are very complex, which needs to be
analyzed in combination with the equivalent circuit model
[124,125].
When the AC is applied, a complex electrochemical system is
formed inside the cement-based material. Usually, the system is
represented by the resistors, capacitors, or inductors in parallel
or in series. In cement-based materials, solid, liquid and other com-
ponents have different properties thus their electrical properties
can be represented by different circuit elements. However, due to
the complex microstructure, it is difficult to use an equivalent cir-
cuit model to completely represent the electrical properties of the
materials thus some simplified models were proposed [90].
In this paper, according to the basis of the establishment of the
equivalent circuit model, they were divided into three categories,
namely microstructural model, conductive path model and con-
ductive theory model.
The microstructure model is based on the microstructure of the
cementitious composites, and the components in the matrix are
equivalent to circuit components, which are connected in series
or in parallel according to the structural rules [126]. As shown in
Fig. 6(a), the solid is considered to be an insulating porous medium,
the pores of which are filled with a conductive electrolyte solution.
The matrix liquid contains charged ions such as Ca2+, Na+, K+, OH,
J. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

Table 4
Main equations of different conduction theories.

Theory Main equations Description



Percolation C ¼ C p 1  V p þ V p W C m =C p [118] C p and V p are the conductivity and volume fraction of the conductive filler
theory respectively, C m is matrix conductivity.
       
Effective ð1  uÞ r1  rm = r1 þ Ar1=t
1=t 1=t 1=t
þ u rh  rm = rh þ Arm ¼ 0
1=t 1=t 1=t 1=t uis the volume fraction of high conductivity phase, uC is the critical volume
m
medium fraction of the high conductivity phase, r1, rh and rm are the conductivity of
A ¼ ð1  uC Þ=uC [119]
theory low conductivity phase, high conductivity phase and the composite
respectively, t is the exponent.
n   h io
Tunnel J ¼ J0 uexp Au2  ðu þ eV Þexp Aðu þ eV Þ2
1 1
J is the tunneling current density, e is the electronic change, h is the Planck
effect constant, Ds is the limit of the barrier at Fermi level, u is the average barrier
theory J 0 ¼ e=2phðbDsÞ2 height, V is the voltage on both sides of the film.
A ¼ ð4pbDs=hÞð2mÞ2 [120]
1

h i
jðeÞ ¼ j0 exp pXW=2ðjej=e0  1Þ2 j(e) is the tunneling current when the electric field intensity of the gap of
 1=2 conducting particles is e and the gap equivalent conductivity is j0, W is the
X ¼ 4pmV 0 =h
2
; e0 ¼ 4V 0 =em [121] gap width, |e|<e0.
Electric field J ¼ AEn expðB=EÞ[116] J is the current density, E is field intensity, A is tunnel frequency, n and B are
emission composite characteristic constants.
theory

Table 5
Applicability, characteristics and disadvantages of different conduction theories.

Theory Filler Voltage Scale Characteristics Disadvantages

content
Percolation High — Macro- The sudden change of resistivity in the This theory does not involve the nature of the conductivity, and only
theory scale relationship between conductive filler and analyzes the topological structure of fillers from the perspective of
resistivity is explained. statistics, without considering the thermodynamics and dynamics,
and pays no attention to the differences of matrix properties and
interfacial effects [118].
Effective — — — Wide range of applications. It is assumed that the conductive filler is ideally spread throughout
medium the medium. The results are generally higher than the experimental
theory results and the effects of thermodynamics and kinetics are ignored.
Tunnel effect Low Low Micro- The conductive behavior when conductive fillers It is suitable for conducting filler volume fraction in a certain range,
theory scale has no physical contact is explained. if the content is too low, the conductive particles spacing is too large,
tunneling effect will not occur.
Electric field Low High Micro- The relationship between the non-ohmic The theory is inaccurate when the applied voltage is low.
emission scale properties of voltage and current is explained.
theory

SO2
4 and so on, so they are considered to have electrical conductiv-
ity and are represented by resistors [127]. In particular, there is a
specific area of liquid in contact with the solid surface. Because
of surface adsorption on solids, the bilayer has different ionic com-
position and microstructure from the bulk and liquid. It contains
the opposite charge to the surface of the solid. In the case of AC,
the separation of opposite charges in the solid layer and the double
layer leads to capacitor behavior, so the interface is considered to
be a parallel connection of resistor and capacitor [128,129]. As
shown in Fig. 6(b) and (c), the equivalent circuit is obtained. In
Fig. 6, in which Rs is the resistance of the solid, Rl is the resistance
of the liquid, Rs+l is the sum of the solid and liquid resistance, Ci is
the interface capacitance, Ri is the interface resistance, and n is the
number of unit in the matrix [124].
In microstructure model, the circuit elements of the model are
increased or decreased according to the change of microstructure
[130]. When conductive particles or fibers are incorporated into
the matrix, the performances of the filler and the interface between
the filler and the matrix need to be considered. As shown in Fig. 7,
in which Cm and Rm are the capacitance and resistance of matrix,
respectively. C0m and R0m are the capacitance and resistance
increased by filler, respectively. Rp is the resistance of particles or
fibers. C00m and R00m are the compensation capacitance and resistance,
respectively. C0c and R0c are the capacitance and resistance of inter-
face between filler and matrix, respectively. Cc and Rc are the

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of ‘‘Solid-liquid interface Element” and its equivalent

circuit model [124]. Fig. 7. Equivalent circuit model with conductive filler [130].

9
J. Han et al.
capacitance and resistance increased by polarization effect,
respectively.
The equivalent circuit model based on the microstructure of
cementitious composites can be applied to analyze the hydration
process and structural change, which provides a new method for
the monitoring of structural health condition. But the equivalent
circuit model lacks accuracy due to the complex internal structure.
The conductive path equivalent circuit model is established
according to the degree of connectivity of the conductive path
[131,132]. According to the electrical conductivity of the internal
components of the cementitious composites, it is divided into con-
tinuous conductive path, discontinuous conductive path and insu-
lation path. As shown in Fig. 8, there is solution in the pores of the
cement-based material, and various cations and anions are in the
solution. When the pores are connected, under the action of an
applied voltage, the ions can move in a direction to form a current,
so the continuous conductive path is composed of connected pores,
the discontinuous conductive path is composed of occluded pores,
the insulation path consists of the nonconductive bulk.
When the conductive filler is added into the matrix, the equiv-
alent circuit model is also established according to the connectivity
degree of the conductive fillers. Li and Li [48] studied the sensing
performance of CB-ECC and established an equivalent circuit
model according to the distribution of CB. As shown in Fig. 9, in
which R1 represents the conductive path, R2 and C2 represent par-
tially conductive path, and C1 represents the nonconductive path.
It is of great significance to analyze the conductivity of materi-
als by using conductive paths to build the equivalent circuit model,
which ignores the complex structure inside the material. However,
this model can only show the change of the structure’s electrical
conductivity from the macroscopic view, and cannot accurately
be applied to analyze the change inside the material from the
microscopic view.
In addition, some researchers proposed an equivalent circuit
model based on the conductive theory of CF cementitious compos-
ites [134]. As shown in Fig. 10, in which Rf is the resistance of con-
ductive filler, RC is the contact resistance between conductive
fillers, and Re is the resistance caused by the tunnel effect.
The equivalent circuit model can predict the resistivity and
piezoresistivity of the matrix, which provides a new method for
the establishment of the equivalent model. However, it lacks accu-
racy, because it is highly dependent on the current conduction the-
ories, while the theories cannot fully explain the conduction
behaviors.
In this paper, the calculation formulas of impedance in different
equivalent circuit models are summarized, as shown in Table 6.
The equivalent circuit model is very important for analyzing ACIS
and understanding the conductive behavior. An appropriate equiv-
alent circuit model can accurately analyze the changes of cementi-
tious composites. However, there is no unified equivalent circuit
model at present, and the current equivalent circuit models still
have some inherent limitations. Therefore, it is urgent to establish
a universal equivalent circuit model.
Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit model of conductive path [133].
10
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
5. Application forms
With the development of the research on self-sensing cementi-
tious composites, there have been relatively mature conclusions on
its self-sensing performance under different stress states, but these
conclusions are obtained by making the composites into the whole
specimen for testing. In practical engineering, considering the cost,
the special mechanical properties of the structure, the shape of the
components and other factors, it is difficult to make the composites
into the whole structure to meet the actual requirements. There-
fore, application forms should be considered and designed accord-
ing to different engineering requirements. In this paper, three main
applications are summarized.
5.1. Bulk
Bulk refers to pouring the self-sensing cementitious composites
into the whole structure or key parts of the structure [135], which
not only meets the requirements of structural mechanical proper-
ties, but also has self-sensing performance. At present, most of the
researchers use the integral specimen to study the self-sensing
performance.
Han et al. [67] made a detailed review of the sensing perfor-
mance of integral specimens under different stress states such as
monotone compression, cyclic compression, impact load, mono-
tone tension, cyclic tension, bending load and so on. The form pos-
sesses good mechanical property and sensing performance, which
has a wide application foreground.
5.2. Sensor
For ordinary building structures that only required for health
monitoring, the self-sensing cementitious composites can be made
into small sensor elements to embed into the specimen or paste
onto the surface. As shown in the above Fig. 3 (c) and (d), Ding
et al. [61] made a new sensor of self-sensing cementitious compos-
ites and pasted it on the surface of the structure for vibration dam-
age detection. They found that the sensor has great application
prospect in structural model identify and SHM, while its signal
quality still needs to be further improved.
Han et al. [58] carried out a series of studies on the application
form, they prepared a new sensor with piezoresistive effect, which
can be embedded into the concrete pavement to monitor the vehi-
cle load, while the the sensor can only monitor the stress and strain
in the elastic stage.
For large scale structures or structural members such as con-
crete beams and columns, the new sensor embedded in the struc-
ture can be used for health monitoring. The new sensor can
monitor the structure health through wireless transmission to
reduce the influence of unnecessary circuits on the structure. The
sensor can identify the stress and strain of the structure well,
and has more advantages than the traditional sensor, such as good
durability, high sensitivity, good compatibility with concrete and
so on [36]. However, there are also some shortcomings, such as
only monitoring the damage of the structure in the elastic stage,
and lack of accuracy in the damage stage. For sensors used in
long-term service structure, the polarization effect will affect the
signal-to-noise ratio, resulting in signal distortion, etc. [136].
Determining the damage location in structure is conducive to
timely repair. The damage location can be determined by installing
multiple new sensors [23]. D’alessandro et al. [137] embedded
multiple sensors separately into concrete and determined the
damage sites by analyzing the change of resistivity of each sensor,
as shown in Fig. 11. Downey et al. [138,139] used sequential Monte
Carlo method to arrange sensors to detect the damaged locations of
J. Han et al. Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764

Fig. 9. CB-ECC equivalent circuit model [48].

5.3. Coating

When the structure has to be reinforced, the application form of

coating is more reasonable. Self-sensing cementitious composites
applied on the structure surface can not only improve the mechan-
Fig. 10. Equivalent circuit model of conduction theory [134]. ical properties of the structure as a layer of protection and rein-
forcement material, but also play a role of health monitoring as a
sensor [140,141].
Table 6
Calculation formulas of impedance in different equivalent circuit models.
The thickness and location of the coating have an important
effect on the enhancement of mechanical properties and sensing
Model type Calculation formula of impedance The Ref.
performance. Wu et al. [142] applied CF self-sensing cementitious
figure
composite as the coating on the upper and lower layers of concrete
Microstructural Z L ¼ RSþL þ 1=ð1=RINT þ jxC INT Þ Fig. 6 Gu [124] beams, as shown in Fig. 12. They analyzed the different mechanical
model RSþL ¼ nðRs þ Rl Þ
R1 ¼ 2nRint
properties and sensing performance of the beam by adjusting the
C 1 ¼ C int =2n thickness. The results showed that the bottom reinforcement layer
Z ¼ ð½RðRC ÞðRC Þ½ðRC ÞðRC ÞÞðRC Þ Fig. 7 Woo could improve the crack resistance of the beam, and the degree of
[130] increase was proportional to the thickness. The greater the thick-
Conductive path Z  1=fjxC 1 þ 1=R1 þ 1=½R2 þ 1=ðjxC 2 Þg Fig. 8 Song ness of the top and the bottom layers, the smaller the initial resis-
model [132] tivity. Compared with the top layer, the bottom layer was more
Z ¼ 1=ð1=R1 Þ þ 1=ðR=jxC 2 Þ þ jxC 1 Fig. 9 Li [48]
sensitive to the beam stress.
Conduction Rtotal = f(RL, RC Rt) Fig. 10 Xu [134] When applying the coating, the thickness and position of the
theory
coating should be determined reasonably. The different factors
model
should be considered, such as the accuracy of resistivity measure-
Note: Z is the total impedance, j is imaginary, x is angular frequency, R is the ment, mechanical property of reinforcement, synergistic force of
resistance and C is the capacitance.
coating and structure.
In summary, the application forms of bulk, sensor and coating
can monitor the stress and strain of the structure, but their appli-
structures, while the method still had some disadvantages such as cation conditions are different. Therefore, the application forms
long calculation time and complex calculation process. should be reasonably determined according to the cost of engi-

Fig. 11. Distribution of the sensors on the surface of concrete beams [137].

11
J. Han et al.
Fig. 12. The beam with coating on the upper and lower.
neering design, mechanical performance requirements, component
shape and other factors.
6. Challenges
Carbon-based self-sensing cementitious composites have great
development potential in intelligent construction due to their
excellent mechanical properties, strong durability and sensing
properties. However, there are still some drawbacks restricting
their development:
(1) The sensing performance of the composites comes from the
conductive network inside the matrix. For the traditional
concrete structure, the internal conductive network is easily
affected by the coarse aggregate and reinforcement.
(2) Carbon conductive fillers are hydrophobic materials, and the
dispersion is a key factor affecting the mechanical properties
and sensing performance of the matrix. Currently, the dis-
persion methods are unsatisfactory and novel dispersion
methods are still essential.
(3) The influence mechanism of external environment (e.g. tem-
perature, humidity, chlorine ion and carbon dioxide) on the
sensing performance is still unclear. Especially for the long-
term service structure, durability is also an important factor
affecting their sensing performance.
(4) The current conduction theories do not fully explain the con-
ductive behavior of composites, and the applicability of
equivalent circuit models is quite limited. It is urgent to pro-
pose a universal conductive theory and equivalent circuit
model.
(5) In the research of the current application forms, there are
still some bottleneck constraints, such as signal instability,
weak anti-interference ability, and relatively low signal-to-
noise ratio. The ability and efficiency of sensing performance
need to be improved urgently.
7. Concluding remarks
Carbon-based self-sensing cementitious composites are smart
materials with sensing performance, which are manufactured by
adding carbon conductive fillers into cementitious composites.
The composites have the advantages of high sensitivity of percep-
tion, excellent mechanical properties, strong durability and good
compatibility with matrix, which have great application prospects
in SHM.
This paper discussed the preparation, theory research and
application of self-sensing cementitious composites made with
carbon-based material. The effect of single or mixed carbon con-
ductive fillers on the self-sensing performance was analyzed. The
factors affecting their preparation and application, such as disper-
sion of the conductive fillers, electrode arrangement, electrical
resistivity measurement methods, curing age, moisture content
and temperature were discussed. The conductive theory, equiva-
lent circuit model of the composites and the current application
forms were summarized briefly, and the challenges were also dis-
cussed in the development and application of the cementitious
composites finally.
12
Construction and Building Materials 265 (2020) 120764
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the National Key R&D Program of
China (2017YFC0703700) and National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51778131).
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