Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 78, No. 5, 2020

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 78, No.
5, 2020
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr., Prof. Muammer Calik, Trabzon University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Margaret Chan Kit Yok, MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Malaysia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Solange W. Locatelli, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
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Vol. 78, No. 5, 2020
Contents 669
Editorial
URGENT ISSUES AND MODERN CHALLENGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Yurii Pelekh ...........................................................................................................671
Articles
OBJECTIVE STRUCTURED CLINICAL EXAMINATION (OSCE) AS A RELIABLE

EVALUATION STRATEGY: EVIDENCE FROM A BRAZILIAN MEDICAL SCHOOL
Luciana Castellani, Luiz Fernando Quintanilha, Maria Belen Arriaga, Maria de Lourdes Lima,
Bruno Bezerril Andrade ..............................................................................................674
EXPLORING BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNIVERSITY LECTURERS’

WORK MOTIVATION, BASIC NEED SATISFACTION AND ENGAGEMENT RELATIONSHIP
Samson Onyeluka Chukwuedo, Jane Nwakaego Egbri .........................................................688
LIMITATIONS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING REDOX: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Luciane F. Goes, Keysy S. C. Nogueira, Carmen Fernandez ................................................... 698
USEFULNESS OF MOBILE TEACHING AND LEARNING AS PERCEIVED BY ROMANIAN

AND LITHUANIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS
Gabriel Gorghiu, Costin Pribeanu, Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Slekiene ............................... 719
TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY: TEACHERS’ PROGRESSIVE APPROACH USED FOR 21ST

CENTURY STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC SUCCESS IN VIBRANT ENVIRONMENT
Mehboob Ul Hassan, Rafaqat Ali Akbar ............................................................................734
AN EXAMINATION OF SYRIAN STUDENTS’ EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES AT SCHOOL

FROM THE REFLECTIONS OF TEACHERS
Nermin Karabacak .................................................................................................... 754
TEACHERS’ AWARENESS AND UNDERSTANDING OF STUDENTS’ CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE OF GEOMETRIC SHAPES
Balli Lelinge, Christina Svensson .................................................................................. 777
SUBJECT PANELS AS SUSTAINABLE INNOVATION FOR TEACHER PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Godwin Mumhure, Loyiso C. Jita, Godsend T. Chimbi .......................................................... 799
CHALLENGES OF DIFFERENTIATED AND INDIVIDUALIZED TEACHING IN

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: THE CASE OF SLOVENIA
Klara Skubic Ermenc, Damijan Štefanc, Jasna Mažgon ......................................................... 815
DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILDREN QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEASURING CHINESE

CHARACTER LITERACY LEARNING SATISFACTION
Shiat Lu Wong, Nyet Moi Siew, Chiow Thai Soon ............................................................... 832

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670 THE EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PROGRAM WITH LIFE CONTEXTS ON THE

COGNITIVE FUNCTION OF THE ELDERLY IN TAIWAN
Ya-Ling Wu, Shan-Ru Chao, Wei-Fang Tsai, Mei-Lun Chen ................................................... 856
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 873

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URGENT ISSUES AND MODERN 671
CHALLENGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Yurii Pelekh
Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
E-mail: pelekhyurii@ukr.net
Modern society, which is experiencing dynamic changes due to the new global challenges,
is definitely looking for solutions in science and education. The life of many generations has
proved that no matter what problems humanity faces, their solution requires intellectual effort,
a scientific approach and a quality education system as one of the most effective means of
disseminating ideas, knowledge and values.
At the same time, such a situation always leads to the thorough attention to the
phenomenon of education, in particular higher education. Great expectations and hopes cause
significant demands and fundamental tasks that the society puts forward to the academic
community. Satisfaction of these requirements and the solution of such tasks is probably not
possible without self-analysis and self-reflection, without identifying those problems that
inhibit the development of education itself, decrease its functionality, and discredit its status as
the spiritual basis of social life. Therefore, we will further try to formulate our vision of current
issues and current challenges in higher education.
First, we focus on the educational problem, which, so to speak, belongs to the eternal
category – the problem of the content of education. This issue is relevant both for the academic
community and for the society as a whole. Consideration of this issue in different periods led to
the creation and establishment of different educational paradigms (for example, education as a
means of forming a scientific picture of the world; education as a space of professionalization;
education as a way of forming a culture of mental activity, etc.). In recent decades, the concept
of education as preparation for life has become increasingly popular. Such education encourages
self-development, development of intellectual abilities and creativity, motivates lifelong
learning, and affirms the paradigm of openness to the new, innovative, and “fresh” content.
However, there is an obvious question: How is this concept reflected in the modern educational
space and more specifically, in certain educational programs?
In turn, the implementation of the concept of education as preparation for life greatly
increases the requirements for the teaching staff regarding professional competencies. Here, we
turn to the issue of professional readiness of high school teachers. On the one hand, we mean the
humanitarian basis of the modern teacher (development of his/her spiritual world, intellectual
abilities and knowledge, formation of the value sphere). On the other hand, it is a question of
the teacher’s possession of modern educational technologies (for example, technologies for the
development of multimedia teaching materials, technologies for monitoring and determining
academic integrity, technologies for designing assessment materials, technologies for operating
tools and interaction services in online learning, etc.). It is obvious that the gravity of professional
requirements for a modern university teacher raises the issue of motivation and stimulation of
the teaching staff to self-improvement. This task has both a social (as facilitated by the society)
and individual dimension (in which way the personality of the teacher can contribute to it).
This leads to the following problematic questions: How to provide professional training of
a teacher with an innovative type of thinking and a formed value sphere? What incentives
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671

Yurii PELEKH. Urgent issues and modern challenges of higher education
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672 should the society (the state) offer that would help increase the quality of human resources in
higher education? How to increase the level of personal motivation of a high school teacher to
professional growth?
It is impossible not to pay attention to the problems of organization of the modern
educational process. We should note that modern pedagogical science considers as an axiom
the need for interactive teaching methods in higher education. Such methods help to increase
the efficiency of the educational process and, at the same time, to ensure the development
of the above-mentioned intellectual abilities and creativity, taking into account the individual
characteristics of students. On the other hand, the modern realities of the globalized world, which
is difficult to imagine without networking with its endless online interaction services, create
many new educational opportunities to stimulate cognitive activity and active independence of
students in the educational process. Paradoxically, the social distance issue has come in handy
here; for reasons of self-preservation, it dictates the need to develop and attract interactive
online learning technologies based on a personal-activity approach (Lytvyn et al., 2019). At
the same time, this does not mean a complete abandonment of in-class learning. Therefore, we
need to address the following questions: What should the ratio of online learning and in-class
learning technologies in the educational process be? How does the use of these technologies
correlate with the requirements for professional training of specific specialties? What should
the content of these two types of training be?
An indisputable problem for higher education is the reduction of its social role, the
loss of the status of a social leader. In other words, the voice of the academic community is
often ignored. According to a special study (UNEP, 2012) conducted under the auspices of
the United Nations "21 Issues for the 21st Century", the current level of interaction between
politics and academia is inadequate to the existing problems, which makes it impossible to
develop effective solutions to global problems. Thus, modern civilization is characterized by
a number of crises: the social and economic crisis (inhibition of global economic growth and
increasing disparity between the rich and the poor), the environmental crisis (in all possible
manifestations), the crisis of classical forms of government in the globalized world, the crisis
of democratic institutions, which are increasingly falling victim to manipulative populism. It
is significant that in individual countries the level and depth of these problems are smaller,
which can be explained by the higher social status of education and more active participation of
academic community (faculty and students) in public life. Therefore, the issue of promotion of
higher education, its opportunities, traditions and values is becoming especially relevant now.
Solution of the above-mentioned problems and related issues will contribute to the
reform of higher education, its progress. Moreover, it will facilitate the formation of not only
personal but also social qualities, providing an effective platform for personal and collective
development, common and individual interests, rights and responsibilities.
References
Lytvyn, A., Lytvyn, V., Rudenko, L., Pelekh, Y., Didenko, O., Muszkieta, R., & Zukow, W. (2019).
Informatization of technical vocational schools: Theoretical foundations and practical approaches.
Education and Information Technologies, 25, 583-609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09966-4
UNEP, 2012. 21 Issues for the 21st Century: Result of the UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging
Environmental Issues. In Alcamo, J., & Leonard, S. A. (Eds.). United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), (pp. 56). Nairobi, Kenya. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.22054.32323
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Yurii PELEKH. Urgent issues and modern challenges of higher education
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 78, No. 5, 2020
673
Received: August 31, 2020 Accepted: October 02, 2020
Cite as: Pelekh, Y. (2020). Urgent issues and modern challenges of higher education. Problems
of Education in the 21st Century, 78(5), 671-673. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671
Yurii Pelekh PhD, Professor, Vice-rector, Rivne State University of Humanities, Rivne, Ukraine.
E-mail: pelekhyurii@ukr.net
Website: http://www.rshu.edu.ua/
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1737-4557

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674
OBJECTIVE STRUCTURED CLINICAL
EXAMINATION (OSCE) AS A RELIABLE
EVALUATION STRATEGY: EVIDENCE FROM
A BRAZILIAN MEDICAL SCHOOL
Luciana Castellani
Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health (EBMSP), Brazil
Salvador University (UNIFACS), Brazil
E-mail: lucianacastellani@gmail.com
Luiz Fernando Quintanilha

FTC University Center (UniFTC), Brazil
E-mail: quintanilha.lf@gmail.com
Maria Belen Arriaga

Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Brazil
E-mail: mbag711@gmail.com
Maria de Lourdes Lima

E-mail: mlourdeslima@bahiana.edu.br
Bruno Bezerril Andrade

Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ), Brazil
E-mail: bruno.andrade@fiocruz.br
Abstract
The new curriculum of medical schools has brought the need to develop a professional committed to ethics,
capable of understanding the role of social factors, the insertion of the individual into the family and their
role in promoting health. These skills and the use of new methodologies in teaching-learning process have
demonstrated that the traditional performance assessment methods are limited in holistically evaluating
the student. This study analyzed the correlation among different methods for evaluating competencies in
medical internship students and Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE). A cross-sectional,
descriptive and analytical study was performed among 5th year medical students at Pediatric, Surgery,
Medical Clinic, Family and Community Medicine and Gynecology and Obstetrics. Grades of each student
obtained through different evaluations (theoretical test, conceptual evaluation and test skills) at the end
of each rotation were correlated with the individual results from OSCE. In regard to correlations with the
OSCE score values, it was found a weak to moderate positive and statistically significant relationship with
the global cognitive score (r= .22, p< .001), global abilities score (r= .26, p< .001) and with the global
behavioral score (r= .38, p< .001). The students' performance in the various assessments of performance
evaluated here was positively correlated to their performance on OSCE. Furthermore, the organization
of an OSCE-type assessment prepared in multiple, committed and competent hands may serve as a unique
assessment and, in fact, assess the development of clinical skills for future doctors.

Luciana CASTELLANI, Luiz Fernando QUINTANILHA, Maria Belen ARRIAGA, Maria de LOURDES LIMA, Bruno Bezerril ANDRADE.
Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) as a reliable evaluation strategy: Evidence from a Brazilian medical school
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Keywords: educational measurements, higher education, medical education, objective structured 675
clinical examination
Introduction
The teaching and learning process in higher education has progressed remarkably in
recent years worldwide, including in medical schools (Irby et al., 2010; Mann, 2011). In direct
alignment with this new pedagogical reality, Brazilian medical schools have been re-organizing
their curricula by competencies and adapting to the implementation of new teaching strategies
with different learning scenarios, incentives for research training and reassessment of evaluation
methods (Santos, 2011).
In order to achieve all the points described in the National Guidelines (Conselho Nacional
de Educação, 2014), the curriculum of medical courses should focus on making students able to
develop more than theoretical skills during their training. Thus, professors must instruct future
professionals committed to ethics, able to understand the role of social factors in maintaining
health, the insertion of the individual in the family, their role in promoting health and adequate
communication with the patients and their families. Therefore, adjustments to the knowledge
pyramid suggested by Miller (1990) have been proposed, where, at the top of the pyramid, the
student "consistently demonstrates the attitudes, values and behaviors expected of those who
came to think, act and feel like a physician" (Cruess et al., 2016; Miller, 1990). Pedagogically,
for this new professional model, changes in teaching strategies have become imperative. With
more innovative curriculum design based in competencies, the adoption of active learning
strategies have been recommended (Frohna et al., 2006; Prado et al., 2011; Schmidt et al.,
2009).
Research Focus
Another crucial point is: how to evaluate students’ performance in this new scenario?
It is still widely accepted that assessment of academic performance is necessary to monitor
student’s development. Such assessment serves as a guide for assessing individual progress in
incorporating the knowledge and skills necessary for medical profession. However, choosing
an appropriate and efficient assessment method is not an easy task and remains debated
(Lurie et al., 2009). Traditional approaches using cognitive assessment provide an inaccurate,
incomplete picture of the holistic training, not being in alignment with the guidelines of the new
methodologies proposed in competency-based curricula (Troncon, 2004). A more complete
assessment should do more than measure the volume of correct information, it should be able to
provide the desired evidence that students are achieving curricular objectives and competencies.
Of note, there are different types of assessment approaches and professors should always
take into consideration which one is the most appropriate to assess whether the objectives of
a given course and/or discipline have been achieved by students. The Structured Objective
Clinical Examination (OSCE) is one of these assessment tools already successfully tested in
different courses, including medical schools (Carraccio & Englander, 2000; Fischer et al., 2017;
Kolivand et al., 2020). It is designed to test, in a practical way and in a controlled environment,
the performance of clinical and main medical skills. Although it has already been tested and
applied at major universities in the world such as in Canada, Germany, United Kingdom and
the United States (Chisnall et al., 2015; Furmedge et al., 2016; Goldhamer et al., 2018; Lafleur
et al., 2015; Müller et al., 2019; Stansfield et al., 2016), it is still not widely applied in Brazilian
Medical schools in detriment of traditional assessments (Troncon, 2004).
In this context, it is interesting to note that recently in Brazil, some government programs
in the areas of health and education have provided an explosive growth in the number of medical

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676 courses. In these new medical schools, in the face of a new society driven by technology, teaching
strategies have been rethought and adequate (Farias et al., 2015). Although, these schools
proposed mostly innovative curricula based on interdisciplinarity and multi-professionalism
with the use of problem-based learning (PBL) and Student-centered learning (Meireles et al.,
2019; Takenami et al., 2018), the OSCE-type evaluation methods are still not widely used.
Literature Review
The Objective Structured Clinical Exam was initially proposed in the 1970s to measure
the achievement of clinical skills (Harden et al., 1975). Since then, it has been applied (with
variations) in an increasing number of medical schools worldwide (Carraccio & Englander,
2000; Patrício et al., 2013). In this scenario, this type of assessment and its variations have
already been tested in different health courses, from basic sciences such as physiology and
anatomy to more advanced units in the clinical axis such as urology, gynecology and even
radiology (Dumont et al., 2016; Noureldin et al., 2015; Van Den Berk et al., 2011; Wani, 2015;
Yaqinuddin et al., 2013).
The organization of the OSCE may vary between the institutions that apply it as an
evaluation method, however the principles that underlie it are common among schools. In
summary, students perform sequentially a series of cases and clinical stations structured to
measure the achievement of skills such as (i) communication and professionalism, (ii) obtaining
a history, (iii) physical examination, (iv) clinical reasoning and (v) practical / technical skills.
Different strategies can be used in the stations, for example, the interaction with a simulated
patient, a computer simulation, a series of clinical information etc. Each of these stations has a
professor to assess student performance based on a pre-defined checklist. Studies show that if
there is a compromise in the elaboration of the OSCE, it becomes a workable, valid, reliable,
cheap and efficient method (Gormley, 2011; Zayyan, 2011).
It is important to carry out a critical analysis of this evaluation strategy. There is still
a great deal of heterogeneity between models from different medical schools and even among
the evaluators that participate of the evaluation process (Guraya et al., 2010; Schleicher et al.,
2017). In addition, the experimental designs of the studies that evaluate the efficiency of the
OSCE, in general, have important methodological limitations which make us take a cautious
look at the subject which certainly needs a better exploration (Turner & Dankoski, 2008).
A point that must be highlighted, however, is the positive evaluation on the part of
the students who consider the method efficient and perceive its advantages, despite finding it
very stressful (Khorashad et al., 2014). Another important point is that the OSCE has already
been tested in comparison with other assessment models demonstrating inconclusive levels
of efficiency and perceptions (Chisnall et al., 2015; Lakshmipathy, 2015; Turner & Dankoski,
2008).
Research Aim
In this context, in order to contribute to the OSCE's validation as an effective evaluation

model, it is essential to compare it with the other assessment models. In the present research, in
students from a Brazilian private medical school, it was assessed the correlation of evaluation
scores originated from different assessment methods commonly used in medical schools with
scores from OSCE.

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Research Methodology 677
General Background
A Cross-sectional, descriptive and analytical study was conducted with medical students
in order to assess the correlation between their performances in OSCE and other types of
evaluation tests. For this purpose, their scores in five different curricular areas of internship
were analyzed.
Sample
One hundred ninety-eight students of the 5th year of Medicine course (Internship),
in a private medical school from Salvador, Northeast Brazil. The analyzed curricular areas
were “Pediatrics”, “Surgery”, “Internal Medicine”, “Family and Community Medicine” and
“Obstetrics and Gynecology”. In this medical school, each student completes a two-month
internship in each of the aforementioned areas developing activities at a training hospital,
outpatient clinic, emergency unit, surgical and obstetric center, and Family Health Units. The
variables used for analyses were epidemiologic data and grades of each student in distinct
evaluations described below which were performed at the end of each rotation. The grades
could range from 0 to 10 and have 1 decimal place.
Procedures and Data Collection
In order to test the cognitive domain, a theoretical and objective test was applied with
20 multiple-choice questions, dealing with the most common subjects in each area of medical
knowledge. The main professor of each curricular unit prepared the test.
To test the ability skills, it was applied the Objective Structured Practical Exam (OSPE)
model on low complexity simulators for the curricular units of Surgery and Pediatrics, preserving
patient safety. Invasive, noninvasive procedures and clinical situations, analysis of laboratory
and imaging tests were tested. The test was applied in the Simulation Center and graded each
student according to the standardized form prepared by professors of the respective areas. For
the curricular units of Internal Medicine, Family and Community Medicine, and Obstetrics and
Gynecology, we used the mini-clinical evaluation exercise (Mini-Cex) (Megale et al., 2009).
With the purpose of test, the behavioral skills, the preceptor of each internship field
performed a conceptual evaluation, following a standardized form, representing the student’s
performance during the 2-month rotation. The final grade to each student was the weighted
average of 30% performance in cognitive assessment, 30% performance in abilities skills and
40% performance in the conceptual evaluation.
At the end of the internship, an OSCE was carried out among all the students. It was
composed by stations of clinical attendance with actors, representing habitual clinical situations
in Clinical Medicine, Family and Community Medicine and Surgical Clinic, a station of
case-long Pediatrics and a video station on ethical conduct of diagnosis and information to
the relatives of HIV patients. Professors specialized in each area of knowledge, graded each
student, following a standardized single file.
All students, enrolled in the 5th year of the Medical course, performed all the evaluations
and signed the Free and Informed Consent Form.

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678 Statistical Analysis
The normality of the sample was evaluated by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

(“Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test,” 2008). The mean values with standard deviation or median with
interquartile range were used as measures of central tendency and dispersion, depending if a
given variable presented or not Gaussian distribution in the study population. The comparison
between the average grades of the evaluations was done through the Kruskal Wallis test with
multiple Dunn comparisons or nonparametric linear trend post-test (Kruskal & Wallis, 1952).
To test the correlation between the assessments, it was used the Spearman correlation
coefficient (Spearman, 2010). The p-values were considered statistically significant when p <
.05. The OSCE assessment grade was considered the gold standard. This metric was used to
study its correlation with the grades of the theoretical test (assessing cognitive competence),
the marks of the practical test (assessing the abilities skills) and the grades of the conceptual
evaluation (assessing the behavioral competence).
Ethical Considerations
The investigations were conducted according to the principles expressed in the

Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013). This work was executed in
accordance with Resolution no. 466/12 of the Brazilian National Health Council and was
approved by the Institutional Review Board of Salvador University (UNIFACS, Laureate
International Universities). The students who accepted to participate in the research signed
Terms of Free and Clarified Compromise.

Research Results
Descriptive Results
Results of 198 students were analyzed. The group comprised 144 female students (73%),
with a mean age of 25.8±3 years old, of high economic standard. Eighty percent (80%) of the
students attended their first higher education course, but 20% had started or completed some
other course previously, mostly in health.
The average final grade of the students in each of the 5 curricular units (global cognitive,
global skills and overall behavioral) and OSCE were obtained: the Global cognitive mean of
7.0±0.7 and the median 7.0; the overall global skills were 8.6±0.6 and the median 8.6; the
overall behavioral mean was 9.3±0.3 and the median 9.4; the mean of the weighted average
grade (WAG) was 8.3±0.4 and the median 8.4; the mean of OSCE was 7.6±0.8 and the median
7.7. The scatter plots of the grades are shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 679
Global grades of students. In (A) the mean of cognitive, abilities and behavioral grades are
presented. In (B) the OSCE and WAG grades are shown
*WAG (weighted average grade) = (cognitive 0,3) + (ability x 0,3) + (behavioral x 0,4)
Analytical Results
To attest to the student's cognitive domain, it was used the traditional multiple-choice
test. A weak positive but statistically significant correlation with the OSCE results in the overall
score was detected (r= .22 p< .001). When analyzing the evaluations performed in each rotation,
it was observed a correlation in Internal Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology and Pediatrics
(Figure 2A). To test the skill domain, a practical test was applied. It was found a weak and
statistically significant correlation with the OSCE results in the overall score with r= .26 and
p< .001. When analyzing the evaluations performed in each rotation, a positive correlation
in Internal Medicine and Pediatrics was found (Figure 2B). To attest the behavioral domain
of the student, a conceptual evaluation was performed. It was found a weak and statistically
significant positive correlation with the OSCE results in the overall score with r= .38 and
p< .001. When analyzing the evaluations performed at each rotation, correlation in Internal
Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology and Surgery were found (Figure 2C). Considering the
final weighted score, we found a strong positive correlation with the OSCE r= .38 and p< .001
(Figure 2D).

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680 Figure 2
Distribution per curricular unit of Spearman correlation vs OSCE. The Spearman correlation
of (A) Cognitive, (B) Abilities, (C) Behavioral and (D) Weighted final grade evaluations with
OSCE are presented

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Discussion 681
In this research, the average age of the students was 25.8±3 years old, which puts them
in the sociological category of Generation Y. In addition, students mostly belong to a higher
social class. Such characteristics make them widely familiar with technological resources and
Internet, however, this generation of students is known for their impatience, immediacy and
difficulty in following conventional models of work and hierarchy (Desy et al., 2017; Nalliah
& Allareddy, 2014). Pedagogically, these characteristics must be considered in the teaching-
learning and evaluation process.
It has been consistently demonstrated that this generation of students adapts well to the
use of active learning methodologies (Quintanilha et al., 2018). In general, the use of more
dynamic assessment tools results in better performance compared to more traditional tools.
In the present study, it was found a lower performance in traditional cognitive assessments
than in skill (practical or Mini-Cex) and conceptual assessments (Figure 1). This corroborates
the findings of Sandoval, who evaluated the students' performance in the evaluations of the
Pediatric Internship. The researcher detected approximately 20% lower scores on written exams
than the result of observing daily clinical practice (Sandoval et al., 2010). A curriculum based
on active methodologies may play an important role in these findings, as it stimulates students'
practical and attitudinal character.
Here, we can clearly see a narrowing in the distribution of grades for conceptual
assessment. Despite the use of a standardized instrument and the incentive to individualize the
concept of each student, the values show low dispersion, with low sensitivity and the ability to
detect low student performance. It demonstrates that these kinds of evaluations sometimes do
not correspond to the students' real performance and it is important to think deeply about how
to assess these cases better.
An important observation to be highlighted is that most health science professors working
in the medical courses were not prepared for the teaching activities, reproducing, in general, the
traditional model in which they were trained. Although institutions may offer update courses
and pedagogical forums, most medical professors are unable to attend them (Quintanilha et al.,
2020). This reality is observed in other studies (Costa, 2010) contributing to the maintenance
of the wrong perception that the evaluation is only for approval (Diedrichs et al., 2012). They
do not consider the main aim to correct the course according to the educational process and
to act as an important pillar of the teaching-learning process (Furmedge et al., 2016). In this
context, the continuous development of the professor can promote a paradigm shift, and this is
extremely important for the construction of a reflective, positive and transformative evaluation
philosophy.
Moreover, there is a gap between the recommendation of conducting classes using
active learning methodologies and the common application of exams using only cognitive tests.
The implementation of new assessment tools finds it difficult to convince professors about
the validity of their use since, as previously discussed, they were trained and evaluated in
traditional ways during their academic life. They complain about the number of checklists and
bureaucratic formats that competency-based assessment models establish (Lombarts, 2015).
However, based on continuous practice and the consequent perception of the extension of this
type of evaluation, there is a decrease in resistance and such changes in evaluation methods can
prove to be of great value in the process of medical training based on competences and in the
training of new future physicians.
In this sense, studies show that the OSCE presents itself as a complete and reliable form of
assessment in medical schools (Matsuo et al., 2013; Townsend et al., 2001; Walters et al., 2005;
Zayyan, 2011). In the present research, it was demonstrated that the student's performance in the
various assessments can be proportional to their performances in the OSCE, with a statistically

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682 significant correlation. Our results corroborate the data from the study of Couto (2019) who
demonstrated that assessment strategies in problem-based learning (PBL) approach, including
Formative Assessment, Progress Testing and OSCE have positive correlations, which increases
as the medical course becomes more complex (Couto et al., 2019).
In this regard, the OSCE, despite the greater complexity of its execution, especially
in large groups, must be evaluated by medical education institutions as it is a comprehensive
assessment that effectively measures various degrees of medical skills. This assessment
modality can even replace a huge range of assessments from different disciplines which can
have their main contents and competencies covered at once in a single exam.
Conclusions and Implications
The definition of efficient forms of assessment is an issue widely discussed in the field of
education. In Medical education, with the curricular changes that have occurred in the last few
years, such as the introduction of models such as Problem Based Learning and Active Learning
strategies, it is incoherent to maintain the same traditional forms of assessment. The Objective
Structured Clinical Exam (OSCE) has been presented as a useful and effective alternative in
several Medical schools. In the present study, we compared the performance of students who
undertook different assessment strategies with their OSCE performance. It was observed that
there is a weak or moderately positive relationship with statistical relevance between them.
In practical terms, considering the OSCE's correlation with other assessment models and
especially the large number of tests that students usually take and the great variability among
them, the proposal for the organization of an OSCE-type assessment prepared in multiple,
committed and competent hands, can serve as a unique assessment and, in fact, assess the
development - or not - of clinical skills for future physicians.
Since we are evaluating a single group of students from a specific university, the
results presented may not be extrapolated to other educational contexts. However, there are
many studies that corroborate with our data making us believe that, in fact, our results are
representative and suggest a reality in medical courses in general.
So, there is an urgent need for new, robust and analytical studies that assess the
effectiveness and perception of learning, as well as application models that increase quality and
decrease heterogeneity and bias. In this way, medical education educators and managers will be
able to base their practices on what we call evidence-based medical education.
Limitations and Suggestions
As this is an observational study, the results obtained are influenced by the subjectivity of
the evaluation process, from the perspective of each professor and do not allow us to conclude
casual relationships. An interesting suggestion is training professors in the standardization of the
checklists and cognitive tests, in addition to training of each professor that teaches in practical
setting the importance of the objectivity on behavioral assessments, to analyze whether the
evaluations make it even closer to the “gold-standard” assessment.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ms. Galyna Blyznyuk for her assistance in revising the
English text.


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Received: June 03, 2020 Accepted: September 12, 2020
Cite as: Castellani, L., Quintanilha, L. F., Arriaga, M. B., de Lourdes Lima, M., & Andrade,
B. B. (2020). Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) as a reliable evaluation
strategy: Evidence from a Brazilian medical school. Problems of Education in the 21st
Century, 78(5), 674-687. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

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687
Luciana Castellani PhD, Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health (Escola Bahiana de Medicina
e Saúde Pública - EBMSP), R. Silveira Martins, 100 - Cabula, Salvador, Bahia,
Brazil.
Professor, Salvador University (Universidade Salvador – UNIFACS), R. Dr. José
Peroba, 251 - Stiep, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail: lucianacastellani@gmail.com
Luiz Fernando Quintanilha Professor, Salvador University (Universidade Salvador - UNIFACS), R. Dr. José
(Corresponding author) Peroba, 251 - Stiep, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Professor, FTC University Center (UniFTC), Av. Luís Viana, 8812 - Paralela,
Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail: quintanilha.lf@gmail.com
Maria Belen Arriaga Researcher, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ), R.
Waldemar Falcão, 121 - Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail: tmbag711@gmail.com
Maria de Lourdes Lima Professor, Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health (Escola Bahiana de
Medicina e Saúde Pública - EBMSP), R. Silveira Martins, 100 - Cabula, Salvador,
Bahia, Brazil.
Professor, Salvador University (Universidade Salvador – UNIFACS), R. Dr. José
Peroba, 251 - Stiep, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail: mlourdeslima@bahiana.edu.br
ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2081-4162
Bruno Bezerril Andrade Researcher, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ), R.
Waldemar Falcão, 121 - Candeal, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Professor, Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health (Escola Bahiana de
Medicina e Saúde Pública - EBMSP), R. Silveira Martins, 100 - Cabula, Salvador,
Bahia, Brazil.
E-mail: bruno.andrade@fiocruz.br

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EXPLORING BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL
EDUCATION UNIVERSITY LECTURERS’
WORK MOTIVATION, BASIC NEED
SATISFACTION AND ENGAGEMENT
RELATIONSHIP
Samson Onyeluka Chukwuedo
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria
E-mail: so.chukwuedo@unizik.edu.ng
Jane Nwakaego Egbri

University of Benin, Nigeria
E-mail: jane.edgbri@uniben.edu
Abstract
The link between basic psychological needs satisfaction of employees and their engagement in other
administrative organizations is relatively established. However, there is a paucity of research findings
regarding this link in the educational organizations in general, and vocational education in particular.
This research, therefore, determined the relations between work-related basic need satisfaction (WBNS),
work engagement, and work motivation in aspects of vocational education. The participants were 299
business and technical education lecturers of the vocational education programme in Nigeria universities.
The research utilized three scales, which were embedded in a questionnaire for data collection. The face
and construct validity of the scales were established. Data analyses were performed with correlation,
and regression of paths by applying 2000 re-samples bias-corrected (BC) bootstrapping method. The
result revealed a significant positive WBNS-motivation, WBNS-engagement, and motivation-engagement
relations. However, work motivation could not mediate the link in the research model.
Keywords: basic need satisfaction, work engagement, work motivation, vocational education lecturers
Introduction
Realizing a healthy work situation in the educational institution, amid the varying tasks has
become so imminent in the present high knowledge-seeking environment. One tier of education
that has complex and multiple work situation is university education (Lester & Costley, 2010).
In the university education, the field of vocational and technical education is obliged to training
the required skilled manpower needed in the business sectors and the industries, as well as
allied teachers (Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN, 2013). Thus, this research deemed it fit
to consider this category of lecturers (Business and technical/technology education lecturers).
According to Chukwuedo and Igbinedion (2014), vocational education lecturers perform three
core tasks, which include, teaching, research, and administration. The teaching task requires the
lecturer to make use of both the regular classroom, laboratories, studios, and workshops for the
successful training of the students. Thus, it becomes necessary to consider the WBNS as well
as the motivation and engagement of the lecturers.

Samson Onyeluka CHUKWUEDO, Jane Nwakaego EGBRI. Exploring business and technical education university lecturers’ work
motivation, basic need satisfaction and engagement relationship
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Research Problem 689
The concept of need is fundamental in educational institutions for teachers’ development.

Because of the multiple job tasks of the vocational educators, with particular emphasis on
business and technical/technology education lecturers, it is necessary to determine the work-
related needs of the lecturers in higher education. The positive organizational behavior (POB)
research is a necessity for human development in the educational organization (Bakker &
Schaulfeli, 2008). Creating the work conditions that sustain and foster teachers' work well-
being helps to attract and retain competent teachers (Bakker et al., 2011). These work conditions
are psychological and physiological needs that are fundamentally necessary for effective work
engagement and the commitment of lecturers. When these conditions are not explored in
vocational education, improving the work conditions of the lecturers will just be a fantasy.
To control the tendency for job dissatisfaction and potential attrition factors in business and
technical education, research on the link between business and technical lecturers’ WBNS,
motivation, and engagement at work is essential.
Research Focus
Basic psychological needs are hinged on self-determination theory (SDT). Empirical

research on SDT revealed that autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs are the elements
of WBNS (Deci & Ryan, 2002, 2008; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Janssen et al., 2013; Brien et
al., 2012). These needs in the teaching-learning process are essential to be fulfilled for effective
teaching/learning. While autonomy reflects the need for some level of control and responsibility
for an individual’s behavior, the need for competence involves an individual interacting with
the environment to attain the desired teaching-learning outcomes (Brien et al., 2012); whereas
the need for relatedness is a person’s desire to be loved and to love others around the work
environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Research has shown a significant correlation between
WBNS dimensions and job outcomes. For instance, Silman (2014) revealed that WBNS
predicted engagement. However, there is a paucity of research on WBNS-engagement relations
in the education context.
Work engagement is a concept that is hinged on the job demand resource (JD-R) model,
which theorizes that “job resources include the physical, emotional, and managerial features of
a job for employees to complete their tasks successfully” (Bakker et al., 2007, p. 275). Work
engagement is, therefore, the deliberate and careful distribution of an employee’s resources on
the multiple tasks expected of the employee within a specific occupation (Christian et al., 2011).
Thus, engagement is a function of energy, participation, and efficacy. Engagement is measured
differently from burnout because the concepts are not the same (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Thus,
being burned-out is not equal to being engaged by a lecturer and vice versa (Shaufeli & Bakker,
2003). Nevertheless, a motivated lecturer may be engaged even when there is a level of burnout.
Since engagement has to do with being energetically involved in a task, vigor, dedication,
and absorption have been typified as its dimensions. Vigor is considered as being highly
enthusiastic and mentally flexible at work; hence, it is a lecturer’s voluntary effort at work,
not being easily fatigued, but to be persistent at work. Dedication has to do with procuring a
sense of importance, by exhibiting enthusiasm about the job. Lastly, absorption entails when
an employee is immersed happily in their work, without feeling to be detached from the work
(Schaufeli et al. 2002). All in all, work motivation is essential in engagement.
Work motivation dovetails to active drives that are within and beyond an employee’s
reality to establish a base with work-related behavior with its method, path, intensity, and
duration (Tremblay et al., 2009). It measures intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as
amotivation (Kanfer et al., 2008). In this research, it is proposed that work motivation will

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690 have a significant relationship with WBNS and work engagement. Since former research has
established that WBNS could lead to work motivation (Liga et al., 2018; Del Valle et al., 2018)
and a motivated employee will be highly engaged (Silman, 2014), work motivation is presumed
to mediate the WBNS-engagement relation in this research.
The model shown in Figure 1 represents the purpose and outcome of this research.
Specifically, this research ascertained the relation between WBNS, work motivation, and work
engagement. Thus, the hypotheses of this research were:
Hypothesis 1: WBNS is a significant positive predictor of work engagement.
Hypothesis 2: WBNS is a significant positive predictor of work motivation.
Hypothesis 3: Work motivation is a significant positive predictor of work
engagement.
Hypothesis 4: Work motivation is a significant mediator between WBNS and
work engagement.
Research Methodology
General Background
The quantitative research was employed, with a cross-sectional correlational survey

that enhanced data collection from a single questionnaire administration (Gay et al., 2011).
Thus, this research established the correlation between the variables upon which the data were
collected. This design is considered suitable because it involves the collection of data once from
the respondents, and the correlation between the variables (viz. WBNS, work motivation, and
work engagement) was established. These three correlated constructs constituted the predictor,
mediator, and criterion/outcome variables respectively. These variables are functions of the
self-determination theory and the JD-R model. The research was carried out from April to
July 2019. It covered business and technical education lecturers in Nigeria universities, such
that their opinions on their WBNS, work motivation, and work engagement were sought. A
written informed consent, attached with the questionnaire, was used to seek the consents of the
lecturers as an ethical aspect of obtaining responses for this research.
Sample
The participants of this research were 299 business education (n = 199) and technical/
technology education (n = 100) lecturers who were drawn from a population of about 1187
lecturers in public or government-owned Universities from the six geopolitical zones in
Nigeria. The multi-stage sampling technique was adopted to ensure that the six geopolitical
zones were proportionally covered and represented. Taro Yamane’s formula (Israel, 2003) was
used to calculate the sample size.
Instrument and Procedures
The WBNS was measured with its adapted scale (van de Broeck, et al., 2010), which
has16 items on a 5-point Likert type of scale ranging from never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3),
often (4) to always (5) The scale has three subscales that measured the need for autonomy (6
items, e.g. “I feel like I can be myself at work”), competence (4 items, e.g. “I master my tasks at
my job”) and relatedness (6 items, e.g. “at work, I feel part of a group”). Work engagement was
measured with the UWES 17 item scale (Schaufeli, et al. 2002), rated on a 5-point scale ranging
from never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4) to always (5) This scale has three subscales
that measure vigor (6 items, e.g. “at my job I am very resilient mentally”), dedication (5 items,

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e.g. “my job inspires me”) and absorption (6 items, e.g. “I am immersed in my work”). Lastly, 691
work motivation was measured with a single scale of six items made up of one item each from
the six subscales of the work motivation scale (Tremblay et al. 2009). The items (e.g. “because
I derive much pleasure from learning new things, because this type of work provides me with
security, and I don’t know why too much is expected of us”) were rated on a 5-point response
option ranging from corresponds not all (1) via corresponds moderately (3) to corresponds
exactly (5).
Face and construct validities of the scales were determined because the scales were (a)
adapted by using a 5-point response option instead of a 7-point response option, and (b) not
originally developed and tested among Nigerian lecturers in general and vocational education
in particular. The face validity was conducted with three experts, while the construct validity
was determined using the indexes of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA, Anderson & Gerbing,
1984): the ratio of chi-square to the degree of freedom (χ2/df ≤ 2.50), Comparative Fit Index
(CFI ≥ .90), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI ≥ .90) and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA ≤ .08). The three-factor models of the WBNS (χ2/df = 2.51, CFI = .902, GFI = .899,
RMSEA = .078, p < .001) and work engagement (χ2/df = 2.46, CFI = .911, GFI = .909, RMSEA
= .080, p < .001) yielded relatively good data fit. While the one-factor model of work motivation
yielded excellent data fit (χ2/df = 2.13, CFI = .935, GFI = .926, RMSEA = .072, p > .01). These
approaches showed that the scales used for the questionnaire were valid for this research.
The internal consistency of the scales was established with Cronbach’s alpha. The
reliability coefficient of the WBNS scale (α = .868) and its subscales – autonomy (α = .878),
competence (α = .891), and relatedness (α = .846) were found satisfactory. Similarly, the
reliability coefficient of the work engagement scale (α = .893) and its subscales – vigor (α =
.877), dedication (α = .859), and absorption (α = .849) were also found satisfactory. Lastly, the
work motivation scale also gave rise to a satisfactory reliability coefficient (α = .856).
Data Collection and Analysis
The questionnaire was conveniently administered to business and technical/technology

education lecturers of vocational and technical education. Alongside the researchers, four
research assistants were used for the data collection. The research assistants were briefed
by the researchers on how to administer and retrieve the questionnaires. The administration
and retrieval of the questionnaire lasted for 13 weeks, because of the wide coverage of the
geopolitical zones and the distance apart of the universities studied.
The data analyses were conducted using SPSS and PROCESS macro, by employing
mean, standard deviation, Cronbach’s alpha (α), correlation and regression analyses, and 2000
re-samples bias-corrected (BC) bootstrapping (Hayes 2013) The SPSS was applied for mean,
standard deviation, Cronbach’s alpha, Pearson’s correlation, and regression analyses, while
PROCESS macro was used to conduct path analysis with BC bootstrapping at 95% confidence
interval (CI).
Research Results
Initial data analysis was performed to establish a significant level of correlations among
the variables to authenticate the need for mediation analysis.

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692 Table 1
Descriptive statistics (mean, SD, and bivariate correlation) of the research scales/subscales
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Autonomy 4.54 0.477 1
2. Competence 4.43 0.510 .444** 1

3. Relatedness 4.45 0.461 .705** .620** 1
4. Vigor 4.41 0.684 .536** .424** .536** 1
5. Dedication 4.37 0.731 .556** .351** .568** .843** 1
6. Absorption 3.72 0.790 .249** -.024 .147* .175** .326** 1
7. Intrinsic motivation 4.59 0.751 .324** .293** .302** .272** .259** .041 1
8. Extrinsic motivation 4.47 0.613 .385 **
.304 **
.363 **
.254 **
.282 **
.069 .628** 1
9. Amotivation 4.60 0.584 .283** .360** .372** .236** .248** .071 .386** .384** 1
10. Work basic need 4.48 0.412 .868** .763** .919** .589** .589** .162** .359** .414** .391** 1
11. Work motivation 4.51 0.544 .414** .360** .408** .296** .316** .073 .770** .964** .556** .463** 1
12. Work engagement 4.16 0.577 .552** .297** .507** .818** .883** .679** .230** .245** .225** .545** .277** 1
Note. **p < .01, *p < 0.05, M-mean, SD-standard deviation.
The results presented in Table 1 reveal the correlations between the research variables
and the dimensions. The table also shows the mean responses, SD, and Cronbach’s alpha of
the research variables. The association among WBNS, work engagement and work motivation
are statistically significant (p < .01). The result also revealed relative statistical significance
between the dimensions of the research variable. All in all, the results depicted that WBNS
and work engagement (r = .463), WBNS, and work motivation (r = .545), as well as work
motivation and work engagement (r = .277), have significant positive relationships.
Table 2
Simple linear regression of the predictor, mediator and outcome variables
Hypotheses β F R2
WBNS → Work Engagement .545 125.592*** .295
WBNS → Work Motivation .463 81.147*** .212
Work Motivation → Work Engagement .277 24.685*** .074

Note. ***p < .001; degree of freedom (df) = 1, 297
Table 2 represents the outcomes of the test of hypotheses 1 to 3. First, it was found that
WBNS significantly predicted work engagement (β = 0.545, F (1, 297) = 125.592, ∆R2 = .295,
p < .001). The ∆R2 depicted that WBNS may account for 29.5 percent of the variance in work
engagement in this research. Similarly, the results showed that WBNS significantly predicted
work motivation (β = 0.463, F (1, 297) = 81.147, ∆R2 = .212, p < .001). The ∆R2 indicated that
WBNS explained the 21.2 percent of the variance that occurred in work motivation. Finally,
work motivation positively predicts work engagement (β = 0.277, F (1, 297) = 24.685, ∆R2 =

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.074, p < .001). This prediction revealed that work motivation also explained the 7.4 percent of 693
the variance in work engagement. In all, hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 are accepted in this research.
Table 3
Bias corrected bootstrap on the presumed mediation role of work motivation
Work basic need → Work motivation → Work engagement
Effects Estimate SE 95% CI [LL, UL]
Total .764*** 0.068 [0.630, 0.898]
Direct .743*** 0.077 [0.592, 0.895]
Indirect .020 (ns) 0.051 [-0.026, 0.090]

Note. p < .001, ns = not significant, CI = confidence interval, LL = lower limit, UL = upper limit
***
Table 3 reveals that the total effect (β = 0.764, SE = 0.068, p < .001) and the direct effect
(β = 0.743, SE = 0.077, p < .001) of the relation between WBNS and work engagement were
statistically significant via work motivation. Conversely, the indirect effect (β = 0.020, SE =
0.051, CI: -0.026, 0.090) was not significant. Hence, work motivation did not significantly
mediate the WBNS-work engagement relation in this research. This result is further illustrated
schematically in figure 1.
Figure 1
Mediation test of work motivation in WBNS-engagement relation

Discussion
The current research determined the mediating role of work motivation in the relation
between WBNS and work engagement of business and technical/technology education lecturers
in the field of vocational and technical education. The proposed research model could not
confirm that work motivation is the mechanism for establishing the correlation between WBNS
and work engagement. Thus, work motivation did not mediate the relation in this research.
Work engagement has empirically proved to promote job performance (Bakker & Demerouti,
2008), hence educational stakeholders should not neglect WBNS and work motivation in any
form in the work behaviors of employees.
Considering hypothesis 1, it was expected and found that WBNS positively and
significantly predicted work engagement. This result implies that increased WBNS (autonomy,
competence, and relatedness) leads to an increase in work engagement (vigor, dedication, and

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694 absorption). Literature showed that there is various research in other organizations, but a paucity
of an empirical investigation on WBNS and work engagement relation in the educational
institutions (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011; Klassen et al., 2013; Luthans, 2002; Silman, 2014).
The finding is inconsonant with previous studies (e.g. Silman, 2014), that work satisfaction of
WBNS leads to high work engagement (c.f. Ogbuanya & Chukwuedo, 2017).
The findings of hypothesis 2 confirmed that WBNS significantly predicted work
motivation. Because of the paucity of empirical findings on the relationship between WBNS and
work motivation, this is one novelty of this research. Hence, it is a contribution to the existing
literature (e.g. Deci & Ryan, 2002; Gagne & Deci, 2005) which also supports the tenets of the
theory of self-determination. The work motivation of teachers inadvertently, indirectly, and
predictably increases as a result of WBNS. Thus, the finding complements previous findings
(e.g. Deci & Ryan, 2008; Gagne & Deci, 2005; Garland & Lam, 2008; Tremblay et al., 2009),
which illustrate that the element and dimensions of self-determination theory explain work
motivation, attitude, and behaviors.
The analysis performed to test hypothesis 3 revealed that work motivation was a significant
positive predictor of work engagement. This result explains that employees' work motivation
enhances work engagement. Although this result may not be surprising, employers of labor,
vocational organizational managers, and school administrators place more emphasis on the
drives and mechanisms that promote employees’ extrinsic motivation (Olorunsola & Bamijoko,
2005; Muogbo, 2013) rather than the entire components of work motivation. Consequently,
less attention is on the mechanisms that will inevitably improve employees’ intrinsic work
motivation (Arar & Massry-Herzllah, 2016; Vanlommel et al., 2016; Wairimu, 2014). Intrinsic
work motivation facilitates work engagement, which in turn improves employee’s job
performance. This call brings to mind, the need for vocational education institutions to always
consider intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as well as a motivated teachers' work and career
outcomes.
Limitations
The fact that this research has provided some findings that can be of great benefit to
the educational organizations does not mean it is void of limitations. Because the research
population is distinct and relatively small, causal inferences and generalization of the findings
to other employees should be made with caution. However, an attempt was made to control
and minimize this effect by applying a 2000 re-sample bootstrap iteration to establish a relative
generalization of findings. Additionally, this research is a cross-sectional survey design, which
does not permit causal inference to be drawn. It is, therefore, recommended that the research
should be extended by employing a longitudinal or experimental design. Finally, the research
used self-report measures which usually give rise to potential common method bias. Thus,
alternate measures are suggested in allied future studies.
Conclusions
The correlation between WBNS and engagement in non-educational organizations has

been relatively established, but research attention of this possibility was still needed in the
educational setting. From the findings of this research, it has been established that WBNS and
work motivation are important motivational needs that foster the work engagement of business
and technical education lecturers. As a novel contribution to the mediator of WBNS-engagement
relation, work motivation did not mediate the relation in this research. This indicates that work
motivation of business and technical education lecturers requires attention for a higher WBNS-
engagement relation among the lecturers. Thus, the findings of this research have added to

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the extant literature on SDT and JD-R model. Additionally, these findings call the attention of 695
vocational organizational administrators, managers, and education counsellors in recognizing
the relevance of promoting work motivation for proactive workplace conditions in education.
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Received: April 28, 2020 Accepted: September 16, 2020

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697
Cite as: Chukwuedo, S. O., & Egbri, J. N. (2020). Exploring business and technical
education university lecturers’ work motivation, basic need satisfaction and
engagement relationship. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 78(5), 688-697.
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.688
PhD, Industrial Technical Career and Workforce Training, Lecturer,

Samson Onyeluka Chukwuedo Technology and Vocational Education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University,
(Corresponding author) Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
E-mail: so.chukwuedo@unizik.edu.ng
Jane Nwakaego Egbri PhD, Senior Lecturer, Vocational and Technical Education, University
of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria.
E-mail: jane.edgbri@uniben.edu

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698
LIMITATIONS OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING REDOX: A SYSTEMATIC
REVIEW
Luciane F. Goes
University of São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: luciane.goes@usp.br
Keysy S. C. Nogueira
University of Santa Catarina, Brazil
E-mail: keysy.nogueira@ufsc.br
Carmen Fernandez
University of São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: carmen@iq.usp.br
Abstract
Redox reactions are considered one of the most difficult chemistry subjects to teach and learn. However,
this is an important content that permeates several topics and includes many everyday life-related
phenomena. To understand the teaching and learning difficulties of the ‘redox reactions’ topic, a
systematic literature review was conducted. Initially, 318 articles were mapped, between the years 2000
to 2019, related to the teaching of redox reactions. The inventoried articles were analyzed to identify,
in their results, the aforementioned difficulties. Only 54 presented difficulties related to teaching and
learning redox reactions. To analyze these articles, the year of publication, the conceptual/procedural
difficulties resulting from the study, the researched participants, and the strategies used throughout the
data collection were adopted as categories. As a result, the main participants of the investigations were
students. It was observed that the research studies favored bachelor degree as the level of education.
Moreover, most of the analyzed studies mainly proposed experimentation as teaching strategy for teaching
redox reactions. This study points to the need for continuing education courses for chemistry teachers
to discuss emerging difficulties, in addition to proposing teaching strategies to remedy these difficulties.
Keywords: education proposals, learning difficulties, redox reactions, state of the art

Introduction
The term electrochemistry first appeared in 1814 with the publication of the book by
George John Singer (1786-1817) entitled Elements of Electricity and Electro-Chemistry.
Since then electrochemistry is a branch of science that mainly studies the interactions between
chemical reactions and electrical processes. This area includes the study of redox reactions,
characterized by the transfer of electrons, which are objects of study in various branches of
chemistry. Besides their importance for specific areas, these reactions are involved in the
operation of lamps, radios, battery-powered cell phones or batteries; in the production of gold-
plated circuits; photo printing; to combat corrosion; in tests for detecting glucose in urine and
alcohol in exhaled air (Mendonça et al., 2004).
The complexity of teaching and learning made redox reactions the object of study for
several researchers. In this perspective, some authors developed educational proposals related
to the use of multimedia and practical activities to teach this content, due to the difficulty of

Luciane F. GOES, Keysy S. C. NOGUEIRA, Carmen FERNANDEZ. Limitations of teaching and learning redox: A systematic review
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students to understand the meaning of the flow of electric current, the function of the salt bridge, 699
and the definition of cathode and anode (Karsli & Çalik, 2012; Niaz & Chacon, 2003; Sesen
& Tarhan, 2013). Other studies sought to identify the main alternative conceptions evoked by
students (Barke et al., 2009; Garnett & Treagust, 1992a,b; Lee, 2007; Niaz, 2002; Sanger &
Greenbowe, 1997a,b; Schmidt et al., 2007).
Among the main difficulties in teaching and learning of redox reactions are electric
current, salt bridge, electrical conductivity solutions, representation of redox reactions, standard
reduction potential, dependence between the reduction reactions and oxidation, electron transfer
process, the meaning of the oxidation number, determining the number of electrons lost or
gained, identification of reagents such as reducing and oxidizing agents, identification of redox
reactions, balancing redox reactions of the chemical species, identification of what suffered
oxidation and reduction, differentiation of reactions in a macroscopic and microscopic level,
and association of the concept of redox reactions with the context of everyday life (Barke, et al.,
2009; Osterlund et al., 2010; Sanger & Greenbowe, 1997b; Soudani et al., 2000).
The inexpressive language and illustrations, sometimes inappropriate and misguided,
present in textbooks may cause the difficulties related to the subject (Österlund et al., 2010;
Sanger & Greenbowe, 1999). For example, textbooks usually place the anode on the left side
of the stack, but they do not mention that this is a convention of the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Moreover, some of the learning difficulties may be due to
the mixing of the levels of representation of the contents, traditionally known as macroscopic,
submicroscopic and symbolic without much explanation or even prioritizing of two levels, the
macroscopic and symbolic, leaving aside the submicroscopic (Johnstone, 2000).
Another aspect of the difficulty in understanding the content of redox reactions by
students is based on the vocabulary and terminology used by teachers who often prioritize a
quantitative explanation of this content, which is not conducive to learning concepts (Sanger &
Greenbowe, 1999; H. Yarden & Yarden, 2010). Some teachers find it a difficult subject to teach,
and consequently, the lesson plans hard to prepare (Ahtee et al. 2002). As they consider this
topic difficult to teach, teachers leave it to the end of the school year, even knowing that there
will be no time to work on the subject (Sanjuan et al., 2009).
Some studies reveal the obstacles faced by teachers to understand the definition of redox
reactions, the direction of the electric current, among others (De Jong & Treagust, 2002; Özkaya,
2002; Sanger & Greenbowe, 1999). In recent surveys the Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(PCK) of teachers on redox processes is analyzed (Aydin & Boz, 2013; Freire & Fernandez,
2014; Rollnick & Mavhunga, 2014).
Research Problem
Over the last decades, many researchers have attempted to research and to propose
teaching methodologies about redox reactions. Nevertheless, there is currently a lack of a
systematic review of literature on difficulties of teaching and learning this topic. Due to the
aforementioned struggles, an analysis of research published by international journals may be
beneficial for science education researchers, chemistry teachers and teacher educators, which
allows them to examine the research trends on the content of redox reactions. This type of
review is important in order to provide a clear and comprehensive view of research on a given
topic, in this case, the teaching of redox reactions. In addition, a systematic review also helps
to identify research gaps and highlight important results that can be used for future research.
Lastly, this specific review can help to improve knowledge about the main difficulties and
conceptions regarding the content of redox reactions.

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700 Research Focus
Therefore, to provide more information on research trends in the teaching of redox

reactions, it was proposed to analyze the published papers by educational journals, within a long
period, from 2000 to 2019. This review focuses on the researched subjects, level of education,
teaching methods and strategies, and difficulties arising from the investigations on teaching and
learning the topic of redox reactions.
Research Aim and Research Questions
Research aim was to identify the published research on the specific topic of difficulties
in teaching redox reactions, analyzing the gaps and limitations, besides highlighting the
possibilities for the future. Considering that, this research consequently addressed four research
questions as follows:
1. What are the main researched subjects in empirical research that point out the
difficulties about teaching and learning redox reactions?
2. What is the most researched level of education, in empirical research, which points
out the difficulties in teaching and learning redox reactions?
3. What are the main research methodologies used to identify difficulties in teaching
and learning redox reactions?
4. What are the difficulties in teaching and learning redox reactions resulting from
empirical studies?
General Background
Following the proposed research questions, the present study is characterized as a

qualitative systematic review (Choen et al., 2018). This type of research is vital to provide
an overview of knowledge about a topic, allowing the identification of relevant research for
a specific issue of interest. By identifying and analyzing the conducted research and the gaps
in the field, it is possible to conclude what studies need to be prioritized and what are the
recommendations for further research. A descriptive content analysis (Çalik & Sözbilir, 2014)
was carried out, followed by the process outlined by Newman and Gough (2020), which
involves the following sequential stages: 1) develop a research question; 2) design a conceptual
framework; 3) construct selection criteria; 4) develop search strategy; 5) select studies using
selection criteria; 6) coding studies; 7) assess the quality of studies; and 8) synthesis results of
individual studies to answer the research question.
First, the research focus was identified, i.e., difficulties arising from studies related to the
teaching and learning of redox reactions and then the research questions were elaborated (see
above).
Sample
In the third stage of the research methodology, the following selection criteria were
formulated: all articles had to report an empirical study that researched the topic of redox
reactions and present difficulties related to redox reactions that were arising from the empirical
studies. Studies were excluded in which (1) the focus of the investigation was not on the topic
of redox reactions; (2) studies that did not present difficulties related to the content of redox
reactions; (3) studies in which the difficulties were present only in the theoretical framework.

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In the fourth stage, considering the criteria above, a search in the literature from 2000 701
to 2019 was conducted, completing a total of 20 years of research on the content of redox
reactions. Searches in ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), SciELO (Scientific
Electronic Library Online) and the ISI Web of Knowledge were carried out. The keywords used
in the searches were: electrochemistry, redox reactions, oxidation, reduction, antioxidants and
free radicals. These keywords were investigated in the fields: title, abstract, keywords, subject,
and body text. Hence, 445 articles were initially found.
In the fifth stage, the selected articles were analyzed according to the selection criteria
to identify the studies to be included in the review. Only 318 articles focused on the study of
redox reactions. When analyzed in detail, in 101 articles the authors indicate the difficulties in
teaching and learning the redox reaction, however, only 54 articles described the difficulties
about redox reactions that emerged from the studies.
These 54 selected articles were read and analyzed in detail. They were categorized into
four categories (investigate subjects; level of education; methods and strategies; and difficulties
arising from the investigation). In this study, the categories were based on some of those already
established in the literature and used in the paper developed by groups that perform systematic
review (Gallardo, 2020; Morris III, 2020; Lee et al., 2009; Teo et al., 2014; Vojíří & Rusek,
2019).
Data Analysis

For data analysis, each of the selected papers was systematically analyzed into the four
descriptors:
1. Investigated subjects: the analysis included the sample size and refers to what kind
of subjects were researched (student, pre-service teacher, in-service teacher).
2. Level of education: refers to the level of education in which the research was
conducted (elementary school, high school, bachelor degree, continuous professional
developing programs, pre-service teachers).
3. Teaching methods and strategies: refers to the path taken by teachers to direct
learning in their didactic proposal or in the methodology used for the development
of research.
4. Difficulties arising from the search: refers to the teaching-learning difficulties
involved in redox reactions.
For the first and second category, the codes were predefined, and, for the third and fourth
category, the codes emerged from the analysis of the selected papers. The descriptions of the
codes are in the research results section. A paper may be coded under more than one code, for
example, if the study involved several levels of education or different surveyed subjects.
Research Results
After selecting the articles using the proposed criteria, 54 articles presented the difficulties
related to the content of redox reactions in their investigations. Table 1 shows the distribution of
the studies between 2000-2019.

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702 Table 1
Distribution of articles between 2000 to 2019
Year Articles (n) Year Articles (n)

2000 0 2010 2
2001 1 2011 4
2002 2 2012 4
2003 4 2013 3
2004 2 2014 4
2005 0 2015 3
2006 2 2016 1
2007 2 2017 4
2008 2 2018 6
2009 3 2019 5
The selected articles were distributed according to the researched subjects in four
indicators: student; pre-service teacher, in-service teacher and not applicable, described in
Table 2.
Table 2
Codes and description for researched subjects
Codes for researched subjects Description
Student It includes studies with students enrolled in elementary or secondary schools.
It includes studies with teachers in methodology courses or student teaching

Pre-service teachers
experiences prior to initial certification.
It includes studies with certified teachers or teachers who are already teaching
In-service teachers in a classroom. In this category no distinction was made in relation to the time
of experience of teachers.
It includes studies that the article does not specify which subject is researched
Not applicable
or the study is done with documents, for example, textbooks.
Figure 1 shows the number of the selected papers over the 17-year period classified in
each indicator for the researched subjects - as described above.

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Figure 1 703
Distribution of the selected articles published between 2000-2019, related to the researched
subjects
According to the level of education, the 54 selected articles were distributed in six
different indicators: primary education, secondary education, bachelor’s degree, teacher
training, continuous professional development programs, and not applicable (Table 3).
Table 3
Codes and description for level of education
Codes for level of education Description
Primary education It includes studies that researched elementary school
Secondary education It includes studies that researched secondary school or high school
It includes studies that researched an undergraduate academic degree

Bachelor degree
awarded for a course, for example, Chemistry
It includes studies that researched an undergraduate academic degree

Teacher training
awarded for a course design to train students to become a teacher.
Continuous Professional Developing

It includes studies that researched specific activities for in-service teachers.
Programs
Not applicable The article did not specify which level of education was researched.

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704 Figure 2 shows the number of the selected papers over the 20-year period classified in
each indicator for level of education as described above.
Figure 2
Distribution of the selected articles published between 2000-2019, related to the level of
education
Regarding the methodologies and techniques, the selected articles were distributed
according to the main data collection strategy adopted throughout the study. Therefore, the
articles were distributed into ten descriptors that represent the main methodology used by the
authors in their research on redox content (Table 4).

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Table 4 705
Codes and description methods and strategies
Codes for methods and strategies Description

Participants performed out proposed experiments, from which
Experiment
the research data were obtained.
Participants provide written answers to questions prepared by
Questionnaires/test
researchers.
Research that adopted more than one methodology / strategy for
Multiple methodologies/strategies
its development.
Interviews Participants provide oral answers.
Textbook Analysis Research data were obtained from a textbook analysis.
Research that presented as a strategy / methodology the
Learning sequence
development of a teaching sequence.
Investigation that adopted the qualitative research, of case study
Case study
type.
Research that adopted Problem Based Learning in its
Problem Solving (PBL)
investigation.
Research that the participants participated in a course (short or
Course / Minicourse / Workshop
long term) from which the research data were obtained.
Research that does not permeate any of the descriptors
Others
presented previously.
Figure 3 shows the number of the selected papers over the 20-year period classified under
each indicator for methods and strategies as described above.
Figure 3
Distribution of the selected articles published between 2000-2019, related to the methods
and strategies

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706 The distribution of the 54 selected studies that addressed the difficulties and limitations
in learning and teaching redox reactions was separated in two indicators: conceptual difficulties
and procedural difficulties. Table 5 shows our final categories with the examples of the articles
that address these respective difficulties in redox reactions.
Table 5
Distribution of the selected articles published between 2000-2019, related to the learning
difficulties in redox reactions
Difficulties Articles
Acar and Tarhan (2007); Brandriet and Bretz (2014); Cole et
al. (2019); Hunter et al. (2019); Loh et al. (2018); Osman and
Understanding the electron transfer process Lee (2014); Osterlund et al. (2010); Özkaya (2002); Özkaya
and the movement of the electrons et al. (2006); Potgieter and Davidowitz (2011); Rahayu et al.
(2011); Rosenthal and Sanger (2012); Sesen and Tarhan
(2013); Silverstein (2011); Yang et al. (2004).
Brandriet and Bretz (2014); Childs and Sheehan (2009);
Understanding the meaning and assigning of
Nyachwaya et al. (2011); Ozdilek (2015); Schmidt and Volke
oxidation numbers.
(2003); Supasorn (2015).
Al-Balushi et al. (2012); Osman and Lee (2014); Ozdilek, Z.
Differentiating the galvanic cells and electrolytic
(2015); Rahayu et al. (2011); Sesen and Tarhan, L. (2013);
cells.
Supasorn (2015).
Acar and Tarhan (2007); Al-Balushi et al. (2012);
Understanding the function of the salt bridge. Karamustafaoğlu and Mamlok-Naaman (2015); Loh et al.
(2018); Sesen and Tarhan (2013).
Understanding the potential of the half-cell and Acar and Tarhan (2007); Hunter et al. (2019); Messersmith
potential differences. (2014); Özkaya (2002); Özkaya et al. (2006).
Conceptual Difficulties
Understanding and differentiating what is a

Acar and Tarhan (2007); Cole et al. (2019); Özkaya et al.
chemical balance and an electrochemical
(2006); Özkaya (2002); Rosenthal and Sanger (2013).
balance.
Understanding redox reactions at the macro, Haigh et al. (2012); Kelly et al. (2017); Hunter et al. (2019);
micro and symbolic levels. Osman and Lee (2014); Valanides et al. (2003).
Understanding the functions and the charges Cole et al. (2019); Loh et al. (2018); Karamustafaoğlu and
on the anode and the cathode in galvanic cells. Mamlok-Naaman (2015); Supasorn (2015);
Hansen, et al. (2019); Hunter et al. (2019); Lu et al. (2019);

Understanding the presence of ions in the
Osman and Lee (2014).
solution and the electrolyte conductivity
Understanding the electrolyte concept and its Lu et al. (2019); Rollnick and Mavhunga (2014); Tan et al.
electrical neutrality. (2004).
Understanding the concentration in a redox
Acar and Tarhan (2007); Aydin et al. (2009); Gan, et al. (2018).
reaction.
Differentiating ions, atoms, ionic compounds
Cole et al. (2019), Hunter et al. (2019); Kelly et al. (2017)
and molecules in a redox reaction.
Understanding the Nernst equation and the
Acar and Tarhan (2007); Günter and Alpat. (2017); Potgieter
relationship between Gibbs free energy,
et al. (2008).
equilibrium constant and electrode potential.
Understand that electron transfer changes the
Cole et al. (2019); Rosenthal and Sanger (2012).
size of metal atoms or ions

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Understanding the mutual dependence of 707

Haigh et al. (2012); Osterlunnd et al. (2010).
oxidation and reduction reactions.
Differentiate and understand the different
Osterlunnd et al. (2010); Tan et al. (2004).
models of redox reactions.
Understanding the distinction between “current/
voltage” and “open circuit voltage/voltage Arnbjerg et al. (2019).
measured with current”
Cole et al. (2019); Haigh et al. (2012); Kelly et al. (2017);
Associating the redox concepts with the Koenig et al. (2019); Llanos et al. (2019); Lee (2007); Niaz
observed phenomena. and Chacón (2003); Tarkin and Uzuntiryaki-Kondakci (2017);
Testa et al. (2018); Yang et al. (2004); Yang et al. (2003).
Acar and Tarhan (2007); Eybe and Schmidt (2001);
Identifying the species that reduces and the Messersmith (2014); Niaz (2002); Niaz and Chacón (2003);
species that oxidizes. Schmidt and Volke (2003); Schultz (2008); Supasorn (2015);
Rosenthal and Sanger (2012).
Al-Balushi et al. (2012); Hunter et al. (2019); Niaz and Chacón
Identifying reaction equations as oxidation- (2003); Noll and Hughes (2018); Own (2006); Silverstein
Procedural Difficulties
reduction equations (2011); Schultz (2008); Valanides et al. (2003); Vila and Sanz
(2012).
Eybe and Schmidt (2001); Hamza and Wickman (2013),
Hamza and Wickman (2009); Karamustafaoğlu and Mamlok-
Predicting the products of redox reaction
Naaman (2015); Kelly et al. (2017); Nakano et al. (2016);
Ozdilek (2015); Valanides et al. (2003), Yang et al. (2004).
Identifying the numbers of gained or lost Acar and Tarhan (2007); Childs and Sheehan (2009); Cole et
electrons in a redox reaction; understanding al. (2019); Eybe and Schmidt (2001); Geiger (2018); Kelly et
stoichiometry in the electron transfer process, al. (2017); Potgieter and Davidowitz (2011), Rosenthal and
balancing a redox reaction Sanger (2013).
Al-Balushi et al. (2012); Aydin et al. (2009); Hamza and
Identifying the anode and the cathode Wickman (2013); Nakiboglu et al. (2010); Sesen and Tarhan,
L. (2013); Supasorn (2015).
Identifying reactants as oxidizing or reducing Gan et al. (2018); Hunter et al. (2019); Osterlunnd et al.
agents (2010); Schmidt and Volke (2003).
Discussion
Regarding the production distribution over the years (Table 1), it can be seen that the
number of publications did not vary, and the 2018 studies concentrated the largest number
of publications (6 per year)- related to the difficulties in teaching and learning the topic of
redox reactions. It can be inferred that the slight increase in the number of publications in
these four years is a reflection of more researchers dedicating themselves to researching the
aforementioned difficulties. However, these numbers are still low, considering the volume of
the publications during the analyzed period.
Concerning the researched subjects (Figure 1), it was possible to identify that most
papers (83%) focus their research on students, 6% on pre-service teachers and 6% on in-service
teachers. Another 6% were grouped in the non-applicable category, since the research involved
the analysis of a textbook (Osterlunnd et al., 2010), a bibliographic survey on conceptual
difficulties involving redox reactions (Eybe & Schmidt, 2001) and another research discussed
the concept of redox reactions (Silverstein, 2011).
The results of this research, about the surveyed participants, revealed that the studies
that investigate the difficulties of in- and pre-service teachers related to the concept of redox
reactions are incipient; however, in the literature, there are limitations in teaching this content

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708 (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 2018; Ahtee et al., 2002; De Jong et al., 1995). Thus, more research related
to initial and continuing training courses for teachers are needed.
The analysis of the level of education allowed us to verify what most draws the attention
of researchers. It was possible to identify which levels of education are less researched and it is
emphasized the need for research in these areas. In this sense, in Figure 2, there is the following
trend: Bachelor’s degree > Secondary education > Continuous developing programs and teacher
training > Primary education. Therefore, it was highlighted that investigations about difficulties
and conceptions focus their studies on students. Kindergarten was not addressed in any of the
analyzed articles. This lack of research at this level of education is expected, since the content
of redox reactions requires knowledge of previous chemistry concepts.
Most articles focused on bachelor’s degrees (46%), for example, “The data for this study
were collected in a general chemistry class for the first-semester freshmen at a mid-western
university campus in the United States. The data were collected from students in the fall of
2009 and the spring of 2010, with 70 students and 40 students in the respective semesters”
(Nyachwaya et al., 2011, p.124). It is inferred that research involving bachelor’s degrees is the
result of the understanding that there is a correlation between the students' conception and their
academic performance (Alamdardoo et al., 2013).
Eighteen articles (33%) focus their research only on the secondary education, "The
subjects of the study consisted of forty-one 11th grade students (17 years old) from two science
classes in a high school in Izmir, which is a big city in Turkey" (Acar & Tarhan, 2007, p.
353). Research indicates that the conceptual difficulties of high school students with redox
content are recurrent (Adu-Gyamfi & Ampiah, 2019), thus, it reflects in a higher number of
studies with elementary school students. Adu-Gyamfi and Ampiah (2019) when investigating
students’ conceptions of redox reactions identified that they bring alternative conceptions and
misunderstandings about this content, and they point to the need for teachers to adopt more
differentiated teaching strategies. These strategies make it possible to identify alternative
conceptions of their students and discuss them in the classroom.
The authors Österlund and Ekborg (2009) argue, in a research involving teaching redox
models to explain electrochemistry issues that these concepts are difficult to understand.
Therefore, the authors propose new strategies to teach this content in the best possible way.
According to Figure 3, multiple methodologies (33%) and experiments (20%) were the
main strategy for data collection adopted throughout the studies, followed by questionnaires/
tests (19%) and Others (11%). For Treagust et al. (2014) teaching strategies influence student
learning. It can be inferred that the adoption of multiple methodologies adopted by most of
the research, cataloged in this research, may be the result of a search by researchers to identify
which one significantly influenced student learning.
One of the research studies categorized in the Others was performed by Silverstein
(2011) who proposed a theoretical discussion on the concept of redox reactions. He concluded
that “The oxidation state should, therefore, be the central pedagogic focus of discussions of
redox reactions in introductory or general chemistry” (Silverstein, 2011, p. 281).
Eighteen studies performed different methodologies/strategies in their research. It can
be said that the adoption of more strategies / methodologies, allows researchers to have a more
global perception about what they are researching. In this regard, Yang et al. (2003) assess the
impacts of an animation so that university students learn about batteries’ chemical reactions.
Therefore, “Students received two lectures on electrochemistry dealing with the chemical
principles of how batteries generate electricity utilizing either animations or still diagrams.
Students also completed a chemical knowledge test, a Flashlight pre-test and two chemistry
content exams [...]" (Yang et al., 2003, p. 329).
Eleven articles used experiments (20%) to develop the content of redox reaction. In this
sense, Supasorn (2015) proposed four small-scale experiments and the galvanic cell model

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kit with the ability to produce various galvanic cells, to develop electrochemical content with 709
high school students. Another research conducted an experiment and “Each student was given
a written lab sheet in which the task was to construct a working galvanic cell and try to explain
how and why the cell in front of him or her can produce electric current” (Hamza & Wickman,
2013, p.119).
Ten studies (19%) used questionnaires/tests as a method for investigating the contents of
teaching related to redox reactions. It was deduced that the preference for using questionnaire/
test is due to the possibility of accessing the conceptions of redox reactions of a greater number
of participants. This descriptor presents papers in which the authors used questions (open or
closed) on a given subject, specific or not. Brandriet and Bretz used “an 18-item multiple-
choice assessment that measures students’ ideas about oxidation numbers, surface features
of chemical reactions, electron transfer [...]” (Brandriet & Bretz, 2014, p. 730). In another
example, the researchers used a specific questionnaire called Chemistry Competency Test –
CCT that “consists of 65 questions of which 60 are multiple-choice (...) five questions are in an
open response format" (Potgieter & Davidowitz, 2011, p. 196).
Two articles used interviews (4%) to investigate the teaching content related to redox
reactions. This may indicate that research studies prefer to use questionnaires/tests to identify
general patterns of a phenomenon. This methodology was described directly in the text such as
Lee’s paper: "the results included interviews with 21 fifth-grade and sixth-grade students" (Lee,
2007, p. 499).
The literature points out so many problems in the teaching and learning of redox reactions,
but there are few studies that discuss proposals on how to work with students' difficulties. Many
articles propose how to teach this content, most of the time using experiments, other articles
show the results of pre and post test, but what is observed is the lack of a conceptual discussion
about the students' difficulty. In addition, research on proposals aimed at overcoming these
difficulties is lacking.
Limitations of Teaching and Learning Redox Reactions
Despite several articles researching redox reactions, it was observed that, in the initial
sample, only 54 presented difficulties related to teaching and learning redox reactions based
on empirical studies. Twenty-four main areas of difficulties could be identified, and they were
divided into conceptual and procedural difficulties (Table 5).
Regarding conceptual difficulties, the most documented obstacles in teaching and learning
about redox reactions among the selected articles is related to understanding the electron transfer
process. Acar and Tarhan (2007), Loh and Subramaniam (2018), Potgieter and Davidowitz
(2011) and Rahayu et al. (2011) reported cases where students believe that electrons can flow
through aqueous solutions. Brandriet and Bretz (2014) stated that, although students are able
to identify where electrons are transferred to, they cannot describe the particulate process
underlying the symbolic equation. In the same direction Osman and Lee (2014) contested that
almost half of the students could draw the correct direction of the electrons flow, but less than
10% could give the scientific reason to explain this. Özkaya (2002) also stated that students can
identify the direction of electron flow in a galvanic cell, however, they justify that electrons
move from a region of high potential to a region of lower potential, a scientifically incorrect
justification. Likewise, Cole et al. (2019), Özkaya et al. (2006) and Sesen and Tarhan (2013)
showed that students cannot explain the flow of ions and electrons in a galvanic cell. Osterlund
et al. (2010) reported that textbooks use to describe a redox reaction from the perspective of the
electrons transfer; thus, they only associated reduction with the gain of electrons and oxidation
with the loss of electrons.

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710 Additionally, textbooks hardly address other models of explanation for redox reactions.
Rosenthal and Sanger (2012) claimed that students do not understand that electron transfer
alters the size of metal atoms or ions. Yang et al. (2004), when investigating a dry cell battery,
found that students, despite understanding that electrons do not flow through the salt bridge,
believe that electrons flowing through the paste.
The second most reported conceptual difficulty is the understanding of the meaning and
assigning of oxidation numbers. Brandriet and Bretz (2014) indicated that students present
difficulties both in calculating oxidation numbers and in differentiating them from the charges.
Childs and Sheehan (2009) stated that students have difficulty in oxidation numbers because
they also had difficulties in mathematics. Similarly, Nyachwaya et al. (2011) and Supasorn
(2015) reported that students attributed incorrect oxidation numbers to various species and
neglected oxidation numbers of charged species. Ozdilek (2015) showed that students had
difficulty explaining the properties of chromium’s different oxidation states. Schmidt and Volke
(2003) noted that students had difficulties in attributing the oxidation number of polyatomic
species.
Regarding procedural difficulties, the most documented one was related to associating
the redox concepts with the observed phenomena. Tarkin and Uzuntiryaki-Kondakci (2017)
reported that students had difficulty applying their theoretical knowledge about oxidation-
reduction concepts when interpreting daily life events. Cole et al. (2019), Haigh et al. (2012),
Kelly et al. (2017) and Testa et al. (2018) identified that students were not able to correctly
correlate the color change with the oxidation / reduction of the substance. In addition, many
students were unable to identify the source of the color change in solution. Lee (2007), Yang
et al. (2004) and Yang et al. (2003) affirmed that students showed problems in transferring
their understanding of electrochemistry concepts and principles to batteries. Llanos et al.
(2019) stated that students had difficulty applying knowledge of an electrochemical method for
corrosion prevention.
The second most reported procedural difficulty is related to two categories: the identifying
of species that reduce and those oxidize, and to the identification of chemical equations as
oxidation-reduction equations.
Acar and Tarhan (2007) reported that students thought that inert electrodes can be
oxidized or reduced. Eybe and Schmidt (2001) identified that students presented misconceptions
regarding the terms reduction and oxidation. Likewise, Messersmith (2014), Niaz (2002)
and Niaz and Chacón (2003) stated that students were not integrated with the oxidation and
reduction concepts. Schmidt and Volke (2003) showed that students confused reducing or
oxidizing agents with reduction or oxidation. Schultz (2008), Supasorn (2015) and Rosenthal
and Sanger (2012) stated that students had difficulties in identifying the species that reduce
and those that oxidize. Supasorn (2015) said that it is because there is a difficulty in writing
the correct cell reaction while Rosenthal and Sanger (2012) affirmed that it is because students
were practicing incorrect ion charges.
Al-Balushi et al. (2012), Hunter et al. (2019) and Niaz and Chacón (2003) presented
that the students were unable to identify whether the given situation involves a redox reaction.
Silverstein (2011) reported that this difficulty is due to the many existing definitions about
redox reaction. Schultz (2008) reported that students had difficulties identifying redox process.
Valanides et al. (2003) showed that students had difficulties in recognizing redox reactions in
the combustion process. Vila and Sanz (2012) stated that students had difficulties in identifying
redox reactions in basic metabolism and photosynthesis. Noll and Hughes (2018) stated that
students had trouble in analyzing redox equations.
Analyzing the difficulties presented in the researched articles, it was observed that, in most
cases, more than one difficulty was reported. Brandriet e Bretz (2014) affirmed that students
did not understand the concept of oxidation, nor of charges, nor the transfer of electrons. The

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authors also stated that students were often unaware of their conceptual misconceptions about 711
redox.
Another survey showed that the students had difficulties to the macroscopic level:
“students appeared unable to give accounts of full observations of the redox reaction”, in
addition “the use of inappropriate prior knowledge appeared to complicate their understanding
at the macroscopic level (Haigh et al., 2012, p. 971). In this study, the authors argued that
students had limitations in exploring experimental evidence in laboratory classes, and that this
was not observed by teachers. Furthermore, they found that the observations made generally
carry the influence of other topics in chemistry, less than redox reactions. Often, students still
do not assimilate the submicroscopic theory, because they also have conceptual mistakes to
explain the phenomena at the macroscopic level (Haigh et al., 2012).
Özkaya et al. (2006) evaluated the effectiveness of a strategy-oriented approach towards
the conceptual change of students in relation to galvanic cells. The results showed that students
did not understand the half-cell potential and the spontaneity of half-cell reactions. Furthermore,
they did not understand the chemical balance and equilibrium electrochemical and could not
explain the flow of ions and electrons in a galvanic cell.
In another study, Özkaya (2002) analyzed the difficulties of experienced teachers with
the concepts of half-cell potential, cell potential, and chemical and electrochemical equilibrium
in galvanic cells. The author evidenced among the conceptual limitations of the teachers that
“They were not aware that the measured potential difference between a point at one electrode
and a point at the other electrode or between two half-cells in a galvanic cell was due not only to
the charge density at the points, but also to the potential differences between two metal–solution
interfaces” (Özkaya, 2002, p. 736). The teachers also conceived that the voltmeter accurately
measures the electromotive force in a galvanic cell, although in their laboratory they adopt the
potentiometer to measure the electromotive force in this cell. Another difficulty was evidenced
when “Although nearly all of them were able to define emf correctly, 28% could not establish
the relationship between the emf of a galvanic cell and the maximum capacity of the cell to do
electrical work” (Özkaya, 2002, p. 737).
In an investigation with South African students, it was found that in electrochemistry
students mistakenly conceived that electrons flow through the electrolyte; thus, they did not
understand stoichiometry based on electron transfer and incorrectly assigned oxidation numbers
(Potgieter & Davidowitz, 2011).
Rollnick and Mavhunga (2014) developed a questionnaire to measure the pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK) of experienced chemistry teachers on electrochemistry. The results
show that most teachers find it difficult to accept that neutrality of half cells is maintained
throughout the electrode process and “the idea of balance of charges in the two half cells of an
electrochemical cell still causes problems for almost all teachers in the sample” (Rollnick &
Mavhunga, 2014, p. 359).
In another investigation, which involved the implementation of a micro-scale experiment,
the main limitations of the students were associated:
(1) the number of neutral atoms increases in the anode, while it decreases in the cathode, (2) the
number of metal cations increases in the reduction half-cell, while it decreases in the oxidation
half-cell, (3) identified incorrect oxidation state for metal cations in each half-cell, (4) salt-
generated cations transferred from the reduction to oxidation half-cell, while anions transferred
from the oxidation to reduction half-cell, and (5) unaware of transfer of electrolytic anions from
the reduction to oxidation half-cell (Supasorn, 2015, p. 405).
Tarhan e Acar (2007) by developing a study based on Problem Based learning highlighted
that most students present “[…] some misunderstandings and misconceptions about the

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712 concepts of oxidation, reduction, balancing oxidation-reduction reactions, cell potentials, half-
cell potential and standard hydrogen electrode” (Tarhan & Acar, 2007, p. 363). Moreover, the
students presented difficulties with the concepts of the effect of concentration and temperature
on electrochemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant.
By adopting a test to identify the possible conceptual limitations of the students in
electrochemistry, Sesen and Tarhan (2013) found that “the control group students commonly
failed to explain the flow of electrons and ions, function of salt bridge, identification of anode
and cathode, and confused electrolytic cell with electrochemical cells” (Sesen & Tarhan, 2013,
p. 423).
Some of the difficulties pointed out in the articles presented in this review are similar to
those presented more than two decades ago (Garnett & Treagust, 1992a,b; Sanger & Greenbowe,
1997a,b). Therefore, there is still a lot to be developed in terms of teaching and learning the
redox concept.
This study analyzed publications in educational and scientific science journals from 2000
to 2019. It is believed that this sampling allowed the mapping of published articles that address
the content of redox reactions in teaching chemistry.
Regarding the educational level, most articles prioritize high school and bachelor
degrees, and the elementary school was not checked by any research; thus, it is essential to
have educational research proposals at this school level, especially in its final years, a period
in which the study of chemistry really begins. Surveys with in-service and pre-service teachers
was incipient, although studies point to the need to review electrochemistry teaching due to the
difficulties to learn and teach it.
Regarding the adopted strategies or research methodologies, it was found that the
analyzed articles mainly used three: multiple methodologies / strategies, experiments and
questionnaire/test.
The results show that only 54 of the 318 mapped papers not only listed the limitations but
they described the conceptual and procedural difficulties about redox that emerged from their
research. The survey of articles on the theme of redox reactions and their respective mapping
showed that this issue had been highlighted among the publication area. Another important
factor was that most research is focused on high school education; however, it almost does
not include courses for in-service and pre-service teachers. Thus, it can be inferred that the
difficulties related to teaching this content need to address in the teacher training, overcoming
the difficulties, both in teaching and learning, reported in the literature.
In general, the objectives of this research were achieved, because in the systematic
review on redox reactions, it was possible to identify the study participants, the strategies/
methodologies chosen by their authors and, mainly the difficulties associated with teaching
and learning this content, resulting from the mapped searches. This research emphasize the
importance of training courses for in-service teachers and to work with the difficulties identified
in this systematic review with pre-service teachers. They can elaborate sequences and implement
proposals for teaching redox reactions, to avoid these difficulties and confront alternative
conceptions. In addition, activities can be carried out with teachers and future teachers who
contemplate the analysis of textbooks, to correlate the difficulties identified in this research and
the possible influence of this teaching material on them. Thus, it is believed that in this way it
will contribute to the professional development of in-service and pre-service teachers.

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Acknowledgements 713
The authors are grateful to the financial support, Grants #2013/07937-8; #2014/14356-4
and #2016/08677, São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) and grants #431016/2016-0 and
#312911/2018-1, National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).
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Received: May 21, 2020 Accepted: September 14, 2020

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718
Cite as: Goes, L. F., Nogueira, K. S. C., & Fernandez, C. (2020). Limitations of teaching and
learning redox: A systematic review. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(5), 698-
718. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.698
Luciane Fernandes de Goes PhD in Science Education, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof.
(Corresponding author) Lineu Prestes, 748 - 05508-000 – Butantã - São Paulo - SP, Brazil.
E-mail: luciane.goes@usp.br
Website: http://sites.usp.br/pequim
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4334-786X
Keysy Solange Costa Nogueira PhD in Science Education, University of Santa Catarina, Rua João Pessoa, 2750
- 89036-256 – Velha - Blumenau - SC, Brazil.
E-mail: keysy.nogueira@ufsc.br
Carmen Fernandez PhD in Chemistry, Associate Professor, Department of Fundamental Chemistry,

Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 748 -
05508-000 – Butantã - São Paulo - SP, Brazil.
E-mail: carmen@iq.usp.br
Website: http://sites.usp.br/pequim

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USEFULNESS OF MOBILE TEACHING AND 719
LEARNING AS PERCEIVED BY ROMANIAN

AND LITHUANIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS
Gabriel Gorghiu
Valahia University Târgoviște, Romania
E-mail: ggorghiu@gmail.com
Costin Pribeanu
Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
E-mail: costin.pribeanu@gmail.com
Vincentas Lamanauskas, Violeta Slekiene

Šiauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@su.lt, violeta.slekiene@su.lt
Abstract
With the explosion of mobile technologies, mobile teaching and learning became an important educational
challenge. Since both teachers and students are increasingly using mobile devices in their everyday life,
the question is why so little progress has been made in this direction. Clearly, the initiative of introducing
mobile technology in class should come from teachers. Existing research shows a large diversity of
factors that are influencing their perception as regards the usefulness and opportunity of mobile teaching
and learning. This research aims to understand the extent to which the expectancy of increased students’
motivation and better understanding are influencing the perception of mobile teaching usefulness. A
structural model has been developed and tested on two samples of science education teachers, one from
Romania and the other from Lithuania. The results show that the expectancy of a better understanding of
lessons by students has an important effect on the teachers’ perception of mobile teaching and learning.
Keywords: educational usefulness, learning motivation, mobile teaching, mobile learning, pilot research
Introduction
With the explosion of mobile technologies, mobile teaching and learning became an
important educational challenge (Ciampa, 2013; Hung, & Zhang, 2012; Lin et al., 2016). This
challenge has been augmented by the proliferation of social networking websites that are easily
accessed on a mobile device. Both teachers and students are increasingly using mobile devices
in their everyday life for a variety of purposes: communication, socialization, exchange of
information, entertainment, content creation, and content sharing. On the other hand, mobile
technology offered the possibility to design innovative methods in education.
In the actual school, and especially among children - starting here with what is
happening in primary and lower secondary education - mobile technology stays in the center
of their discussions mostly due to the video games. In many cases, young students exploit their
networking skills, by playing online, using their mobile devices, being also incredible how much

Gabriel GORGHIU, Costin PRIBEANU, Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS, Violeta SLEKIENE. Usefulness of mobile teaching and learning as
perceived by Romanian and Lithuanian science teachers
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720 they talk about their difficulties in overcoming a level s example or give each other advice, or
help each other when scheduling meetings to resume the game. In this respect - even the mobile
technology is restricted or forbidden to be exploited in many schools, or is considered as risky
for young students (Thomas & Muñoz, 2016; Walker, 2013) - they prove an important level of
knowledge related to the user of their mobile devices, at their ages. As a result, it was natural for
educational games to become a key-element to be introduced in the learning process in actual
education. In this sense, a new concept called “gamification of education” has been born, as an
approach suitable for “increasing the learners’ motivation and engagement by incorporating
game design elements in educational environments” (Dichev, & Dicheva, 2017).
But step by step, young students discover the advantages of using mobile technology
not only for recreation. Texting, exploring the web, retrieving information, interacting and
communicating with colleagues via their mobile devices networking and collaborating, represent
as many ways that allow them to mediate the process of learning, especially in informal and
non-formal environments (Rideout et al., 2010). Practically, the technical devices and virtual
environments are used more responsibly for scholarly purposes, and less for entertainment.
In this respect, it is clear that educational interventions must focus mainly on age
categories, with important specificities from early education to high school. On the other hand,
since the mobile devices became part of the everyday life of many students and teachers,
the question that is said by many researchers is: why mobile teaching and learning is not so
widespread, especially in formal education? In a big acceptance, the initiative of introducing
mobile technology in the classroom should come from teachers. The existed research shows a
large diversity of factors that influence the perception as regards the perceived usefulness and
opportunity of the mobile teaching and learning (Fereira et al., 2015; Fua, & Hwang, 2018;
Lamanauskas et al., 2019; Pribeanu et al., 2020).
This research aimed to understand the extent to which the expectancy of increased
students’ motivation and better understanding are influencing the perception of mobile teaching
usefulness. Based on preliminary research, a structural model has been developed and specified
that relates four latent variables: facilitating conditions, learning motivation expectancy, better
understanding expectancy, and usefulness for teaching. The model has been tested on two
samples of science education teachers, one from Romania and the other from Lithuania.
Background and Conceptualization
Background
In general, it is stated that mobile technology has an impact on various usability factors
such as effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, learnability, memorability, errors, and the
cognitive load (Harrison et al., 2013). In education, the introduction of mobile technology has
influenced the teaching/learning process in a positive manner. As Gray et al. (2004) pointed
out, the presence of new technologies in students’ and teachers’ everyday life, makes the
teachers develop IT skills, convey them to students and provide them with new knowledge
and skills. Also, mobile technology started to rethink several methodical patterns in education,
with added-value issues in problem-solving, cooperative learning, game-based learning, and
technology-assisted instruction (Klopfer, et al., 2012; Lan et al., 2007; Roschelle et al., 2010;
Warschauer, 2007).
When used, mobile learning seems to produce an important and visible difference in how
students learn, having a positive students’ perception concerning collaborative learning and
valuable potential on students’ knowledge and comprehension (Heflin et al., 2017). It is clear
that students who use mobile devices have more confidence and greater acceptance in social
groups. It is the main force for going further, with several benefits for educational purposes:

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carrying out projects, facilitating the socialization process, and improving communication 721
between people from any part of the world and in any language, continuously and permanently.
Therefore, effective collaboration between groups may fully exploit the facilities offered by
discussion forums, blogs, social websites, or even virtual worlds.
Several research studies showed that mobile technology has a positive influence on
students who lack motivation because mobile devices were especially useful for creating
teacher and students’ relationships, which in turn facilitated the learners’ involvement in the
education process (Ison et al., 2004; Walsh et al., 2011).
But the usefulness for the teaching and learning process - particularly informal learning
- is relevant when mobile devices are properly integrated as instruments in the didactic
demarches, being combined with traditional tools, with the view to obtain an improved school
experience. As most of the actual students are familiarized with digital language and known as
early users of smart devices, the teachers have extensive opportunities for using such devices
to facilitate the students’ acquisition of competences, but also the good retention of various
contents, as required by the school curricula. Unfortunately, the teachers still need more training
in technological/digital skills, in order to build their instruments and resources, with the view
to answer to students’ needs and to increase the students’ motivation for developing autonomy
and analytical skills for learning (Nganji, 2018).
In theory, the nowadays school environments and their internal conditions can ensure a
successful transition to another level, where blended-learning must be seen as a usual procedure,
being completed with learning environments in the format of open and flexible platforms, and
becoming more effective than traditional face to face learning approach (Acelajado, 2011;
Saritepeci & Cakir, 2015). By communicating seamlessly with mobile devices and cooperation
tools, the content management software allows students and teachers to participate and benefit
from a more dynamic learning experience, based mainly on interactive discussions.
Mobile applications are oriented on student-centered learning, accelerating, and
deepening understanding and acquisition, while teachers have the opportunity to continuously
assess the degree of students’ knowledge. Teachers themselves noticed the increase of students’
motivation and achievements when mobile learning technology has been introduced and
exploited into their didactic strategies (Navaridas et al., 2013; Sung & Mayer, 2013).
Research Model and Hypotheses
It was hypothesized that the usefulness for teaching (UT) is influenced by three factors:
the facilitating conditions (FC), motivation to learn expectancy (ML), and better understanding
expectancy (UU). Also, the motivation to learn expectancy (ML) is influenced by a better
understanding of expectancy (UU). The proposed research model is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Research model

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722 The motivation to learn expectancy (ML) is measuring the increased motivation of stu-
dents as anticipated by teachers. It is expected that by introducing mobile technology in class
students will be less stressed and bored. It is also expected that the lessons will be perceived as
more interesting and attractive (Lamanauskas et al., 2019; Ott et al., 2018).
Usefulness for teaching (UT) is measuring the new opportunities created by mobile tech-
nology (Isson et al., 2004). Teachers will be able to prepare more interesting lessons and to find
ways to better explain difficult concepts (Lamanauskas et al., 2019). Moreover, teachers may
find it easier to give learning tasks to students. A better understanding of expectancy (UU) is
measuring the anticipated benefits as regards the understanding of concepts (Fua & Hwangb,
2018; Lamanauskas et al., 2020).
The facilitating conditions (FC) refers to the skills needed to use mobile technology
in the process of teaching and learning. These skills are a precondition for the effective
implementation of mobile technology in schools (Nganji, 2018; Pribeanu et al., 2020).
H1 Facilitating conditions has a positive influence on the motivation to learn (FC → ML)
H2 Facilitating conditions has a positive influence on better understanding (FC → UU)
H3 Facilitating conditions as a positive influence on the usefulness for teaching (FC →
UT)

Motivation has a positive effect on learning outcomes (Lamanauskas et al., 2019;
Murayama et al., 2013; Pintrich, 2003). By using educational applications on their own devices,
students will pay more attention and, consequently, will be able to better understand the lesson
and creatively use their knowledge.
Teaching and learning are closely related processes. It is expected that the motivation
to learn expectancy and the better understanding expectancy has a positive influence on the
usefulness of teaching. In general, motivation to learn is strongly related to competence which
is acquired through experience, being stimulated by modeling, communication of expectations,
but also through direct instruction or socialization (Brophy, 1998). In this way, the teaching
process has the main role in building an optimal relationship between teacher and student,
which can enhance classroom learning and motivation (Birch & Ladd, 1997). On the other
hand, in this digital age, for raising students’ better understanding of the concepts taught at
school, there is a need for introducing modern technical appliances - including mobile devices
- in classrooms and exploited positively, in a new format of instruction, mediated by teachers.
In this respect, teachers themselves must be familiarized with the features provided by mobile
devices, through particular applications dedicated to m-learning (García-Martínez et al., 2019).
H4 Motivation to learn has a positive influence on better understanding (ML → UU)

H5 Motivation to learn has a positive influence on usefulness for teaching (ML → UT)
H6 Better understanding has a positive influence on usefulness for teaching (UU → UT)
The constructs and measures are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1 723
Measures
FC Facilitating conditions
FC1 Students have the skills needed to use mobile technology for learning purposes
FC2 I have the skills needed to use mobile technology for teaching purposes
FC3 I am able to find educational applications for teaching purposes
ML Learning motivation expectancy
ML1 By using mobile technology students may be less bored by the traditional methods
ML2 By using mobile technology students may feel in control to learn with their own devices
ML3 By using mobile technology students may find the lesson more attractive
ML4 By using mobile technology students are less stressed and learning is accepted as a game
ML5 By using mobile technology students may find the lesson more interesting
UU Better understanding expectancy
UU1 Mobile technology may stimulate students to pay more attention to lessons
UU2 Mobile learning stimulates creativity
UU3 Mobile technology may help to better understand the lesson
UT Usefulness for teaching
UT1 With mobile technology, I could prepare more interesting lessons
UT2 Mobile technology helps to give learning tasks to students
UT3 With mobile technology, I could better explain difficult concepts
UT4 With mobile technology, I could better stimulate the students to learn
Method
The evaluation instrument has been developed based on previous preliminary research
(Lamanauskas et al., 2019; Pribeanu et al., 2020). Data has been collected in two countries –
Lithuania and Romania. Natural science and adjacent subject teachers participated in the
research (125 - from Romania, 120 - from Lithuania). The participants have been asked to
answer several general questions as regards demographics, qualification, and involvement then
to evaluate the items on a 5-points Likert interval scale.
An exploratory factor analysis carried on the first sample revealed poor factor loadings
and cross-loading, so five items have been eliminated: FC1, ML2, UU1, UT5, and UT6.
Convergent validity has been assessed according to the recommended thresholds from
the literature (Fornell, & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010), as regards loadings magnitude
(greater than 0.5), construct reliability (composite reliability, CR greater than 0.70), and aver-
age variance extracted (AVE, greater than 0.5). Discriminant validity has been assessed through
the squared correlation test (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
The model fit with the data has been assessed by using the following goodness of fit
indices (Hair et al., 2006; Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003): chi-square (χ2), degrees of freedom
(df), χ2/df, comparative fit index (CFI), the goodness of fit index (GFI), root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR).
The model was analyzed with Lisrel 9.3 for Windows (Mels, 2006), using a covariance
matrix as input and maximum likelihood estimation method.

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724 Samples
Romanian sample
The sample of 125 teachers (34 men and 91 women) has a distribution by age as follows:
15 teachers in 20-29 years group, 27 teachers in 30-39 years group, 29 teachers in 40-49 years
group, 43 teachers in 50-59 years age group, and 11 teachers over 60 years old.
As regards the certification, 81 teachers have the level 1 certification (64.8%), 22
teachers have the level 2 certification (17.6%), and 22 teachers have a full-time professional
degree (17.6%). 70 teachers are working with lower secondary students (5th - 8th forms) and
55 are involved in upper secondary education (9th - 12th forms).
Lithuanian sample
The distribution by age of teachers (19 (16%) male, 101 (84%) female) is as follows: 3
in 20-29 years group, 14 in the 30-39 years group, 29 in the 40-49 years group, 50 in the 50-59
years group, and 24 teachers over 60 years old. As regards the qualification: 18 (15%) were
teachers, 32 (26.7%) - senior teachers, 56 (46.6%) – teachers- methodologists and 14 (11.7%) -
teachers experts. 37 teachers work with all age group students, 21 teachers are working mainly in
lower secondary education, and 62 teachers are working mainly in upper secondary education.
Research Results
Model Testing Results: Romanian Sample
The model has been analyzed for unidimensionality, the internal consistency of the scale
(Cronbach’s alpha), and convergent validity. The descriptive statistics and item loadings are
presented in Table 2.

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Table 2 725
Descriptive and item loadings (N=125)
Factor Item Mean SD Loading
FC1 4.18 0.87 .69

FC
FC2 4.24 0.81 .92
ML ML1 4.05 1.02 .59
ML3 4.25 0.88 .78
ML4 4.02 0.97 .77
ML5 4.34 0.86 .87
UU UU2 3.84 0.95 .70
UU3 4.08 0.79 .90

UT UT1 4.26 0.80 .81
UT2 4.06 0.79 .59
UT3 4.08 0.82 .81
UT4 4.02 0.92 .77
The mean values for the facilitating conditions, learning motivation expectancy, and
perceived teaching usefulness are pretty high. With two exceptions (ML1 and UT2) all item
loadings are over .6, thus proving unidimensionality of the first-order factors. The Cronbach’s
alpha is varying from .532 to .833, thus showing acceptable reliability of the scales.
Table 3
Scale reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity (N=125)
Alpha CR AVE FC ML UU UT
FC .532 0.728 0.574 0.758
ML .833 0.843 0.577 0.365 0.759
UU .763 0.785 0.650 0.256 0.506 0.806
UT .828 0.836 0.563 0.470 0.728 0.787 0.751

Note: The bold diagonal numbers represent the square root of AVE
The convergent validity is very good since the composite reliability (CR) and average
variance extracted (AVE) are over the cut-off values of 0.7, respectively 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker,
1981). The discriminant validity is also good, with one exception (correlation between UU and
UT exceeds the square root of AVE for UT).

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726 Figure 2
Model estimation results – Romanian sample (N=125)
The model fit with the data is also good, as shown by the goodness of fit (GOF) indices:
χ2 =84.36, df=48, χ2/df=1.758, CFI=0.949, GFI=0.904, RMSEA=0.078, SRMR=0.054. The
model estimation results for the Romanian sample are presented in Figure 2.
The path from FC to UU is not significant so the hypothesis H2 is not supported. H1 and
H3 are supported since the paths from FC to ML and UT are significant (p=.001, respectively
p=.016)
The learning motivation expectancy has a significant positive influence on both the better
understanding expectancy (p=.0001) and teaching usefulness (.0001) thus showing that H4 and
H5 are supported. The better understanding expectancy has a significant positive influence on
the teaching usefulness (p=.0001) thus providing evidence that H6 is supported.
The model explains 14.8% variance in the expectancy for learning motivation (ML),
26% variance in the expectancy for better understanding (UU), and 79.4% variance in the
usefulness for teaching.

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Model Testing Results: Lithuanian Sample 727
The descriptive statistics and item loadings are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Descriptive and item loadings (N=120)
Factor Item Mean SD Loading Alpha CR AVE
FC1 3.80 0.74 .66 .591 0.699 0.539

FC
FC2 3.89 0.71 .80
ML ML1 4.13 0.65 .70 .835 0.851 0.591
ML3 4.13 0.69 .81

ML4 3.68 0.72 .68
ML5 4.16 0.61 .87
UU UU2 3.58 0.78 .67 .674 0.677 0.513
UU3 3.84 0.67 .76

UT UT1 4.24 0.62 .77 .783 0.784 0.479
UT2 4.15 0.60 .56
UT3 3.96 0.56 .67
UT4 3.68 0.69 .74
All item loadings are over 0.6, thus proving the unidimensionality of the first-order
factors.
Table 5
Scale reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity (N=120)
Alpha CR AVE FC ML UU UT
FC .591 0.699 0.539 0.734
ML .835 0.851 0.591 0.577 0.935
UU .674 0.677 0.513 0.564 0.690 0.795
UT .783 0.784 0.479 0.151 0.816 0.896 0.880

Note: The bold diagonal numbers represent the square root of AVE
The Cronbach’s alpha is varying from .591 to .835, thus showing acceptable reliability of
the scales. The convergent validity is acceptable since, with one exception (UU) the composite
reliability (CR) is over 0.7, and, with one exception (UT) the average variance extracted (AVE)
is over 0.5. The discriminant validity is also acceptable, with two exceptions (correlation of UT
with ML and UU).

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728 The model fit with the data is very good: χ2 =62.86, df=48, χ2/df=1.309, CFI=0.973,
GFI=0.920, RMSEA=0.051, SRMR=0.051. The model estimation results for the Lithuanian
sample are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Model estimation results – Lithuanian sample (N=120)
The paths from FC to ML and FC are not significant so the hypotheses H1 and H3 are not
supported. The path from FC to UU is marginally significant (p=.056) therefore the hypothesis
H2 is supported.
The learning motivation expectancy has a significant positive influence on both the
better understanding expectancy (p=.0001) and teaching usefulness (.016) thus showing that
H4 and H5 are supported. In turn, a better understanding of expectancy has a significant positive
influence on the teaching usefulness (p=.001) thus providing evidence that H6 is supported.
The model explains 2.3% variance in the expectancy for learning motivation (ML),
52.3% variance in the expectancy for better understanding (UU), and 88.3% variance in the
usefulness for teaching.
Discussion
This research contributes with an empirically validated model that explains the
relationship between the facilitating conditions and the teaching and learning outcomes as
regards the use of mobile technology in the teaching and learning process. Since the model has
been cross-validated on a different sample, the scale is pretty reliable for a pilot study.
In both samples, the H4, H5, and H6 hypotheses were supported thus showing that
the expectancies as regards the students’ increased motivation and better understanding have
positive and significant effects on the perceived teaching usefulness. The strength of path from
ML to UU and the variance explained in the better understanding expectancy shows that the

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motivation to learn makes students more receptive thus helping understanding of concepts, 729
which confirms the findings of other studies (Brophy, 1998; Garcia-Martinez et al., 2019;
Ferreira et al., 2015; Lamanauskas et al., 2019).
The model explains a lot of variance in the perceived usefulness for teaching (79% for
the Romanian sample, respectively 88% for the Lithuanian sample). This shows awareness of
teachers that in the current situation the motivation to learn and understanding concepts are
key issues that could be better approached by integrating mobile technology in the educational
process (Heflin et al., 2017; Lamanauskas et al., 2019).
An important factor of this empiric research is that natural science teachers from two
countries took part in it. Research metanalysis carried out by Alrasheedi and Capretz (2015)
showed that teachers’ technological competence is not considered a very significant success
factor. Researchers notice that research studies are very often focused on perceived benefits
from learner perspectives (students), at the same time ignoring the other users, for example,
teachers. Therefore, from the teachers’ perspective, evaluation research studies remain not less
important. Researchers notice that empiric research related to perceptions and usefulness on
mobile technology and mobile learning is still limited (Nikolopoulou, 2020). This research at
least partially fills this gap. Though MT distinguishes itself by various advantages, potential,
and ability to customize individual experiences (Carvalho & Ferreira, 2015), the teacher’s role
remains important. Not all teachers (especially seniors) appropriately and effectively use MT
in the teaching process. The research shows, that teachers’ position concerning mobile devices
changes significantly according to teachers’ ages (Cumaoğlu, 2015). Meanwhile, regardless of
MT diversity, students prefer to learn from their teachers and rather than from a mobile device
(Rodriguez, 2018). The research shows that in such cases, pedagogical and technological
support is necessary for the teachers (Seifert, 2016).
Since this is a pilot study, there are some inherent limitations. The first limitation is the
small number of items for two constructs. The second limitation is related to the sample size,
which is at limits for structural equation modeling requirements. The third limitation is related
to the non-supported hypotheses (paths from FC to UU, ML, and UT) which suggests revising
the FC (facilitating conditions) construct.
Conclusions
The results of this research provide useful insights into the relations between the learning
motivation expectancy, better understanding expectancy, and usefulness for teaching with
mobile devices.
To find out the influence of increased students' motivation and a better understanding
of the perception of the usefulness of mobile teaching, a structural model was developed and
tested on two samples of science teachers (one from Romania, the other from Lithuania).
The results of the estimation of the model for the Romanian sample showed that
● the positive influence of facilitating conditions on better understanding is not
significant (hypothesis H2 is not supported);
● facilitating conditions have a positive influence on the motivation to learn and on
the usefulness for teaching (hypothesis H1 and H3 are supported).
The results of the estimation of the model for the Lithuanian sample showed that
● the positive influence of facilitating conditions on the motivation to learn and
on the usefulness for teaching is not significant (hypothesis H1 and H3 are not
supported);
● facilitating conditions have a positive influence on better understanding
(hypothesis H2 is supported).

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730 The results of the estimation of the model for both samples (Romanian and Lithuanian)
showed that
• the learning motivation expectancy has a significant positive influence on both
the better understanding expectancy and teaching usefulness (hypothesis H4 and
H5 are supported);
• the better understanding expectancy has a significant positive influence on the
teaching usefulness (hypothesis H6 is supported).
Summarizing the results, it can be said that the expectancy that students will better
understand lessons has a significant impact on teachers’ perceptions of mobile teaching and
learning.
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733
Cite as: Gorghiu, G., Pribeanu, C., Lamanauskas, V., & Šlekienė, V. (2020).
Usefulness of mobile teaching and learning as perceived by Romanian and
Lithuanian science teachers. Problems of Education in the 21 st Century, 78(5), 719-
733. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.719
Gabriel Gorghiu PhD, Professor, Teacher Training Department, Valahia University Targoviste,
35 Lt. Stancu Ion Street, 130105 Targoviste, Romania.
E-mail: ggorghiu@gmail.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Gorghiu
Costin Pribeanu PhD, Senior Researcher, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Splaiul

(Corresponding author) Independentei no. 54, sector 5, 050094 Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: costin.pribeanu@gmail.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Costin_Pribeanu
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, Senior Researcher, Institute of Education, Šiauliai University,
P. Visinskio Street 25-119, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@su.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/;
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincentas_Lamanauskas
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-7899
Violeta Šlekienė PhD, Associate Professor, Institute of Education, Šiauliai University, 25-125
P. Višinskio Street, Šiauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: violeta.slekiene@su.lt
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Violeta_Slekiene

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734
TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY: TEACHERS’
PROGRESSIVE APPROACH USED FOR
21ST CENTURY STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
SUCCESS IN VIBRANT ENVIRONMENT
Mehboob Ul Hassan, Rafaqat Ali Akbar
University of the Punjab, Pakistan
E-mail: hassanbhattig@hotmail.com, rafaqat.ier@pu.edu.pk
Abstract
Technology plants concrete effects on the supremacy of humans' technological success that have been
remaining awe-inspiring aspects for stakeholders; teachers and students since last eras. Teachers make
students technologically literate, reshape their hidden potential, skill them through modern gadgets,
help in understanding and evaluating their functions applying technological and engineering standards
for goal achievements. Present research was conducted to explore the effect of teachers’ technological
literacy on students’ academic success occurs in vibrant environment on conveniently selected sample of
200 teachers working in public and private universities of district Lahore. Researchers administered a
self-developed survey to collect data from teachers. Content validity of questionnaire was ensured from
experts and reliability was confirmed by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha Scores .821. Normality of the
data was assured by calculating Shapiro-Wilk’s test, n < 2000, p > .05. Students’ academic success was
measured through acquiring achievement scores, obtained from concerned university offices ensuring
ethical considerations, as in data collections. Results of independent samples t-test and regression
analysis ascertained no significant difference between usage of technological literacy by teachers’
gender and university type; male teachers working in public and private universities have same usage of
technological literacy as compared to female teachers. Moreover, teachers’ technological literacy affect
43% on students’ academic success occurs in vibrant learning environment. On the basis of results,
research recommends that universities may established digital lab ensuring vibrant environment and
hire technologically literate staff providing fringe benefits to meet 21st century technological literacy
demands for students’ success.
Keywords: digital citizenship, students’ achievement scores, technological literacy, technological
concepts, vibrant environment
Introduction
Existence of human being is based on diverse eras since ago. These eras were named
as Bronze era, Iron era, industrialization era and the era of technological innovations also
vocalized as era of fourth industrialization that revolution characterized by exercise of modern
technologies capturing physical, digital and biological aspects of social, political, economic and
educational worlds (Cummins et al., 2007; Haas, 2013; Jewitt, 2006). As the era of technology
has been changing, demands of human beings are growing to satisfy their needs (International
Technology Education Association, 2006). These needs are fulfilled by making human beings
technologically literate by supporting individual’s abilities and potential that has long effects
on present and future lives of any civilization (Pearson & Young, 2002; Yuen et al., 2004).
Technological literacy is an innovation of human competencies. It is the ability to find, contact,

Mehboob Ul HASSAN, Rafaqat Ali AKBAR. Technological literacy: Teachers’ progressive approach used for 21st century students’
academic success in vibrant environment
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explore, assess and utilize information in diverse ways (American Library Association; ALA, 735
2003). It is a quick and authentic source of getting and receiving information (Solomonidou
& Tassios, 2007). Technological literacy is a catalyst that incorporates human cognitive and
psychomotor skills since last decades (Crowe, 2006). Technological literacy is branched as;
application based, design based, high technology, science technology and society based, skill
based, subject integrated, technological concepts and vocational based approach (Honey et al.,
2014).
Technological education concerns about human designed-products, systems and
procedures used to satisfy stakeholders’ needs having multiple specifications; technological
educations, information and communities technologies and technological and engineering
literacy (Carr et al., 2012; National Assessment Governing Board, 2013; Sanders, 2009) that
also provides influential launching aspect for technological learners in specialized areas.
Technology, Engineering and Literacy; TEL is amalgamation of three words; a) technology
that refers to adjustment of natural environment through individual’s design products, methods
and procedures applied to fulfill human requirements, b) engineering concerns with application
of scientific laws and arithmetical interpretation to revamp technologies to congregate already
prescribed demands / requirements and c), literacy is one’s technical skills and ability to read and
write essential aspect of technology in what ways people think, apply and spread information
through digital means (National Assessment and Educational Progress, 2012; National
Assessment Governing Board, 2013; International Society for Technology in Education, 2007;
National Center for Education Statistics, 2013). Notion technological and engineering literacy
refers to portrayal of individual’s developing aspects; process and products (American Society
for Engineering Education, 2009; Cummins et al., 2007; Heywood, 2009). Ultimate purpose
is to involve students for hands-on, designed strategies and active involvement to develop
practical problem-solving skills within real life situations (National Assessment Governing
Board, 2013).
Relevance of technological and engineering literacy stipulates process to create and
design key features of technological artifact for global inter-connection and far-reaching access
of humans (Brinkerhoff, 2006; Cavanaugh et al., 2011). Key features help users in defining
and describing every bit of knowledge for the sake of individual’s growth and expansion of
technological and engineering literacy. Internationally there is rudimentary consideration on
beliefs underlying the aspects of technological and engineering literacy (Carr et al., 2012;
Sanders, 2009). Myths existing among stakeholders belong to health, industries, commerce,
politics and education as well, while learners finished their school life education acquiring minor
concepts of fundamental thoughts and philosophies underling technological and engineering
literacy (Donovan et al., 2007; Edwards, 2012).
Construction of technological and engineering literacy aspects is based on technological
and societal, proposed and structured and continuous application of ICT. Additionally, these
features demand concerned wholehearted indication on logical and foremost overarching
areas; understanding of technological laws, developing solutions and goal accomplishment
and communication and collaboration with students to show off their capabilities (National
Assessment Governing Board, 2013) that also lay foundations for the development of TEL
assessment tool that multi-purposively participate in contributing fundamental aspects of
technological and engineering literacy in educational institutions in measuring students’
academic success. TEL scrupulously discusses factors affecting students’ technological
and engineering achievements, teachers’ educational encounters and intense demographic
characteristics of researchers, teachers and policymakers that vigorously put a considerable
role in identifying students’ academic successes that lead towards progressive change towards
Science Technology Mathematics and Engineering STEM education (Brinkerhoff, 2006;
Cavanaugh et al., 2011; Donovan et al., 2007; Edwards, 2012).

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736 Application of TEL plays a significant role in developing scientific and analytical
skills among learners (Carr & Strobel, 2011; Sanders, 2009) focusing international standards
that measure students’ technological proficiencies (International Society for Technology in
Education, 2007; Metiri Group, 2009; National Governors Association for Best Practices &
Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). However, there are some discrepancies among
these standards that were removed through focusing Next Generating Science Standards; NGSS,
National Assessment and Engineering Progress; NAEP and Technological Engineering Literacy;
TEL established integrating thirst areas of Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics
(Metiri Group, 2009; National Assessment Governing Board, 2013). Furthermore, standards
were established to improve students’ professional readiness towards 21st century technological
performance and globally compare students’ skills towards technology and engineering literacy
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2013; National Assessment Governing Board, 2013)
to gauge students’ performance in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics.
A technologically literate person has potential to grip on technological knowledge and
successfully complete assigned tasks (Pearson & Young, 2002). It is obvious for common
people to be technologically literate. A technologically literate person is a constant user of the
acquired technological information, a regular information seeker, an analyzer & evaluator and
an effective communicator. A technologically literate person has the ability to access, manage,
use, analyze and evaluate information (Pearson & Young, 2002). He is an excellent problem
solver, can publish and produce information, and an efficient user of inventive tools (Bennett et
al., 2009). A technologically literate person has the ability to understand about technology, ways
of creation of technology, how technology shapes civilization, and in turn shaped civilizations
in diversity of ways (Belk, 2013; Williams & Coles, 2007). Teachers have been living in ever
advanced era of technology. Technology affects the individual’s entire life span gradually (Yuen
et al., 2004). Millennium Development Goals; MDGs, Education for All and World Summit
on the Information Society; WSIS, 2015 are also focusing technological literacy of teachers,
prospective teachers and training institutions to meet international needs in educational
institutions (UNESCO, 2006). Technological literacy for teachers has a significant effect on
their assigned work and teaching learning process. It has also an effect on their logical reasoning
abilities, techniques to solve queries, thought provoking and inspiring inventions (Collis &
Monnen, 2001; Niederauser & Stoddart, 2001). Persistency in technological literacy among
teachers is essential for the requirements of their professions (Gorder, 2008). In educational
institution, less technologically literate teachers minimize daily working of an organization
(Chuang & Rosenbusch, 2005; Crowe, 2006; Goddard, 2002; Mahapatra & Lai, 2005;
Thompson, 2013). Teachers’ training institutions are making efforts to reshuffle their programs
to manage the impending and prospective capabilities for teachers. By using technological
literacy with mind’s eye, teachers design an instrument for conversation, communication and
an announcement for pupils and teachers (Moursund & Bielefedt, 1999). Teachers made little
use of information sources for their pedagogic practices, exchange of ideas with peers and
colleagues. They opinioned that time constrains stop them to access information that requires
technological literacy skills for effective use of information technology information (Williams
& Cole, 2007).
Teachers enhance their technological skills by focusing performance indicators that are
foundations for constant improvement towards teachers’ professionalism. They play an essential
role in effective teaching through expressing consents, attitudes and curiosity in teaching (Coiro,
2003; Ogris & Wetphal, 2006). Curriculum experts and educational stakeholders take initiative
and construct outlines of performance indicators; technological concepts and operations,
communication and collaboration and digital citizenship for teacher in the field of technological
literacy (Cradler et al., 2002; Irum & Munshi, 2015; Wenglinsky, 2005; Williams et al., 2012).

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Teachers have skills to understand and present the basic concepts and operations of 737
technological literacy (Wenglinsky, 2005). These proficiencies are important for lifetime usage
of technology (Grisham & Wolsey, 2011). Teachers’ passions lead them towards acquisition
of new skills towards technological literacy. Technological concepts and operations enable
them to bring change and new directions in the teaching learning process (Greenhow et al.,
2009). Abundance of latest technologies, educational infrastructure, skilled assistants, updated
knowledge about applications’ software and constructive changes in national curriculum for
teachers produce technological literate students in the field of technology (DeMars et al., 2003).
Teachers less efficient in technological concepts and operations have a negative effect on the
educational progress. These gaps need appropriate training and technological support focusing
on digital demands (Gibson et al., 2007).
Communication skills pose diversities of challenges for individuals. Illustration of
textbooks of physics for earth scientists mostly discuss huge ice glaciers and the vast bulk
of waves on the beach while many teachers actually considered highlands / mountains are
on the beach (Buckingham, 2007) which shows misconception. They neither communicate
properly nor collaborate effectively (Cradler et al., 2002). Communication and collaboration
refer to strong conceptual demonstration regarding technological perceptions, structures and
processes. Teachers have potential to comprehend, select, operate and transfer contemporary
technological applications for better production of future generation. Teachers’ learning about
communication and collaboration significantly affects societies, workplace and students’
academic achievements (Bybee & Starkweather, 2006). Communication and collaborative
skills are important competencies of teachers. They communicate clearly by speaking, writing
and nonverbal cues with efficient collaboration to students (Buckingham, 2007). Teachers make
proper usage of digital media for their effective communication and collaboration towards
effective teaching.
Digital citizenship has been given consideration due to the usage of digital tools among
individuals (Larson et al., 2010; Lau & Yuen, 2013). Digital citizenship is the change in attitudes
and values of citizens towards digital components (Bennett et al., 2009). Teachers promote
technological literacy among students focusing on harmless, permissible and answerable aspects
for their better achievements. Digital citizenship provides technological standard that enables
teachers to prepare students technologically literate (Anumudu et al., 2018; Hollandsworth et
al., 2011; Irum & Munshi, 2015; Larson et al., 2010; Lau & Yuen, 2013; Ribble, 2015; Williams
et al., 2012). Key elements of digital citizenship facilitate teachers to understand the mechanism
of technological literacy for students’ achievements (Cavanaugh et al., 2011; Donovan et al.,
2007; Mike & Gerald, 2007; Ribble, 2015).
Learning environment is one of the factors that strengthen learners’ logical potential
(Lombardozzi, 2015). Vibrant learning environment promotes students’ learning, makes
them critical thinkers and problem solvers. It also enhances students’ self-directed learning
towards goal achievement. Students enjoy flavor of constructive learning as compared to
teachers’ declarative instructions. Application of vibrant learning environment bestows
incredible opportunities in creating comprehensive, logical and thought-provoking abilities
among learners (Grisham & Wolsey, 2011; Moyle, 2010). Vibrant learning environment with
modern technological gadgets grasps students’ cognitive abilities, grants extra knowledge
acquisition and strengthens technological skills (Lombardozzi, 2015). Literature reported that
vibrant learning environment provides jam packed atmosphere for students in diversity of
ways; supports and fosters healthy relationship between learners and instructors (Pianta et al.,
2002), assists prospect for students’ frequent performance and self-motivated learning (Niemi,
2002), sustains students’ activity based and problem based learning (David, 2008), supports
students’ autonomous learning (Zimmerman, 1990), promotes students’ knowledge spot (Tinto,
1997), provokes learners’ appealing access towards goal attainment (Caroline et al., 2010) and
strengthens students’ active involvement and engagement (Edwards, 2012; Wannarka & Ruhl,
2008).

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738 Problem Statement
Teachers use their technological literacy skills in educational institutions to operate

digital tools that effect students’ learning in productive ways (Reid & Boyer, 2013; Ribble,
2015). Research evidence confirms that different developmental projects have been carried
out to promote technological literacy for teachers in educational institutions (Williams et al.,
2012). It is evident that Pakistani students enrolled in public and private universities are facing
problems of regularly shifting of cultural diversity, language dilemma, teachers’ technological
skills, weak media-structured classrooms, poor technological literacy knowledge and facing
poor vibrant learning environment (Gopang et al., 2016; Govt. of Pakistan, 2013; Hassan,
2019; Hassan & Akbar, 2016; Rahman, 2004; Saleem et al., 2019; Yousaf & Dahmani, 2008).
Furthermore, there is lack of policymakers’ cooperation, poor application of curriculum based
technological literacy skilled staff, less structuring of technological and physical facilities
and educational infrastructure (Ameen, 2007; Batool & Qureshi, 2007; Govt. of Pakistan,
2009). Resultantly, students remain incapable to cope with current age scientific management
and factory model-education system that demands the revisiting of school curriculum and
application of technological and engineering literacy and content-based activities to establish
successful education system. Application of technological education enables individuals to
eradicate poverty and gear up continuous societal, economic and educational development
through improving easy and busy lifestyle. It also shapes lives of individuals, flatters and makes
hub of technological knowledge. Govt. of Pakistan allocated billion rupees to Higher Education
Commission; HEC to flourish IT sector, announced IT policy in 2000, developed IT Action
Plan and implemented National Information and Communication Technology; NICT strategy
2003 to overcome these dilemmas but all in vain (Ameen, 2007; Batool & Qureshi, 2007),
implemented curriculum in educational institutions focusing this aspect but teachers are indulged
in dozens of problems, issues and challenges including lack of skilled staff, infrastructure and
resources. Human beings had been remaining in search of innovation to satisfy their needs.
These needs and wants only might be fulfilled by making human beings technologically
literate. States develop curriculum, invest billions of rupees, institutions arrange seminars and
organize conferences to flourish IT sector. Teaching problems is an alarming situation in favor
of spreading continuous usage of TEL in Pakistan. Dilemma is uncontrolled in Pakistan because
teachers working in universities less focus on the worth of IT sector. Teachers’ technological
literacy has an effect on their teaching, but still it needs to be explored and discussed especially
in public and private sector universities. Researchers conducted studies to explore the effect
of teachers’ technological literacy on students’ academic success but none of research was
planned in Pakistani universities to explore the phenomenon in vibrant learning environment
concentrating on technological and engineering literacy concepts. Focusing the worth of TEL,
researchers are eager to explore the effect of public and private university teachers’ TEL on
their students’ academic success. Ultimate purpose of this research was to compare male and
female teachers’ technological literacy of public and private sector universities working under
jurisdiction of HEC. Researchers try their best to explore the actual situations happening in
public and private sector universities of Lahore-Division, Punjab-province of Pakistan.
Research Questions
Present research was conducted to explore the answers of the following questions:
1. To what extent male and female university teachers working in public and private
universities make use of technological literacy for students’ academic success?
2. What is the effect of university teachers’ technological literacy on their students’
academic success?

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General Background
Research methodology deals with methods and procedures used in research to conquer
results. They are a systematic way followed by researchers used to the obtained results. Present
research was quantitative in nature and researchers applied causal comparative; ex-post-facto
research design to explore current practices happening in public and private sector universities
of district Lahore. Researchers used this design to determine cause and effect between already
existing independent and dependent variables (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009; Gay et al., 2014;
Lodico et al., 2006; Johnson & Christensen, 2012).
Population
Population of the research consisted of male and female teachers working in public and
private sector universities of Lahore Division, administratively divided in District Lahore,
Kasur and Sheikhupura (Pakistan District Education Rankings, 2016; Punjab Development
Statistics, 2015). Currently 1,789 faculty members; lecturers, assistant professors, associate
professors and professors are working in 14 public and 35 private universities of Lahore
Division. University teachers are providing their services with true spirit, essence and vigor
(Ameen, 2007; Hanif, 1999; Pakistan Education Statistics, 2018). Public sector universities are
funded by HEC whereas private sector universities are self-funded / self-supporting. Teachers
and students honored after obtaining admission / job in public sector universities as they provide
benefits to its stakeholders. Whereas, the situation in private universities is totally different as
they low pay, less job security and principal of autocracy is to some extent applicable.
Sample
Sample of the research consisted of 200 respondents; 88 male and 112 female teachers
conveniently selected from public and private universities working under Higher Education
Commission in District Lahore. Researchers gauge students’ academic success through
obtaining students’ achievement scores; SAS from concerned university departments ensuring
ethical consideration that their information will be used for research purpose only.

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740 Figure 1
Sample of teachers’ demographic information
Pakistani teachers working in public and private universities impart educational and
technological instructions among students to make them technological literate. Universities
hire teachers having minimum MS / M. Phil degree for the post of lecturers and PhDs for
assistant professors, associate and professors with set criteria of age limit and job status. These
criteria are applicable for public and private university teachers approved by Higher Education
Commission.
Instrumentation and Procedure
After the review of literature and experts’ views, the researchers used a self-developed
questionnaire to obtain data from the respondents. Questionnaire was categorized into three sub-
scales; technological concepts and operations, 12-items, communication and collaboration, 14-
items and digital citizenship consisted of 14-items based on 5-point Likert type options mode
of very skillful, skillful, moderate, weak, and very weak used in other studies (Judi et al., 2011).

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Self-constructed questionnaire is designed to be filled by respondents without researchers’ 741

interventions, focuses on respondents’ cultural variations, captures accurate information, easily
filters, screens and measures responders’ rate of responses, incorporates significant preventions
during typing and formatting errors and there is less chance of measuring inaccuracies. It also
focuses on format and flexibility of self-constructed questionnaires, low cost, covers anonymity
and bias of researchers and traceable assenters specially when the topic has sensitive nature and
cheapest methods of collecting unsusceptible’ information when researcher (s) comprehensively
understands respondents’ cognitive levels (Bifulco et al., 2005; Bird, 2009; Edwards, 2010;
Goodman, 1997; Kazi & Khalid, 2012; Lavrakas, 2008; Seebregts et al, 2010; Zouwen, 2000).
Researchers measured content validity and reliability of the questionnaire to enhance the
accuracy of the research work (Tavakol & Denick, 2011; Twycross & Shields, 2004). Validity
of the instrument was confirmed from experts’ opinions and used for correctness of items and
reliability measure of the consistency of scores (Field, 2005; Fraenkel et al., 2012).
Table 1
Reliability statistics
No. Name of factors Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
1 Technological concepts and operations .817 12
2 Communication and collaboration .834 14
3 Digital citizenship .849 14
Collected data were entered in SPSS to confirm normality. Researchers applied Shapiro-
Wilk’s test to confirm normality of data, p > .05, n < 2000. Bell shaped data are assumed to be
normally distributed when values of skewness and kurtosis ranged between +2 to +7 (Anumudu
et al., 2018; Ho & Yu, 2015).
Table 2
Tests of normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
No. Variables Skewness Kurtosis
K-S df p S-W df p
1 Gender .372 200 .01 .631 200 .90 1.48 -3.66
2 Age .290 200 .01 .761 200 .08 -2.20 4.52
3 Designation .234 200 .01 .866 200 .62 2.11 -5.04
4 Locality .382 200 .01 .627 200 .09 1.25 .4.50
5 Nature of job .420 200 .01 .601 200 .08 -2.30 -5.09
6 Qualification .229 200 .01 .806 200 .68 1.50 4.20
7 Experience .218 200 .01 .809 200 .69 -1.29 3.39
8 University type .364 200 .01 .633 200 .81 1.36 4.21
a. Lilliefors Significance correction

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742 Normally distributed data provide concrete directions by applying parametric and
non-parametric techniques on collected data (Corder & Foreman, 2009; Elliott & Woodward,
2007; Öztuna et al., 2006; Singh & Masuku, 2014). Analyzed data were auto correlated. Auto
correlated data is valuable as it informed possible harms and significant features regarding
manipulated variables within model formation (Cronk, 2012; Montgomery et al., 2012).
Research Results
Following section consist of data analysis and interpretation of results. There were
40-items modes of 5-point Likert type options. Data was analyzed in SPSS by applying
independent sample t-test and regressions analysis techniques.
Table 3
t-test on technological literacy by teachers’ gender and university type
No. Variables N M SD F t p
Female 112 147.938 17.014
1 Gender 2.68 2.61 .10
Male 88 154.807 20.143
Public 91 147.989 17.363

2 University type 1.74 2.07 .19
Private 109 153.440 19.519
As delineated in table 3, independent sample t-test was applied to usage teachers’

technological literacy by their gender, t(198) = 2.61, p > .01; male teachers have about same
usage of technological literacy (M = 154.807, SD = 20.143) as compared to female university
teachers (M = 147.938, SD = 17.014) and teachers’ university type, t(198) = 2.07, p > .01;
public sector university teachers have about same usage of technological literacy (M = 147.989,
SD = 17.363) as compared to private sector teachers (M = 153.440, SD = 19.519).
Table 4
T-test on factors of technological literacy by teachers’ gender and university type
No. Factors name Variables N M SD F t p

Technology concepts and Male 88 49.557 7.762
1 1.385 2.588 .241
operations
Female 112 46.929 6.593
Male 88 50.171 10.004
Teachers’ gender
Communication and
2 7.087 3.947 .008
collaboration Female 112 45.027 8.419
3 Digital citizenship Male 88 55.080 6.904 .513 0.985 .475

Female 112 55.982 6.037
Technology concepts and Public 91 47.297 7.040
4 .027 1.412 .869
operations Private 109 48.743 7.355
Communication and Public 91 44.967 8.064

5 8.992 3.242 .003
University type
collaboration Private 109 49.229 10.15
6 Digital citizenship Public 91 55.725 6.838 2.414 0.281 .122

Private 109 55.468 6.102

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As presented in Table 4, independent sample t-test was conducted to explore significant 743
difference between male and female university teachers’ usage of technological literacy
against factor regarding: technology concepts and operations, t(198) = 2.588, p > .01; male
university teachers possess same technology concepts and operations (M = 49.557, SD
= 7.762) as compared to female teachers (M = 46.929, SD = 6.593); significant difference
exists between communication and collaboration, t(198) = 3.947, p < .05; male teachers were
more communicators and collaborators (M = 50.171, SD = 10.004) as compared to female (M
= 45.027, SD = 8.419) and found no significant difference against factors regarding digital
citizenship, t(198) = .985, p > .05; male university teachers were making more usage of digital
citizenship (M = 55.080, SD = 6.904) as compared to female university teachers (M = 55.982,
SD = 6.037). Interpretation further ascertained no significant difference between public and
private university teachers’ usage of technology concepts and operations, t(198) = 1.412, p >
.01; public university teachers possess same technology concepts and operations (M = 47.297,
SD = 7.040) as compared to private university teachers (M = 48.743, SD = 7.355); significant
difference exists against factors on communication and collaboration, t(198) = 3.242, p <
.05; private university teachers were more communicators and collaborators (M = 49.229,
SD = 10.15) as compared to public university teachers (M = 44.229, SD = 8.064) and found
no significant difference against factors on digital citizenship, t(198) = .281, p > .05; public
university teachers were making more usage of digital citizenship (M = 55.725, SD = 6.838) as
compared to private university teachers (M = 55.468, SD = 6.102).
Figure 2
University teachers’ usage of TEL for students’ academic success
As delineated in Figure 2, descriptive statistics was applied to investigate university

teachers’ maximum usage of technological literacy for students’ academic success. Results
declared that university teachers were making more use of digital citizenship (M = 55.59, SD
= 6.43), then applying technological concepts and operations in classrooms (M = 48.09, SD =
7.23) and were making less use of communication and collaboration (M = 47.29, SD = 9.48) for
university students academic purpose for students’ effective learning.

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744 Table 5
Effect of teachers’ technological literacy on students’ academic success
No. Model B SE β t p
Constant; SAS 268.786 29.527 9.103 .01

1
Teachers’ technological literacy .613 .194 .218 3.158 .02
Note: R =.218 , R =.480; (F (1, 199) = 9.970, p < .02 )
a 2 a
As revealed in table 5, simple linear regression was applied to measure the effect
of teachers’ technological literacy on university students’ academic success that shows
construction of significant regression equation (F (1, 199) = 9.970, p < .01) having .480 value of
R2 with 48% explained variations were observed with standardized regression coefficient (β =
.218). Concerning outputs of regression coefficient, interpretation of independent sample t-test
exposes that teachers’ technological literacy was a significant predictor on university students’
academic success, t(198) = 3.158, p < .05. University students’ predicted academic successes
were equal to 268.786+.613 where teachers’ technological literacy was measured in terms of
their expertise. It is concluded that students’ academic success increased by .613 scores by
putting teachers’ technological literacy in classroom.
Table 6
Effect of factors regarding teachers’ technological literacy on students’ academic success
No Names of Variables B SE β t p
Constant; SAS 346.17 34.119 10.14 .01
1 Technological concepts and operations 1.123 .654 .017 .188 .85
2 Communication and collaboration 2.154 .515 .389 4.181 .01
3 Digital citizenship 1.455 .592 .178 2.459 .02

Note: R =.351 , R =.123, (F (3, 197) = 9.231, p < .05 )
a 2 a
As ascertained in Table 6, multiple linear regression technique was performed to explore

the effect of teachers’ technology concepts and operations, communication and collaboration
and digital citizenship on students’ achievement success. Interpretation confirms construction
of significant regression equation (F (3, 197) = 9.231, p < .01) having .123 value of R2 with
12.30% explained variations were observed with standardized regression coefficient in favor of
technological concepts and operations (β = .017), communication and collaboration (β = .389)
and digital citizenship (β = .178). Focusing the value of regression coefficient, explanation of
independent sample t-test established that teachers’ technology concepts and operations, t(198)
= .188, p > .05 was non-significant predictor, whereas communication and collaboration, t(198)
= 4.181, p < .01 and digital citizenship, t(198) = 2.459, p < .05 was significant predictor on
SAS. Students’ academic achievements were equal to 346.17+1.123+2.154+1.455 scores where
university teachers’ technology concepts and operations, communication and collaboration
and digital citizenship were calculated in account of their technological abilities applied in
classroom. It is concluded that students’ academic achievements were improved 4.732 scores
by putting teachers’ technological potential on students in classroom.

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Discussion 745
Humans are making continuous innovations using contemporary technologies in every

walk of life. Industrialization and information revolts have brought effective and immense
amendments in the universal civilization. Revolution of technological literacy innovation put
universe in jam packed environment which gives birth to creative destruction of skills. This
revolt opened new ways in creation of technological division which drives social, political,
educational and technological difference among non-users and users; teachers. It has collectively
influenced different aspects of human beings in all fields of life (Kozma, 2005). It has brought
individual sources of enlargement, administration and supervision all over the universe. Its
effects on every part of life especially in education are valuable and successful (Cradler et al.,
2002; Derbyshire, 2003). It is also important for the upcoming generations, national money-
making prosperity and even on the prolonged existence of earth. Traditional teaching is less
contribution in modern constructive educational environment to gain individual’s productive
outcomes. Educational institutions do not corporate usage of innovative devices and show poor
effects on future students learning outcomes (Nicola, 2001). Resultantly educational institutions
less incorporate their technologies for effective products. To overcome these deficiencies, states
demand technology literate persons. This technology transfers nation builders of the states
called teachers who penetrate technology in future generations and bring positive change in
innovative system of education. Teachers’ technological literacy enhances skills, thoughts,
interest towards subject matter and handles real life situations (Kent & Facer, 2004). Teachers’
technological literacy leads students towards effective success (Moore & Kearsley 1996;
Tondeur et al., 2007). Technological literacy in classroom learning activities facilitates the
understanding of socio-cultural issues (Tomei, 2008; Venezky, 2004).
Technological literacy has remained as an effective indicator in educational institutions.
Results of present research have ascertained that male and female teachers were making same
use of technological literacies t(198) = 2.61, p > .01 working in public and private universities
t(198) = 2.07, p > .01 that are congruent with the results of the research conducted by Norris et
al. (2003) which ascertained that usage of technological literacy has no effect on gender. Results
of present research contradict with the findings of the research planned by Volman and Van Eck,
(2001) which revealed that female teachers are less technologically literate, have limited access
on technologies, less skilled and show dispossessed attitudes as compared to male teachers.
However, findings of the research conducted by (Kay, 2006; Wozney et al., 2006) revealed
that male were more technologically literate as compared to female respondents which entirely
contradicts with the findings of present research. Moreover, Jamieson-Proctor et al. (2006)
framed quantitative research on sample of 929 teachers in Queensland State and declared that
female teachers are less technologically literate as compared to male ones that contradict with
the findings of present research. It is dire need to enhance the quality of technologically literate
persons to reduce gender differences in educational institutions (Ali et al., 2013). Results of
present research have established that male and female teachers’ technological literacy affects
48% on students’ academic success with construction of significant regression equation (F (1,
199) = 9.970, p < .01) which supports with the findings of the research framed by Mitchell
(2017) which revealed that teachers’ gender, socio-economic status and ethnicity have a
significant effect on students’ academic success in vibrant learning environment.
There is a debate that teachers’ technological literacy significantly effects on students’
academic achievements. Teachers’ technological literacy enhances students’ learning and
shapes the process of research (Giordano, 2007). Researchers conducted studies to explore the
effect of teachers’ TEL by gender, age, teaching experience, educational level, academic and
professional qualification on students’ academic success. Findings of present research revealed
that teachers’ technical literacy put 12.30% effect on students’ academic success with formation

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746 of significant regression equation (F (3, 197) = 9.231, p < .01) which supports with the results
of other studies (Hernández-Ramos, 2005; Mitchell, 2017; Wong & Li, 2008; Giordano, 2007).
Furthermore, results of present research contradict with the findings of research conducted
by Baek et al. (2008) that revealed weak relationship between teachers’ technological literacy
and students’ academic success (Zidon & Miller, 2002). Teachers having more teaching
experience are high technologically literate. Findings of the research conducted by Rose and
Maguire, (1990) on meta-analysis and review on 81 research studies revealed significant
effect of teachers’ technological literacy on students’ academic success. Less technologically
literate teachers feel worries, anxiety and tension. Less technologically literate teachers
possess low intentions towards technology, job security and lessen intention towards students’
academic achievements. New selected teachers have more expertise and grip on technological
knowledge that may lead to better students’ academic success (Ali et al., 2013). Teachers’
qualification effects on students’ academic achievements. Teachers with low qualification are
less technologically literate, have poor technological competencies and destructive approaches
towards technology (Veenhof & Cindy, 2006). Standardized constructed scales remain helpful
to measure public and private sector university teachers’ attitudes, usages and technological
literacies. These scales empirically provide current pictures of working teachers more / less
technologically literate competencies (Borghans & ter Weel, 2004). Findings of present
research have revealed that public and private university teachers are same in technological
competencies that significantly effects on students’ academic achievements, t(198) = 2.07, p
> .01. It is fact that higher education commission provides equal opportunities to public and
private sector universities. Universities are checked and balanced by higher education. Report
offered by National Centre on Adult Literacy, (2005) remarked that teachers holding higher
education degree were skilled in technologies. They were eager to use technologies for effective
communication, to save money and time and to achieve good results for future correspondence
(Ali et al., 2013). HEC is funded and well-established self-governing body by Government
of Pakistan having continuous check and balance on public and private universities. It sets
criteria, implements rules and regulations, scheme of studies and resolves university conflicts
(Ameen, 2007; Batool & Qureshi, 2007). Quality is a key slogan of HEC that has already been
discussed in the meeting of developing and developed Asian countries on faculty improvement,
conduction research, curriculum improvement and application of standards of technological
and engineering literacy (Ameen, 2007; Batool & Qureshi, 2007; Haider & Mehmood, 2007;
Mikiko, 2006; Satija, 2006).
Conclusions
Endeavor of countrywide development and success depends on implementations

of technology education to young generations. States focused to arrange digital devices
in educational institutions. To achieve this target, revolt steps have been adopted for the
progressiveness and encouragement of the standard of education with the help of technology.
This technology put comprehensive collisions in the field of education sector. It furnishes
occasion for the teachers to take advantages from the current technology in their educational
path. It facilitates teachers to decide the place of work where they argue their educational
matters and discuss different topics. Historically speaking, Pakistan is lacking in the field of
technology since last decades. Government of Pakistan is taking revolutionary steps to fill the
deficiency of technologically literate persons. Policies are going to be changed, curriculum
is up-to-dated and new teachers are hired to make students’ technologically and engineering
literate. Keeping in view this research was conducted to explore the effect of teachers’ literacy
on students’ academic success. Findings of present research revealed that male and female
university teachers of public and private universities were same in their technological literacy.

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Teachers who were more experienced were same technology experienced as new appointed 747
were. They make continuous users of technological literacy whereas more experienced teachers
remain passive in technology literacy. Overall research concludes that university teachers were
deficit 52% in technological and engineering literacy skills, whereas in technological concepts
and operations, communication and collaboration and digital citizenship 87.70% less skilled.
It is one of the factors that universities were lacking operating computer labs with digital
devices, latest hardware and software attracting students towards their use with vibrant learning
environment that significantly affects students’ academic success. The reason behind this is
HEC of Pakistan which provides funds to enhance the quality of education in universities. Both
universities have same selection criteria and provide equal physical facilities to make teachers
and students technologically literate. On the basis of results, research recommends proper
training, inclusion of training based on pedagogical aspects of teachers used in educational
institutions focusing new educational reforms on technological literacy, teaching and learning
workplace environment and transformation of teachers’ positive attitudes towards students’
better academic success.
Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to all respondents for their timely response and sincere cooperation
during completion of the research article. It was due to their sincere and volunteer participation
that this manuscript was completed.
List of Abbreviations
AAS Academic Achievement Scores

ALA American Library Association
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
EFA Education for All
HEC Higher Education Commission
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
IT Information Technology
ITEA International Technology Education Association
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NGSS Next Generating Science Standards
NICT National Information and Communication Technology
SAA Students’ Academic Achievement
SAAS Students’ Academic Achievement Scores
TEL Technological and Engineering Literacy
WSIS World Submit on the Information Society
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Received: March 25, 2020 Accepted: September 08, 2020
Cite as: Hassan, M. Ul., & Akbar, R. A. (2020). Technological literacy: Teachers’ progressive
approach used for 21st century students’ academic success in vibrant environment. Problems
of Education in the 21st Century, 78(5), 734-753. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.734
PhD, Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54000
Mehboob Ul Hassan
Punjab, Pakistan.
(Corresponding author)
E-mail: hassanbhattig@hotmail.com
PhD, Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, Lahore, 54000
Rafaqat Ali Akbar Punjab, Pakistan.
E-mail: rafaqat.ier@pu.edu.pk

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754
AN EXAMINATION OF SYRIAN STUDENTS’
EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES AT SCHOOL
FROM THE REFLECTIONS OF TEACHERS
Nermin Karabacak
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey
E-mail: nermin.karabacak@erdogan.edu.tr
Abstract
Education is the most effective tool for enabling immigrants’ integration into the country they live in. The
aim of this research is to determine teachers’ views related to the education of Syrian students attending
state schools. By presenting them through the experiences of their teachers, this paper deals with how
the educational experiences at school of Syrian children of school age are shaped in state schools. The
research is planned with a qualitative approach as a case study design. The participants of the research
were 34 teachers working in state schools and having Syrian students in their classes. The research data
were collected via focus group interviews and semi-structured interviews in Rize, Turkey between the
years 2017-2019. The data in the focus group and semi-structured interviews were supported by means
of observations. The research findings reveal that the biggest problem in teachers’ opinions was the
language problem and the communication and academic barriers resulting from this, that Syrian students
suffered from depression and trauma because of war and migration, that they had a feeling of loneliness,
and that nevertheless, they were happy at school. Therefore, this research reveals that teachers working
with Syrian students are in need of vocational training and development consolidation in order to provide
academic and psychological support for these students. Successfully addressing the educational needs
of Syrian students in school will be especially beneficial for enabling Syrian children’s integration into
society.
Keywords: education experience, qualitative research, Syrian students, teacher reflection, Turkey
Introduction
According to the data of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, in 2015,
65.3 million people were forcibly displaced from their living areas. These statistics represent
the highest numbers of displaced persons recorded in world history since the Second World War.
In 2011, a global refugee crisis occurred due to the war in Syria. Over 50% of the population
abandoned their homes, and 4.8 million Syrians were forced to migrate to foreign countries. In
this context, the world was faced with its greatest migration problem. Between 2011 and the
present, over 470,000 Syrians have died, and the rate of absence from school has reached 42.5%
(Syrian Centre for Policy Research, 2016). At the same time as Turkey, with which Syria shares
its longest border, neighbouring countries like Lebanon and Jordan were inundated with Syrian
refugees seeking safety. The number of refugees in Lebanon constitutes over one-third of the
total Lebanese population (UNHCR, 2016). The statistics reveal that 57% of Syrians forced
to migrate to other countries since 2011 are living in 10 countries. Among these countries, the
Republic of Turkey is top of the list. A total of 3,609,884 Syrian refugees are located in Turkey
(GİGM, 2020). 1,662,753 of these are Syrian children. Researchers assert that in future years,
other Syrians may also migrate to Turkey and that 80% of Syrians currently in Turkey will
remain permanently (Aras & Yasun, 2016; Beltekin, 2016).

Nermin KARABACAK. An examination of Syrian students’ educational experiences at school from the reflections of teachers
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Displacement from the areas where they live results in dispersed family structures and 755
interrupted education among refugees and asylum seekers. Although a great deal of value is
placed on education in Turkey, difficulties are experienced in the education of Syrian students due
to both the structure of the Turkish education system and of Syrian families (Çelik & İçduygu,
2018; Toker-Gökçe & Acar, 2018; Şahin & Sümer, 2018; Tumen, 2019). However, education
is a human right. The conducted studies reveal that asylum seekers and refugees generally have
problems in accessing education in a new country. For example, while 50% of refugee children
are registered at primary school and 22% are registered at secondary school, only 1% of young
adult refugees have gone to university (UNESCO, 2016). However, it is known that only 21.8%
of Syrian children in Turkey receive education and attend state schools. In this context, the
great majority of Syrian migrants have no access to formal education (UNHCR, 2015). Due
to lack of success at school by Syrian students based on the teacher’s sharing with the class in
Turkish, the increase in abandonment of school at later stages of education results in problems
of integration of Syrian children into the education system. For this reason, the great majority
of Syrian children remain outside the education system in Turkey. Considering also the data not
reflected in statistics, it can be said that at least 700-800 thousand children are affected by this
situation and belong to the “lost generations”.
Research Problem
Education of Syrian Refugee Students
In Turkey, over 600,000 Syrian children are given free education by the state from
preschool to upper-secondary school. These children receive education within the scope of
the Ministry of National Education (MoNE), 1) in state schools that provide formal education,
and 2) in Temporary Education Centres (although these are state schools, they have a different
status). Syrian children who live in border provinces and large cities in Turkey receive language
training for a certain period before being introduced to the school education programmes. These
children of school age enter whichever class is necessary regarding physical development and
are placed in that class without being provided with an orientation programme. This situation
can cause problems in the education process for children from both cultures, and deficiencies
emerge with regard to teacher competences and education programmes. At the same time, the
principals, teachers and school counsellors of the schools where these children are educated have
not received preservice or in-service training aimed at Syrian students. School staff members
(teachers, school principals and school counsellors) are not equipped to provide guidance in the
necessary knowledge and skills to Syrian students who are under their temporary care at school
and in class. Since teachers, school principals and school counsellors are not equipped with this
professional knowledge and these skills, it is revealed in the related literature that students in
this group have very weak commitment to school (Akar-Vural et al., 2018; Güngör & Şenel,
2018). Lack of achievement at school by children in this group may be due to various reasons
such as financial difficulty, inadequate support, insufficient language skills, and inability to
adapt to the foreign society where they live (Hebbani et al., 2012).
Between 2011 and the present, no multidimensional studies have been conducted in
Turkey with the aim of determining the educational needs of Syrian children, revealing their
educational goals and trends, or enabling their integration into the education system. Problems
are experienced in different dimensions in the process of adaptation of Syrian children to the
education system. Syrian students, who learn Turkish as a second language at school, are taken
into the same education system as Turkish students without their educational needs or Turkish
language levels being determined. It is revealed that lack of inclusion of special implementations
for Syrian students in the teaching programme results in failure of these students to use Turkish

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756 effectively. Despite all the efforts of the MoNE, Syrian students have innumerable difficulties
in accessing education and that prevent them from going to school. It is not known at present
how many students participate in non-formal education, either. As is revealed in the related
literature (Akar-Vural et al., 2018; Aykırı, 2017; Bulut et al., 2018; Erdem, 2017; Kuzu-Jafaria
et al., 2018), the language problem is the biggest problem experienced by Syrian students.
Besides language deficiency, the others are lack of communication, the standardised Turkish
curriculum, either failing to attend school or being unsuccessful at school, and discriminatory
barriers such as physical and psychological violence, maltreatment, bullying and stigmatisation.
It is revealed in the field literature that the main factor in experiencing common problems is
the fact that Syrian children and their families do not know Turkish and that consequently, they
have communication problems. These problems are seen in the province of Rize, just as they
are similarly seen in other provinces of Turkey.
A proportion of the Syrian immigrants flooding into Turkey have been settled by the
Government of the Republic of Turkey in Rize. According to official data obtained from Rize
Provincial Immigration Authority, 157 Syrian families live in Rize. 300 Syrian children receive
education in Rize. Although a certain number of immigrant families live in Rize, no systematic
research has been carried out for these families and for their children’s education in terms
of their adaptation to school and the environment, either by Rize Provincial Directorate of
National Education or by non-governmental organisations. Syrian students in Rize begin their
school education directly. Syrian students encounter various problems in this practice regarding
adaptation to school and based on language learning.
Research Focus
The aim of this research was to determine the barriers faced by Syrian students in their
education via the experiences of their teachers and to enable these teachers to better understand
the educational needs of Syrian students. The research can help us to better understand how
teachers who have Syrian students in their class make personal efforts and deal with the
difficulties they face. The contribution of the research to the education literature is to fill a
gap in the field by discussing the problems experienced by Syrian students in the context of
their teachers’ experiences. Although some studies have examined the problems experienced
by Syrian students in class, in this research, an examination of Syrian students’ educational
experiences at school is presented holistically from the reflections of teachers.
The aim of this research was to present an examination of the educational experiences of
Syrian children at school from the reflections of teachers.
In line with this general aim, answers were sought to the following questions:
1. What are the economic profiles of Syrian students?

2. How competent are Syrian students in the Turkish language?
3. Are Syrian students happy at school?
4. What kind of problems related to education are experienced by Syrian students? How
are solutions to these problems implemented?
5. Do Syrian parents provide sufficient support for their children’s education?
6. What can be done to provide more support for these children and their families?

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Design
This research was planned with a case study design in the qualitative paradigm. Case
studies are studies aiming to investigate, describe and reveal current situations that exist in
real life (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In the case study, which was carried out as a field study, for
strengthening of Syrian students’ educational experiences at school with teachers’ reflections,
the study was enriched in depth with focus group interviews, semi-structured interviews and
observations (Merriam, 2007; Yin, 2009). In this context, the research is one in which the
research data were reinforced by using different methods in the qualitative paradigm at the
same time (Chmiliar, 2010). To be able to achieve this aim of the research, a holistic case study
design was used (Yin, 2009). The holistic case study design is a type of case study in which
a single unit of analysis (an individual, an institution, a group, an environment, a problem,
etc.) is investigated, and which is used to reveal how factors (environment, individuals, events,
problems, processes, etc.) related to certain situations affect the relevant case, and are affected by
the relevant case, holistically in one piece (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Merriam, 2007; Yin, 2009).
Participants

3 primary, 3 lower-secondary and 3 upper-secondary schools, which are state schools
in Rize with low, medium and high socio-economic levels (SEL) and are attended by Syrian
students, were determined by the researcher with official permission as schools in which
the research was to be conducted. In the field research, in the context of the socio-economic
variable of these schools, attention was paid to their location in the city centre, district and
countryside in order to achieve the best result. The research group was determined with the
criterion sampling type of purposive sampling method. In the schools specified for the sampling
group, the participants of the research were determined as teachers with different seniorities
and of different subjects, who had Syrian students in their classes, at primary, lower-secondary
and upper-secondary schools affiliated to Rize Provincial Directorate of National Education in
the 2017-2019 academic years. The teachers participated in the research voluntarily. 12 of the
participants were male and 22 were female, making up a total of 34 teachers. 12 of the teachers
were primary school teachers, 11 taught in lower-secondary schools and 11 worked in upper-
secondary schools. The youngest teacher was 23, while the eldest was 59. The participants’
professional experience was as follows: 12 teachers with 0-5 years, 10 teachers with 6-10 years,
19 teachers with 11-15 years, 2 teachers with 16-20 years, and 1 teacher with 31-35 years of
experience. Only 6 teachers had received in-service training related to education of immigrant
students. Considering the high number of immigrants and Syrian students in Rize, this number
is very low. The characteristics of the participants in this research are shown in detail in Table 1.

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758 Table 1
Demographic profile of the participants
Lower Upper
Demographic data Primary
Secondary Secondary
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Low 4 4 4
Medium 4 4 4
SEL
High 4 3 3
Male 8 6 3
Gender
Female 4 5 8
23-27 2 3 2
28-32 4 5 3
33-37 4 2 6
Age
38-42 1
43-47 1
59 years and above 1
0-5 years 4 6 3
6-10 years 2 4 4
Professional Experience 11-15 years 4 1 4
16-20 years 1
31-35 years and above 1
Countryside 4 4 3
Location of School District 4 4 4
City centre 4 3 4
Status of Participation in In-Service Training attended 2 2 2

Training Related to Education of
Immigrants No training attended 10 9 9
When the teaching experiences of the participants were analysed, it was seen that they
had generally worked in rural areas in the first years of teaching. In terms of the schools’ socio-
economic status, the profiles of the principals were that they had qualities of cooperation, and
transformational and participatory leadership and supportiveness were important for their
teachers in the work that they did, whereas student and parent profiles varied in terms of low,
medium and high socio-economic level. In schools with low and medium socio-economic levels,
parents were seen to lack interest and not to support teacher-student participation activities.
The research was carried out in schools that have low, medium and high socio-economic
levels and are attended by Syrian students. Data were gathered by taking 1st, 2nd, 3rd and
4th grade classroom teachers in primary schools and teachers from different branches in
lower-secondary and upper-secondary schools, who had Syrian students in their classes, as
the criteria. The data in the field research were collected by the researcher via 1) focus group
interviews, 2) semi-structured interviews and 3) participatory observations. The interview was

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the main data collection method. The research steps followed for the focus group interviews, 759
semi-structured interviews and observation form were: (1) an in-depth examination of the field
literature, (2) implementation of a pilot interview each with a teacher working in the primary,
lower-secondary and upper-secondary school classes in which there were Syrian students, and
(3) deciding on the final form of the prepared focus group interview/semi-structured interview/
observation form by obtaining expert opinions.
The interviews and observations were carried out in order to examine the educational
experiences of Syrian students at school via teacher reflections in a way that would best
reveal them. Semi-structured interview questions prepared by the researcher were used for the
interviews. The same interview questions were used in the focus group interviews and the semi-
structured interviews (see Appendix A). Interviews were held with the teachers face to face.
First, the focus group interviews and then the semi-structured interviews were held. In the focus
group interviews, while the school perception and school experiences of Syrian students were
focused on with the contributions of the teachers, variation of the data was enabled by comparing
Syrian students in different classes and different subjects. Three focus group interviews were
conducted according to school level. The first interview was held in primary school, the second
in lower-secondary school and the third in upper-secondary school. The focus group interviews
and semi-structured interviews were recorded with a sound recording device and supported by
notetaking. The data collection was carried out in the relevant schools in the centre, districts
and villages of Rize in the months of September and May in the 2017-2019 academic years.
The focus group interviews lasted for 75-90 minutes, while the semi-structured interviews took
35-55 minutes, and with regard to the most suitable time period and environment, they were
held in the teachers’ room after school hours. The interviews were based on the principle of
voluntariness.
In the observations, the communication and behaviours of Syrian students with Turkish
students and Syrian students inside and outside the classroom were examined. To prevent a
biased situation from occurring in the student group being observed, the observation studies
were supported only by means of notetaking. The researcher had the role of participant observer
during the observations. In this type of observation, the researcher is an information gatherer
rather than a participant of the group (Merriam, 2007). The observation records were made by
the researcher using an observation form (see Appendix B). The observations were carried out
in line with the aim of the research and the theoretical framework. Following the observations,
the notes taken by the researcher were expanded and transferred to a computer environment.
Data Analysis

During the data analysis, the observations were carried out by creating the observation
form based on the findings obtained in the focus group interviews and semi-structured
interviews. Triangulation of the data was made by combining the data obtained in the focus
group interviews, semi-structured interviews and observations. For transferring the data, the
sound recordings were loaded into the NVivo 12 program for computer-supported qualitative
data analysis. The sound files obtained were converted into written format in the form of raw
data. Following the data transfer, the data analysis operation was begun. The data analyses were
performed by means of the content analysis type of qualitative data analysis technique. With the
aim of revealing the concepts underlying the data and the relationships between these concepts,
inductive content analysis was used. The analysis of the data was performed using Marshall and
Rossman’s (2016) seven-stage content analysis steps. These process steps are 1) transferring the
gathered data into writing, 2) arranging the data, 3) creating the themes and subthemes, 4) coding
the data, 5) revealing the mutual relationships between the themes obtained from the data, 6) for
arranging and defining the data and interpreting the findings according to the codes and themes,

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760 describing the themes by evaluating alternative explanations and negative situations in the data
(Maykut & Morehouse, 1994), and 7) interpreting and reporting the findings.
The research questions, field notes, interview transcripts and observation notes were read
three times by the researcher (Flick, 2009). For the content analysis based on the transcription
of the focus group and semi-structured interviews, coding was done according to the concepts
extracted from the obtained data. A table of codes was created for focusing on the group
discussions in the main themes (Maxwell, 2013). The coded raw data were analysed by listing
them according to the themes and subthemes (Saldana, 2012). After these operations, the initial
themes and subthemes were created. With the inductive analysis, the codes were generated
directly from the data, and according to this framework, the data analysis framework was
determined based on the themes under which the data would be presented, the related field
literature, the aim of the research and the dimensions included in the interviews. After the data
were grouped according to the research findings, the views of three specialists were obtained
and the data were reduced to the codes in the data set (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Next, the
themes were generated (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Relationally with the themes, the observational
data were reported to in order check the relationship between the Syrian students’ behaviours
inside and outside the classroom. Differences of opinion between the researcher and specialists
were revealed in the coding, and consensus was achieved by compromise. Finally, the findings
were compiled and synthesised.
With the aim of achieving validity of the research, a comprehensive review of the
related literature was made. With the data obtained from there, the theoretical framework of the
research was created. In the qualitative studies, by using interviews and observations together,
data triangulation was enabled by confirmation of the obtained data with more than one method.
In this context, by using qualitative methods, estimations for the future were made with the data
collection and analysis and integration of the findings. By using data gathered with different
methods that support one another, the credibility of results is strengthened. A detailed and
advanced analysis can be presented by accessing richer details. For this reason, the observation
method was included to support the focus group and semi-structured interviews conducted
with the teachers. The data collection and sound transcription were realised by the researcher.
Following the sound transcription, the transcript records and sound recordings were listened to
again to check them. Great care was taken to ensure that the meanings of the direct quotes and
the perceptions they reflected were accurately represented (Oliver, 2005). These efforts that
were made represent the validity and reliability applications.
Research Results
In this research, in which Syrian students’ educational experiences at school were

examined from the reflections of their teachers, the teachers who were interviewed shared their
own experiences frankly and consistently. On the other hand, due to their concerns about Syrian
students’ cultural integration, the teachers tended to be cautious. The findings obtained from the
interviews held with the teachers and from the data in the researcher’s observations in an out
of class were subjected to content analysis. In this research, in which the experiences reflected
by the teachers in the interviews and the observation analyses were examined, the main themes
of 1) barriers faced by Syrian students in education (see Figure 1), and 2) solution suggestions
for improving the quality of Syrian students’ school life (see Figure 2) were determined. In
this section, the findings obtained based on the data collected during the research are presented
thematically in order and in depth.

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Barriers Faced by Syrian Students in Education 761
Figure 1
Theme of barriers faced by Syrian students in education
From the teachers’ reflections, one of the behavioural barriers faced by Syrian students
in education was alienation due to being subjected to discrimination in an intolerant way by
teachers and students. Besides these behavioural barriers, social stigmatisation, especially by
students, led to problems of discord and distrust, which could result in problems like loneliness,
isolation, trauma and depression in this student group. These behavioural barriers seen in
Syrian students were revealed in detail in conducted studies, and although it was shown that
these were experienced in most cities and schools in Turkey, it can be said that this situation
was experienced the least in Rize. Stigmatisation of Syrian students was reduced to a minimum
in rural settlements of Rize in particular. One village teacher’s striking view in this regard is as
follows:
As a school, we have not had any problems. From the first day that the Syrian students came to
school, we asked our students how they would expect to be welcomed if they went to Syria and
told them to welcome the new students in the same way. We instilled that spirit in the children by
placing feelings of hospitality to the fore. We also instilled a spirit of living in this country without
feeling hatred in both the Syrian students and the Turks. P25.
One behavioural barrier created by Syrian students was that of regarding their language
as superior and rejecting the language of the country within the area where they lived.
One teacher’s view: The fact that some Syrian families do not want their children to learn Turkish
prevents students from showing the necessary interest… P7.
The number of Syrian students, who were forced to immigrate because of the war, who
had lost someone close during the war was very high. These findings are an important piece
of data regarding ability to efficiently assess problems in psycho-social development such as
loneliness-isolation, trauma and depression in Syrian children.
Many of our students who were born in Syria, not in Turkey, have experienced losses in their
families. Most of the little ones have not seen war, but there are very many whose families have
experienced losses. Especially children at young ages succeed in being happy despite difficult
conditions, at a rate of 60%. P7.

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762 If you ask me, they are as happy as they can be. Some of them are happy even though they have
financial problems, have lost several members of their families, or have suffered the trauma of
war. P18.
Another behavioural barrier reflected by Syrian students was missing their country.
Longing for their country was reflected as a behavioural barrier by teachers making up the
participant group of this research, and was seen not in children of young ages or those born in
Turkey, but in children of a certain age who had migrated from Syria. Two striking views in
this regard:
As far as I can understand from conversations with my student, he feels lonely. He has not yet
established close relations at school, and he says that rather than unhappiness, a feeling of
loneliness is dominant and that he misses his country. P13.
…However bad the place they have come from is, they feel a longing for their homeland. P10.
Behavioural barriers faced by the Syrian students have become a determiner of their
holding on to life and also their happiness. Although the great majority of the teachers regarded
these children as happy despite all the problems they faced, a limited number of participants
painted a picture of unhappiness. Reasons for these children’s unhappiness were not only the
problems they faced at school and in class, but were also because of psychological breakdown
and trauma due to losses in their families, losing a very close member of the family (such as a
mother, father, sister or brother), problems of family lifestyle due to types of culture and belief,
gender discrimination between boys and girls, uncared for and unloved children in crowded
families due to polygamy in the family, and violence at home. Below are some striking views
of teachers regarding this:
They make an effort to be happy. There are those who think that they should be happy because at
least they are alive. P17.
I think they are happy, although there are those who do not like the conditions in Turkey and
dream of going to Europe. P19.
They can be happy with very small things. A little pen, some chocolate or, though old, an item of
clothing, is enough to make them happy. P1.
I think they are happy to some extent because they come to school. There are many children who
have lost someone in the family…They are in great need of affection. The family does not show
affection. In my opinion, it is school that tempers this bad situation. We do what we can for them
to be happy even for a short time. P2.
In negative teacher experiences, Syrian students were described as unhappy. Teachers’

statements transferred from observation data:
I do not think they are happy since they are far away from their parents. One child still aged 15 is
trying to survive only with his elder brother beside his relatives in this country. P12.
I believe that these children are lonely. They seem not to have any friends. They speak to the
others in class, but it’s not enough. P14.
Academic Barriers
With the consensus of all the teachers, the most important of the academic barriers faced
by Syrian students in education was the language barrier. Again, it was stated by all the teachers
that Syrian children learned Turkish at home if they had an elder brother or sister and their elder

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sibling was attending school, otherwise they learned it at school. It is at school where Syrian 763
children best learn the language of the country where they live. If the language learnt at school
is not approved or reinforced at home by the family, various problems in learning the language
may result. For this reason, problems are experienced, especially in reading comprehension,
writing and self-expression. The teachers were in agreement in stating that Syrian children
learned Turkish quickly but that if there were Syrian students especially in class and at school,
they would group together and display behaviour towards not using the language. In order to
overcome these problems of the students, the teachers would set aside extra time and give them
special attention. All the teachers stated that due to lack of language learning, Syrian students
had communication and academic barriers before them. Since deficiencies in language learning
were not overcome, lack of academic success also increased. Below are some striking views of
teachers on this subject:
They learn Turkish very quickly in about 5-6 months. They can express themselves in Turkish,
can understand what they read, and can write. When there is more than one Syrian, Afghan, etc.
student in the class, they speak their mother tongue amongst themselves, which slows down their
learning of Turkish. P26.
Since they have not completely mastered the language, their success is reduced because they
cannot fully read, understand or express themselves. P12.
They are below the level of their peers in reading and writing. I make them read a lot of books and
do lots of writing exercises. P13.
They may have problems with reading, writing and understanding Turkish. They understand the
numerical and foreign language lessons better. They have difficulty with comprehension in the
cultural lessons. P11.
It is very difficult to teach subjects like literature, geography, history and mathematics in Turkish
to someone who does not know our language. P1.
Academic barriers faced by Syrian students included having no academic plans due to
lack of importance given to education by their families, having an interrupted education, failure
of families to satisfy material needs, problems with attendance, disobeying class and school
rules, lack of academic preparation, differences in levels in class, lack of interest in lessons, not
following or focusing on lessons, low motivation problems, disputes and discord with friends
in class and school, and aggressiveness. Here are some striking views of teachers in this regard:
Syrian students are really complacent. They have no goals related to learning. They behave as if
they are not in class. They do not make an effort to learn. This sends an incorrect message to the
other students… P12.
They come to school without the necessary equipment or materials. P31.
Since they do not comply with school times or lesson times, they may have certain behavioural
problems, such as not being open to criticism, quick-temperedness, lack of focus on lessons, and
short attention span. P26.
There is an attendance problem at school. Since they do not attend regularly, the compliance
problems that they have are also reflected in their behaviour, unfortunately, such as wishing to
leave school without permission, not wishing to play with their Turkish friends, and not wanting
to obey the rules taught at school. They do not listen to the lesson and disrupt the lesson. P34.

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764 There are differences in their levels. It takes up a lot of my time, but I give those students homework
that suits their level. P5.
They behave aggressively. When they hit each other, they say they are playing.P2.
They display behaviour such as peevishness, sudden loss of temper, meaningless shouting, acting
as a law unto themselves, continually crying, etc. P29.
The Syrian students can be excluded by the groups, and consequently may feel lonely. To assert
themselves, they may display behaviour such as fighting and attention-grabbing speech and
actions. P30.
Despite these problems related to academic barriers experienced by Syrian students, a

rather limited number of teachers painted a picture of success for students who participated
continuously in education.
Syrian students who attend regularly can make the necessary gains at class level just like our
Turkish students. We have Syrian students who take part and achieve high ranks in competitions
organised on certain days or in certain weeks at school and provincial level. The biggest problem
that we have is the Syrian students who do not attend regularly. P16.
The teachers stated that Syrian families preferred educational institutions based on
their culture and beliefs and that in this context, they displayed an attitude of seeming to
give secondary importance to the education provided by state schools. These findings are an
important piece of data in terms of being able to assess Syrian students’ attendance at state
schools and their continuous education. Particularly striking views of two teachers were:
They attend Koran courses. They learn the Koran at home by heart. Having two different types
of education at the same time is hard for a child. State school falls behind. Their own preferences
are given more importance. There is a need of incentives to send their preferences below our
preferences. P5.
Since their preferences are Koran courses, school does not go beyond being just a different
environment. The prerequisite is to learn Turkish, and parents must be made to accept the
importance of children’s regular attendance at school, albeit forcibly. Clear and certain sanctions
are necessary with regard to attendance at school. Children should be instilled with a perception
of their future lives other than Koran courses. P18.
Socio-Cultural Barriers
Among the socio-cultural barriers faced by Syrian students in education were teacher
acceptance, teacher rejection, adaptation problems, peer acceptance/rejection, cultural
differences, ethnic roots, and gender inequality. Among these socio-cultural barriers, while
acceptance of Syrian students by their teachers was generally positive, a negative attitude and
rejection of these students was observed in a limited number of teachers. The latter situation
was an upsetting one both for teachers and for students. Generally, while Syrian students were
accepted by their peers and embraced by Turkish students in schools in small settlement areas
of Rize, they may have suffered rejection due to their ethnic roots in crowded schools in the city
centre. Views of teachers related to this:
Their language is different, their lifestyle is different, their understanding of hygiene is different.
P2_P4_P6_P27.

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They have difficulty forming friendships. I sometimes observed that nationality conflicts occurred. 765
P23.
The Turkish students sometimes offend the children with behaviours like shouting “You’re Syrian!
Get away from us!” and this makes them more introverted. The Syrian children lay claim to the
country and the place where they live. Y18.
Below are striking views related to gender inequality stemming from Syrian students’ own
culture:
Even if the boys are in different classes, in the breaks, they play amongst themselves. There is a
serious trend towards violence against each other in the boys. They can sometimes be alienated
by other students. I can understand this while they are playing. P1.
The girls in particular are not shown affection; girls are ignored, while boys are at the forefront.
Therefore, most of the girls are shy, while the boys are very naughty. P7.
While I’m teaching with songs, the idea in their culture that listening to music is a sin can sweep
children completely into a world outside the lesson. Most of the time, they cover their ears. P19.
They don’t join in mixed activities. When girls and boys are playing together, holding each other’s
hands makes them show a very negative reaction. P25.
In the integration of Syrian students into the society where they live, the teacher is the
key person. Teachers must be open to multi-cultural education and in terms of ethics, must
behave equally towards all students. While acceptance of Syrian students by their teachers was
generally positive, it was concluded that a limited number of teachers had a negative attitude
towards them. Some striking views about rejection of Syrian students by teachers having a
negative attitude were as follows:
They do not show respect for the national values of the country they live in. The most common
behavioural problem I encounter is dishonesty. P4.
We began our task with prejudices. I had bad impressions regarding ethics and hygiene. P3.
…My most important impression was the thought that they would debase our country. P2.
In contrast with these negative views, there were many teachers who had a positive attitude
towards Syrian students. Views of two teachers:
Syrian students must not be alienated. We should be inclusive. I want them to have good memories
of us. P20.
It seems that it will be difficult for the Syrians to leave Turkey, and so, to prevent them from
debasing our culture, I cannot deny them as much education and effort as is possible. P31
Family Barriers
The most important of the family barriers faced by Syrian students in education was
inadequate family participation due to economic difficulties. A picture was painted by the
participating teachers of a parent profile in which, generally, they had a lot of children despite
living and not having a job in another country, were not economically well off, and worked in
day-to-day, temporary jobs that they found. Since their economic situation was not good, they
generally preferred ghettos and rural settlements as places to live. Families whose economic

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766 situation was good and who worked in regular paid employment, however, preferred to live in
the city centre, and paid the necessary attention to their children’s education by sending them
to schools with high socio-economic status. The fact that almost all Syrian families had a large
number of children was a very striking situation. Most of the teachers reported that due to the
large number of children, parents showed little interest in their children and used violence
towards them, and school-family cooperation could not be established. Again, it was depicted
that the greatest obstacle to communication was language, and that even if they learned and
knew Turkish, they struggled to speak. Striking views related to family barriers:
They are mostly people who do day-to-day jobs and live in ghettos. P1.
Since they have too many children, most of them are not interested in their children and use
corporal punishment to teach them. P2.
They have trouble making ends meet, and their children’s education is not important for them.
That’s what I think. I cannot understand why they continually have children even though they
struggle to get by. Since families have a lot of children, they remain very indifferent towards them.
Their homes are very small. The children cannot move around as they wish, and so they cannot
expend their energy. P6.
Since there is education with corporal punishment among the Arabs, they inflict a lot of beatings
and have very little understanding of affection. P7.
Most of the families do not even visit the school; they take no interest in their children. Because
we cannot reach the families, we do not have the chance to cooperate with them. Some parents do
not want their children to learn Turkish. P4.
We cannot communicate with the families because of the language problem. P1.
However, families with high educational and socio-economic levels drew a positive
profile. One view:
The Syrian parent profile is close to the Turkish parent profile. If parents are educated and
interested, their students are precious for them. However difficult conditions are, they try to do
something for their children. However, if the parents are uneducated, they do not take an interest
in students just like Turkish parents. P7.

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Solution Suggestions for Improving the Quality of 767

Syrian Students’ School Life
Figure 2
Theme of solution suggestions for improving the quality of Syrian students’ school life
Developing Turkish Language Skills
With the consensus of all the teachers, it was recommended that the most important way
to overcome academic barriers was to improve language skills. Language was depicted as the
most important tool at school, in the street, while communicating with their friends and for
ability to express themselves. In this context, educational institutions and teachers have social
responsibilities for fostering language skills in Syrian students.
First of all, Syrian students need to be taught to speak and write Turkish correctly and fluently.
Then they should receive education in schools suited to their levels. This will make their adaptation
to school easier. P6.
Firstly, literacy courses suited to their level should be opened. After literacy training, they should
receive education for one year in the same class. In the second year, they should be integrated into
other classes according to their age group. P33.
Psychosocial Support and Reinforcement
The teachers strongly recommended psychosocial support and reinforcement efforts for
Syrian students to be more successful in their school lives, for development of their sense of
belonging to school, and for their integration with the society that they lived in.
We must make efforts to integrate them with normal students. We must ensure that Turkish students
stay free of prejudice. P8.
We should find projects with which we can give the children material and spiritual support. Their
economic problems are acute. At the end of the day, if there is a little monetary support, their
interest and attention increase even more. Monthly support for education can be given to those
who regularly attend school. P17.
There is a need for social and cultural integration activities. P19.
Orientation services could be provided for increasing adaptation to Turkish language and culture.
Children who continue to have adaptation problems in education must be given special attention.
P34.

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768 More communication must be made with these children’s parents. Counselling services should
monitor these children continually and maintain communication with classroom teachers. P22.
Support and Reinforcement for Families
The biggest obstacle to a healthy process of integration into the culture existing in the
country inhabited is lack of knowledge of that country’s language, inability to speak it, or
reluctance to speak it. It should be borne in mind that knowledge of the common language
spoken in the country of asylum by Syrian families, who are in a disadvantageous position in
terms of communication and language in the society where they live, will facilitate the process
of their healthy integration into the culture of that country. In this context, the values that
Syrian families acquire via integration into the society where they live will be passed on to
their children. A large majority of the participating teachers were also of this opinion and gave
a lot of importance to the education of families as well as to fostering language competences in
families. Striking views:
I regard education of the family as essential. Training must be given with regard to education of
the child… P2.
Language and culture courses can be organised for families. There should be family seminars.
The families are very uninformed with regard to raising children. P4.
If the families are given Turkish-supported education, then the children can also see and do a lot
of things from them in Turkish. There are some who are more introverted because they are behind
their peers. P16.
Support and Reinforcement for Teachers
It is very important for Syrian students receiving education at school to be integrated

into the education system in a healthy way. The values that children acquire via integration
into the education system will be passed on to their families. It is also very important for
Syrian children’s adaptation to the education system to be consolidated through the guidance
and support of their teachers, since the teacher is the key person in facilitating these children’s
adaptation to society. One teacher’s view on this was:
To enable us to understand Syrian children better, in-service training must be extended by

organising seminars and language training for all teachers. P1.
Arranging Separate Classes for Syrian Students
Teachers who had Syrian students in their classes suggested that separate classes can
be organised and that schools can be opened for Syrian students in order to provide them with
more support and so that they will not feel lonely. Arranging extra classes and courses and
providing education in support training rooms were recommended within the context of the
teachers’ experiences. Views:
Institutions providing basic education can be opened for these students alone. In this way, students’
anger and feelings of inadequacy will not develop. They will not feel isolated. P23.
There is a need for extra classes and courses. P15.
Education can be provided in support training rooms. P21.

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Discussion 769
This research describes the barriers faced by Syrian students in their education at school
through the experiences of their teachers and enables these teachers to better understand Syrian
students’ educational needs. The research relies on interviews and observations carried out
to empirically document the adaptation of Syrian students’ educational experiences to the
school environment. Failure to meet Syrian students’ educational needs at school can lead to
discriminatory practices against them. In this context, the aim of the research is to make a new
contribution to the literature on Syrian students’ educational needs.
The research results reveal that teachers and school managements in state schools in Rize
have, as a general attitude, provided a warm and safe learning environment for Syrian students.
As Matthews (2008) stated, schools are safe social institutions that give new immigrants the
opportunity for interaction and learning with the host society. Among the problems encountered
by Syrian students in their educational experiences at school, the most reported problem was
language. In state schools in Turkey, Syrian students’ psychosocial, emotional and mental
problems in their learning experiences are limited by language barriers (Çelik & İçduygu, 2018).
The research results reveal that due to the inadequacy of Syrian students’ Turkish competences,
they cannot follow the lessons, so that their class level falls behind, and although they learn
Turkish at school, their academic success level is insufficient, and communication and academic
barriers result from inadequate language skills. Syrian students experience difficulties due to
starting school without orientation to school or solving language problems. Studies on this
subject show that in terms of learning, Syrian students’ inadequacy in Turkish skills means
that they lack cognitive entry characteristics, which leads to low academic achievement in
these children (Kiremit et al., 2018; Şahin & Sümer, 2018; Tösten et al., 2017). The most
striking findings regarding academic barriers included having no academic plans for the future,
giving no importance to education, attendance problems, inadequate preparation, lack of extra
lesson support, level differences in class, lack of interest in lessons, lack of materials, weakness
in comprehension and expression skills, and low motivation. The findings revealed in this
research are supported by findings in the related literature (Aras & Yasun, 2016; Erdem et al.,
2017; Nielsen & Grey, 2013; UNICEF, 2014).
These studies reveal that Syrian children’s academic performance is lower than that
of their Turkish peers in class, and that because they cannot express their own feelings and
thoughts, they cannot participate in lessons (Güngör & Şenel, 2018). For teaching Turkish to
Syrian students, it is very important to take them into classes only after they have acquired
Turkish language skills with the development of a special programme and materials (Taşkın &
Erdemli, 2018).
Failure to learn the language of the country inhabited leads to problems for immigrant
students in accessing education opportunities and integrating into society. In Turkey, education
of Syrian students in state schools as a state policy is free. However, despite all the opportunities
in the acceptance policy provided for Syrian students in state schools, language continues to be
a big obstacle. In state schools, all lessons other than language lessons are conducted in Turkish.
Although private schools offer the opportunity for education in different languages, due to
financial restrictions, it appears impossible for Syrian families to pay the fees of these schools.
Furthermore, the fact that Syrian families do not give enough importance to their children’s
education, do not plan their children’s academic futures, and prefer religion-based education
due to their cultural and local structures, also continue to be a barrier to Syrian children’s
participation in education.
In Turkey, standardised programmes are applied in state schools by the MoNE. Bilingual
programmes developed for Syrian children do not exist. Although the PICTES project,
aimed at integration of Syrian children into Turkish society, is implemented by the MoNE,

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770 monoculturalism and monolingualism are again predominant in this project. The monolingual,
monocultural educational practices in Turkey cause Syrian students’ estrangement from state
schools. In these schools, Syrian families cannot observe their children, and the students also
feel alienated and become depressed (Çelik & İçduygu, 2018). Due to this practice, UNICEF
has recommended the development of different programmes by the MoNE to enable the
continuity of education for Syrian children (Bonessi, 2016). In this context, the presence of
Syrian children can be seen as an opportunity for developing intercultural schools modelled on
equal access of immigrants and asylum seekers to society and for developing school-centred
integration.
The research findings reveal that in their educational experiences at school, Syrian
children have problems related to behavioural barriers regarding missing their homeland,
exclusion, exposure to intolerant attitudes of teachers and students, discrimination, loneliness-
isolation, trauma and depression, considering their language superior, social stigmatisation,
incompatibility and insecurity. It was revealed in studies that especially children emigrating to
Turkey from Syria had suffered one or more losses in the family. Traumas suffered by Syrian
children displaced due to war and migration can reach very high levels. In Sirin and Rogers-
Sirin’s (2015) research, it was determined that 79% of Syrian children had had a death in the
family, 60% had seen someone kicked, shot at or physically hurt, and 30% had themselves
been kicked, shot at or physically hurt. These findings can be seen as an important piece of data
with regard to enabling healthy assessment of Syrian children’s psychosocial development. The
traumas experienced by these children lead to their trusting of no one, including their teachers,
and to their fear of them (McBrien, 2005). There are also studies which reveal that the lack of
communication between Syrian and Turkish students and Turkish students’ bullying tendencies
towards and exclusion of Syrian students results in compliance and psychological problems for
the latter, and that Turkish students fight with Syrian students because they are unhappy about
receiving education with them (Aydin & Kaya, 2019; Erdem et al., 2017; Çelik & İçduygu,
2018; Toker-Gökçe & Acar, 2018; Özdemir, 2018). A large majority of the teachers who
participated in this research displayed positive attitudes towards Syrian students and provided
as much individual support as they could to develop Syrian students’ sense of belonging to
school and improve their academic performance.
The research results show that Syrian families had low income and education levels, had
a large number of children, lived in small homes, did not take an interest in their children, used
violence, and lived in ghettos. These findings reveal that Syrian families are also in need of social
and emotional support. Refugee families generally suffer from socioeconomic disadvantages,
poverty, lack of social support, difficulty in accessing education, living in very crowded areas,
and isolation due to family structure and cultural differences (Alpak et al. 2015; Porter &
Haslam, 2005). To these problems can be added Turkish families’ negative reactions, prejudices
and complaints towards Syrian families (Kiremit et al., 2018). The fact that Syrian families’
Turkish language skills are weak and that they show resistance towards learning Turkish is
also a significant problem. Families’ financial problems and language deficiencies are also
reflected onto their children’s education. Since they do not give importance to their children’s
education (Aydin & Kaya, 2019), they do not help their children with their lessons or cooperate
with teachers. On the other hand, families with high socio-economic levels show the necessary
attention both for sending their children to school and for their children’s education. In Çelik
and İçduygu’s (2018) research, it was emphasised that the lack of adaptation, preparatory or
orientation classes in state schools in Turkey and the lack of provision of counselling services for
Syrian children who have suffered trauma made Syrian families afraid and weakened their trust
in state schools. Inadequacy of language skills in foreign families is the main barrier affecting
integration into the education system and society of the country they live in (Oikonomidoy,
2010). Considering that especially knowledge of the common language spoken in the country

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will facilitate a healthy integration process, support and reinforcement for Syrian families in a 771
non-assimilatory way is very important, since in the family, the woman is the key person who
can also facilitate the integration of the children. Through the education of women, especially
of mothers, the integration of their children into society and the education system will be made
even easier.
Suggestions for solving the problems experienced in education by Syrian children
were generated in the context of the teachers’ experiences. These solution suggestions
included organising extra lessons and courses, providing education in support training rooms,
integration in classrooms according to age level only after receiving language instruction,
improving Turkish language skills, providing psychosocial support and reinforcement, support
and reinforcement for the family, support and reinforcement for teachers, and organising
separate classes and schools for Syrian students. These findings revealed in the research are
also supported by findings in the related literature (Beltekin, 2016; Özer et al., 2016). Rather
striking among the research findings was the recommendation that separate classes and schools
should be organised for Syrian students. In Sakız’s (2016) empirical research, school principals
supported the provision of education for Syrian students in separate environments rather than
in state schools. When teachers’ views about the relationships of Syrian students in the school
environment were evaluated, it was determined that in state schools, students’ relations with each
other, with their classmates and with their teachers were good (Taşkın & Erdemli, 2018). Other
studies, however, reveal results such as prejudice towards Syrian students, cultural differences,
forming a group instead of socialising with Turkish students, fighting, lack of attendance, lack
of discipline, and inadequacy of counselling services (Şahin & Sümer, 2018; Tösten et al.,
2017). It can be said that Syrian students’ learning in isolation from Turkish students can cause
them to be isolated from the society they live in rather than being integrated into it. The most
important tool for a healthy integration process into the existing culture of the country lived in
is education that enables social integration. The idea of opening separate classes and schools
especially for Syrian students is not supported by the related literature. In complete contrast to
separate classes and schools for these students, the need for measures that will enable them to
amalgamate with society and with Turkish children is put forward.
Studies conducted with regard to the educational needs of Syrian students in Turkey
reveal that schools’ physical equipment and conditions are at an inadequate level. Especially,
lack of intercultural skills of teachers who can provide education to Syrian and other
immigrants, insufficient and deficient materials, failure to organise content according to Syrian
students’ needs, lack of multicultural education, and inadequate and monocultural programme
applications for teaching Turkish to foreigners are revealed (Aydin et al., 2019; Aydin &
Kaya, 2017; Erdem, 2017). In this context, at the basis of preservice and in-service training in
multicultural education for teachers, foreign students’ educational needs, and communication
and ability to work with families of children in this group, education must be given based on
what the psychological needs of children in this group are, and on practices for benefiting from
students’ existing mechanisms for coping with trauma and for using these strategies. Further
studies need to be conducted on this subject to determine the socio-emotional barriers faced by
Syrian students and what the existing support systems provided for them are.
Development of confidence in their friends and teachers by Syrian students, of their

sense of belonging to school, of their academic achievement, and of activities for improving
their skills in and out of class, all rely on language competence. If Syrian students can adapt
to the countries where they live, their sense of belonging to school may assist in supporting
their academic success by continuous relational participation in a social sense. While schools

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772 are carrying out their mission of transferring cultural heritage to future generations, they must
enable foreign students on their premises to preserve their cultures as well. While the culture
of the country in the position of host country is being taught, it must also be made impossible
for them to lose their own cultures. The way to achieve this is to include different cultures in
process-based school curricula. This arrangement in school programmes will prevent immigrant
students and their families from feeling that they have rejected their own cultures, histories or
languages when participating in the culture of the country they live in.
This research shows that the approaches to Syrian students and the performances of
teachers actively involved in the education of these students are very important. For these
teachers to be able to meet the educational needs of Syrian students, the teachers certainly
require support. Providing education to the large number of asylum seekers who are coming
unprepared into Turkey is a new, unexpected problem that needs to be solved. For the solution to
this problem, the teachers, educational institutions and MoNE who are involved in this process
must work together in consensus and in practice. For this process to be conducted efficiently,
there is a need for support from the public, NGOs, and national and international organisations,
and for projects to be carried out for sustainability in this matter.
Note
This research was presented at the International Conference on New Horizons in

Education (INTE), 3-5 July 2019 Prague, Czech Republic.
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Appendix
Appendix A. Questionnaire
1. Could you speak a little about your teaching life? Where and for how long have you
been teaching up to the present?
2. Could you talk a little about the school where you work at present? Could you give a
little information about your student profile, parent profile, and your teaching and administrative
colleagues?
3. How long have you had Syrian students at your school and in your class? What were
your first observations about these children?

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4. What can you say about the economic profile of your Syrian students? What are the 775
children’s financial circumstances like?
5. What can you say about the language competence of Syrian children? Did they speak
Turkish when they came to the school? Where do they learn the language?
6. What can you say about the Syrian children’s social and psychological characteristics?
Do you think they are happy?
7. What kind of problems do you have related to Syrian children’s education? How do
you solve these problems?
8. Have you received training (undergraduate training or in-service training) related to
immigrant children or children whose mother tongue is not Turkish?
9. What can you say about Syrian parents? What kind of profile do they have? How
competent are they in the Turkish language? Do they provide enough support for their children’s
education?
10. Finally, what do you need in order to provide these children and their families with
more support?
11. Is there anything you would like to add in this regard?
Appendix B. Observation Form
In-Class / Out-of-Class Participant Observation Form

No. Items Explanation
Yes Partially No
1. Does the student come to class and leave class on time?
2. Does the student sit next to his/her friends?
3. Does the student focus on lessons?
4. Does the student actively participate in class?
5. Does the student get bored when listening to lessons?
6. Does the student take notes in class?
7. Does the student have lesson equipment?
8. Does the student actively participate in in-class activities?
9. Is the student’s in-class motivation high?
10. Can the student communicate effectively with his/her teacher?
Are the student’s Turkish comprehension, listening and speaking skills
11.
adequate?
Does the student have difficulty in understanding subjects that include cultural
12.
items?
13. Can the student communicate effectively with friends outside class?
14. Does the student actively participate in out-of-class activities?
15. Is the student accepted by his/her Turkish friends?
16. Is the student subjected to discrimination by his/her Turkish friends?
Does the student display negative behaviour towards friends of the opposite
17.
sex?
18. Is the student subjected to discrimination by his/her teacher?
19. Does the student act aggressively towards his/her classmates?
20. Does the student act aggressively towards his/her friends at school?
21. Does the student act aggressively towards classroom equipment?

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776 22. Does the student act aggressively towards school equipment?
23. Does the student use slang words with his/her classmates?
24. Does the student use slang words with friends outside class?
25. Does the student obey class rules?
26. Does the student obey school rules?
Received: June 07, 2020 Accepted: September 16, 2020
Cite as: Karabacak, N. (2020). An examination of Syrian students’ educational experiences

at school from the reflections of teachers. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 78(5),
754-776. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.754
Nermin Karabacak PhD, Assistant Professor, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Faculty of
Education, 53000 Çayeli / Rize, Turkey.
E-mail: nermin.karabacak@erdogan.edu.tr

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TEACHERS’ AWARENESS AND 777
UNDERSTANDING OF STUDENTS’
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE OF
GEOMETRIC SHAPES
Balli Lelinge, Christina Svensson
Malmo University, Sweden
E-mail: balli.lelinge@mau.se, christina.svensson@mau.se
Abstract
Few research studies have been conducted in a primary school in early mathematical education about
the teaching of geometry. This research aims to contribute with knowledge of how teachers’ awareness
and understanding of necessary conditions to enhance students’ abilities to discern two- and three-
dimensional shapes develop. In this research, qualitative methods were used to analyse data from a lesson
study in grade 4 in the subject of mathematics. Data were primarily collected through audio-recorded
conversations with teachers before and after the lesson, and the results of students’ pre- and post-test.
The results of this research showed increased awareness of using collaboration opportunities to apply
professional classroom instructions and activities to enhance students’ knowledge of two- and three-
dimensional shapes. This research elucidates how the practice-based professional development approach
emphasised the teachers’ teaching targets for understanding students’ content knowledge of geometric
shapes. Additionally, the result highlighted teachers’ awareness and understanding of the challenges
students face in learning about three-dimensional shapes from two-dimensional representations. Future
research should develop a more iterative and revised research lesson design to develop more powerful
content knowledge and classroom activity in this topic area.
Keywords: early mathematics education, geometric shapes, practice-based professional development,
lesson study
Introduction
This research identified teachers’ awareness and understanding of students’ spatial

ability in early mathematical education. From a Swedish educational context, there is a great
interest in students’ mathematical achievements (OECD, 2016). It is assumed that practice-
based collaboration between researchers and teachers promotes teachers’ teaching methods in
relation to the subject of mathematics. Skott et al. (2018) research highlighted the increased
importance of the subject matter knowledge in teacher education. That is, however, not enough
if the teacher does not understand how to teach in the subject’s meaning and links the topic
to, for example, everyday life (Ball & Cohen, 1999). Klim-Klimeszwska and Nazaruk (2020)
research revealed that kindergarten teachers (150 interviews) did not work systematically with
early mathematical education with geometric concepts. The leading critic is linked to the use of
the student’s potential regarding “geometric intuition, in an effective way” (p. 345).
A mere theoretical understanding of the subject matter does not contribute to conceptual
teaching understanding (Ball & Cohen, 1999). Conceptual teaching understanding is based on an
understanding of the need to offer the students several representations, such as art constructions,
or comparisons with other subjects and contexts, which increase the probability of more in-
depth understanding of the whole (Ball & Cohen, 1999, p. 11; Smith, 2001). However, there

Balli LELINGE, Christina SVENSSON. Teachers’ awareness and understanding of students’ content knowledge of geometric shapes
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778 are few research studies about teaching in geometry that focus on developing students’ spatial
ability in primary school. Therefore, this research addressed the importance of contributing to
more research in this topic area.
The geometry content of mathematics contributes to developing students’ spatial
and logical reasoning (French, 2004). Spatial ability is vital in developing understanding of
and experiencing the visual world correctly (Gardner, 1993) and is divided into three areas:
spatial relations, visualisation, and orientation (Thurstone, 1950). Spatial relations consist of
imagining the rotations of two- and three-dimensional objects as a whole body (Olkun, 2003).
Spatial visualisation consists of the ability to imagine representing two- and three-dimensional
movements in different spaces (Clements & Battista, 1992). Spatial orientation is the ability
to distinguish geometric shapes from different positions (Thurstone, 1950) but also to imagine
two- and three-dimensional shapes based on different rotations (Maier, 1996). It contributes
to a mental spatial understanding in both vertical and horizontal directions. Van Hiele (1986)
has identified five levels of mental spatial understanding development. Level 1 consists of
visualisation, which means that students experience the most common geometric shapes in
standard orientation. Level 2 (analysis) consists of students being able to identify forms based
on their characteristics. Level 3 (abstraction) consists of students being able to identify, for
example, that a square is a rectangle but not all rectangles are squares. Level 4 (deduction)
consists of a developed understanding of the importance of geometric evidence. Finally, in
level 5 (rigor), students both understand and think abstractly about the relationships between
different geometric concepts.
This research concerned Level 1, and the students’ ability to express their learning
regarding two- and three-dimensional shapes (circle, square, rectangle, triangle, sphere, cube,
cone and cuboid). That is, being able to develop and describe their spatial ability through
visualisation and being able to name the mentioned shapes in their standard positions after the
research lesson.
Teaching about geometrical content is closely related to the ability to discern visual
representations in different forms. Several repetitions of representations are required to develop
deeper mathematical knowledge (Duval, 2006). However, Wilson and Swanson (2001) showed
that students who have difficulties in mathematics seem to have a harder time preserving
visual representations in working memory compared with other students. This can be further
discussed in relation to the levels identified by Van Hiele (1986), where Levels 1 and 2 consist
of identifying geometric shapes based on representations. In geometry teaching with the
support of representations has been found that students who develop the ability to transform
(i.e., reasoning between two- and three-dimensional shapes in visual representation) can better
handle tasks that are based on similarity to understand that two items can have different scales
(Seago et al., 2013).
From the age of 11–12, students transition occurs from concrete operations to more
formal ones (Piaget, 1972). This means that they develop an understanding of the relations
between different forms, such as two- and three-dimensional shapes, without relying on
concrete examples (a.a.). However, it is not easy to build formal mathematical knowledge at
a young age because all students need to develop abstract thinking (Piaget, 1972). Hallowell
et al. (2015), for example, highlighted in their research how primary school students showed
difficulty transforming when curves were involved. Chapman (1997) argued about the
importance of organising classroom interaction to provide an opportunity to develop a more
formal mathematical language. However, this can only happen with teacher support in the form
of new communication strategies containing mathematical concepts, thinking and reasoning
(Sfard, 2007). Reasoning with a mathematical register (Halliday, 1981) is an important
communication strategy for developing mathematical learning between students and an expert
(e.g., the teacher) in a classroom (Sfard, 2007).

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Research in mathematics education has highlighted students’ misconceptions that, for 779
example, in rotation, a square is not a square unless the base is resting horizontally (Clements
& Battista, 1992; Mayberry, 1983). Furthermore, students have difficulty experiencing the
properties within the shapes (Mayberry, 1983), such as a square being a form of a rectangle
(Marchis, 2008).
More research is needed in the mathematical area of geometry, for clarifying how students
are developing their understanding of spatial abilities in the classroom. It is necessary to educate
teachers about how to understand students increased learning in two-and three-dimensional
shapes. This research addresses the methodological approach practice-based professional
development (PBPD) for developing teachers’ conceptual teaching and understanding in this
topic area.
Practice-based Professional Development
Practice-based professional development (PBPD) research is related to improving school

teaching (Ball & Cohen, 1999), and it focuses more on teacher inquiry development than only
on teacher knowledge (Harris et al., 2012). According to Ball and Cohen (1999), it is necessary
to understand that improving PBPD is about developing teaching-learning as something that
is a part of teaching (p. 11). Ball and Cohen argued that this teaching-learning knowledge
should not be entirely depending on institutional learning: “Professional development could be
substantially improved if we could develop ways to learn and teach about practice in practice”
(p. 11). According to Smith (2001), this approach provides teachers with an opportunity to
develop new awareness and knowledge (p. 206) about teaching.
The Swedish Government announced that Sweden needs to create a problem-based
development research system in which higher education institutions within all school levels
must collaborate in equal partnership (Goodlad, 1991; Herro, et al., 2019) to develop learning
in school. This direction and statement from the Swedish Government to increase the need
for practice-based research emphasised the collaboration between teachers and researchers
(Christensson, 2018). By these approaches, the gap between theory and practice is meant to
be bridged by involving teachers in the research process and working directly to change and
improve classroom practice (Carlgren, 2005; Swedish Research Council, 2015). According to
Christensson (2018), this approach shifts the concept of problem-based development research
to teaching-development research. Thus, PBPD research is characterized by a knowledge
interest that primarily aims to contribute knowledge about how teaching can be developed
and improved, with the aim of promoting student development and learning (cf Ball & Cohen,
1999; Gardner, 2011; Harris et al., 2012). This means that the research must be conducted in
direct connection with the teaching. What characterizes these research orientations is that the
research is being e.g. iterative, collaborative, process-oriented, and useful in real contexts. By
involving teachers and researchers in the research processes, the PBPD research aims to narrow
the gap between theory and practice (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Christensson, 2018).
This research direction was inspired by the lesson study model, where teachers’
collaborative professional development (CPD) has been the starting point in a previous school
development project with a content-oriented approach.
Lesson Study: A Collaborative Professional Development Model
The Lesson Study Jugyou kenkyuu (Yoshida, 1999) model offers the teachers a
collaborative professional development approach to continuously improve their teaching
(Lewis, 2009). Lesson study has been developed in Japan and translated as “lesson study”
(hereafter LS) by Stigler and Hiebert (1999). According to Lewis (2002, 2009) LS is a “research

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780 lesson”, where the emphasis is on teaching for understanding instead of teaching as telling
(Lewis & Tsuchida, 1998). In the past century, LS has been an important path (Wood, 2019)
of enhancing teacher learning (Pêna Trapero, 2013) professional development, and triggering
changes in teachers’ classroom practice (Vrikki et al., 2017; Warwick et al., 2019). LS gives
the teachers a great potential to observe the life and processes in the classroom, particularly
regarding students’ learning capability, which is subsequently collaboratively analysed (Lewis
(2009). The research lesson is designed in the teacher group, although it is usually put into
practice by just one of the teachers. Whilst the teacher teaches about the object of learning, the
others observe.
LS aim is to improve teaching and learning to evaluate and revise the lesson, and to share
lesson experiences with colleagues (Doig & Groves, 2011; Lewis, 2009; Lewis & Tsuchida,
1998; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). Although the process may vary, it often begins with defining
the problem (Hiebert, et al., 2002). Most often this problem is formulated as a learning goal that
teachers found to be challenging for their students (Carlgren, 2011). In the Japanese LS design,
teachers work in small groups and meet every week to collaborate and plan lessons together to
develop an issue that is of concern for the students’ learning and understanding (Lewis, 2009,
2016). A key factor of LS is to accomplish a process of teaching-learning goals (Takahashi &
McDougal, 2016). According to Fujii (2016), LS is primarily intended to produce learning that
helps teachers apply and develop future lesson instruction and classroom activities. LS can have
different goals: as a professional development tool, to improve teacher instruction and subject
competencies; as a research methodology; and as a means to achieving both the professional
development and research goals (cf Holmqvist & Mattisson, 2008; Stigler & Hiebert, 2016).
Goldsmith’s, et al. (2014) synthesis of 106 research articles according to mathematics teachers’
learning found that few studies were focussing on this process.
LS has been implemented in this research in grade 4 in a Swedish context with the
learning objects of two- and three-dimensional shapes.
Problem Statement and Research Focus
PBPD research analysis describes researchers and teachers’ collaborative processes that
are in great need of development. Research has shown that collaborative, iterative, learning
processes increase teachers’ awareness of the importance of showing what and how student
learning can be identified. Examples from previous research showed that subject content must
be at the foreground when teachers are planning the object of learning. Yet, there seems to
be very few studies that have their focus on the content of spatial learning in the ages of 10–
11 years, which is the case in this present study. Therefore, this research aimed to contribute
new knowledge about students’ spatial learning about two- and three-dimensional shapes, and
teachers’ awareness of the same through the collaborative process.
Based on the research problem highlighted above, this research aim was to contribute
with knowledge of how teachers’ awareness and understanding of necessary conditions to
enhance students’ abilities to discern two- and three-dimensional shapes develop. The research
was based on the following research questions:
RQ1 What arguments and assumptions guide the teachers’ construction of the research
lesson?
RQ2 In what way, if any, does students’ knowledge change?
RQ3 What necessary conditions, based on teachers’ awareness and understanding, are
required to enhance students’ abilities to discern the differences between two- and three-
dimensional shapes?

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General Background
This research was part of a two-year school development project in a major city in
Sweden, intended to develop different collaborative learning models. This research was
conducted close to the teachers’ ordinary daily work. The teachers intended to develop student
knowledge, and the researchers’ intentions to study the teachers’ work while participating in
collaborative professional development, based on the LS approach (Lewis, 2002, 2009, 2016;
Stigler & Hiebert, 1999; Takahashi & McDougal, 2016). As the teachers work with developing
the students’ knowledge of geometrical shapes, the study explores teachers’ developed
awareness about how to teach students about two- and three-dimensional shapes. In accordance
with the Swedish Government, the practice-based professional development research is aiming
to develop teachers’ professional knowledge in order to enhance their teaching skills. By
linking research questions directly to identified needs for improvement and using a research
methodology that actively involves the teachers, the improvement work becomes part of the
research method (Christensson, 2018).
The study started with two lectures about school development based on scientific
approaches, for the entire school. After the initializing lectures, the teachers were divided into
smaller groups, and this research reports on the work of the researchers and three teachers who
chose to conduct a lesson study to enhance students’ knowledge of geometrical shapes. LS is
an iterative cyclic model for analysis (see Figure 1), inspired by Stigler and Hiebert (1999) and
Lewis (2002) to improve the teaching-learning goals (Takahashi & McDougal, 2016).
When the teachers select an object of learning, it is necessary to identify what is to be
focused upon (Holmqvist & Mattisson, 2008). Holmqvist and Mattisson (2008) argued that the
most critical factor is the choice of theoretical perspective and method to answer the research
questions (p. 37). The teachers’ choice of the object of learning to enhance students’ abilities
was related to the syllabus in the Swedish curriculum of the subject of mathematical goals:
“Basic geometrical objects such as polygons, circles, spheres, cones, cylinders, pyramids,
cuboids and their relationships. Basic geometrical properties of these objects. /…/ Construction
of geometrical objects, both with and without digital tools” (Swedish National Agency for
Education [SNAE], 2018, p. 58).
Figure 1
Iterative cyclic model

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782 Sample
The research was conducted in a primary school in Sweden, grade 4, from January
2019 to April 2019 (Table 1). The planning meeting was held at the school where the teachers
worked. Each session lasted about 2 hours.
Table 1
Participants and context of the working process
Participating Sharing of
School level Period Lesson total
teachers knowledge
Grade 4.
Colleagues at their
One group (pre-test Three primary school
January–April 2019. One lesson cycle. own school.
n:14 level teachers.
post-test n:15).
In total three teachers and two researchers participated in this research, which consisted
of a lesson study cycle in grade 4. Teacher 1 (T1) is a certified teacher in art (pictures) in grades
1–9 and in religion grades 4–9. T1 has been a certified teacher for 3 years and recently began
work at the current school. Neither Teachers 2 or 3 (T2, T3) are certified teachers. T2 has been
working as a music teacher in grades 1–5 for 6 years, and for 1 year at the current school. T3
teaches religion and history in fourth grade and has been working at the current school for 1
year (Table 2). This is his first year as a teacher.
Table 2
Study participants
Work experience
Participant Age Sex Degree in years (current
school)
Teacher (T1) 28 Male Yes (1–9) 3 (<1)

Teacher (T2) 31 Male No (1–4) 6 (1)
27
Teacher (T3) Male No (4–6) 1 (1)
The number in brackets is the number of years that the participants had been employed
at the current school at the time of the research project, Spring 2019.
Fourteen students participated in this research lesson and took the pre-test. However,
one student did not take the pre-test. However, the material that the researchers later received
for an inter-reliability assessment of the individual responses included results from 15 students
(see Tables 5 and 7). Thus, the pre-test analysis is determined from the researchers having
counted 15 tests as completed. According to the teachers several students had special needs and
adaptations.
Research Instrument and Procedures
Teachers’ planning and acting during the LS is described as a background, and after this
description the research procedures will be described. The focus during the teachers’ work was
primarily about developing their students’ abilities to discern the dimensional differences of the

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quadrant, triangle, circle, rectangle, cube, cone, sphere and cuboid. The teachers designed their 783
research lesson based on the differences and similarities between two- and three-dimensional
shapes (Table 3).
Table 3
The approach of the research lesson
Research Part 1: PowerPoint introduction (lecture 15 Part 2: Lesson activity contains the following:
lesson minutes) contains the following:
design
2D shapes (visualisation by measurement 3D shapes in clay (visualisation, Figure 5)

quadrant, Figure 2) diachronic. diachronic.
3D shapes (counting the side surfaces of the cube 2D and 3D shapes with paper and ruler,
(visualisation and rotation) diachronic. construction of quadrants and cubes (spatial
visualisation, rotation) synchronic.
2D and 3D shapes, art-construction (spatial
visualisation, Figures 3 and 4) synchronic. Short summary of the lesson.
Differences and similarities between cubes and

cuboids (visualisation) diachronic.
Differences between cones and cuboids and cubes

(visualisation both in art and with artefacts such as
toy blocks, dice and cones) diachronic.
Differences between cones and spheres

(visualisation both in art and with artefacts such as
cones and globes diachronic).
Figure 2 Figure 3
2D measurement of a quadrant (visualisation) 2D and 3D shapes (spatial visualisation)

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784 Figure 4 Figure 5

2D and 3D shapes (spatial visualisation) 2D and 3D shapes in clay (visualisation)
A pre- and post-test was constructed and used before and after the research lesson.
The teachers’ evaluation of the LS was discussed within the research group and presented
for other teachers at the school. The researchers followed the teachers’ learning process and
scaffolded their lesson design and were also a part of the teacher’s analysis of the students’
learning outcomes. The researchers’ analysis of the project also included a comparison between
teachers’ and researchers’ assessments of the students’ test.
Data Collection
To achieve the aim and answer the research questions, the data collection was consisted
of different types of data: Pre- and post-test results, students’ experience of pre- and post-
test difficulties, audio-recorded teacher conversations during the design of the lesson, audio-
recorded teacher conversations after the lesson, and audio recordings of teachers sharing their
results with colleagues after the lesson (Table 4).
Table 4
Data collection
Overall data Unit of analysis

Date Research Lesson
collection
Audio- Pre-test (Figure 6) 2019/01/30 2019/02/13
recorded
data that was Audio-recorded teacher conversations 2019/02/13 Time of lesson: 45–50 minutes.
transcribed during design before the research
verbatim. lesson.
Post-test (Figure 6) 2019/03/06

Audio-recorded teacher conversations
after the lesson.
Audio recordings of teachers sharing 2019/04/10

their experiences of the lesson with
colleagues.

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Figure 6 785
Pre- and post-test three dimensional shapes
Data Analysis

The empirical material consisted of teachers’ introduction by the PowerPoint presentation
on the selected learning object (see Table 3). The verbatim transcripts, mainly those from
conversations done before the research lesson, were analysed to identify what arguments and
assumptions guided the teachers during the planning of the research lesson about mathematical
spatial ability (RQ1). To answer RQ2, pre- and post-test results were collected and analysed
to identify changes in students’ knowledge and awareness of dimensional differences of two-
and three-dimensional shapes. To answer RQ3, the verbatim transcripts, mainly those from
conversations after the research lesson and when the teachers shared their experiences from the
same research lesson, were analysed to identify the teachers’ understanding of which necessary
conditions are required to enhance students’ abilities to discern the differences between two-
and three-dimensional shapes.
The analysis was firstly based on the assessment of students’ changed knowledge about
the learning object based on the pre- and post-tests. Secondly, the pre-and post-test results have
guided the researchers to capture the teacher’s experience about necessary conditions in relation
to changes, if any, in the students’ understanding of the two-and three-dimensional shapes. The
experiences about the teachers’ necessary conditions and assumptions regarding any changes in
the students’ understanding have been analysed based on the previous research about students’
developed spatial ability. The audio-recordings were transcribed and analysed separately and
discussed by both researchers to increase the validity and credibility of the selected excerpts.
Ethical Considerations
In today’s society, research occupies a prominent position, and the expectations are high.
According to the Swedish Research Council guideline for Good Research Practice (2017), the
researchers have a specific responsibility regarding validity and trust to the participants. It is
vital to strive to conducted research on a high-quality level, regardless of whether the results
are positive or negative. The researchers are obligated to follow the Good Research Practice
guidelines and be free from influences and manipulation or act in personal interests. In this
context, good research is systematic, shared with the participating teachers, students, parents

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786 and colleagues. There are no conflicts of interest, methods and reliability. The research process
and ethical requirements rest on society’s general ethical norms and values. The participating
teachers provided written consent to participate in this study and to be audio-recorded. The
students and their parents provided both verbal and written informed consent about the study
and that any personal information would remain anonymous.
Research Results
Arguments and Assumptions that Guided the Teachers’

Construction of the Research Lesson
The analysis of the arguments and assumptions that guided the research lesson design
showed how the teachers discussed their experiences before the lesson. In their discussions
T2 mentioned that some students had “a red flag in front of their eyes immediately when
mathematics is mentioned”. T2 summarised (Excerpt 1) his ideas about the lesson plan and
developed teaching methods by discussing less about mathematics and tests.
Excerpt 1:
Teacher 2: We should talk less about math, and less talk about the pre- and post-test /…/.
Later, the teachers planned the first part of the lesson (see Table 3) from a synchronic
visualisation perspective of the object in daily life. The excerpt below shows their notions of
visualising mathematical properties through everyday objects and bringing with them some
three-dimensional artefacts.
Excerpt 2:
Teacher 1: /…/ I intend to bring in a tennis ball, I intend to bring in dice, I intend to bring in a cone.
Yes, I intend to bring in items.
Teacher 2: Yes. You could spin a globe and ask, “What can we call this?” Lots of such things can
be used with tactile and visual stimulation. They develop their knowledge of basic geometric
shapes [with the students next to them].
The teachers also mentioned and discussed how they could use paper instead of shapes.
“You might be able to talk about the properties of the paper” (T2). The teachers discussed their
experiences regarding the conditions necessary for this class. For example, T3 stated that the
lesson should not be longer than 45–50 minutes. The teachers had also identified that this is
students’ need to work in smaller groups, “It is more comfortable for students with special needs
and adaptations to have the same structure that they [have] always had, working together as a
group, and sitting around a table” (T1). Furthermore, the teachers discussed how this design
supports the goal of having the students talk openly to each other about how and what they are
doing. T1 has a concrete idea of how to stimulate the students’ ability to discern the differences
between the three-dimensional shapes:
Excerpt 3:
Teacher 1: They [shall] roll [around] a ball and talk about what the difference is about rolling a
ball around the table versus trying to get a cone to the other side of the table. [It is that] it will
spin around in circles. The ball spins straight. “Why so?” So, it becomes a bit more that they can
describe the differences between the different forms.

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The teachers’ arguments and assumptions guided them to use everyday objects together 787
with a PowerPoint presentation to elucidate and offer a tactile feeling of the similarities and
differences by synchronically visualising the different three-dimensional shapes. The second
assumption that guided the teachers’ construction of the lesson consists organisational factors
such as the short lesson, using less talk about maths, sitting around a table, dividing the class
into two groups, and providing a structure that allows the students to learn from each other.
Identifying Changes in Students’ Awareness of

Two- and Three-dimensional Shapes
In the teachers’ design of pre- and post-test, they added a final question (Tables 6 and 8)
about the students’ experiences of the test, whether it was difficult or easy. The results indicated
that students’ understanding of the object of learning, geometrical shapes increased between
the pre- and post-test (Tables 5 and 7). The results have been analysed due to the percentage
of correct answers before and after each lesson. The teachers assessed the students’ answer of
the term “fyrkant” (Swedish) square for quadrant as correct. In the Swedish language, this is
problematic because “fyrkant”, square, any combination of four sides and edges between the
side surfaces, so it can be used to describe both two- and three-dimensional shapes.
Table 5
Researchers’ and teachers’ pre-test assessments
Pre-test (n=14 students)
Percent (%)
Geometric
Researchers’ Qualitative analysis of student-answers
shapes Teachers’ analysis
analysis
Quadrant 71 93 10 of 14 had correct answer. Four wrote “square”.
Triangle 86 86 12 of 14 had correct answer. Two wrote “rectangle”.
Circle 100 100 14 of 14 had correct answer.
9 of 14 had correct answer. One wrote “quadrant”. Four

Rectangle 64 64
did not answer.
8 of 14 had correct answer. Two wrote “rectangle”. Four

Cube 57 57
did not answer.
2 of 14 had correct answer. Five wrong answer: Two

Cone 14 14 wrote “hat”, one wrote “castle”, another wrote “tube”, one
wrote “triangle”. Seven did not answer.
1 of 14 had correct answer. Seven wrong answer: One

answered “2D”. Four answered “ball”. One answered
Sphere 7 7
“basketball”, and one answered “circle”. Four did not
answer.
No one has answered correctly. Six had a wrong answer:

one answered “square”, one answered “three-dimension
Cuboids 0 0
square”, one answered “box”, one answered “prism”, and
two answered “rectangle”. Eight did not answer.

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788 Students’ Experiences of the Pre-test
The teachers added a final question (Table 6): “Was it easy or difficult?” Here the students
were able to leave a comment. Fourteen students completed the pre-test.
Table 6
Students’ pre-test experiences
Correct
Easy Medium Difficult No answer Total (n=8)
answers
8 0
7 1 1
6 1 1
5 2 1 3
4 1 1 2
3 1 2 2 5
2 1 1
1 1 1
0 0
None of the students achieved 8 of 8 correct answers on the pre-test. One student had
only 1 of 8 correct answers, and this student also answered that the pre-test was “difficult”. One
of five students who had three correct answers wrote that it was an “easy” test; this indicated
that the student’s self-assessment of his/her prior knowledge did not correspond with reality.
One student had seven correct answers and commented that he/she felt that the pre-test was of
“medium” difficulty.
Result of Students’ Responses to the Post-test
In the post-test, no students had fewer than five correct answers. In the pre-test (Table
5), all students achieved correct answers for only one shape: the circle. Conversely, in the post-
test, all students achieved correct answers for all the two-dimensional shapes and one three-
dimensional shape: the cube (Table 7). The ability to identify two-dimensional shapes increased
most for the rectangle (36%) and the ability to identify three-dimensional shapes increased
most at cone (66%).

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Table 7 789
Post-test research analysis n=15, teachers’ analysis n=14. Result and inter-reliability and
equivalences of the post-test
Post-test
Geometric Post-test
Result and Analysis
shapes
Researchers’ Change in Teachers’ Change in

analysis percent analysis percent
Students answers (n=15)
Percent pre- and Percent pre- and
post-test post-test
Quadrant 100 29 100 7 15 of 15 had correct answer.
Triangle 100 14 100 14 15 of 15 had correct answer
Circle 100 0 100 0 15 of 15 had correct answer
Rectangle 100 36 100 0 15 of 15 had correct answer
Cube 100 43 100 43 15 of 15 had correct answer

12 of 15 had correct answer. Two students
Cone 80 66 71 57 answered wrong and one student did not
answer.
10 of 15 had correct answer. Five did not
Sphere 67 60 57 50
answer.
8 of 15 had correct answer. One wrote
Cuboid 53 53 50 50
“cuboids-sphere”. Six did not answer.
Students’ Experiences of the Post-test
In both the pre-test and post-test (Table 8), the teachers added a closing question: “Was
it easy or difficult?”, where the students were able to leave a comment.
Table 8
Students’ post-test experiences
Correct
Easy Medium Difficult No answer Total (n=8)
answers
8 6 6
7 1 1 2
6 1 2 2 5
5 2 2
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
0 0

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790 In the post-test, six students’ (compared with none in the pre-test) achieved 8 of 8 correct
answers. Also, more students in the post-test stated that they had more easily distinguished the
geometric shapes: 10 in the post-test verses 2 in the pre-test. These indicated that the student’s
self-assessment of their prior knowledge corresponded with reality. The result also showed
that there are changes in knowledge before and after the research lesson. First, the students’
understanding is made apparent in the differences between the pre- and post-test results
regarding both two- and three-dimensional shapes. In the post-test, all students identified the
two-dimensional shapes, as well as the cube. There was also an increase in the students’ ability
to identify the remaining three three-dimensional shapes. The second change regarding the
student’s knowledge was related to their understanding of their self-assessed experience which
was in line with reality.
Necessary Conditions for Students to Understand the Differences Between

Two- and Three-dimensional Shapes
The teachers discussed the students’ knowledge from the post-test as it was related to the
lesson. In the audio-recorded material it is clear that T1 was not completely satisfied with his
introduction of the object of learning: “I do not think much about the increase itself, but more
about my own clarity /…/.” The teacher’s statement indicates that he has a greater interest in his
introduction and clarity regarding the content than whether the students’ post-test results will
increase. The teacher (T1) is reflecting on his own awareness of how the teaching actions will
affect the students’ understanding of the content.
After the lesson, the teachers discussed how they perceived the opportunities for the
students to discern the geometric shapes.
Excerpt 4:
Teacher 1: It became easier for them when I showed them a cone, instead of just talking about
cones in the presentation; they suddenly knew what a cone was. Then they knew, and then they
could name it. So that was good. And I used, for example, toy blocks /.../, which I also gave out to
the students when we talked about the cube.
Researcher: So, you not only showed the things you had with you [in the lesson], but you also let
the students touch [experience] them?
Teacher 1: Yes, and we also talked about whether we can find more things in the room that are
cubes, we looked specifically at the cuboids. Then we discussed boxes and furniture and other
stuff that was in the room.
Before the lesson, the teachers discussed the importance of having three-dimensional
artefacts to use during the lesson, and to synchronically visualise the mathematical shapes as
they relate to everyday objects. Later, they discussed the opportunities for distinguishing the
spatial properties and spatial relations of the quadrant and the cube by measuring the area and
volume.
Excerpt 5:
Teacher 1: But if I said, “square we can check the area of”, then after a while, someone may be
able to explain volume, but the two students know it and get a lot more space to talk, which allows
them to learn from each other /…/.
Researcher: Could you recognise the students’ knowledge in any way?

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Teacher 1: /…/ I could see them collaborating, even if they work individually, they collaborate. 791
For example, somebody could say, “I need a large rectangle, can you measure that for me?” Or,
“Has anyone seen my cube?” So, they use the words.
The excerpt above shows that the teachers are still discussing collaboration opportunities
to increase students’ knowledge. There is also a connection to the organisational design where the
teachers discuss students’ collaboration about the object of learning. However, still, the teachers
emphasised instruction of peer learning as a knowledge-generating activity. The students are
given opportunities through the teachers’ lesson design by visualising daily artefacts synchronic
with the picture of the three-dimensional shapes through the PowerPoint instructions to interact
and thereby develop and extend their previous knowledge of the object of learning.
The activity allowed the students to create geometric shapes using clay and paper (after
the PowerPoint introduction) and encouraged them to make the three-dimensional shapes
visibly and recognisably (see Figure 5).
Excerpt 6:
Teacher 1: I think it was because they got to see these shapes [in the teacher’s PowerPoint
presentation], that they could communicate the differences between the shapes, the properties of
the shapes and then also that the shapes were set against each other, and also linked to their two-
dimensional shapes. So, it was linked to something they recognised before and compared with
something that was different, and that they had to work with the shapes with their hands. So maybe
they got an understanding of what the shapes look like.
Researcher: Do you mean with the support of the clay?
Teacher 1: Yes, they got to know it. It was tactile, it was visual.
Teacher 2: Together with tactile and visual stimulation, they developed their knowledge of basic
geometric shapes [with those sitting next to them].
The teachers continued to reflect on why the students were able to perceive the cube’s
properties. One reflection is related to the communications between the peers when they
discussed the structure of the cube: “Because of the sides, that side is bigger than that side,
so it’s a rectangle” (students voice through the teachers’ reflections). But the latter can also be
reflected in the object of learning.
Another condition necessary to acquire knowledge about three-dimensional shapes is,
according to the teachers, when the students are guiding each other to create round shapes.
Excerpt 7:
Teacher 1: I make the circle, then [someone says there] it is three-dimensional, and then maybe
someone says “globe”. And then someone else could say, “But you shouldn't do like that. It is
better to roll the meatball or the chocolate ball” and then they started to roll and show with their
hands.
The teachers indicated that the students had gained knowledge that a circle and a sphere
have the same circular properties. The teachers end their conversation by highlighting how they
rolled a ball and slid the cube on the table between the students.
In the next excerpt the students’ developed conceptual understanding through art
constructions according to the teachers.

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792 Excerpt 8:
Teacher 1: We have talked about that, we have looked at that when we talked about differences
between two- and three-dimensional shapes, really, what differentiates them. /.../ Then we talked
about cubes and squares a lot, and they drew and talked about how to draw, for example, how
many directions you can draw lines in three-dimensional shapes, etc. So, there was a little more
focus on the dimensions.
In the excerpt the teachers are sharing their experiences of the research lesson. The
teachers highlighted how the students talked about geometrical shapes in other subjects as well.
Excerpt 9:
Teacher 1: We build things now [at the art lesson] that are two and three-dimensional, and then
you hear people working together, they usually do. I could see them collaborating, even if they
work individually, they collaborate. For example, somebody could say, “I need a large rectangle,
can you measure that for me?” Or, “Has anyone seen my cube?” So, they use the words.
By offering daily artefacts simultaneously with pictures in the PowerPoint, the students
are giving opportunities to transforming mathematical representations in other contexts, i.e. in
the subject of art.
In the following excerpt, the teacher discusses their awareness of their professional
development after the lesson together with the researcher.
Excerpt 10:
Researcher: What I hear you say /…/ is that the difference is that you find that you talk less and
instead let the students discuss and explain more based on the material that you have bring to the
classroom? And then you hear the students’ use words like “depth”, “volume”, “area”? and that
they describe and help each other?
Teacher 1: Mm. Yes exactly. /…/ I think also it can have been depending on me.
Teacher 2: It is not only about you and your learning – it is also about to be able to see when you
can step in into the students’ conversation and raise student’s and give them the opportunity to
discuss and share their knowledges.
Unlike Excerpt 1, when the teachers plan their lesson, they discuss using the concept of
mathematics sparingly since, in this student’s group, they have experienced that some students
react inhibitively and with a “red flag” for the subject. Their reflections after the lesson were
slightly different. There seems to be a developed thought between what the teachers discussed
before the lesson and after the students’ learning outcomes. When the teachers reflected together
with the researcher after their lesson, they discussed their experiences. They highlighted
the possibility that several mathematical concepts can be made visible in other subjects (see
Excerpt 8). Similarly, in Excerpt 10, the teachers discuss the importance of paying attention to
the students’ learning outcomes as well as capturing their professional awareness.
Discussion
This research identified teachers’ awareness of how students in fourth grade distinguished
all two-dimensional shapes and three-dimensional cube, and cone through visual representation
(Van Hiele, 1986). The teacher’s PowerPoint instruction showed that most of the shapes (Table
2) are Level 1 visual representations (Van Hiele, 1986). Only the cube offered a distinction from

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Level 2 through different rotation directions (Excerpt 6). The latter is also synchronic with the 793
two-dimensional shape quadrant (Excerpt 6). In Excerpt 8, the teacher reflected about “how
many directions you can draw with lines in three-dimensional shapes” as cubes synchronic
with two-dimensional squares. According to Van Hiele (1986), the teacher offered a conceptual
understanding of the cubes on Level 5. This can also be related addressed to Hallowell et al.
(2015) results about difficulties at this year of age to transform curves from two- to three-
dimensional. In the post-test (Table 7) and the teachers’ assumptions, it is the cube that has the
most increased understanding (see Excerpts 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). The sphere does not increase at all,
even though the students’ during the pre-test showed an understanding of a circle. However, the
organisation in the classroom provides the students to interact and discuss all the shapes. But
all the three-dimensional shapes were not highlighted by the teacher in the formal mathematical
language (cf Sfard, 2007). For example, they used “globes” and “meatballs” instead of the
sphere (Excerpt 7). After the lesson, the teachers reflected on the importance of incorporating
everyday objects such as cones, toy blocks and globes
while showing the shapes in their PowerPoint presentation. In the result, the teachers
illustrated the cuboids only by pointing to furniture and boxes in the classroom. Regarding
the cuboids, students are allowed to see the similarities only based on a non-rotating visual
representation: both in the PowerPoint presentation and the everyday objects. Cuboids, such as
the rectangle, are distinguished only in their horizontal form (Level 1 Van Hiele, 1986). Even
though the students are working to identify the similarities between the cuboid and rectangle (cf
Maybarr, 1983) during the lesson, there are still 8 of 15 students who do not respond correctly
during the post-test (see Table 7). The latter indicated that even if the students are offered
concrete examples of the shapes (Piaget, 1972), they still do not develop their understanding
and awareness of all the three-dimensional shapes equally. By just showing concrete examples
does not contribute to increased understanding.
Through tactile visualisation with the support of clay and paper, teachers discussed on
different techniques, such as meatball production as support for developing the spatial ability
for identifying spheres. Sfard (2007) argued for the importance of making the mathematical
content visible when developing collaborating classrooms. However, organising for a more
collaborative, linguistic environment is not enough (Excerpt 2). The teacher must also
contribute to the formal mathematical language (Sfard, 2007). It can thus be debated whether
the mathematical concept of the globe has been highlighted in the various activities, such as
taking in a globe (though not naming it as a sphere) and discussing “meatball” production rather
than describing a “sphere”. The result also emphasized that the shape of “sphere” as a concept
also has the second-worst percentage during the post-test (see Table 7).
According to the teacher’s assumption by incorporating everyday objects, it increased the
students’ understanding of three-dimensional shapes (cf Smith, 2001) (Excerpt 4). The teachers
assume that the students have developed their spatial ability to understand their surroundings
(Gardner, 1993). This is also related to the abstract thinking to be able to discern the rotation
of the globe in different spatial spaces (Clements & Battista, 1992). In the results, the teachers
offered students opportunities for tactile and visual representations through clay and paper
activities which stimulated student’s imagination of properties of the shapes (Ball & Cohen,
1999; Klim-Klimaszewska & Nazaruk, 2020). For example, in Excerpts 6 and 8, teachers
assume that students need to see and experience the shapes at the same time so that they can
discern similarities and differences in the proportions of the shapes. This could contribute to
both horizontal and vertical mental spatial understanding through visual rotation (Maier, 1996).
The teachers are not certified mathematics teachers, still there is an increased
understanding by the students of several two-and three-dimensional shapes (Table 5 and 7).
One of the teachers is certified in art in grades 1–9 and in the syllabus in the Swedish curriculum
of the subject of art some of the goals is: “Drawing, painting, printing and three-dimensional

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794 production […]. Different elements that make up and create a sense of space in pictures, such
as lines […] and how these can be used when creating pictures” (SNAE, 2018, p. 28). This
could be interpreted as the goals in the subject of art providing support for the teachers in
this research to interpret even the mathematical goals. The students’ increased understanding
of two- and three-dimensional shapes could therefore be related to the similarities of these
curriculum goals regarding the importance of developing students’ spatial abilities (Ball &
Cohen, 1999). Furthermore, the teachers’ instruction by offering the students an added final
question in the pre- and post-test about their experiences of the test, whether it was difficult or
easy, better aligns with the students’ actual post-test knowledge. It could be interpreted as the
teachers’ construction of the research lesson contributing to the students being offered to reason
similarities and differences between two- and three-dimensional shapes (Excerpts 2, 3 and 5).
This could also achieve the curriculum’s following goals in the subject of art: “Words and terms
for interpreting, writing and discussing the picture’s design and message” (SNAE, 2018, p.
29), and through these objectives at the same time may have contributed to reasoning and thus
contributed to students’ conceptual understanding of the cube and cone (Ball & Cohen, 1999).
Nevertheless, it is possible to think that a limitation is that the teachers in this research are not
certificated mathematics teachers and therefore explain why the pre- and post-tests only test the
students’ spatial knowledge on Level 1 (Van Hiele, 1986). Despite this it could be discussed
in relation to the fact that students mathematical two- and three-dimensional abilities increase
(Clements & Battista, 1992; Olkun, 2003; Thurstone, 1950).
The results of this research addressed the importance of teachers’ developing knowledge
about designing tests based on the chosen object of learning (Ball & Cohen, 1999). We find
further support that teachers are choosing the object of learning based on their need to develop
their everyday practice in the classroom (Smith, 2001). According to Smith (2001), teachers
should further develop an understanding of topics, and pedagogy–components of a teacher’s
knowledge base for teaching–by designing tasks that are central to teaching.
The results from this research strengthen earlier discussions that PBDP research is rooted
in the issues and challenges that school professionals face and deal with in their day-to-day
practice, and to give equal opportunities to develop abilities and build new knowledge (Ball &
Cohen, 1999; Christensson, 2018). According to Harris et al. (2012), a teacher-driven approach
promotes new skills in the classroom. This research leads to knowledge that teachers can use
to improve their teaching and working methods as well as their ability awareness to make
professional judgments about development and learning (Carlgren, 2005, 2011).
In this research, the learning process (Wood, 2019) has emphasised the teaching targets
for understanding instead of teaching as telling, which had been the important direction for
the teachers (Lewis, 2009). In two Excerpts (4 and 6), the researchers guided the teachers in
their collaborative effort to improve their classroom PBPD, reflecting over the teacher learning
process and analysing the merits and disadvantages of the research lesson.
The research model for the teachers’ research design was inspired by the Japanese
collaborative professional development model lesson study (Doig & Groves, 2011; Lewis,
2002, 2009; Lewis & Tsuchida, 1998; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). The result showed increased
awareness of using collaboration opportunities to apply classroom (Vrikki et al., 2017; Warwick
et al., 2019) instructions and activities to increase students’ knowledge about the object of
learning (Fujii, 2016) two-and three-dimensional shapes.
Conclusions
The results of this research highlight the students’ (in primary school) increased
understanding of two- and three-dimensional shapes even though the teachers in this research
are not certified maths teachers. This research illuminates how the PBPD approach stressed the

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teachers’ teaching targets for understanding students’ content knowledge of geometric shapes. 795
The results provide evidence that PBPD research approach, containing reflective discussions
with a researcher, developed teacher’s awareness and understanding of necessary conditions to
enhance students’ abilities to discern two- and three-dimensional shapes. The analysis of the
research data identified teachers’ awareness and understanding, which challenges students need
to face in learning about three-dimensional shapes from two-dimensional representations.
Concerning this result, further research should effort more iterative and revised research
lesson design to develop more powerful content knowledge and classroom activity in this
topic area. The findings also pointed out that there is a need to examine why artefacts did not
increase all three-dimensional shapes. Additionally, more studies are needed to develop a PBPD
framework to promote a more conceptual teacher understanding for lesson design and support a
more forceful evidence-based teaching approach in geometry in primary school.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their supervisor’s professor Mona Holmquist and the
lecturer Jonas Alwall for guidance and support. The authors would also want to thank the
reviewers for the comments and guidance. The authors want to thank colleagues at Malmo
University and the faculty of Education and Society. This research is a part of the Swedish
National Research School of Special Education for Teacher Educators (SET), funded by the
Swedish Research Council (grant no. 2017-06039), for which the authors are grateful.
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798
Cite as: Lelinge, B., & Svensson, C. (2020). Teachers’ awareness and understanding of
students’ content knowledge of geometric shapes. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
78(5), 777-798. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.777
Balli Lelinge PhD Student, University Lecturer, Malmo University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden.
(Corresponding author) E-mail: balli.lelinge@mau.se
Website: https://mau.se
Christina Svensson PhD Student, University Lecturer, Malmo University, 20506 Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: christina.svensson@mau.se
Website: https://mau.se

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SUBJECT PANELS AS SUSTAINABLE 799
INNOVATION FOR TEACHER

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Godwin Mumhure
Morgenster Teachers College, Zimbabwe
E-mail: mumhuregodwin@yahoo.com
Loyiso C. Jita
University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
E-mail: jitalc@ufs.ac.za
Godsend T. Chimbi
University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
E-mail: ChimbiGT@ufs.ac.za
Abstract
For centuries, teacher professional development has largely been done by external experts who advise
teachers on how to improve classroom practice and learner performance. This research explores a
relatively unchartered idea of history subject panels/clusters as an innovation meant to break away
from orthodox teacher professional development spearheaded by external experts. The research adopts
a qualitative case study design. One history subject panel was casestudied to examine how teachers
initiated and sustained improvements in classroom practice and learner performance. Eight history
teachers, who were active participants in the panel, were purposively sampled out of 25 teachers who
constituted the history subject panel. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews, document
analysis and focus group discussion. Symbolic interactionism was used as the theoretical lens to gain
deeper insights into how teachers socialised and shared ideas in the subject panel. Results indicated that
the history subject panel was involved in the induction of new history teachers into the profession and
the creation of learning communities for history students; practices hitherto undocumented in existing
literature on subject panels and teacher networks. Results also showed that the activities of the history
subject panel improved teachers’ classroom practice. The implications of this research are that teacher-
led subject panels need to be nurtured and supported so that teacher-driven continuous professional
development can be enacted across all the subjects offered in the school curriculum. Subject panels can
reduce schools’ dependency on external experts for teacher professional development, making teachers
the proverbial doctors who can heal themselves.
Keywords: history subject panels/clusters, qualitative case study, teacher induction, student learning
communities, sustainable innovation, teacher professional development
Introduction
The creation of subject panels is a shift from the traditional top-down teacher professional
development models that are spearheaded by external experts hired from outside the school
system. Subject panels place teacher improvement squarely in the hands of the teachers who
need a remedy to improve their practice and, ultimately, learner performance. But, globally,

Godwin MUMHURE, Loyiso C. JITA, Godsend T. CHIMBI. Subject panels as sustainable innovation for teacher professional
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800 teacher professional development has mainly been practiced as a top-down initiative wherein
teachers often play a subordinate role as they are told what to do to improve their classroom
practices (Chikoko, 2007; Dehghan, 2020; Govender, 2018; Hardman et al., 2015). Subject
panels, also known as subject clusters or teacher networks, are a relatively new phenomenon in
teacher professional development, especially in the developing world (Jita & Mokhele, 2012;
Shikalepo, 2018). As a result, from their inception, the purpose and activities of subject clusters
have been a bone of contention between teacher leaders (who often run them) and the school
administrators (who supervise them and the teachers) (Chikoko & Aipinge, 2009).
The establishment of subject panels, thus, seems to have created two centres of power
in the school system, threatening the dominant hierarchical unipolar power structure which
revolves around the school principal. Most heads of schools are used to traditional teacher
development practices which emanate from “upper sources of authority” (Dehghan, 2020, p.
3); such as curriculum supervisory authorities or policymakers. Despite efforts to decentralise
school leadership, conventional staff development programmes tend to follow a bureaucratic
hierarchy of power which is still functional in most schools.
The subject-cluster model breaks away from the orthodox top-down paradigm by adopting
a bottom-up, teacher-centric approach to teacher professional development (Dehghan, 2020;
García-Martínez & Tadeu, 2018; Tikkanen et al., 2019). In this context, the initiative to improve
teacher professional practice is placed in the teacher’s hands, rather than administrators and/
or external experts – more akin to a doctor who prepares remedies for him- or herself. Recent
research has shown that classroom practice improves when teachers are given the autonomy to
find solutions to challenges they encounter in their practice (Gore & Rosser, 2020; Govender,
2018; Mansfield & Thompson, 2016; Rincon-Gallardo & Fullan, 2016; Stacy, 2013). When
teachers are involved in their own professional development, their confidence with, ownership
of and commitment to new ideas and school reform increase.
Models for Teacher Professional Development
Several models have been developed to support teacher professional development in

many countries and in different contexts (Mokhele, 2011). But traditional teacher professional
development has largely been characterised by sporadic once-off workshops intended to provide
teachers with the latest information on particular aspects of their work (Bett, 2016). Traditional
teacher development is usually unconnected to teachers’ classroom realities because it is often
led by hired external experts (Dehghan, 2020). This commonly used approach is often called
staff development in many countries.
Staff Development Model
The staff development model is the traditional top-down approach often initiated by
curriculum supervisory authorities, university experts and/or school administrators who
spearhead teacher professional development (Ngcoza & Southwood, 2015; Ngema & Lekhetho,
2019; Tikkanen et al., 2019). Traditional staff development workshops are led by external
experts, hired from outside the school, and teachers are semi-passive recipients of the new
knowledge that is expected to improve their practice. This model has been tried and tested in
both developed and developing countries, with varying degrees of success.
Villegas-Reimers (2003) found that staff development workshops improved learners’
achievement in mathematics and writing skills in Australia when teachers shared their
pedagogical challenges with the external experts who came to assist them. However, many
studies (Ngema & Lekhetho, 2019, Wong & Bautista, 2017; Yates, 2012) have found this
authority-oriented approach to teacher professional development to be ineffective in promoting

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sustainable school reform and changes in classroom pedagogy. This is mainly because hired 801
experts are far removed from classroom realities and the unique contexts particular schools
and teachers operate in. So, the past decades have seen a paradigm shift in the way teacher
professional development is conceptualised. Current research (Dehghan, 2020; García-
Martínez & Tadeu, 2018; Govender, 2018; Tikkanen et al., 2019) is advocating for school-
based professional development models that are organised and led by the teachers themselves.
School Clusters
The new perspective suggests that teacher professional development should be led by
the teachers themselves and be closely aligned to their daily work (García-Martínez & Tadeu,
2018; Tikkanen et al., 2019). Thus, teacher professional development is now regarded as a
collaborative process in which teachers learn from each other and initiate or adapt professional
development programmes to suit their unique contexts and specific needs (Ajani, 2019; Picower,
2015). School clusters, also known as school networks, aim at bringing together schools in
one geographical area and pool resources and expertise to support school reform and teacher
professional development.
The Australian National School Network (NSN), for instance, was used to identify
challenges preventing schools from implementing new ideas to improve teaching and learning
(Day & Sachs, 2004). This project has been credited for successful pedagogical reform in over
400 Australian schools. It linked teacher professional development to ongoing school-based
research, transformed classroom practice and improved teacher competency and, ultimately,
learner performance. School clusters have also been popular as a model for improving school
administration, reform implementation and teacher competency in Nigeria (Ajani & Govender,
2018); Tanzania (Hardman et al., 2015); South Africa (Jita & Mokhele, 2012) and Namibia
(Shikalepo, 2018). In Zimbabwe, school clusters were introduced as a joint initiative by the
governments of Zimbabwe and the Netherlands to promote quality education under the Better
Schools Programme in 1993 (Chikoko, 2007). Subject clusters were later introduced in 1999 as
sub-units of the school clusters.
Teacher Networks
Teacher networks, also known as professional learning communities, subject clusters

or subject panels, even though the terms have their own nuances, are a relatively new model
for teacher professional development in most developing countries (García-Martínez & Tadeu,
2018; Nakambonde-Daniel, 2018); although there is a rather long history of subject panels in the
developed countries. This model brings together teachers from the same or different schools to
address the common problems they encounter in their practice. For instance, secondary school
teachers who teach the same subject can form a subject panel which promotes their collective
interests. Teacher networks can also play a mentoring role in which experienced teachers assist
novice teachers on how they can improve pedagogical practice and become better and more
effective teachers (Falyakhov, 2018; García-Martínez & Tadeu, 2018).
Wong and Bautista (2017) argued that teachers should be responsible for managing the
subject networks to wean off dependency on external experts. However, some studies have
recorded power struggles between school principals and teacher leaders for the control of
subject clusters (Chikoko & Aipinge, 2009; Jita & Mokhele, 2012). Not much research has been
done to explore the activities of subject panels, especially in Zimbabwe as previous studies
tended to focus more on school clusters as opposed to subject panels (Chikoko, 2007; Delport
& Makaye, 2009; Maphosa et al., 2013). The current research sought to gain insights into the
workings of one history subject panel at the grassroots level.

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802 Functions of Teacher Networks
The literature suggests that teacher networks engage in a variety of activities designed
to improve teaching and learning in schools. In the Russian Federation for instance, Falyakhov
(2018) established that teacher clusters help to bring together experienced mentors with new
college graduates so that they can learn from one another. Falyakhov (2018) emphasised that,
“not only those who have a lot of experience in pedagogical work, but also those who have
just come out of the trainees’ environment may and should be mentors, because production
needs new generators of ideas, which, as we know, should be sought among young people,
and they, in turn, need experience to consolidate the acquired knowledge …” (p. 93). Clusters
make learning an iterative and collaborative process between the experienced mentors (with
their tried and tested practices) and the inexperienced (with their new and untested knowledge),
which may prove useful in initiating and fostering pedagogical change.
In their study of cluster-based professional development in New Zealand, Starkey et al.
(2007) found that secondary school teachers participated in various job-embedded activities and
the implementation of standards-based assessment as required by the New Zealand education
authorities. In Zimbabwe, South Africa and Namibia teacher clusters also spend most of their
time advancing the policy agendas of their governments (Chikoko & Aipinge, 2009, Maphahlele
& Rampa, 2015; Nakambonde-Daniel, 2018).
In Zimbabwe and Namibia, clusters provide opportunities for teachers to work together
on syllabus interpretation, scheming and setting common test papers and marking guides
(Maphosa et al., 2013; Shikalepo, 2018). Owens, Pogodzinsk and Hill (2016) observed that,
“professional development is most effective when it is relevant to the teachers by being
intensive, ongoing and connected to practice” (p. 207). In Nigeria, Nwagbara (2014) found that
teachers discuss difficult concepts, teaching-learning techniques, develop instructional media
and jointly plan lessons in their clusters.
Challenges Faced by Teacher Networks
Teacher networks require proper management if they are to fulfil their teacher professional
development mandate. Wong and Bautista (2017) argued that teacher networks must be managed
by the teachers themselves, leaving most clusters with practical organisational challenges. In
Zimbabwe, teacher clusters were introduced as sub-units within school clusters, making them
unpopular with school principals, who felt that teacher leaders were somehow usurping their
powers (Chikoko, 2007). Some teacher clusters are made up of teachers working in schools that
may be far apart. Problems of distance and teacher absenteeism at professional development
sessions have been found to be rampant (Kennedy, 2011). Battersby and Verdi (2015) found
that small schools often struggle to fund teachers to attend professional development seminars
conducted at distant stations. As a result, teachers end up not attending the teacher networks,
making them miss out on new ideas and interactions, which could have helped them improve
their classroom practice and support school reform efforts.
Theoretical Framework
The theory of symbolic interactionism provided guidance for this research on teacher
activities, collaboration and collegiality during history subject panel meetings and seminars.
The theory, as articulated by George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer, holds that human
beings construct meaning of the world through interaction, communication and working
together in social and professional groups (Haralambos et al., 2013). This research focused
on the meanings the high school history teachers ascribed to the history subject panel as they

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engaged in discussions and shared ideas on history pedagogy and classroom management. They 803
dialogued on effective instructional practice, how they could improve their own teaching and
student performance.
The research sought to understand, from the teachers’ perspective, how facilitators for
the history subject panel seminars were selected, who set the agendas for the meetings, and the
type of activities they engaged in during the panel meetings/seminars. Through interaction,
active and collaborative learning, the teachers engaged with content and pedagogical knowledge
of history as an academic subject. Academic and social interaction in the panel enabled the
teachers to suggest possible solutions to the challenges they encountered in their practice,
making symbolic interactionism an appropriate theoretical lens for this research. The current
research sought to explore whether (and how) the activities of the selected history subject panel
were empowering teachers to professionally develop themselves without input form external
experts.
This research aimed at exploring how teachers in a history subject cluster challenged the
implicit notion that they may not be well placed to provide sustainable solutions to problems of
practice by initiating and sustaining their own professional development. The central argument
is that subject panels can provide sustainable, teacher-led, grassroots innovations for teacher
professional development, which has, hitherto, been in the hands of external experts. Two major
questions driving the argument in this research were:
• What were the unique practices of a history subject panel that served as a platform for
school-based teacher professional development?
• How can these practices be supported and/or sustained?
General Background
A qualitative research approach was adopted to examine the innovations of one subject
panel in the Masvingo District of Zimbabwe. The adoption of the qualitative research approach
was partly informed by the theory of symbolic interactionism (Haralambos et al., 2013), which
was used as a lens to understand how participants constructed meanings through interaction.
Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011) argued that the social world can only be understood from
the “standpoint of the individuals who are part of the ongoing action being investigated” (p.
15). The qualitative research approach was also deemed appropriate to gather rich descriptive
data from informed participants (Creswell, 2013), on the activities of the selected history
subject panel. Permission to collect data for this research was granted by the University of
the Free State Education Ethics Board in June 2015 under Ethics Clearance Number UFS-
HS2015/0291; which was subsequently used to apply for access to schools and history subject
panels in Zimbabwe from the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education.
Research Design
A case study research design was adopted to gain deeper insights into the activities of
one history subject panel. The panel was case studied from July 2015 to March 2016. Although
the case study research design has often been criticised for its limited generalisability to a wider
population, its particularisation can also be seen as its main strength because, “it can provide
insights that may be useful in other related contexts” (Spillane, 2000, p. 309).The case study

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804 design allowed for prolonged engagement with the panel to observe how it operated and the
challenges it encountered as a novel approach to teacher professional development. Secondary
school teachers who participated in history subject panels in Masvingo Province were targeted.
For logistical and financial reasons, the whole target population could not be involved in the
research (Cohen et al., 2011), making sampling inevitable.
Sample Selection
Purposive sampling was used to select the most active panel. The most active panel
was a history cluster which held two or three meetings/seminars per school term (the school
calendar has three terms a year); and had documented minutes of such activities. The most
active panel for the purposes of this research was found to be the Masvingo District history
subject cluster. Eight history teachers were purposively sampled; one from each of the eight
schools that made up the Masvingo District history subject panel. The panel had a total of 25
history teachers. The selected participants were Advanced Level (A-level/Form 5 & 6) history
teachers. In Zimbabwe A-level are the preparatory classes for university studies. These teachers
were either members of the panel executive committee, experienced facilitators, or just active
members (most involved in activities) of the panel. Potential participants were asked if they
were willing to take part in the research. Those who agreed signed consent forms as proof of
voluntary participation. They were informed of their right to withdraw from the research with or
without giving any reasons and were assured of confidentiality through the use of pseudonyms.
Instruments and Procedures
Document analysis, semi-structured interviews, observations and a focus-group

discussion (FGD) were used to gather data. Document analysis involved an examination of the
minutes of the meetings and seminars the panel held. The minutes provided vital information
on the venues for the panel meetings/seminars, agendas, facilitators, attendance and the
activities the panel engaged in. Information from the minutes helped in focusing the questions
in the interview guide, FGD protocol and the observation schedule. Semi-structured interview
questions were used to solicit views and opinions on the efficacy of the history subject panel
from the eight teachers sampled. The interviews focused on how facilitators were selected, the
setting of the agendas, the activities of the panel, the challenges teachers faced, the viability
of the panel, and how the panel could be improved. Interviews were tape recorded and later
transcribed verbatim into typed text using a word processor.
The first researcher attended and observed four history subject panel meetings between
July 2015 and March 2016 as a non-participant observer. He did not participate in the meetings
but asked for permission (from the panel executive committee) to sit-in, audio-record and take
notes on the proceedings. Three meetings were workshops for history teachers. The teacher-
facilitators engaged their colleagues in discussion and debate on how they could assist students
interpret the key words used in essay questions and improve their essay writing skills. One
meeting was a seminar in which A-level history students presented papers they had researched
from past examination questions. The seminar strengthened learning communities for history
students and prepared them for their final external examinations. The observation guide used
by the first researcher identified the facilitators, the nature and quality of interactions, the locus
of power and control, comments the teachers made and how differences were resolved. These
observations were meant to authenticate the responses participants gave in the interviews. They
also provided first-hand information on the activities of the history subject panel as a platform
for teacher professional development.

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One focus group interview brought together all the eight participants for an FGD. The 805
aim was to allow the eight history teachers to engage in a collective discussion on how the
history panel was functioning and promoting (or failing to promote) the interests of the history
teachers. The FGD had a duration of one and a half hours and was audio-recorded for latter
transcription into typed text. The discussion verified the authenticity of the responses given in the
interviews by the participants. Rabiee (2004) advised that the focus group interview generates
data which “are often deeper and richer than those obtained from one-to-one interviews…as
well as illuminating the differences in perspective between groups of individuals” (p. 656). The
FGD raised some issues which the researchers had not captured in the focus group interview
guide, like school principals’ negative attitudes towards the history panel and overcrowding
at the panel seminars. It also generated unrestricted conversation and debate on the activities,
successes and challenges of the history subject panel as a grassroots innovation to teacher
professional development.
Data Analysis
Data gathered from minutes of the subject panel meetings/seminars, observations, audio-
recorded one-on-one interviews and the focus group interview were electronically transcribed
using a Microsoft-Word processor. The transcribed and printed data were then manually coded,
categorised, tabulated and arranged to decipher convergencies, divergences as well as emerging
themes. Documentary data from the minutes of the subject cluster meetings and seminars were
examined through interpretive content analysis to make sense of what was written (Bogdan
& Biklen, 1992). The written evidence was then coded and categorised into themes to show
the agendas of the meetings, the facilitators and the activities the panel engaged in. Data
from transcribed one-on-one interviews and observation protocols were examined, coded,
categorised and reduced to bring out common ideas. The common ideas from the interviews
and observations were then synthesised, aggregated and crystallised into emerging themes.
Analysis of data from the FGD went through several stages starting with examining the
32-page volume of the transcribed group interview text. This first stage of analysis involved
making sense of the data and “getting rid of extra and irrelevant information” (Rabiee, 2004,
p. 657), which participants had brought up during the discussion. The evidence from the
group discussion, which was deemed relevant to the research questions, was then categorised,
coded, tabulated and reduced into manageable units. Data from the FGD was triangulated with
data from the interviews, documents and observations to check for uniqueness, similarities,
consistency and authenticity. Evidence from the four research tools was then aggregated and
crystallised into emerging themes which are presented in the next chapter.
Research Results
This research explored and unpacked the activities and efficacy of the Masvingo District
history subject panel as a teacher-managed innovation for teacher professional development
in Zimbabwe. Four themes emerged during data analysis: selection of facilitators, agendas for
panel meetings, activities during panel meetings and efficacy of the subject panel.
Selection of Facilitators
The research sought to determine from participants how facilitators were selected
to lead discussions in the history subject panel. Mberi, a member of the panel executive
committee, explained that: “Usually we select somebody with marking experience [of external
examinations] or somebody who has been in the field for some time.” He also suggested that

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806 the subject panel did not often use external experts because “they are out of touch with what is
happening in the classroom.” It, thus, appears that the subject panel executive committee had
the mandate to select facilitators for the sessions. On the same issue of facilitators, Mapakise
remarked: “the committee sits down and chooses facilitators. Sometimes we have volunteers
to facilitate.” The executive committee seemed to do most of the selection, although some
teachers volunteered to facilitate. Chingeve supported what Mberi had said: “Teachers can
be selected to facilitate based on the results they produce. The examination results can be a
reflection of the competence of the teacher.”
Chambara and Zhou also confirmed that examiners were often preferred as facilitators
in the subject panels. Three of the four history subject panel meetings, observed by the first
researcher, were led by teachers who were also external examiners. However, one panel meeting
was facilitated by an external expert, who is the author of several A-Level history textbooks.
The selection of the latter seemed to contradict Mberi, who said that they do not hire external
experts because they are out of touch with classroom reality, even though it was probably a
strategic choice to get insights from the author of the very textbooks that the teachers used for
teaching. In summary, it would appear that facilitators for history subject panel meetings are
often selected by the executive committee, with occasional input from the teachers.
Agendas for Panel Meetings
The research solicited participants’ views on how agendas for the history subject panel
were set. Mberi pointed out that: “We prefer the chairman and his committee to do so. It’s mostly
the executive committee’s duty to set the agenda.” Mapakise confirmed thus “the executive…
they normally do not consult. They just impose.” The executive committee appeared to have the
mandate to set the agenda. However, Nyota, Zhou and Zvaita seemed to see things differently.
Nyota pointed out that, “At the end of the meeting, there can be a plenary session whereby
people are asked to brainstorm issues that proved to be a challenge during the meeting. These
are the issues which are tabled for future meetings.” Zhou added: “It is the teachers who tell the
executive committee what to include in the next meeting.” Zvaita expressed similar views when
he said that “during meetings, teachers may point out areas in need of further discussions.
These form part of the agenda for the next meeting.” These three participants seem to suggest
that the teachers’ input on the agenda was perhaps much more than just occasional.
In further unpacking the issue of teachers’ input on the agenda of subject panels, Chambara
explained how the teachers’ inputs sometimes clashed with the interests of the executive
committee: “The executive will be saying, ‘last time we discussed syllabus interpretation, so
this time we are moving on to examination techniques’, but teachers may have unanswered
questions on syllabus interpretation. The executive may want progress and move on to new
issues.” This is when the interests of the executive committee might be seen to override those
of the ordinary members of the subject panel. This is perhaps a matter of degree rather than lack
of participation in agenda setting altogether.
Activities during Panel Meetings
Results suggest that three key activities dominated the work of the history subject panel,
namely: the involvement of A-level history students in the seminars, improving teachers’
educational practice and inducting new history teachers into the profession.

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Student Involvement in Seminars 807
In a rather uncommon but exciting twist, the history subject panel sessions brought
together history teachers and A-level history students. In the interview, Mberi explained that:
Before the seminar begins, some teachers will be marking the tasks given to students for seminar
paper presentations. Some will be trying to interpret the questions to the other teachers so that
there will be no confusion in front of the students. We will be teaching each other how to mark
those essays and making some additions to what students would have written in their essays
before students start their presentations.
Document analysis of the minutes of the history subject panel meetings revealed that
teachers engaged in syllabus interpretation and the assessment of A-level students’ essay-
writing skills. In three subject panel meetings, teachers were observed helping each other
to interpret and answer A-level history examination questions. Teachers who were external
examiners led the discussions, while the other panel members made contributions and raised
issues that needed clarification. Chambara pointed out that, “what happens is that schools are
given different questions to present and the presentation should be done by students and not
teachers. So, we will be having teachers at these seminars, with students presenting.” Similarly,
Zhou added that “students do the presentations and those teachers who are examiners will help
where pupils fail to present good answers.” The themes on the facilitation by teachers who are
examiners and student involvement in the activities of the history subject panels recurred in
conversations with all the research participants.
Improving Educational Practice
Mapakise continued to unpack the activities that teachers engaged in during subject
panel sessions as follows: “We will be mainly focusing on the best ways that can be adopted
to teach the history subject ... This will help teachers to guide students on how they can write
better essays at A-level. The main target is to improve the pass rate.” He elaborated further:
“We mainly focus on technicalities to answer questions, the interpretation part of the questions.
The content part – there is a general assumption that every practising teacher has the content
of the subject. So, the issue of content is given very little attention.” Observations made by the
first researcher during a history subject panel meeting held on 8 March 2016 seemed to support
what Mapakise described in the interview. During the meeting, teachers mainly asked questions
centred on the interpretation of task words in an essay, such as “To what extent”, “How far”,
“Evaluate”, and “Discuss”. Content was only used to illustrate what the task words meant.
Part of the reason for not focusing on content could be that all A-level history teachers
have a minimum of a first degree with history as a major, so it was generally assumed that
they have adequate content knowledge of the subject. Chingeve also explained that: “teachers
actually look at the questions they find difficult in their respective schools. They bring these to
the panel sessions and the executive committee finds teachers who are experts in those areas,
and these facilitate the discussions.” The focus on improving teachers’ pedagogical knowledge
during history subject panel sessions appeared to be another recurring theme in the discussions
with the participants.

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808 Inducting New A-level History Teachers
One critical activity that is somewhat unusual, in which the Masvingo District history
subject panel was involved, was the induction of new A-level history teachers into the profession.
As Chambara explained:
When you come from university or college, you will be an academic ... but when you are taught in
the subject panel, you become a professional. You meet teachers with different experiences, years
of teaching in the field and you get information through interaction. They will be teaching you
how you teach these students. What you have to focus on is different from the experience that you
got from university or college.
New history teachers are inducted into the history classroom by the history subject
panel. They collaborated with more experienced colleagues to ease their adaptation into the
classroom. Chambara stressed the disparity that often exists between what teachers learn at
universities and classroom realities. What teachers learn at universities may be different from
what they experience in schools. History subject panels thus seem to be closing the gap between
university knowledge and classroom practice, something that is of critical importance, but often
neglected in many developing countries with relatively weaker systems of teacher induction.
Chingeve also pointed out that, “The moment you are to teach A-Level for the first time, you find
out you actually face a lot of complications. It’s like you are actually walking on a mine-infested
field and you definitely need someone to take you along.” In this case, the History subject panel
seminars appear to fill an important void on induction by providing new A-level teachers with
the much-needed space to solicit and receive help from more experienced colleagues.
Efficacy of the History Subject Panel
While the history subject panel engaged in a variety of activities to promote teacher
professional development, there were militating factors that conspired to undermine the
efficacy of the Masvingo District history subject panel. The FGD held with the eight teachers
brought out three key threats to the efficacy of the history subject panel. These threats were:
poor funding, school principals’ negative attitudes and overcrowding at the history seminars.
Poor Funding
During the focus group interview, the first researcher inquired about the challenges the
Masvingo District history subject panel faced. The following are excerpts from the FGD.
Mapakise: The main problem clusters complain about is the issue of funding. Funding is not there, and
the members will be struggling to attend the cluster meetings...The schools don’t want to give out
money. Sometimes, we have to pump out from our pockets.
Chingeve: You will actually find that funding is a problem. Take, for example, when you need funds for
typing the much-needed literature for use by teachers, you actually find that the funds are not
forthcoming.
Charamba: The school head will say, “your things are expensive to the school. We want to save funds
for the school.” So, sometimes they won’t allow you to go out there because they will say, “you
claim travelling and subsistence allowance to go there,” and also, “to those seminars you want
to claim and to go with those pupils.” This is another challenge to the school to fund those pupils
to attend these seminars; especially our rural day secondary schools – their funds are limited
because parents are poor.

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These utterances by the participants paint a rather gloomy picture of the future of the 809
subject panels. School principals, who are expected to support teacher professional development,
often seem to be constrained or perhaps even unwilling to fund subject clusters. The challenge
of inadequate financial resourcing of most rural (and sometimes urban) schools could militate
against formation and sustainability of effective subject panels. But referring to history subject
cluster activities as “your things” may also suggest that the principal (at Chambara’s school) did
not have a favourable attitude towards the history subject panel.
School Principals’ Negative Attitudes
The FGD also brought out the issue of some school principals’ negative attitudes towards
the history subject panel.
Zhou: There are some teachers who complain about administration in their schools. There are some who
say that their headmasters refuse to give them permission to attend these panel meetings. And
in some cases, they in fact complain about financial issues. When you attend such a committee
[subject panel meeting], you are supposed to be financed by the school, then some headmasters
say the school does not have money and attendance is not always 100% because of headmasters’
lack of support.
Nyota: The schools don’t want to give out money ... when we attended a certain panel meeting at Ndarama,
we had to go there using our own means, out of our own interest. We had to pump out from our
own pockets.
Mapakise: The National Association of Secondary School Heads (NASH) often pledges to sponsor, but
sometimes you will find NASH hasn’t given us anything. They just say write down your names
and the number of people attending and take the minutes.
Some school heads’ negative attitudes towards subject panels made teachers and students
use their own resources to attend history subject panel activities. Some of the principals
complained that the subject panels were a waste of scarce financial resources. Others saw
the panels as creating two centres of power because they were not under their administrative
control because they were led by teacher leaders. The issue of school heads denying teachers
the opportunity to participate in history subject panels surfaced several times during the one-
on-one interviews as well as the FGD.
Overcrowding at Seminars
One issue which spontaneously emerged during the FGD was that of overcrowding
during the subject panel seminars that involved A-level history students. The issue of space was
not captured in the focus group interview guide because the researchers had never thought of it
when they constructed the guide. Chingeve brought up the issue of space as a challenge to the
efficacy of their history subject panel.
Chingeve: There is overcrowding at seminars and some teachers come late for meetings due to transport
problems.
Mberi: At times, there is overcrowding at these panels and sharing of information becomes a problem.
Nyati: Too many students are difficult to control, and this makes the panel seminars ineffective.
Nyota: Overcrowding at seminars leads to poor communication, causing student disciplinary
problems.
Zhou: But gentlemen the problem of overcrowding is not for our seminars only. All schools in our country
are overloaded. We have classes with more than 50 students each.
Mberi: Overcrowding at our seminars is a problem we have to learn to live with. This is a policy issue
which we may never be able to solve. Like Mr Zhou is pointing out even classes at our schools
are overloaded.

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810 Overcrowding at seminars was a theme that emerged during the FGD with participants
which the researchers had not anticipated when they prepared the focus group interview guide.
The first researcher later observed the problem of lack of space at the venue where a seminar
was held with A-level history students. He observed that it was difficult for the facilitators
to respond to all the concerns raised by students due to overcrowding. Many A-level history
students appeared eager to attend the subject panel seminars and participate in the learning
communities created.
Discussion
This research explored and unpacked the activities and efficacy of one history subject
panel as an innovative grassroots model for teacher professional development. García-Martínez
and Tadeu (2018) observed the shortcomings of preservice training for secondary school
teachers when they pointed out that, “the professionals who practice in secondary school lack
specific training as teachers. Because for decades, training has been committed to the mastery of
content rather than the possession of pedagogical skills, these teachers have gaps that limit their
teaching practices” (p. 149). The current research on the history subject panel as an innovation
for teacher professional development can be an important bridge to the gap between what new
teachers learnt in universities and what they experience in the classroom. Results from the
current research indicate that, given the opportunity, subject panels can play a key role in the
staff development of novice colleagues, who can benefit from interaction with experienced
colleagues. This shows that the proverbial “Doctor, heal thyself” is indeed possible if teachers
are afforded the opportunity to staff develop each other; instead of waiting for external experts
(who are far detached from everyday classroom practice) to come and tell them what to do to
improve their practice and learner performance.
Some key findings from this research seem to speak directly to existing literature. For
instance, the history subject panel executive committee selected knowledgeable and experienced
panel members to be facilitators for the seminars, instead of hiring external experts. This aligned
with research by Stacy (2013), which established that professional development for teachers
should utilise local expertise so that, “teachers can reclaim their professional autonomy by
becoming experts within their schools” (p. 46). The use of local experts also supports Rincon-
Gallardo and Fullan’s (2016) assertion that empowered teachers can help improve colleagues’
instructional practice.
However, some results from the current research seem to contradict the principles
of democratisation embedded in existing literature. Tikkanen et al. (2019) suggested that
facilitators for teacher professional development sessions should be chosen by the teachers
themselves to increase collegiality. While in some cases, the teachers self-selected themselves
to facilitate the history panel sessions, there were instances where the executive could be seen
to impose with relatively little input from the teachers. A balancing act is often needed in the
development of the agenda, to encourage ownership and engagement by the teachers. Hargreaves
et al. (2013) argued in favour of teacher involvement in planning professional development
programmes so that teachers’ needs are reflected. Mansfield and Thompson (2016) argued for
teacher involvement in agenda-setting to increase ownership and commitment to professional
development initiatives.
The use of the history panel to induct new A-level history teachers into the teaching
profession and the creation of student learning communities appeared to be two novel
practices emanating from the current study, hitherto undocumented in existing literature. While
existing literature suggested that subject panels play an important role in teacher professional
development, the unique findings in the current research add new dimensions to the role of
subject panels. The history subject panel case studied appeared to be taking a new professional

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role of inducting new history teachers into the profession and creating learning communities 811
for A-level history students. Previous studies focused on the creation of professional learning
communities or communities of practice for teachers, and not for students (Chikoko, 2007;
Jita & Mokhele, 2012; Shikalepo, 2018; Tikkanen et al., 2019). The Masvingo District history
subject panel seemed to be adding a new dimension to the concept of learning communities by
bringing together A-level history students so that they could learn from one another, instead
of relying on their subject teachers. Student learning communities can be extended to all the
subjects offered in the school curricula; and can be internationalised as an innovation to improve
learner performance across the globe.
This research examined the activities and efficacy of one history subject panel as an
innovation for teacher professional development in Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe. The case
study of a history subject panel generated new insights into how subject panels can be used to
induct new teachers into the profession and organise history students into learning communities,
not only in Zimbabwe, but throughout the world.
The innovation on teacher induction using subject panels, if sustained and extended to
all the subjects offered in the school curricula, can bridge the gap between theory taught in
schools of teacher education in universities and practice existing in schools. Sustainability and
going-to-scale will, however, not be possible without due collaboration with policymakers,
school principals and learners. The missing voices of the policymakers, principals and students
in the current research are gaps that can be pursued in future studies on subject panels and their
efficacy in different contexts and countries. The formation and sustainability of student learning
communities is yet to be studied further and documented in depth, pointing new directions for
future research. Although students are the chief client in all education systems, and the ultimate
beneficiaries from teacher professional development, they are often marginalised in research on
how classroom practice can be improved. Future research on learning communities for teachers
can be reconceptualised to include policy makers, school principals and students in different
countries.
In its own contribution, this research dispels the myth that teachers cannot come up with
sustainable solutions to challenges they encounter in their practice. Indeed, under the right
conditions, it is possible for subject panels to provide useful innovations to teacher professional
development in different countries, reducing dependency on external experts who may be far
removed from classroom situations and the problems teachers encounter in their daily practice.
Who else can be better placed to seek solutions to challenges in classroom practice and learner
performance than the teachers themselves?
Acknowledgements
This paper is generated from an unpublished PhD thesis: Mumhure, G. (2017).

Zimbabwean teachers’ perspectives on the history subject panels as an innovation for
professional development. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Bloemfontein, South Africa: University
of the Free State.
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814
Cite as: Mumhure, G., Jita, L. C., & Chimbi, G. T. (2020). Subject panels as sustainable
innovation for teacher professional development. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
78(5), 799-814. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.799
Godwin Mumhure PhD in Curriculum Studies, Principal of Morgenster Teachers College, P.O. Box
Morgenster, Masvingo, Zimbabwe.
E-mail: mumhuregodwin@yahoo.com
Loyiso C. Jita PhD, Professor, Dean and SANRAL Chair in Mathematics and Sciences,
Faculty of Education, University of the Free State, P. O. Box 339, Bloemfontein
9300, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: jitalc@ufs.ac.za
ORCID: https,//orcid.org/0000-0001-6871-6820
Godsend T. Chimbi PhD in Curriculum Studies, Post-Doctoral Research Fellow under the SANRAL
(Corresponding author) Chair in the Faculty of Education, University of the Free State, P. O. Box 339,
Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: ChimbiGT@ufs.ac.za
ORCID: https,//orcid.org/0000-0002-6417-4355

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CHALLENGES OF DIFFERENTIATED 815
AND INDIVIDUALIZED TEACHING IN

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
THE CASE OF SLOVENIA
Klara Skubic Ermenc, Damijan Štefanc, Jasna Mažgon

University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: klara.skubic-ermenc@ff.uni-lj.si, damijan.stefanc@ff.uni-lj.si,
jasna.mazgon@ff.uni-lj.si
Abstract
One of the main factors contributing to students’ optimal development in school settings is the
implementation of appropriate differentiating and individualizing measures. While this topic is well
researched and addressed in the context of primary and lower secondary education, the theoretical and
empirical research on differentiated and individualized teaching in vocational education and training
(VET) programs is relatively scarce. However, well-applied individualization measures seem equally
important in the context of VET programs, as they are frequently attended by students with lower
educational aspirations, diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, and complex educational and personal
needs. Our research explores what kind of individualization practices exist in Slovenian VET programs
and what roles teachers and school management play in implementing individualized teaching. A single
case study with one class of 16-year-old students (N = 22) attending the confectioner VET program
was conducted. The data were collected by means of interviews, observations, and questionnaires, and
were analyzed and interpreted by combining qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches.
The results indicate that the school strove to address the diversity of the student population and used a
number of different activities at institutional (school) as well as individual (teacher) levels. However, the
potential of a more individualized approach seems to be largely unexploited. It is necessary to understand
individualization as a principle implemented at the level of direct teaching and at the school level.
Students should receive guidance that adapts the education process to their individual characteristics
and aspirations as much as possible.
Keywords: differentiated teaching, individualized teaching, school management, Slovenia, vocational
education
Introduction
Fostering the students’ optimal development primarily takes place by implementing

the principle of individualization, which requires schools and teachers to plan and implement
the educational process in a way that gives each individual student the opportunity to acquire
knowledge and develop their abilities and personality traits as best they can. Doing so relies not
only on the individual student’s learning ability but also on their individual interests and needs
(Dixon et al., 2014; Gregory & Chapman, 2002; Strmčnik, 2001; Subban, 2006; Tomlinson,
2001; Wang, 1984). Individualization is a didactic principle that requires schools and teachers to
adapt classroom teaching and learning to the individual educational and learning characteristics,
needs, aspirations, and inclinations of each student, allowing them to learn as independently

Klara SKUBIC ERMENC, Damijan ŠTEFANC, Jasna MAŽGON. Challenges of differentiated and individualized teaching in vocational
education: The case of Slovenia
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816 as possible (Strmčnik, 1987, p. 12). As such, individualization serves as one of the factors
influencing the choice of organizational and instructional approaches. From the organizational
viewpoint, it has to be embedded into a particular differentiation model. When occurring within
the school or particular classroom and students are subdivided into several groups according
to their distinctive features (e.g., learning abilities), such differentiation is called intrinsic or
didactic (Lamanauskas, 2009, p. 6).
Although they are two different concepts, individualization and differentiation are
closely related because putting individualization into practice always presupposes some form
of differentiation. Generally speaking, a distinction can be made between organizational and
formal differentiation (Le Tendre et al., 2003), which refers to differentiation among different
types of schools, i.e., between vocational and academic upper secondary schools, and curriculum
differentiation, which takes place at the school level. Curriculum differentiation denotes “a
process whereby students are divided into categories so that they can be assigned in groups
to various kinds of classes. [… Students are often] placed into fast, average, or slow classes”
(Oakes, 2005, p. 3). Organizational and curriculum differentiation have long been targets of
severe criticism due to their unfavorable effects: early studies indicated their unfavorable
effects on learning achievements, while contemporary studies focus primarily on their negative
impact on equity of education (Cankar et al., 2017; Dupriez, 2010; Field et al., 2007; Oakes,
2005; Slavin, 1987, 1990; Willms, 2006). As early as 1987, Slavin concluded that “The use
of ability grouping may serve to increase divisions along class, race, and ethnic group lines”
(1987, p. 297). Differentiation has been criticized as a key mechanism that strengthens the
system’s social-reproduction role, yet it can also serve to lessen this role and improve education
equity, provided that it is organized as a flexible mechanism (Dupriez, 2010).
From the equity perspective, vocational education can have a controversial role: since
it attracts people from different social backgrounds, including those who face obstacles in
learning, it plays a positive, social-integrative role. However, it also has the opposite effect
and strengthens the system’s social-reproduction role, particularly in societies that do not value
vocational education and where vocational qualifications do not lead to valuable and decently
paid jobs (Medveš et al., 2008). At the institutional level, several differentiation models
supporting the individualization principle can be devised (Analiza dobrih praks, 2010; Arduin,
2015; Humphrey et al., 2013; Kubat, 2018), including ability (or part-time ability) grouping for
selected subjects and different models of within-class ability grouping (Slavin, 1987; Strmčnik,
1987).
Vocational Education in Slovenia: Some Contextual Aspects
The current design of the VET system in Slovenia was established in 1992, shortly after
Slovenia gained independence. The system is characterized by the following three types of
educational programs:
● Lower VET programs lead to occupations at the level of assistant or ancillary staff
and take two years to complete. A student who successfully finishes the program
is eligible to matriculate into the first year of a three-year secondary vocational
program.
● Three-year secondary VET programs train students to take on occupations at the
level of skilled workers, craft, and the service sector, while having a pronounced
general education component, as the graduates are able to enroll in an additional
two-year vocational and technical education program. The latter program is already
at the level of technical/professional education and is therefore completed with the
vocational matura. The matura enables students to be trained in an occupation at the
level of a technician, while providing for unlimited matriculation into vocational
colleges and higher education programs.
● Four-year secondary technical education programs conclude with the vocational
matura.

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Ever since the first VET reform in 1992, the main aims were to establish vocational 817
education on the principle of social partnership to ensure basic VET for all and to set up a
complete educational ladder allowing vertical transferability within each occupational field
(all the way up to tertiary education level) as well as transferability between vocational and
general education (Medveš & Muršak, 1992). In 2001, new guidelines for the Elaboration of
Educational Programs in Lower and Secondary VET were published. These guidelines led
to the introduction of competency-based and modular programs, which allowed technical
module classes and practical classes to be more closely intertwined and encouraged lessons
based on project- and problem-based education. The guidelines also encouraged schools to
connect the theory and practice lessons through the participation of teachers in the planning and
implementation of lessons (Ermenc, 2009, 2011).
Contemporary Challenges of Vocational Education in Slovenia
The research focuses on three-year secondary VET programs and the situation vocational
schools in Slovenia face today. These schools are often part of large school centers that offer
all the aforementioned types of educational programs, including general upper secondary
programs. Following several years of decline, enrolment in secondary VET programs has been
on a slow increase since the 2010/2011 academic year (at a time when Slovenia was hit by
the recession), and in 2017/2018, a little over 23% of all Year 1 students were enrolled in
VET programs (MIZŠ, 2019). However, despite increased enrolment, these programs are the
least attractive programs in Slovenian upper secondary education. According to Cankar et al.
(2017), the socioeconomic status of students who are enrolled in vocational schools is markedly
unequal, i.e., different parental educational attainment, different parental income and assets, and
different cultural capital:
The SES of students in upper secondary education does not explain any variability (0%) in
the achievement within a school, it does, however, explain the high variability (i.e. 78.6%) in
achievements of different schools. Slovenian general upper secondary programmes are attended
by students who, in terms of their SES, are in a markedly privileged position in comparison with
students in four-year secondary technical education programmes, and even more so compared to
students in VET programmes. With its composite effect, the inclusion of an individual student in
a group of classmates from a privileged socioeconomic and cultural environment on the one hand,
and a student who is grouped with classmates from a disadvantaged socioeconomic and cultural
environment on the other further contributes to the reproduction of social inequality. (p. 9)
Moreover, such programs are also attended by the majority of newly immigrated young
people (Vižintin, 2017). For students with special educational needs, the situation is somewhat
specific: in recent years, the number of students with a statement of special educational needs
has increased in all programs, especially at the expense of students who have deficits in certain
areas of learning and whose statements include several identified disabilities (MIZŠ, 2019).
It is, however, important to note that the share of students with special educational needs in
lower VET programs that are intended for these students1 decreased between 2010 and 2017;
i.e., in 2017, they amounted to a little over 31%, and seven years later, they had dropped to a
little over 20%. By contrast, in other programs, the share of students with a statement of special
educational needs increased, i.e., in three-year secondary VET programs, they amounted
to a little over 10% in 2010, increasing to 14.5% in 2017; in four-year secondary technical
education programs, their percentage was 2.5% in 2010 and a little over 6% seven years later.
In other words, three-year secondary VET programs have partly taken over the “tasks” that
were not so long ago typically performed by lower VET programs. However, they also attract
individual students with special interests and talents (Belasić & Čop, 2020). Nevertheless, in
1 These programmes can be attended by students who have successfully completed at least seven years of primary
school or a primary school for students with a mild mental disability.

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818 vocational education, the number of such students is low, as parents who have a strong influence
on students’ decisions are not favorably disposed to vocational education (CEDEFOP, 2017).
Teachers are often not motivated to work in these schools and do not have high expectations
of students (Kroflič et al., 2009). Even though vocational education has been conceived as
inclusive, high-quality education, based on the idea of lifelong learning, it strengthens the
socio-reproductive role and is veering away from its fundamental goals. As such, schools face
major professional challenges in their day-to-day work, as they have to carry out educational
programs in a climate that is less favorable to learning and for students who have not only poor
prior knowledge, underdeveloped learning strategies, and low motivation (Bren et al., 2017),
but also a number of personal, family-related, and financial hardships (Belasić & Čop, 2020;
Poročilo o spremljanju, 2008).
Individualization as a Fundamental Principle of Vocational Schools’ Work
The most important elements for improving the situation described above are systemic
measures. However, systemic measures alone are not enough to solve all the problems, as full
inclusion in upper secondary education–for which something that every democratic society must
strive–always brings with it the diversity of the population included in the education. The needs
of such a population need to be responded to at the curricular and institutional levels. In other
words, a democratic society also necessitates schools and teachers assuming responsibility for
(more) inclusive and individualized execution of the education process, which is the topic of the
present research. In terms of differentiation, it is necessary to consider the following principles
(Bushie, 2015; Deunk et al., 2018; Dixon et al., 2015; Strmčnik, 1999; Tomlinson, 2001):
1) Teaching must meet the collective and individual needs of students within each
program; schools must therefore not treat students as if they were all the same, nor
should they separate them in terms of space and time for too long.
2) Differentiated teaching must be implemented in a way that benefits all students, i.e.,
in a way that makes sure it does not diminish individual student differences, and
differentiation-related activities must contribute to the optimal development and
achievement of the learning goals of each individual student.
3) Schools must therefore alleviate the socially conditioned learning differences and
provide all students with equal opportunities for their optimal development.
In vocational education, differentiation and individualization play an important role

in the development of students’ vocational competencies, which makes them indispensable
in competency-based programs for achieving the students’ broad professional qualification
(Muñoz Martínez & Porter, 2018; Solberg, 2012).
Research Problem and Research Questions
For several years now, the Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Vocational Education
and Training in cooperation with the researchers of the Department of Educational Sciences
at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, has been conducting research on the topic of
individualization in vocational upper secondary education (Belasić & Čop, 2020). The research
questions were:
RQ1. Is the principle of individualization understood as one of the fundamental principles of
pedagogical work at vocational schools, and how was this principle reflected in the schools’
basic documents and guidelines?
RQ2. What role does school management play in implementing and promoting individualized
teaching?

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RQ3. What are the didactic features of lessons in the programs included in the project, and to 819
what extent has the existence of internal differentiation and individualization been observed in
lessons?
RQ4. What have students observed regarding the implementation of the principle of
individualization, and how satisfied are they with the choice of the program?
General Background
This study used mixed methods research design, combining qualitative and quantitative
methodological approaches. The qualitative part of the research involved the collection and
analysis of data based on interviews and observations, while the quantitative part of the research
involved the collection and analysis of numeric data. A single case study was conducted as a
research design, which “allowed researchers to dig deeply into the details of the case in order to
develop a rich, complex, and compelling argument” (Brancati, 2018, p. 120).
The presented case study refers to a confectioner program taught at a school of food
processing that is part of a large school center in an urban area of Slovenia. The school center
offers various programs from the field of food and hospitality, covering a full range of VET
programs from ISCED 3 to ISCED 5. For a more in-depth analysis, a class consisting of 22
students attending a secondary VET program was selected.
Sample
The research included various stakeholders, namely four experienced teachers (two
teaching technical module classes and two teaching practical classes, who have been teachers
for an average of 17 years), a head teacher (HT), and a school counselling service2 (a school
psychologist and a social worker). The research also included the students of a Year 1 class
(N = 22), aged between 15 and 16. The class consisted of 18 girls and four boys, 20 of whom
were born in Slovenia (the language they speak at home is Slovenian) and two were born in
another country but have lived in Slovenia for two years (at home, they speak a language other
than Slovenian). The educational attainment of the students’ mothers was low; most of them
had vocational or technical secondary education (a little under 73%), 4.5% had completed or
partially completed primary education, one had completed a general upper secondary education
program, two had higher vocational education and higher education, and for two mothers, the
students were unable to give an answer. The families’ low SES is indicated by the data on the
number of books the families own: most families (approx. 45%) owned up to 25 books, a little
over 18% of the families owned up to 50 books, and the same percentage applies to families
that owned up to 100 and 200 books. No families own more than two hundred books. Ethical
principles were also considered throughout the study: although the research did not contain
any ethically highly sensitive procedures, the anonymity of participating teachers and students
was preserved and their participation in all parts of the study was strictly voluntary. Since the
students were minors at the time when research was conducted, their parents signed a written
consent form for them to be able to participate.
2 In Slovenian primary and secondary education, each school has its own in-school counselling service. The num-
ber of counselling service members at a school depends on the number of students enrolled in the school (usually two to three
professionals from the fields of pedagogy, psychology, or social work).

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820 Instrument and Procedures
The triangulation of the following techniques was used for data collection:
● A student questionnaire was administered, which contained closed-ended questions,
Likert scales, and assessment scales. The statistical analysis showed that the scales
were reliable (Cronbach’s coefficient α ≥ 0.80) and valid (for construct validity,
confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the extent to which the data from our
survey is a good representation of our theoretical understanding of the construct.
The first factor explained more than 20% of the variance). Content validity was
assessed qualitatively by an expert and three practitioners checking that the survey
contained questions that covered all aspects of the content being measured. In this
article only part of the data collected with the questionnaire are presented.
● A semi-structured interview was conducted with the HT, which included questions
about her views on the importance of individualization and an assessment of how
individualization is implemented in the institution of which she is in charge.
● Structured non-participant observation was performed separately by two qualified
observers using observation protocols; observations took place in three different
technical modules (a 90-minute one and two 45-minute ones); the protocol for
observing the use of teaching strategies required the observer to record at five-minute
intervals which type of social organization of learning activities (frontal teaching,
group work, pair work, individual work) and which teaching method (explanation,
discussion, demonstration, experiment, practical work, use of audio-visual materials,
text-based activities) the teacher was using at the time. During each interval, the
observers also noted the use of a combination of different types of social organization
of learning activities and teaching methods if the teacher was using more than one at
that time. The protocol allowed the observers to record any other relevant observations
(didactic materials used, students’ activity, and other notes) to be used for a qualitative
lesson analysis at a later time.
● A preliminary questionnaire for the HT and the two school counsellors, which
included questions about how students’ specific characteristics are taken into account
at the school during the academic year planning stage, how teachers are supported and
encouraged, and whether team planning and team teaching are encouraged (e.g., in the
form of project work).
● A non-standardized, open-ended interview with the teachers was conducted after
the observed lessons, which allowed the teachers to provide additional arguments in
support of their choices and actions during the observed lessons.
Data Analysis
For the processing and presentation of quantitative data, frequency tables (f and f%) were
used for the most part. The data collected by means of interviews and observation protocols
were processed according to the principles of qualitative content analysis. The collected data
were first compiled in the basic register and were then transcribed. Coding units were selected,
and the data were coded. Lastly, codes were grouped into categories that allowed further
interpretations (Brancati, 2018).
Research Results
Implementation of the Principle of Individualization at the School Level
The interview with the HT and an analysis of the preliminary questionnaire revealed that,
at the school, individualization is understood as a measure that is implemented at the level of

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individual classes and teachers. The school’s vision therefore does not refer to individualization 821
explicitly; however, some individualization elements can be noticed in the annual work plan.
The HT explained that the population at their school is very diverse, which, in the HT’s opinion,
requires constant adaptations and individualization:
Quite a few students have low achievement, they come from different social backgrounds;… some
even have to take care of their families at home;…we’ve seen an increase in young people who
have mental health issues;… and then there are foreigners;… and we also have students who were
A-students in primary school and have a lot of potential. (HT)
The school develops annual plans for the work with students who have a statement of
special educational needs or are hospitalized and organizes Slovenian language courses for
immigrant students (funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport). Other activities
that reflect the implementation of the principle of individualization are planned whenever
necessary, depending on the needs: they provide learning support to students who are preparing
to retake exams or working on getting a pass mark. Learning support is provided by teachers,
especially during marking periods.
At our school, we also have mentoring for students who have difficulty learning or struggle how
to get organized for learning—there are teachers available to them. The teachers do this on a
voluntary basis; the focus is on students learning how to learn, how to get organized, how to get
better marks, etc. (HT)
For more able students, the school takes care of them by including them in various
national and international competitions. For interested students, the school organizes mobility,
such as work experience in companies in other countries, which suggests that systematic and
pre-planned support is primarily geared towards students from the most vulnerable groups.
For other students, greater emphasis is placed on responding whenever necessary and taking
corrective action.
The Role of School Management in the Implementation of Individualization
When asked about the way they encourage teachers to implement individualization and
how it could be strengthened even further, the HT explained that special attention is devoted
to supporting class teachers3. Being a class teacher is considered a great challenge, and class
teachers are therefore encouraged to organize “themed class meetings because they strengthen
the class teacher’s interaction with students. We have workshops on strengthening social skills,
etc.” (HT). Some class teachers conduct individual student consultations; some keep individual
records. The HT pointed out:
“Our school is a vocational school and the students have it anything but easy. They have to be
employed and attend school at the same time. The fact is that we adapt the program to these
students.” (HT)
The school also encourages peer support so that, for instance, students with immigrant
experience help newly immigrated students. However, the school also wants to devote more
attention to more able and highly motivated students.
The school encourages teacher teamwork so that teachers share knowledge and
experience. Teachers share knowledge with one another by means of shared online classrooms,
and thematic conferences, where teachers can present examples of good practice, are also
organized occasionally. The school works with companies where students do compulsory
3 In the Slovenian school system, each class of students has a teacher who performs the role of the students’ admin-
istrative and pedagogical leader, thus taking care of the administrative and teaching aspects of classroom management (cf.
Kalin, 2001).

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822 work experience; however, they work more closely with companies that are willing to take on
students with special educational needs because mentors in companies often lack the required
knowledge to work with such students.
Regarding how many students in individual programs have a personal education plan
(PEP) and the most common reasons for having one, no exact figures regarding were obtained
because the school does not keep any comprehensive records. However, the reasons PEPs were
prepared were listed in the preliminary questionnaire. The most common reason is a statement
of special educational needs–if a student has one, a PEP is a statutory requirement. In addition,
PEPs are prepared for students who have many failing marks, for immigrant students (according
to the law, they are entitled to assessment accommodations for two years after immigrating to
Slovenia), when a student transfers from another school or program and when instructional
accommodations are needed for students after lengthy hospitalization. Of the students who
were asked if they had a PEP–a quarter answered in the affirmative–which corresponds with
the school’s assessment.
Didactic Features and the Presence of Internal Differentiation and Individualization
An “Observer as Participant” type of classroom observation was used to identify the

didactic features of the lessons in the program that were part of the project and to determine the
extent to which the presence of internal differentiation and individualization has been observed
in the lessons. Tables 1 and 2 show that all four types of social organization of learning activities
and six teaching methods were observed in the classroom.
Table 1
The use of various types of social organization of learning activities (N = number of
observed events4)
Types of social organization of learning activities N (%)
Frontal Teaching 12 (33.3)

Individual Work 6 (16.7)
Group Work 6 (16.7)
Pair Work 12 (33.3)
Total 36 (100.0)
Table 2
The use of various teaching methods (N = number of observed events)
Teaching Methods N %
Explanation 8 21.1
Discussion 3 7.9
Demonstration 5 13.2
Experiment 0 0.0
Practical Work 11 28.9
Use of AV Materials 6 15.8
Text-Based Activities 5 13.2
38
Total 100.0
4 The observers recorded the data by noting down separately which types of social organisation of learning ac-
tivities (Table 1) and which teaching methods (Table 2) the teacher was using at a given moment. They did so at regular
five-minute intervals. The N therefore represents the number of observed events.

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Data recording took 180 minutes, i.e., four 45-minute lessons, which revealed the 823
frequency of the use of individual types and methods, as presented in Tables 1 and 2. The
observers noted the predominant use of frontal teaching and pair work and to a lesser extent
individual and group work. The most frequently observed didactic event was the use of
practical work (because half of the classroom observation took place during practical classes),
followed by an explanation and use of AV materials. The descriptions below link the results of
the classroom observation with the interview conducted with the teacher after the class.
The First Observed Teaching Unit: Practical Class
The practical class took place in a school workshop and lasted 90 minutes. The classroom
work was highly intensive. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher (T1) gathered the students
and explained the technological procedure that they would be following. She referred to the
knowledge gained during the technical module class and repeated the instructions on occupational
safety, equipment handling, and hygiene. The students were divided into pairs, each receiving
their own set of work instructions, which varied according to the complexity of the procedure.
The procedure complexity was thus the starting point for internal differentiation and the basis
for differentiation in terms of knowledge standards: two students worked independently on a
complex procedure that corresponded to the level of an international competition, while two
other students practiced only the basic procedure. The teacher said the students in the class are
very diverse, i.e., two students won the first prize in an international competition, while some
of them have below-average intellectual capabilities and manual dexterity. For this reason, the
teacher adjusted the learning pace, i.e., for more able students, she prepared additional, more
challenging tasks in advance, such as those requiring students to convert and adjust recipes for
special diets. During the lesson, she got all the students together twice, commenting on common
mistakes and giving additional explanations. She tried to find a balance between individual
work, pair work, and group work. The students worked independently under her watchful eye.
She pointed out their mistakes and discussed the reasons for any problems they were having
and how to deal with them. Differentiation was thus also reflected in the degree of independence
she entrusted her students with. If she noticed one of the students not knowing what to do next,
she guided them step by step or with questions. She encouraged her students by saying, “Use
the internet and find…” and “Well done, this is how you start. Do you remember… do you know
how to do it?” After the lesson, she stated the following:
I usually know the students very well after a single month… I know exactly who I can trust to make
something from start to finish and who I have to keep any eye on the whole time. I guide them
individually when I see how they go about their work as individuals. (T1)
The teacher combined practical skills with theory-based arguments. She did not provide
a solution, but instead asked thought-provoking questions (“What’s the most important thing?”
and “How do you know this? Why?”). She used mistakes as an opportunity for learning, and she
gave real feedback; while doing so, she stayed cheerful and added a touch of humor. During the
interview, she emphasized the importance of having a good relationship with the students and
focusing on their strengths:
One of the students wasn’t particularly good at design, but she excelled in drawing. She was
radiant while doing it, so I made sure to steer her in that direction. (T1)
She also pointed out that she uses different student pairing and grouping strategies,
depending on the goals she has in mind; that is, sometimes she groups together lower- and
higher-performing students, and at other times, when she wants students to help one another,
she forms mixed-ability groups. Group-formation thus depends on learning objectives. She puts
just as much thought into matching students in pairs:

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824 Each student is one of a kind. Lesson accommodations are often made through pair work–I often
pair lower- and higher-performing students. Students love to help one another. (T1)
The teacher let them act on their own initiative, encouraging them to choose what they
would like to do themselves. She only made sure that everyone mastered all the technological
procedures. The lessons were therefore differentiated not only according to the students’ ability
differences but also according to their interests. The teacher also encourages gifted students to
enter national and international competitions:
I persuaded a student of mine to enter an international competition. She came on the very same
day. She chose all the recipes herself…. I only guided her when it came to the decoration. We
prepared for the competition outside of class. The student won in the student and adult categories.
(T1)
The Second Observed Teaching Unit: Technical Module Class
In the first 10 minutes of a 45-minute technical module class, the teacher (T2) used
the Kahoot! application for individual revision of the learning material. Without a noticeable
transition, she moved on to explaining some new learning material using PowerPoint
presentations. The students listened to her and made notes in their notebooks. They were given
no opportunity to participate; the teacher only occasionally asked, “Are you done? OK!” and
“Any questions?” but did not wait for the students to respond. She summarized what they had
learned, while the students were writing it down. This was followed by a 10-minute knowledge
revision session, during which the students completed worksheets on their own. The teacher
walked around the classroom but did not communicate with the students. During the last five
minutes, she quickly tested their knowledge, using frontal teaching: the students read the
answers, some of which were incomprehensible, but she did not complete them. The lesson
was not individualized. The teacher explained,
I was hoping that I would succeed in individualizing the lesson during the revision. But since this
was the first time, we were using this program, the app, it just didn’t work out. (T2)
She used the Kahoot! application because the observers were present in the classroom.
She seemed to view individualization as something that happens by chance and does not require
any planning. She added,
This is how I see [individualization]: when we are learning something new, the students study it
themselves and then, within their abilities, they tell me how they understood it…. This is how I
think individualization can be done in this particular school subject. (T2)
She often gives her students homework but does not individualize it. She does not
understand the principle of individualization, and she mistakes it for independent learning.
The Third Observed Teaching Unit: Technical Module Class
This 45-minute technical module class was taught by two teachers (T3, T4) who wanted
to present a model lesson in terms of individualization. They assembled their students into four
groups, all of which were required to search for certain data using their mobile phones. The
groups differed in how difficult their data search method was to use, i.e., differentiation in terms
of learning objectives and standards of knowledge could be identified. At the end of the lesson,
one of the two teachers explained the following:

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One group achieved a minimum standard of knowledge and three other groups achieved a similar 825
standard of knowledge–of these, one group’s standard of knowledge was slightly higher. This
means that for the minimum standard, they used a somewhat easier method to search for data on
their smartphones. (T4)
Thus, three levels of knowledge standards were covered with four groups. Group work
lasted about 20 minutes, the teachers were circulating from one group to another, helping and
encouraging the students. This was followed by the students reporting their results, which the
teachers noted down using PPT. The teachers said that when it comes to grouping the students,
they had some dilemmas–they feared that some students would feel inferior. One of the two
teachers concluded,
I have to say that this was the first time we did this… But I’ll do it often again because it’s both fun
and educational… And it keeps them entertained. (T3)
The two teachers showed a superficial understanding of the principle of individualization;

they did not have any previous experience with it, which might explain why they were inept
and insecure.
Satisfaction and Students’ Assessments
Students were asked about their level of satisfaction with the choice of their school or
program, with the technical module lessons, and with the practical classes. Table 3 reveals that
the students are for the most part satisfied or very satisfied with their choice of school and the
classes at the school. The highest satisfaction assessment was given for the practical classes–as
many as 45% of the students are very satisfied with them, while a little over 18% of the students
are very satisfied with the technical module class.
Table 3
Satisfaction with various aspects of schooling (N = 22)
Very Very
Satisfaction with Various
Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Neutral Satisfied Satisfied Total
Aspects of Schooling
Satisfaction with the

f (%) 2 (9.1) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.5) 12 (54.5) 7 (31.8) 22 (100.0)
choice of school
technical module f (%) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (13.6) 15 (68.2) 4 (18.2) 22 (100.0)
classes
f (%) 1 (5.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (15.0) 7 (35.0) 9 (45.0) 20 (100.0)
practical classes
The students were asked about the frequency of those classroom activities through which
individualized teaching can be realized. Table 4 shows that most classes involve the students
copying the learning content from a board or projection screen or writing it down according to
the teacher’s dictation. Teachers often prepare lesson summaries and the students often work
with one another. Learning by means of videos and completing worksheets is also present to
a relatively large extent. According to the students, project work, group work, and pair work,
and completing tasks with the help of computer technology, including smartphones, is less
common. The least common lesson component involved several teachers working together,
except in practical classes, where students from one class were divided into two smaller groups.

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826 The results indicate that the teachers lead the students as a group towards their goals (in a non-
differentiated way); in doing so, they have control over the learning content, presenting it to the
students step by step.
Table 4
Didactic lesson features according to the students (in %; N = 22)
Didactic lesson features*: Technical module class Practical class

Students copy the learning content from a board or projection screen. 90.0 90.0
Students work with one another. 82.0 100.0
Students write down learning content according to the teacher’s
81.9 85.8
dictation.
Teachers prepare lesson summaries. 80.0 95.3
Teachers use presentations prepared in advance. 80.0 66.7
Teachers use videos. 77.2 81.8
Students complete worksheets. 73.0 72.2
Students work on projects. 63.7 75.0
Students complete exercises using computer technology. 57.2 54.5
Classes are held in small groups or pairs. 54.6 68.2
Students complete exercises using smartphones. 42.0 62.0
Multiple teachers are involved in the lesson. 19.0 50.0
Note: * Combined “often” and “very often” assessments
The biggest differences between technical module classes and practical classes can be
noticed in terms of the students’ cooperation and in terms of the classes being held in small
groups and pairs. Group and pair work are more common in practical classes, whereas in
technical module classes, teachers often use presentations prepared in advance (to explain new
learning content), while in practical classes there is more project work.
Discussion
The school views individualization as a measure that is implemented mostly at the level
of individual classes and teachers. No specific individual learning plans are being prepared for
students at the school or program level that support them to follow their individual learning
paths more effectively. As emphasized by Solberg et al. (2012), such plans–if properly
introduced–may contribute to the students’ engagement “in self-initiated learning by managing
and selecting courses and other educational and learning opportunities that support their ability
to successfully realize their future aspirations” (Solberg et al., 2012, p. 502). Similarly, based
on their study, Muñoz Martínez and Porter (2018) suggested that personalized learning plans
could improve inclusive orientation of education and provide the teacher with “the opportunity
to identify the most appropriate avenue to meet the needs of each student” (Muñoz Martínez &
Porter, 2018, p. 14).
However, this does not mean that the school fails completely to respond to the students’
diversity. On the contrary, many responses were observed, as well as a great deal of care and
even concern for the students’ living conditions and the problems they face. However, since
the school keeps no records of the kind (and thus does not have a clear understanding of the
situation as a whole), these responses are often random and less systematic. More systematic–
and planned on an annual basis–is the school’s work in the areas where they have certain
statutory commitments (education of students with statements of special educational needs);
however, the school’s response was also noticeable in cases where additional funds are provided

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by the Ministry (e.g., funds for lessons that are part of the Slovenian language courses for newly 827
immigrated students). Similarly, the school has various pre-arranged mechanisms for certain
groups of students that have a special status (such as student athletes) and gifted students,
especially in terms of preparations for national and international competitions. Other activities
are organized when necessary and are considered corrective measures, such as learning support
provided to students who do not meet the expected standards or support for students who find
themselves in a difficult social situation or have intellectual disabilities.
Likewise, consistent with the school management’s belief that individualization is a
measure that is implemented at the class level are the forms of support the management provides
to the teachers. The support is focused on class teachers, as they are the ones that have a more
active educational role in relation to the students. In addition to performing various legal-formal
tasks, class teachers are in charge of caring for the students’ wellbeing. With this in mind,
the school management organizes and promotes various activities, such as mutual learning
and teacher-class teacher cooperation, encouraging them to organize peer support and monitor
student progress. The teachers undertake these activities voluntarily–they are not required to
do so and the management does not check how well the activities are organized, which is clear
from the HT’s statement: “If they feel like it, the class teachers are welcome to keep records,
but they can choose not to.”
The school management encourages teachers and class teachers, providing them with an
environment that allows cooperation; however, it does not require them to assume responsibility
for taking care of each individual student. The level of engagement depends on the teacher’s
or class teacher’s willingness. Based on the observation of lessons–albeit a limited number
of them—and students’ assessments, the following three insights can be noted regarding the
didactic features of lessons:
(1) In terms of individualization and internal differentiation, the quality of teaching
depends on the knowledge, beliefs, and enthusiasm of each individual teacher. Thus, an
example of a very high-quality practical class was observed, as well as quite the opposite (both
technical module classes). In practical classes, the teacher adapted the standards of knowledge,
the pace of learning, and the level of independent work to the students. The teacher grouped
the students according to the goals they wanted to work towards, focused on the students’
strengths, encouraged theory-based arguments in support of a certain procedure, created a
positive work environment, and gave encouraging and meaningful feedback. The teacher also
took into account the differences in the students’ interest and gave more challenging tasks to
gifted students. These methods are in line with individualizing practices noted by several other
researchers (Bešić et al., 2016; Yngve et al., 2018; Westwood, 2003).
(2) Understandably, the results of the student questionnaire cannot detect the differences
among individual teachers. They do, however, reveal that the students were very satisfied with
the lessons and the school. This encouraging result can be understood in light of the school’s
efforts, which are–according to the school management and the school counselling service–
aimed at solving the students’ personal, social and learning-related problems. It looked like
the students felt safe and accepted at school. There was, however, a downside to this care and
attentiveness, and at times even pity (Fulcher, 1989) because the teachers do not expect much
from most students in terms of education. This is evident from the technical module class
observation and the questionnaires: teachers guide students through the learning process step by
step, using steps that are carefully planned in advance and teaching materials that do not require
much independence, creativity, and resourcefulness in less predictable occupational situations.
In addition, the usage of information and communication technology (ICT) seems to be quite
limited: although the available technology would allow for more intensive interactive work
with the ICT, the results raise questions about whether teachers are skilled enough to efficiently
adapt ICT to achieve educational goals, as emphasized more than a decade ago by Lamanauskas
(2008, p. 7).

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828 (3) Although the school devotes considerable attention to how best to respond to a diverse
student population and uses a number of different activities/mechanisms, the focus of its actions
is largely on activities that take place outside of class (learning support) and the potential of the
actual lessons seems to be largely unexploited. The teachers do not understand individualization
in its entirety. For the most part, it is limited to their readiness to help the students, and they
fail to view it as a fundamental teaching philosophy, which would be reflected in common
guidelines and activities.
A revealing insight into the core of one vocational school and one class within the school
has important implications for systemic issues. Overall, the school responds to the needs of
students, especially those from the most vulnerable groups. However, the lack of clear data
shows that the school has no systematic and comprehensive approach and therefore responds to
challenges whenever they come up, focusing on solving the most serious problems.
The results illustrate the consequences of the existing differentiation model at the upper
secondary level of education in a country that is formally based on transition, the principle of
lifelong learning, and labor market needs, while in reality, it functions as a mechanism of social
reproduction. All schools that are in a similar situation as the school analyzed face challenges
because their mission goes beyond an educational role, taking on a social-integration one as well.
The school must demand appropriate tangible and intangible support from decision-makers to
be able to place individualization at the core of its work. However, for this to happen, the school
needs to move away from understanding individualization as a measure adopted at the teaching-
execution level by individual teachers. By raising the understanding of individualization to the
level of the school as an institution, teachers can receive guidance on how to guide each student
through the course of education in a way that makes sure the path is adapted to their individual
characteristics and aspirations as well as it can be. This shift in understanding would allow
teachers to use individualization in a significantly more effective way.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency
(research core funding No P5-0174 Pedagogical and Andragogical Studies—Learning and
Education for a Good Quality Life in Community), and the financial support by the Operational
Programme for the Implementation of the EU Cohesion Policy in the period 2014–2020: The
project Modernizing Vocational Education and Training System, Institute of the Republic of
Slovenia for Vocational Education and Training (CPI).
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Received: June 09, 2020 Accepted: October 02, 2020
Cite as: Skubic Ermenc, K., Štefanc, D., & Mažgon, J. (2020). Challenges of differentiated
and individualized teaching in vocational education: The case of Slovenia. Problems of
Klara Skubic Ermenc PhD, Associate Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Aškerčeva 2,
SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: klara.skubic-ermenc@ff.uni-lj.si
Website: http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/an/study/departments/department_educational_
sciences
Damijan Štefanc PhD, Associate Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Aškerčeva 2,
(Corresponding author) SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: damijan.stefanc@ff.uni-lj.si
sciences
Jasna Mažgon PhD, Associate Professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Aškerčeva 2,
SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: jasna.mazgon@ff.uni-lj.si
sciences

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832
DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILDREN
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEASURING
CHINESE CHARACTER LITERACY
LEARNING SATISFACTION
Shiat Lu Wong, Nyet Moi Siew, Chiow Thai Soon
University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: wongshiatlu@gmail.com, sopiah@ums.edu.my, soon@ums.edu.my
Abstract
There are limited reports about development of questionnaire to measure learning satisfaction among
young children. In this research, guidelines were listed for developing a questionnaire that gauges
Chinese Character Literacy Learning Satisfaction (CCLLS) among 8-year-old children. The research was
undertaken based on the responses of 232 children from 11 Chinese national type primary schools (SJKC)
of Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. The CCLLS questionnaire consists of 12 items developed through
three dimensions of satisfaction, which are (1) Satisfaction towards Chinese characters writing, (2)
Satisfaction towards Chinese characters recognizing, (3) Satisfaction towards the learning in classroom.
Rasch analysis was used to examine the item polarity. The result showed point measure correlation was
within 0.47 – 0.60. The items were also detected with the outfit mean square in the range of 0.76 – 1.24,
indicating CCLLS was fit to measure the children’s learning satisfaction. The raw variance explained by
measures (33.3%), the unexplained variance in first contrast (9.1%), with the eigenvalue (1.6%) from the
principal component analysis, suggested that CCLLS could be unidimensional. The internal consistency
was considered very high with 0.81 in Cronbach’s alpha (KR-20). The result also showed CCLLS has
very good item reliability (0.91) with good item separation index (3.23). The person reliability (0.77) was
in satisfactory range with moderately good person separation index (1.81). The findings indicated that
CCLLS questionnaire could be a valid and reliable tool in measuring Chinese character literacy learning
satisfaction among 8-year-old primary school children of SJKC.
Keywords: children questionnaire, Chinese Characters Literacy Learning Satisfaction, Rasch analysis,
validity and reliability
Introduction
Literacy in Chinese characters is the foundation of learning Chinese language. There are
two skills in Chinese character literacy: 1) Recognizing the Chinese characters – pronouncing
Chinese characters phonetically correct and understanding the general meaning of that character;
2) Writing Chinese characters – producing Chinese characters by following the correct structures
and strokes (Curriculum Development Division, 2016). According to Malaysian standardized
curriculum by the Ministry of Education (MOE), one of the learning objectives of the Chinese
language subject is mastering 2500 Chinese characters and being able to write the characters in
an intelligible way with correct writing structure.
The national curriculum of Malaysia is an educational program that is grounded based
on the national education philosophy. The characteristics that are created in an individual who

Shiat Lu WONG, Nyet Moi SIEW, Chiow Thai SOON. Development of a children questionnaire for measuring Chinese character
literacy learning satisfaction
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receives education must base on a clear philosophy, specifically a philosophy that is the core 833
of the nation’s education (Alhabshi & Hakim, 2001). In tandem, the impact of emphasizing the
learning of Chinese character literacy based on the curriculum that comprises knowledge, skills,
morals and values can fully develop students physically, spiritually, mentally and emotionally
to inculcate moral values (National Curriculum, 1997). The result of learning Chinese character
literacy after an intervention can be evaluated by using the questionnaire on Chinese Character
Literacy Learning Satisfaction (CCLLS) among the school children. Figure 1 illustrates the
evaluating concept.
Figure 1
Conceptual framework of evaluating Chinese character literacy learning satisfaction
Evaluating children’s learning satisfaction comprises aspects of mental and emotion

as illustrated in Figure 1. Completing a self-administered questionnaire always involves a
question-answer process. During the process, the children characteristics usually influence the
task performance. Completing a question-answer task often makes a young child mentally and
emotionally engaged in the process, thus it is a learning process. Firstly, the children have to
understand the question and to define the intended meaning of the question. It is followed by
retrieving the relevant information from their memory to form a tentative answer. Then, the
children have to make an appropriate response and to choose the response option according
to the answer formulated in their mind before. During the process of choosing a response, the
children would ‘edit’ their answers according to the social desirability or condition tolerability.
Children may behave contrary before their teachers, parents and peers (Borgers et al., 2000),
which would result in the suggestibility of their answers. The effort made for overcoming these
specific age-reliant problems can yield an outcome of a quality CCLLS questionnaire.
Research Problem
A questionnaire can give a full picture about a system besides showcasing the specifics
of a scenario (Lewis, 1995). Questionnaires are always used to measure the satisfaction of
consumers towards a product. In the context of education, the effectiveness of an intervention
can be tested from learners’ satisfaction in the learning situation that practices such intervention
(Che Nidzam et al., 2010). Nonetheless in reality, the effectiveness of intervention in the
teaching and learning process is usually evaluated with tests that focus solely on the expansion
of knowledge and cognitive skills. The affective value like learning satisfaction is commonly
treated as an unimportant by-product. Lack of suitable tools to evaluate children’s learning
satisfaction is one of the reasons why learning satisfaction is considered unimportant. Based on
a pioneer study, the researcher found that the do-ability of questionnaires for primary school
children is always questioned due to their age and poor experience. Thus, a suitable and quality
questionnaire is in deem needed. To overcome the problem mentioned, the questionnaire needs
to be kid-friendly and have easy to understand language. Additionally, emoji digital images

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834 can be used as a 5-point Likert scale in the questionnaire to make it easy for the 8-year-old
respondents to choose the appropriate responses to reflect their perceptions. The questionnaire
that is improvised based on these requirements needs to be authenticated and validated through
a research.
Research Focus
The main focus of this research was to develop a questionnaire on Chinese Character
Literacy Learning Satisfaction (CCLLS) for 8-year-old children in primary schools. Validity
and reliability are two important factors to be considered when developing a questionnaire.
Hence for the need to develop a valid and reliable tool, Rasch analysis was used to examine the
validity and reliability of CCLLS questionnaire.
Learning Satisfaction
The effectiveness of a reinforcing method does not necessarily depend on the frequency
of practice alone (Anderson, 1996), thus the significance of the research of reinforcement
must be seen from various perspectives. Psychological factors such as interest, motivation and
emotion have an impact on an individual’s memory capabilities (Kenny, 1985). For example,
learners’ memory power is affected negatively because of their disinterest in learning due to
having too many and tedious writing practices. Reinforcement is part of the learning process;
thus, its effectiveness may yield learning satisfaction to learners from cognitive, psychomotor
and affective view.
A fun teaching and learning process will have an impact on learners’ satisfaction,
especially among primary school students between ages seven to twelve years old. According
to Anderson et al. (1994), satisfaction is an important indicator for past, present and future
performance. Satisfaction towards a product is usually evaluated after the product or service
is supplied. In the context of education, a learner’s satisfaction is influenced by the learning
quality in the classroom, or the method suitability used by the teacher (Guolla, 1999). In lieu of
this, if the classroom environment or teaching material is excellent, then the learners’ learning
satisfaction is formed and has an impact on their attitude (Kim et al., 2000). As a result, learning
satisfaction improves the learners’ performances as a whole (Hamed et al., 2008). Learning
is important to students. According to Zhu (2008), learning satisfaction is a part of a sense
of well-being in students’ learning. All the efforts done to improve the quality of classroom
teaching and learning will bring learning satisfaction that upholds the students’ sense of well-
being, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Sense of well-being in learning

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Learners’ and teachers’ satisfaction towards the learning process is an indicator which 835
is often used in an education evaluation program or in an innovative effort (Zandvliet, 1999).
In the context of this study, the level of satisfaction is divided into three clusters based on
the educational objectives of Bloom’s Taxonomy. The students’ satisfaction towards a
reinforcement method in Chinese character literacy in this research refers to the learning
satisfaction of the 8-year-old children in Malaysia Chinese national type school. Three clusters
of learning satisfaction were engaged in the survey which were categorized into the domains
of: 1) Psychomotor refers to students’ satisfaction to the result of writing reinforcement; 2)
Cognitive refers to students’ satisfaction towards recognizing the Chinese characters as the result
of the writing reinforcement; 3) Affective refers to students’ satisfaction in learning Chinese
character literacy in the classroom. Based on the study of Dong (2006), the literacy learning of
Chinese characters is a cognitive schema building process that enables students to adapt to the
structure of Chinese characters (cognitive domain). An efficient psychomotor is necessary for
the students to transform their memory and understanding about a Chinese character’s structure
to the written form. This process only occurs with the mastery of writing which involves the
coordination of small-muscle and eyes, known as fine-motor skill. Consequently, a learner
needs to have interest, courage and the will to learn in the process of writing Chinese characters,
which can be classified as affective domain.
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchy model that is used in classifying the learning objectives
based on the specification which encompass the domains of cognitive, affective and sensory (or
more commonly known as psychomotor). The psychomotor domain includes coordination and
use of the fine-motor skill (Simpson, 1972).
Satisfaction: Dimension of Writing
Mastery in the skill of writing Chinese characters in the schools of Chinese national type
primary school (SJKC) in Malaysia is set based on the learning objectives that are stated in the
Document of Standardized Curriculum and Assessment (DSKP). Writing Chinese characters
correctly and neatly is a general objective. Wang (2011) stated that mastery in psychomotor
skills to write Chinese characters is a type of learning behavior. Teachers will facilitate their
students to sit in proper position while writing, including the correct way of handling a pencil.
These are required to ensure that the practice of correct and good writing is inculcated in early
schooling years. A good practice of writing would help students to produce accurate and tidy
writing, where the hand and eye coordination is engaged in the process. In a piece of neat and
well-structured writing, a student has to write with the correct strokes （笔画）and to make sure
of the proper placement of the components in the square tian box (田字格). These are learnt
and facilitated through imitating the mannerisms of the correct writing way (Zhang, 2016). The
learning process through adaptation and amalgamation between imitating mannerisms and the
individual experience can be considered as a psychomotor learning (Simpson, 1972). Li (2019)
asserted that psychomotor learning in writing Chinese characters comprises three stages, which
are cognitive, associative and autonomous. The skill acquisition was proposed by Fitts and
Posner (1967) which is visualized in Figure 3.

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836 Figure 3
Model of skill acquisition (Fitts & Posner, 1967)
After learning the Chinese characters through the teaching and learning process in the
classroom, the students would have to practice the procedure by writing step by step after
observing the tips or rules in creating strokes. Through practice, students will be adept in
writing Chinese characters easily and smoothly. This is based on the experience they gain from
the associative stage (Figure 3). The augmentation of writing practice of Chinese characters
needs to be fortified to ensure that each writing process can be done in an easy, smooth and
speedy manner. By doing so may result in autonomous writing skill. At this stage, a student can
remember a Chinese character without having to think too hard about it (Li, 2019; Zhang et al.,
2017). When this stage is achieved, the student is considered to have achieved or mastered the
autonomous skill of writing Chinese characters. Satisfaction in achieving this stage is gauged
in the Dimension of Writing.
Satisfaction: Dimension of Recognizing Chinese Characters

Chinese character, also known as Hanzi (汉字) is logographic in nature. Each Chinese
character has a featured shape (形), sound (音), and meaning (义). As an example, the
meaning of the character 人 is human, the pronunciation and sound of the character 人 is rén,
and the structure of 人 consists of two strokes (笔画). Each Chinese character has a structure,
sound and meaning, thus the Chinese language is categorized as an ideographic language in
linguistic classification. The learning in Chinese language is different from the learning of other
languages such as English that the alphabet usually takes place to form a word (Zhang, 2006).
Every Chinese character is unique and has its pictographic attributes. Hence, the learning of
Chinese character is a complex psychological process that involves the construction of structure,
sound and meaning in understanding a piece of writing (Dong, 2006). Figure 4 shows this
psychological construction.

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Figure 4 837
Psychological constructions of a Chinese character (Dong, 2006)
For example, when recognizing the character 香, it is known that its pronunciation
is ‘xiāng’ and its meaning is ‘fragrant’ in English. The schema of the six psychological
constructions is demonstrated in Figure 4, followed by the elaborations:
1st construction: Observe at the structure of character is 香, know how to pronounce

the sound of 香 as ‘xiāng’.
2nd construction: Observe the structure of character 香, know the meaning of 香 is
‘fragrant’.
3rd construction: Hear the sound ‘xiāng’, know the meaning is ‘fragrant’.
4th construction: Hear the sound ‘xiāng’, recognize the structure is 香.
5th construction: Intend to say the meaning as ‘fragrant’, know how to pronounce the
sound ‘xiāng’.
6th construction: Intend to say the meaning as ‘fragrant’, recognize the structure of the
香, including the character of 香 is constructed by having 禾 as the
top component and 日as the bottom component, and able to write the
character as 香.
In this research, the Chinese character literacy learning intervention was introduced to
help the students understand a Chinese character in all rounded six psychological constructions.
A student will gain satisfaction in learning if they could understand a piece of Chinese character
based on one of the psychological constructions proposed by Dong (2006). Writing practice
will reinforce the process of 6thconstruction. The learning satisfaction towards the 2nd and 6th
constructions was particularly evaluated in the Dimension of Recognizing Chinese character.

Satisfaction: Dimension of Classroom Learning

Evaluation is essential in the drilling of writing Chinese characters. Besides the evaluation
conducted by the teacher, students can also make self-evaluation towards their writing. Optimum
success in learning can be achieved through self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is an
individual’s confidence in their own capability to act on something till it succeeds (Ardiyanti,
2016). Self-evaluation towards writing Chinese characters is a form of self-efficacy (Li, 2019;
Wang, 2011). Students learn how to write Chinese characters based on the instructions given

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838 by their teachers during lessons. Besides, they also make their own effort to imitate good
writings with the hope of being able to produce good writing. That is why Chinese character
writing practices can incur satisfaction not only from a psychomotor and cognitive view, but
also satisfaction in the affective domain that comprises moral values such as patience, courage
and self-esteem. In CCLLS, affective satisfaction is measured specifically in the Dimension of
Classroom Learning. The affective domain is also placed as an overall component for all the
satisfaction dimensions that are studied under the CCLLS survey.
Questionnaire in Children Survey
CCLLS questionnaire is concerning children’s learning, thus careful pre-testing was

necessary to determine if the self-administered task was feasible for 8-year-old children.
According to De Leeuw (2011), children aged between 7 to10 can be surveyed directly. The
question-answer process is crucial to a successful survey. When surveying children, we should
understand that the cognitive growth of the children has deep repercussions for the question-
answer process. The development of this early middle childhood stage is labelled as development
of concrete operations according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive growth. These children begin
to differentiate dissimilar points of view, but this is still far from faultless. They still do have
problems with logical customs, for instance with negation. Children of this stage are still very
literal in the interpretation of words and experience the same problem as younger children with
indirect questions (Borgers et al., 2000). In the construction of CCLLS, the researcher had
examined very carefully all the items through a pre-test based on the guidelines listed by De
Leeuw (2011). The findings of the pre-test were summarized with some practical suggestions
for producing a quality questionnaire in children survey:
(1) The language used in both items and instructions in CCLLS questionnaire were simple.
The item wording was made to be clear, concrete, explicit and unambiguous. For
example, the statement “我可以专心地练习写字” (English equivalent: I can focus
when doing the writing practice) might not be easily understood by the young children.
The researcher rephrased the statement as “我可以静静地坐着写字” (English
equivalent: I can sit quietly when doing the writing practice), which has the same
intended meaning of ‘focus’. Both items and instructions were presented in clear
language, at a level that 8-year-old school children can understand.
(2) Due to the memory capacity and the memory speed still developing in the early
middle childhood (aged 7 to 12), the researcher tried to avoid or lessen retrospective
statements. The questionnaire had been executed as soon as possible, even right after
the intervention. This was in regard to the difficulties for a young child to clearly
recollect events. Besides, the reference period has to be well defined in the question
by using ‘here and now’ statement as stressed by Amato and Ochiltree (1987). For
example, the researcher specified ‘最近’ (English equivalent: lately) for the first item:
“最近我比较喜欢写字” (English equivalent: I have been enjoying the writing activity
lately). In order to keep the task short and attractive, the complication of the statements
and the number of response categories had been carefully checked. The researcher
found that using emoji digital images as 5-point Likert scale was very helpful, as these
kid-friendly faces could arouse visual stimuli for the young children and could make
the response options more concrete and interesting.
(3) Children in early middle childhood were prone to please their teachers by not expressing
their own thoughts and feelings (Borgers et al., 2000; De Leeuw, 2011). To be wary of

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this potential problem, the researcher reversed the direction of some questions to reduce 839
response bias. For example, instead of asking the children’s own feeling: “你喜欢上华
文课吗？” (English equivalent: Do you like taking Chinese lessons?), the researcher
reduced the effect of tendency to agree with the presented statement by asking: “班上
的同学喜欢上华文课吗？” (English equivalent: Do you think your classmates like
taking Chinese lessons?). The children would say “yes” if they personally like to take
Chinese lessons and would say “no” if they don’t.
(4) According to Borgers et al. (2000), how well the children can understand what they
read influenced the consistency of their responses. In regard to the reading ability and
short attention span which would affect the data quality of CCLLS questionnaire, the
researcher used active board with power point as an aid to present the items. Each item
was presented in single slide, and the total number of items was minimized to twelve.
The researcher also read aloud the items to prevent the children’s literacy problem. By
displaying the items auditory in attractive slides, problems with lack of motivation and
difficulties in keeping up concentration of the young children could be minimized.
(5) It is important to keep the sentence clear and short in a questionnaire. If the meaning
of a statement was not clear or ambiguous, young children tend to construct scripts
according to the events they are familiar with to hide that they do not understand. In a
paper questionnaire, a child can easily skip a question by mistake or by intention when
they feel bored with the long questions (Borgers et al., 2000). This would cause missing
data and would affect the data quality of a questionnaire. Therefore, the researcher
made sure each item of CCLLS was specified in one single sentence, and each sentence
consisted of not more than eleven characters (words). The researcher also used the
age-relevant terms for the items. Despite proper use of formal terms is crucial in a
questionnaire, the researcher still made an effort to consider the words that are more
children-friendly. For example, the young children might not understand or get used to
the term习字 (English equivalent: writing practice). Thus, it was substituted with the
children’s daily-use wording: 练习写字 (English equivalent: doing writing exercise).
This research was aimed to develop a valid and reliable children questionnaire for
measuring the Chinese character literacy learning satisfaction among the Year Two students of
the primary schools. There were three research questions to be answered:
Q1: Is the survey on learning satisfaction of 8-year-old children feasible by using CCLLS
self-administered questionnaire?
Q2: What is the construct validity of CCLLS questionnaire in measuring the Year Two students’
learning satisfaction in writing Chinese characters, recognizing Chinese characters, and
classroom learning based on: 1) Item statistics; 2) Confirmation of dimensionality?
Q3: How reliable is the questionnaire in measuring the satisfaction of Chinese character
literacy learning among Year Two students according to: 1) KR-20 Cronbach’s coefficient
alpha; 2) Person and item reliability indices?

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840 Research Methodology
General Background
Malaysia is a multi-racial country. There are national schools, Chinese or Tamil national
type schools, and private schools that parents can enroll their children in getting primary
education. Primary education takes six years and is a continuation of pre-school education.
Children usually start primary school when they are 7 years old. The research was conducted
in Chinese national type primary schools of Kota Kinabalu district, state of Sabah in Malaysia.
Before the CCLLS questionnaire was administered, an intervention of Chinese character
literacy learning was executed. The respondents were engaged in the learning activity on one
unit of Chinese character literacy from the textbook, which is published under the Chinese
National Type Primary School (SJKC) curriculum series by Ministry of Education in Malaysia.
Then, it was followed by a reinforcement of writing activity. CCLLS questionnaires were
distributed to the respondents the next day after they were assessed with a literacy test to
examine the outcome of the intervention. The data collected from the administration of CCLLS
questionnaire was used to reflect the children’s satisfaction through their subjective evaluation
towards the outcome of Chinese character literacy learning.
Sample
In Malaysian education system, the lower primary, which is Year One, Two and Three
are the core levels in learning Chinese characters. Year Two children of SJKC were targeted in
this research because the children at this level had been learning Chinese characters for at least
twelve months. The researcher also assumed that the Year Two children were to be better in
giving their responses and perceptions towards Chinese character literacy learning, if compared
to Year One.
There are eleven Chinese national type primary schools (SJKC) at the research site. The
population of the Year Two students studied in SJKC was 556. According to Linacre (1994),
the minimum sample size of 30 participants is enough to create accurate and consistent data at
a 95% confidence in Rasch analysis. Sample size in the range of 108 – 243 is considered to be
large enough to provide 99% confidence that item difficulty can be estimated within ± ½ logit of
its stable value (Linacre, 1994). This research had a sample size of 232, with 119 males (51%)
and 113 females (49%) aged between 7 – 8 years old, chosen randomly from eleven SJKC. All
the samples had been studying Chinese language subject under the curriculum of Malaysia.
In this research, the samples would turn to be the respondents of CCLLS questionnaire after
participating in the scheduled Chinese character literacy learning intervention.
Research Scope, Method and Duration
This research was to survey the learning satisfaction of 8-year-old students in Chinese
character literacy, which was attached to an intervention focused on Chinese character
writing reinforcement. The data was collected and analyzed in quantitative method. There
were four steps involved in developing CCLLS questionnaire: 1) Concept identification; 2)
Item formulation; 3) Pre-testing questionnaire; 4) Validity and reliability test. Prior to the
item construction which began from June 2019, an overview of the philosophy on learning

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satisfaction, and objectives of the national curriculum was made through a literature review. 841
It was followed by comparing the learning objectives of Chinese character literacy with the
main focus on the national curriculum. The conceptual characteristics that shared by both the
learning objectives of Chinese character literacy and the national curriculum were identified
precisely before it was applied in CCLLS questionnaire item formulation. Item pre-testing was
conducted from 9 to 23 July 2019. The construct of CCLLS questionnaire was modified and the
items were refined during this period. It was followed by the first pilot study (5 August 2019),
and the second pilot study (17 September 2019). The CCLLS questionnaire administration in
the true research commenced on 7 October 2019 and ended on 10 October 2019.

Instrument
The data collected from the administration of CCLLS questionnaire was based on
children’s experiences throughout the Chinese character literacy learning process, which was
categorized in the domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective. The development of the
CCLLS questionnaire was related to the learning objective classification of Bloom’s Taxonomy
as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Framework of CCLLS Questionnaire construction
Construct: Dimension of Item Domain

Item Satisfaction (Presented with an example) Psychomotor Cognitive Affective
Children’s
satisfaction towards A4:我看到自己写的字很开心
A:
their learning in
A1 – A4 √ √
writing Chinese (I am happy when looking at my
(4 items)
character after the own writing)
intervention
Children’s
satisfaction towards B9:我会认书里的很多字
B:
their learning in
B5 – B9 √ √
recognizing Chinese (I can recognize many Chinese
(5 items)
characters after the characters in a book)
intervention
Children’s
C11:大家喜欢老师教新的字
C: satisfaction towards
C10 – C12 the classroom √
(We like to learn new Chinese
(3 items) learning on Chinese
characters from the teacher)
character literacy
During the self-administered process in answering the questions (items), the children
would have to rate their approval to each statement according to the ‘level of truth’. Then, they
had to choose a response from five emoji images to indicate their approval. The emoji approval
scale is shown in Figure 5.

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842 Figure 5
Emoji approval scale
Mun and Dreyer (1990) specified a small-scaled pilot test or a pioneer study can test
the validity and reliability of a questionnaire. Thus, this research was preceded with a pioneer
study. A highly validated questionnaire will help researchers in pinpointing more accurately
about what the children gained from an intervention by surveying their learning satisfaction.
A quality questionnaire relies on good items. Therefore, pre-testing on items is essential to
warrant a quality questionnaire.
Procedures
A pre-test was executed to five children from the Year Two SJKC, which was essentially
a cognitive test or an in-depth interview with the young children for testing the item quality.
The purpose in pre-testing was to look at the item properties to determine 1) the range of the
scale, if the children can choose their response options vary from low approval to high approval;
2) the readability of the items, if the language of the items is simple and straightforward to the
children.
Five children were invited to sit in a circle to form a focus group for the pre-test. Goals
and rules of the interview were explained carefully to the children during the introductory
session. There was a short rehearsal before the real interview started. During the interview, the
children were asked to read aloud the items (questions / statements) of the CCLLS questionnaire.
This activity was to stimulate the children to ‘think aloud’ while reading aloud and it had been
done at complete ease. If a child could not read or pronounce a character (word) correctly, this
would signpost a comprehension problem, and would provide clues for the researcher to do
further probing. During the question-answer process, the researcher tried to detect the language
problems, and to discover the causes of the confusion and misinterpretation. The items were
reformed and refined after the pre-test, then were to be submitted to the experts for content
reviewing. The pre-test was followed by pilot tests. The researcher administered CCLLS
questionnaire to 34 and 44 children respectively from two SJKC schools before collecting data
from the true research.
Administration of CCLLS Questionnaire
Before the administration of CCLLS questionnaire, informed consent from the parents
had been obtained. An intervention of Chinese character literacy learning was executed, and
then it was completed with a literacy assessment. CCLLS questionnaire was used to measure the
children’s learning satisfaction. Guidelines on how to read a statement and to choose a proper
response were explained in detail to the children. During the question-answer process, the
children ‘assessed’ the intervention by doing self-evaluation on their experiences and feelings
regarding the Chinese character literacy learning which was conducted within a timeframe of
six weeks. Children’s spontaneous recall is less than adults (De Leeuw, 2011), therefore the
children were given ample time to complete the questionnaire. A set of five emoji images

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was used as the approval scale for each item. Despite there being no setting of time limit, the 843
children were able to complete twelve items within half an hour. The collected data was then
analyzed by the researcher using the Winsteps Rasch software version 3.73.
Rasch Analysis
Rasch Measurement Model has been preferred over other methods since it is capable of
measuring the functions of items and the ability of persons concurrently in a questionnaire. A
Rasch analysis may take longer to process than a traditional analysis, but it provides a deeper
understanding of instrument strengths and weaknesses (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006). The
application of the Rasch measurement can convert the raw data scores into data with similar
intervals till it creates a linear, accurate and compact measurement scale. This is in line with
the objective of this research which is to establish the reliability of the CCLLS questionnaire.
It is imperative to ensure the precision of its items that are used in measuring the satisfaction
dimension. Thus, using this model is an alternative and effective way to diagnose and analyze
items within a questionnaire for its validity and reliability in an in-depth manner. The result of
this analysis is an indicator for the validity and reliability of the CCLLS questionnaire.
Bond and Fox (2007) asserted that the Rasch modelling is an effective solution in
preparing a highly valid and reliable instrument through the creation of in-depth statistics. An
instrument is said to have a high validity and reliability when it can measure what it is supposed
to measure (Creswell, 2005; Pallant, 2005). Wright and Mok (2004) stated that an objective
measurement concept in the field of social and evaluation in education should consist of five
criteria: 1) Gives off a linear measurement with similar intervals; 2) Makes a precise guess;
3) Identifies items that are misfits or outliers; 4) Overcomes the problem of missing data; 5)
Creates a replicable measurement. Rasch measurement can fulfil these five criteria.
In other words, the measurement quality in evaluation and education using the Rasch
model has the same measurement qualities as those used in the physics dimension like
measuring length in meter and centimeter units, or kilogram measurements and so on. This
is also proposed by Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015). The Rasch model is able to determine
the validity and reliability of an instrument and ensure the item in the instrument is capable of
contributing a consistent result with other groups.
Data Analysis
Content Validity
Validity refers to the accuracy of the measurement in an instrument. Content validity

indicates the extent to which items adequately represent the content of the trait that the researcher
wishes to measure (Creswell, 2005). Subject matter expert review is always a good step to
assess content validity for an instrument development. Kline (2005) stated that an expert’s
review is necessary to ensure the accuracy of a construct as well as the clarity of its content.
Mullen (2003) remarked that a group of experts are those who are trained in a specific field. To
follow these principles, the researcher had sent the CCLLS questionnaire to five experts who
have vast knowledge in the field of education for content validation. The experts exhibit these
three characteristics:
(1) A person who works in the field and has a profession of more than five years;
(2) A person who possesses a specific experience;
(3) An individual who is directly involved in the related study.

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844 In tandem, the researcher had referred to a group of lecturers from the Chinese Studies Unit
in an Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), the Chief of Chinese Language Panel from a school,
and a reviewer from the Education Faculty of a university who is an expert in measurement and
assessment. Besides the aforementioned reviewers, an expert in psychology and counselling
from Kota Kinabalu District Education Department (PPD) had also been consulted to validate
the CCLLS questionnaire items. All the comments and advice from the experts were considered
to refine the items, and to improve the meaning, language and presentation of the questionnaire.
Table 2 showcases the overall comments of the experts.

Table 2
Comments from the panel of experts on CCLLS questionnaire
Reviewer Position Expertise Comment
Emphasized to use the easiest form of language in

Senior Lecturer,
the questionnaire that is suitable for respondents
Expert A Chinese Studies Unit Linguistics
aged between 7-8 years old.
in IPG
Proposed to add the ‘neutral’ perception in the 5-point

Head of the
Measurement and Likert scale as an intermediate option in CCLLS
Expert B Department, Education
Assessment questionnaire.
Faculty
Head of the Counseling Psychology and Suggested to modify the description of the scale
Expert C
Department, PPD Counseling response from “level of approval’ to “level of truth”.
The researcher used the data of the evaluation from the reviewers to generate Content
Validity Index (CVI). Content Validity Index or CVI, which is comprised of the item-CVI
(i-CVI), and the specialist-CVI (s-CVI) was modified from Kappa’s (K*) statistics (Lyman,
1986). Pilot et al. (2007) posited that the acceptable value of i-CVI is higher than .78. Davies
(1971), Grant and Davis (1997), as well as Pilot et al. (2007) suggested that the acceptable
s-CVI value is higher than 0.80. The result from the calculation showed both the CVI values
(item and specialist) were .97 (97% approval level). This reflects the CCLLS questionnaire had
a high content validity as shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Content validity index of the CCLLS questionnaire
Content Validity Index (CVI) Index Value
Based on specialist (s-CVI > .80) .97
Based on item (i-CVI > .78) .97
Interpretation Very High

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Construct Validity 845

The Rasch model can provide researchers many techniques and in-depth analysis to
examine the validity and reliability of the constructs in CCLLS questionnaire. A basic Rasch
analysis is a method to use for this purpose by applying five statistical tests on:
(1) Item polarity measured with Point Measure Correlation

(2) Item fit measured with mean square
(3) Confirmation of dimensionality
(4) Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (KR-20)
(5) Item reliability and person reliability with their separation indices, respectively
An inspection for the Point Measure Correlation (PTMEA-CORR) was conducted to

identify the polarity of the items. The fit statistics were examined through the infit and outfit
value of Mean Square (MNSQ). According to Bond and Fox (2007), the MNSQ should be
within the range of 0.6-1.4 to ensure the item is fit or suitable to measure the construct. In
addition, Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015) asserted that a good MNSQ value is within 0.5-1.5.
In the context of this study, the researcher referred to the benchmarks proposed by Boone et
al. (2014), which has the same MNSQ range suggested by Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015).
In addition, range guide from the analysis of unidimensionality using the Rasch model
reveals fit statistics more easily compared to using other measurement models (Tennant &
Pallant, 2006; Sick, 2011; Wright, 1999). This was also asserted by Jusoh, et al. (2014). Principal
Component Analysis of Rasch Residual (PCAR) would provide pertinent data in examining the
item construct. An item that fits with the Rasch measurement would demonstrate an evidence
of sufficient unidimensionality (Wright, 1999; Sick, 2011). As a rule of thumb, Reckase (1979)
opined that unidimensionality is grounded on the requirements of 1) Raw variance explained
by measures, 2) Unexplained variance in the first contrast, and 3) Eigenvalue. Raw variance
explained by measures should be greater than 20%. 40% is a good indicator of unidimensionality.
Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015) asserted that unexplained variance in the first contrast should
be lower than 15%. Eigenvalue should be less than 5 (Linacre, 2005).
Reliability
Reliability refers to the degree to which an instrument yields a consistent result. Rasch
analysis can provide similar psychometric information to traditional analyses for the reliability
of an instrument (Boone & Scantlebury, 2006). The value of an item reliability and a person
reliability provides a statistic similar to the commonly used KR-20 reliability test. Besides the
value of Cronbach Alpha (KR-20), the separation index is also measured in Rasch analysis.
Bond and Fox (2007) asserted that a high value of the reliability (KR-20) is between .71 –
.99 which is within the best value (71% - 99%). Item reliability also verifies an instrument’s
construct validity. Separation is the distribution of position for the person and item along the
variable (Chan, et al., 2014). A good separation index is more than 2.0 (Linacre, 2010). In this
research, the researcher determined the reliability of the CCLLS questionnaire proposed by
Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015) as shown in Table 4.

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846 Table 4
Reliability statistics
Statistics Index Interpretation
< .50 Low

.50 – .60 Moderate
Cronbach Alpha (KR-20) .60– .70 Good
.70 – .80 High
> .80 Very high
< .67 Low

.67 – .80 Satisfactory
Item and person reliability .81 – .90 Good
.91 – .94 Very good
> .94 Excellent
Source: Sumintono and Widhiarso (2015)
Research Results
Item Statistics
According to Boone, at el. (2014), the criteria below used as benchmarks for determining
the fit statistics in the Rasch measurement.
(1) The accepted value of outfit Mean Square (MNSQ): 0.5 < MNSQ < 1.5
(2) The accepted value of outfit Z-Standardized (ZSTD): -2.0 < ZSTD < +2.0
(3) The accepted value of Point Measure Correlation (PTMEA-CORR): 0.4 <
PTMEA-CORR < 0.85
Further investigation needed to be done for an item if it was detected outside any one of
the benchmarks set by Boone, et al. (2014). According to Simintono and Widhiarso (2015), any
item that fulfils one of the benchmarks can be retained. The findings of the item statistics which
include item polarity and item fit are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Item statistics
Infit Outfit
Item PTMEA-CORR
MNSQ ZSTD MNSQ ZSTD
C10 .49 1.25 2.3 1.15 1.4
B7 .51 1.22 2.2 1.24 2.4
B8 .53 1.15 1.6 1.14 1.5
B6 .47 1.15 1.4 1.07 .7
C12 .48 1.09 .9 1.02 .2
A4 .55 .99 -.1 .96 -.4
B9 .60 .95 -.5 .88 -1.2
A1 .50 .92 -.8 .89 -1.0
B5 .54 .88 -1.3 .88 -1.2
A3 .57 .88 -1.2 .85 -1.5
C11 .55 .83 -1.6 .76 -2.3
A2 .50 .78 -2.5 .80 -2.2

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From Table 5, all the items are positive PTMEA-CORR ranging from .47 to .60. The 847
positive value indicated the items can measure the constructs that are supposed to be measured
(Bond & Fox, 2007; Linacre, 2010). This result showed all the items were within the accepted
point measure correlation range from .40 to .85. The polarity statistics indicated the items in the
CCLLS questionnaire can measure the constructs as remarked by Bond and Fox.
According to Bond and Fox (2007), the outlier-sensitive statistics (outfit statistics)
reveals large difference between observed and expected value of an item which is far from the
person’s ability, whereas the information-weighted fit statistics (infit statistics) highlights the
residual of an item that is close to the person’s ability. According to Mohd Jailani (2011), the
outfit statistics of mean square (MNSQ) provides more pronounced measurement compared to
the infit statistics in Rasch analysis. Besides the infit and outfit MNSQ values, the infit and outfit
of Z-Standardized (ZTSD) should be within the range of -2 to +2. However, the ZSTD value
can be ignored if the MNSQ value has fulfilled the conditions of item suitability and sample
adequacy (Bond & Fox, 2007; Linacre, 2010).
Table 5 showed the MNSQ of the items range from .78 to 1.25 (infit), and .76 to 1.24
(outfit). All the items were within the prescribed infit and outfit MNSQ value which is .50 –
1.50. Meanwhile, the infit and outfit of ZSTD values were slightly out of the acceptable range
(-2 to +2). However, the ZSTD value could be ignored due to the contentment in MNSQ
and PTMEA (Bond & Fox, 2007; Linacre, 2010). Conclusively, the items could consistently
measure the constructs in CCLLS questionnaire.
Confirmation of Dimensionality
Unidimensionality is a fundamental requirement for a Rasch model and it is frequently

detected by using Principal Component Analysis of Rasch Residual (PCAR). The concept
of unidimensionality is usually defined as a single latent trait being able to account for the
performance on items forming a questionnaire (Brentari & Golia, 2007). The principal
components analysis of the CCLLS questionnaire is presented in Table 6.
Table 6
Principal components analysis
Based on the result in Table 6, the observed value of the Raw Variance Explained by
Measures is 33.3% which fulfilled the minimum criteria of 20% stated by Sumintono and
Widhiarso (2015). Anyway, it is not good enough to be considered as unidimensional. Thus,
the second requirement for unidimensionality was examined. The value of 9.1% was detected
from Unexplained Variance in 1st Contrast, which is less than 15%. As confirmation, the
unexplained variances from 1st contrast to 5th contrast were detected; they are all less than 10%.

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848 The third prerequisite is the eigenvalue of the 1st contrast of unexplained variance should be
less than 5 (Linacre, 2005). From the result, the eigenvalue shown is 1.6, which is less than
2, indicates the second construct does not clearly exist (Linacre, 2005). As a result, there is a
single construct, which is satisfaction of Chinese character literacy learning could be measured
by CCLLS questionnaire.
Reliability and Separation Indices
In relevance to the reliability of this research, the person-measure reliability indicates how
well the 8-year-old children can be distinguished based on their responses. The item-measure
reliability specifies how well the items (statements) can be discriminated from one another
based on their authenticity approved by the children. Table 7 showed the CCLLS reliability
based on the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (KR-20), which is .81. This value infers that the
reliability of the CCLLS questionnaire is within a very high range (Sumintono & Widhiarso,
2015). The item reliability and person reliability with their respective separation indices are
presented in Table 7.
Table 7
Result of the Reliability Test
Cronbach Alpha (KR-20) Reliability Separation

.81
Item .91 3.23
Person .77 1.81
Referring to Table 7, the item reliability is 0.91, which is within very good range (Bond
& Fox, 2007; Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2015; Linacre, 2010). The item separation index was
3.23, which is more than 2.0, indicating CCLLS has a good spread of items (Linacre, 2010) that
it could distinguish the children according to the level of satisfaction. According to Ardiyanti
(2016), the number of separate item strata (H) can be obtained from the separation index by
calculating the equation: H = [(4 x separation index) + 1] / 3. The result from the calculation in
this study is H = 4.64. (can be rounded up to 5). This value supposed that the items of CCLLS
questionnaire can be categorized into five levels based on the children’s learning satisfaction
(very low, low, moderate, high, and very high), agreeing the five response categories in CCLLS
questionnaire.
The person reliability of .77 is in satisfactory range, meanwhile the person separation of
CCLLS is 1.81. The item separation more than 1.00 indicates there is enough spread of item
(Bond & Fox, 2007). Abd Rahman and Siew (2019) stated the separation value greater than
1.4 can be considered as moderately good. Separation index of 1.81 produces strata, H = 2.75
(can be rounded up to 3). This value indicates the children could be divided into three groups
according to their response type (positive, neutral and negative) based on the items in CCLLS
questionnaire. The overall of the reliability findings is presented in Table 8.
Table 8
Summary of the reliability findings
Rasch CCLLS
Interpretation
Measurement Questionnaire
Cronbach Alpha (KR-20) > .80 .81 Very high
Item Reliability .91 – .94 .91 Very good
Item Separation Index > 2.0 3.23 Good
Person Reliability .67 – .80 .77 Satisfactory
Person Separation Index > 1.4 1.81 Moderately Good

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In order to gain insight into the problems that encountered the slightly low person 849
reliability of CCLLS questionnaire, the researcher had made further study by using Wright map
as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6
Wright map

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850 The map of persons and items had been examined by comparing the range and position
of the item-measure distribution to the range and position of the person-measure distribution.
Figure 6 demonstrates the person-measure, which has normal distribution spreading along the
ruler (center vertical dotted line), and it is well centred. There is a noticeable distance between
the person-measure mean (‘M’ at the left side), and item-measure mean (‘M’ at the right side).
Discussion
The research was accomplished with the findings and summary which were presented
in Table 5 and Table 8. Based on the aforementioned findings, it was proposed that CCLLS
questionnaire could perform statistical confidence in validity and reliability for measuring
Chinese character literacy learning satisfaction among Year Two primary school students.
Surveying learning satisfaction by using CCLLS questionnaire could be feasible to 8-year-old
children in SJKC.
In the Rasch model, there is always an assumption stated that a person's reliability is
influenced by an item's attribute, and vice versa (Linacre, 1994). The map in Figure 6 indicates
that the children’s responses are distributed from strongly agree to strongly disagree, as it would
be expected from the children’s perception on Chinese character literacy learning. In fact, there
should be some items located at each point of the scale, and the items should be distributed to all
areas on the ruler if they are to measure the learning satisfaction of all children. However, the
persons were not able to cover all the items in the form of adequate responses. It is remarkable
in Figure 6, the mean of the person-measure (1.11 logit) locates higher than the mean of the
item-measure (0.00 logit). There are two explanations that can be proposed to this consequence:
(1) Insufficient item to cover the children’s high-rate response at the centre area (close to
the pass point) of the person distribution.
(2) The children’s rating in CCLLS learning satisfaction was too high. It might be true if
the children were actually very satisfied with the outcome of the literacy learning after
participating in the intervention.
Another possibility of overrating was due to some children’s comprehension problems

and poor literacy on the items. A significant study conducted by Hakstian and Whalen (1976)
showed that children who scored low on the reading comprehension had a significantly lower
data quality on the psychometric reliability. De Leeuw (2011) emphasized that children aged
7 to 10 are afraid of doing something wrong. Hence, it would result in a tendency for them
to choose a positive response at most of the time, just to please their teachers (Borgers et al.,
2000; De Leeuw, 2011). The interaction effects between respondent characteristics and item
characteristics can affect the data quality of a questionnaire (Borgers & Hox, 2001), and it
could always happen especially in the children’s questionnaire. The outcome of the research
made an implication that the children characteristics and their cognitive growth would have
some influence on the data quality of the questionnaire. The researcher also noted that in fact
most children did not have any difficulty in choosing any response, and considered to add
extra items such as “I find reading Chinese storybooks challenging”, and “I think Chinese
word puzzle game is too difficult” to increase the number and variety of the items. However,
making response to negation (negative formulated statement) is a cognitive challenge for
children (Borgers et al., 2000; De Leeuw, 2011), thus the researcher is rather hesitant to do
the modification. Nevertheless, there is always a space for improvement. While thinking to
enhance the quality of the questionnaire, CCLLS had already performed the construct validity
and reliability based on Rasch analysis in this research.
A study in developing a learning satisfaction questionnaire for 10 to 12 years old

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primary school children was conducted by Hu (2010) in Changsha, China. Hu’s research 851
consisted of 901 participants. The questionnaire was validated through factorial analysis (KMO
and Barlett’s Test of Sphericity) and went through two pilot studies with three times of item
modifications. After exempting the missing data, the reliability test of 863 participants showed
.889 in Cronbach’s coefficient, which was considered very high. The result of the reliability
test implied that the 10 – 12 years old children in China performed better in understanding the
items of a questionnaire in their native language, if compared with most of the 7 – 8 years old
children in CCLLS survey, who might probably have more difficulties to understand the items
in a second language. Moreover, 10 – 12 years old children might have better cognitive function
than 7 – 8 years old children (De Leeuw, 2011).
The questionnaire in Hu’s research consisted of 46 items which was developed through
six dimensions: 1) Learning environment; 2) Teaching and facilitating; 3) Relationship with
teachers; 4) Relationship with classmates; 5) Family relationship; 6) Academic performance.
According to Hu (2010), the mean scores of the dimension in “Teaching and facilitating” and
“Relationship with teachers'' were the highest among the six satisfaction dimensions in the
survey. This result indicated the 10 – 12 years old children could be having a tendency to please
their teachers during the administration of the questionnaire (Hu, 2010). Compared to CCLLS,
this 4-point Likert scale questionnaire measured a broader scope and a wider perspective on
students’ learning satisfaction. However, the outcome from the evaluation of each dimension
seemed to be more informative and useful, compared to the evaluation of all dimensions as an
overall outcome (Hu, 2010). Hu’s statement infers that a questionnaire on learning satisfaction
with a smaller scope and fewer dimensions (CCLLS is an example) could be more helpful,
practical and precise in assisting an educator to detect the students’ learning problems.
Learning satisfaction in general has been well-researched but learning satisfaction in
Chinese character literacy is rare. CCLLS was developed to evaluate the outcome of the learning
satisfaction in Chinese character literacy. It has been developed conveniently, and specifically
to measure the students’ learning satisfaction is relevant to an intervention. Therefore, using
CCLLS as ‘one size fits all’ is not advisable. More studies should be done to extend CCLLS
application in surveying the learning satisfaction for other subjects.
Learning is an important part of childhood. Enhancing the learning and teaching quality
may result in the satisfaction of children’s learning. For young children, learning satisfaction
is equivalent to happiness that will make their life shine with hope. In most of the countries,
children are no longer an ignored minority in authorized statistics. When proxy-reporting from
parents or guardians is no longer considered good enough, educators should hear the voice from
the children itself.
This research was concerning children's learning satisfaction, and the regarding
information was directly collected from the children. Students are the main part of education
and learning. Motivation should be given to young children by creating more chances for them
to voice out what they think or feel in a more manageable and easier way, such as responding
through a questionnaire. Hence, the main objective of developing a children questionnaire is
for learning and is a part of learning.
This research put its focus on the children by studying and analysing the factors that
influence their learning experience. Measuring knowledge, skills and attitudes among young
children is a major methodological challenge in this research. Methodological studies on adult
populations have shown that even adults may experience problems with certain questions
characteristics in a survey. Thus, with children respondents, an error in a question such as
ambiguity and negations will give a larger impact and will be more difficult to compensate.

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852 These problems had been magnified and clarified in the early stage of CCLLS questionnaire
item formulation.
Rasch model was used to examine the construct validity and reliability of CCLLS
questionnaire. The meticulous analysis of Rasch measurement had shown the suitability of
the items in measuring the learning satisfaction of Chinese character literacy. The outcome
of a tailored study can be more easily estimated by using a valid and reliable tool. However,
developing and administering quality questionnaires for children requires a careful judgment
process. The length of the questionnaire, question wording and structure are some of the issues
that would determine the data quality. Consequently, the role of a child might be transposed
as an ‘evaluator’ to determine the quality of the questionnaire. The age of 8 is a major growing
point in the cognitive and social development. Development of CCLLS is the integration of
theoretical and empirical knowledge on children characteristics. The results of the research
indicated that CCLLS questionnaire could be feasible and suitable in measuring Chinese
Character Literacy Learning Satisfaction (CCLLS) based on the perception of 8-year-old
students in the primary schools of SJKC. The findings may also assist educators to re-evaluate
the learning outcomes of Chinese character literacy to enhance the effectiveness of learning and
teaching Chinese subject in other countries.
As by-purpose, the development of CCLLS questionnaire had also initiated a good
start for the 8-year-old SJKC children in learning how to do self-evaluation by answering a
questionnaire and this skill would be further explored in future studies. Moreover, since this
research was only conducted in Chinese national type schools (SJKC), extension of the research
to other national schools that offer Chinese language as learning subject is recommended. Hence
for achieving educational equity, comparison of the learning satisfaction can be done among the
students of the main-stream national schools and the Chinese national type schools.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their deepest appreciation to Mr. Lui Lep Ming who
is the former National Core Instructor of Malaysian Primary School Standardized Curriculum
(KSSR), and Dr. Chiam Sun May from Kent Institute of Teacher Education for their generous
knowledge sharing, support and inspiration.
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Shiat Lu Wong Master Student, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University Malaysia Sabah,
Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Email: wongshiatlu@gmail.com
Nyet Moi Siew PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University Malaysia
(Corresponding author) Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
E-mail: sopiah@ums.edu.my
Chiow Thai Soon PhD, Lecturer, Center for the Promotion of Knowledge and Language, University of
Malaysia Sabah, Labuan International Campus,
Jalan Sungai Pagar, 87000 Labuan Federal Territory, Malaysia.
E-mail: soon@ums.edu.my

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856
THE EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL
PROGRAM WITH LIFE CONTEXTS ON THE
COGNITIVE FUNCTION OF THE ELDERLY
IN TAIWAN
Ya-Ling Wu, Shan-Ru Chao

National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Taiwan
E-mail: sw7735@yahoo.com.tw
Wei-Fang Tsai
Agency of Correction, Justice of Ministry, Taiwan
Mei-Lun Chen
Wanlun Elementary School, Taiwan
E-mail: c2114433@gmail.com
Abstract
Based on the reminiscence therapy, the research aimed to develop the horticultural program with life
contexts for the elderly in southern Taiwan, and to explore the effect on overall cognitive function of the
elderly. The participants were 17 seniors in one community care center. The research adopted quasi-
experimental research of one group pre-test and post-test design of time series, and data were collected
by questionnaire surveys and semi-structured interviews. The objective of the program was to maintain
cognitive function of the elderly. Twelve activities of the program were implemented once a week and
2 hours for each activity. The program included manual activity, group activity, and outdoor planting
activity. The program content was based on farming experience of the elderly and integrated with diverse
cognitive function trainings. It was found that the program showed immediate effect and two-week delay
effect on promoting overall cognitive function of the elderly. Also, the elderly obtained new planting
experience and their learning motivation was enhanced. Additionally, because of integrating with life
contexts, the program was meaningful and encouraged the elderly to be engaged in the activities and
recall the past. In the process, the elderly enjoyed the exchange of horticulture and life experience.
Keywords: horticultural program, the elderly, cognitive function, quasi-experiment
Introduction
Population ageing is a severe issue, being faced by most of the countries. Taiwan has
become an aged society since the percentage of its population above 65 years of age was about
14% in 2019. In an ageing society, the negative effect caused by cognitive function degeneration
of the elderly is an important issue. Cognition degeneration not only influences individuals’
quality of life, independence and social ability, but it might also cause dementia. Individuals
with dementia require medical and daily life care. The prevalence rate of dementia is 5% in the
aged population of Taiwan. In Taiwan, the direct medical cost of treating a patient with mild
dementia is about US$ 1,400 per year. The cost of treating a patient with severe dementia is
around US$ 1,600 per year. The indirect cost of caring each patient of dementia is about US$
14,000 per year, which increases as the disease deteriorates (Leong, et al., 2014). Because of the

Ya-Ling WU, Shan-Ru CHAO, Wei-Fang TSAI, Mei-Lun CHEN. The effect of horticultural program with life contexts on the cognitive
function of the elderly in Taiwan
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rapid increase of aged population, Taiwan is facing the burden of taking care of the elderly with 857
cognitive function degeneration. Hence, the Taiwan government has to make and implement
the policies of preventing and delaying cognition degeneration of the elderly. These policies
would also benefit the quality of life of the elderly and their caregivers, and also avoid the
burden on care services and have a positive effect on the society and the economy development.
In recent years, the countries with the aged population, have implemented various
programs to prevent and delay cognitive function decline of the elderly. Some argue that
cognitive function training for the elderly and those with mild cognition impairment would
delay cognitive function degeneration. The cognitive function training includes memory
training, time training, etc. (Chaikham, et al., 2016; Cheng, et al., 2013). However, in most
of the existing studies, cognition training designed for the elderly has been decontextualized.
Further, the cognition training activities have been repetitive and static. Moreover, some studies
have adopted various media, such as horticulture, board games, music and physical activities, to
enhance cognitive function of the elderly. Although the activities have improved the cognitive
performance of the elderly, they have not shown meaningful association with the elderly, who
thus lacked interest and could not join in the activities for long. According to the reminiscence
therapy of geriatrics, the elderly possess abundant life experience, and they tend to be fixed to
familiar experiences. By using objects, such as familiar photos and music, to systematically
guide the elderly to recall and share past meaningful life experience, the elderly are willing to
participate in the activities in which they can recognize themselves. In this way, their cognitive
function is enhanced (Wang, 2007).
Many countries are proactively providing various cares and services for the elderly to
delay their ageing with the help of community organizations. Taiwan also encourages community
organizations to take care of their elderly persons by providing them with diverse activities. The
number of the elderly in Europe, America and Taiwan who participate in horticultural programs
is increasing. Besides, in the field of elderly care, horticultural programs are frequently applied
to maintain physical and mental health of the elderly or delay their ageing. It is evident from
the research that horticultural programs enhance cognitive function of the elderly (e.g., Kojima
& Kunimi, 2013; Liu & Chu, 2018). Taiwan’s economy had relied on agriculture. Many of the
elderly in Taiwan had made their living by agriculture during their young age. Most of their
life experience is about growing and taking care of plants. Therefore, horticultural programs
associated with plants can be applied to enhance the cognitive function of the elderly in
Taiwan. In this study, based on the Reminiscence therapy, we aimed to design and implement
Horticulture Program with Life Contexts for the elderly, and simultaneously to explore the
effect of the program on improving cognitive function of the elderly. The elderly who had made
a living with agriculture in southern Taiwan have been taken as the participants of the study.
Literature Review
Cognition is the psychological process of the individuals to receive, perceive, comprehend

and recognize the stimulus by consciousness. Hence, cognition includes two dimensions:
cognitive process and cognitive function. Cognitive function refers to perception attention,
memory acquisition, thinking and reasoning, logic judgment, plan monitoring, problem
solution and imagination. Cognitive function is influenced by humans’ neural function of the
brain, mental stress or adaption to things. With age, the elderly show significant degeneration
of cognitive function; for instance, they show slow response and decline of memory (Johnson,
et al., 2007).
It mainly relies on the medical treatment and non-medical treatment to delay or prevent
cognitive function degeneration of the elderly. Non-medical treatment also enhances physical
health through exercises and strengthens cognitive function, including various types of training
to maintain the operations of brains (Chaikham et al., 2016).

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858 Reminiscence Therapy
Reminiscence therapy is applied as a social-psychological intervention to prevent and

delay cognition degeneration of the elderly. Reminiscence therapy focuses on the elderly who
can recall and share their experiences by exploring meaningful and influential events in lives
to get satisfied, identify with themselves, lower anxiety, and improve the quality of life (Wang,
2007). Reminiscence therapy is developed on the basis of Atchley’s Continuity Theory and
Erikson’s Development Theory in social psychology. It suggests that even when the individuals
are aged and reach to the phase of dementia, their remote memory is still complete, which can
serve as a tool to communicate with themselves (Thorgrimsen, et al., 2002). Thus, reminiscence
therapy allows the elderly to develop sustainable self-concept and continue the development
of different phases. The elderly possess rich memories, and reminiscence therapy allows the
elderly to adapt to the change in their current lives by recalling memories. Reminiscent objects
include pleasant stuff that results in positive outcomes. Reminiscent topics include the process
of growth, childhood, holidays, entertainment, work experience, hometown, etc. Reminiscence
therapy can be implemented in individuals or groups (Paker, 1995).
Evidence exists for different studies which have shown that cognitive function
degeneration of the elderly can be prevented by reminiscence therapy. In these studies, music
and photos were used as reminiscent objects. However, these studies could not tap long-
term accumulative effect because they adopted one-off static activities. Further, due to the
limited materials, the elderly could not experience diverse sensory stimulus and particular
physical activities. Also, some studies could not elaborate the activity contents and process of
reminiscence therapy applied (Cotelli, et al., 2012; Peng, et al., 2009). Therefore, appropriate
objects and long-term implementation of reminiscence therapy can be more effective to prevent
and delay cognitive function decline of the elderly.
Horticultural Activity
Horticultural activity is one of the non-medical treatments to prevent and delay cognition
degeneration of the elderly. Horticultural therapy reinforces the participants’ physical and
mental health through horticultural activities (Bassen & Saltazar, 1997). From horticultural
programs, the elderly obtain three kinds of benefits: physical health, treatment and rehabilitation
of chronic diseases, and prevention from dementia (Tseng, et al., 2007). Horticultural program
content can be simple or complicated, such as indoor potted culture planting and outdoor
garden landscaping. Horticultural program results in the participants’ benefits to cognition,
social life, emotion and physical improvement. Types of cognition benefits and their sources
are provided in Table 1 (Rothert & Dauber, 1981; Tseng, et al., 2007). The effect of horticultural
therapy is associated with the three factors, including interaction, action and reaction (Phibbs &
Relf, 2005). Relf (1973) has classified horticultural therapy activities into five types, including
manual activity, group activity, excursion, outdoor planting, and outdoor trip.
Only a small number of studies have implemented horticultural programs on the elderly
to prevent or delay their cognitive function degeneration (e.g., Kojima & Kunimi, 2013; Jarrott,
et al., 2002). Most of these studies did not specifically elaborate on the contents and methods of
horticultural programs. Therefore, the types of horticultural programs and the related benefits
are uncertain and of very little use to further research. Although these programs could guide the
elderly to plant effectively, their designs were decontextualized. Thus, they could not trigger
the participation, interest, and motivation of the elderly. Besides, the elderly may have to spend
more time in learning the unfamiliar activity contents.
Therefore, based on reminiscence therapy, this study designed and implemented the
horticultural program with familiar life experience of the elderly to prevent and delay their
cognitive function degeneration.

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Table 1 859
Analysis of cognition benefits of horticultural program
Types of benefits Sources of benefits
Acquisition of new skills Individuals obtain horticultural skills, such as planting.
Increase in vocabulary Individuals learn new terms,
Individuals think of the growth of plants and experiment

Stimulation of curiosity
it.
By observing plants, individuals can enhance the

Increase of observation comprehension, planning, and decision-making
competencies.
Individuals experience visual, taste, touch and hearing
Sensory stimulus
stimulation.
Note. From Horticultural Therapy at a physical rehabilitation facility, by E. A. Rothert, & J. R. Daubert,1981,
Glencoe, IL: Chicago Horticultural Society.
“The therapeutic effects of horticultural programs on disable elderly in nursing home,” by T-H Tseng, W-S Lu,
& C-L Ho, 2007, Journal of the Taiwan Society for Horticultural Science, 53(3), 345-360.
Research Design
To explore immediate and follow-up effects of Horticultural Program with Life Contexts
on the cognitive function of the participants, this study applied one-group time-series design.
Research design is shown in Table 2.
Table 2
One-group time-series design model
Group Pre-test Intervention Post- test Follow-up test
Experimental group O1 X1 O2 O3
Note: O1: Pre-test of the participants. One week before the program, this study administered the Montreal
Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) on the participants. O2: Post-test of the participants. On the next day after
the program, this study administered MoCA on the participants. O3: Follow-up test of the participants. Two
weeks after the program, this study administered MoCA on the participants. X1: Intervention. The participants
received Horticultural Program with Life Contexts implemented by the instructors.
Research Participants
The participants of the study were the seniors of the care center for the elderly in one
community of Pingtung County in southern Taiwan. In recent years, Taiwan government has
invested a lot to build care centers for the elderly that are managed by local communities.
The residents in these communities provide the seniors with local preliminary care service

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860 to maintain their physical and mental health. Pingtung in Taiwan is an agricultural county. In
the research site of this study, in particular, more than 80% of the population make a living by
farming. Almost all seniors aged 65 or above relied on agriculture when they were young. Thus,
agricultural life is the shared life experience of the participants.
In this study, the community care center provides services for the elderly on Friday
morning. Around 40 seniors usually participated in the service activities. The 17 participants
were recruited voluntarily from the elderly of the community care center. The oldest was 90
years old, and the youngest was 67 years old. Their average age was 73.4 years, and they were
all females. They were all the community residents, who had been living in the community for
more than 35 years. After marriage, they all made their living by agriculture. Although some
senior participants were aged, they occasionally assisted their family in farming. The senior
participants were those in subhealth, who had chronic diseases, including high blood pressure
and diabetes. As to cognitive function, they did not show severe dementia characteristics, such
as incompetence of familiar tasks, the difficulty of expressing, and lack of sense of time or
direction. Although they occasionally showed temporary memory gap, they could recall after
they were reminded.
In the study, two instructors took turns guiding the activities of the horticultural program
with the help of two assistants and two local community volunteers. This study was approved
by the Research Review Committee of Pingtun County after the screening. With the study
members’ oral explanation, informed consent in writing was obtained from the participants
before the start of the intervention.
Horticultural Program with Life Contexts
By taking into account life experiences of the elderly in Pingtung County, the horticultural
program of this study integrated with life contexts which were familiar to them. In this study,
12 sessions of Horticultural Program with Life Contexts were designed and implemented.
The objective of the program was to maintain or improve the overall cognitive function of
the elderly. The outline of the program was shown in Appendix. Each session of the program
included warm-up, main activity and integration as the guideline of the whole session. Warm-
up phase aimed to enhance the attention and concentration of the elderly. It guided the elderly
to be prepared for the session and to review the previous one. It triggered their cognition,
memory and social interaction. Thus, warm-up activity focused on reviewing the content of
the previous session, sharing afterthoughts of growing the plants at home, and reminding the
date and weather of that day. In the phase of main activity, the program instructor explained
and demonstrated the activity and the elderly were divided into four groups for practicing.
Each group was supported by one volunteer or assistant. In the integration phase, the instructor
guided the participants to integrate and review the activity content. Sharing and questioning
enhanced the interaction among the elderly, encouraged them to appreciate the unique creation
of each other, strengthened their self-identification, and reinforced their memory.
The horticultural program content was designed based on rural life experience of the
participants and integrated with diverse cognitive function training. The participants of this
study were the elderly with average age of 73.4 living in Pingtung County of southern Taiwan,
who had been making a living by farming for years. Thus, the program content included
leisure agriculture of Pingtung County and local agricultural features. Also, in this study, the
horticultural program, which aimed to enhance the cognitive function of the elderly, integrated
with multiple cognitive training, including counting, identifying, design, experience sharing,
planning, and problem-solving. The horticultural program included manual activity, group
activity, and outdoor planting to encourage the participants to engage. Furthermore, themes of
sessions were designed according to familiarity of the elderly to the content of activities and

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difficulty of cognition training. The contents of the program were presented stepwise; that is 861
to say, first, what were introduced to the elderly were the familiar plants, gardening materials,
care for plants, planting methods, and basic potted culture design. Subsequently, the cultural
and creative design of plants as well as use of plants were experienced. Additionally, all types
of cognitive training were implemented from simple to complicated ones; in other words, this
study first arranged simple cognitive trainings for the elderly, followed by more complicated
trainings.
Period of Implementation
Horticultural Program with Life Contexts lasted for 12 weeks. Twelve sessions of
the program were implemented, one session a week and 2 hours for each session. The study
members entered the research site to administer the pre-test of MoCA on June 22, 2018. From
June 23 to September 8, 2018, Horticultural Program with Life Contexts was implemented. The
post-test of MoCA was administered on September 9. Two weeks later, The follow-up test of
MoCA was administered on September 22.
Program Instructors and Assistants
In this study, Horticultural program with Life Contexts was guided by two instructors, in
turns, with the assistance of two trained assistants and two trained volunteers in the community
care center. The program instructors implemented the warm-up and introduced the horticultural
activities. They also demonstrated the horticultural work and guided the elderly to do it and then
integrated the session. The assistants and volunteers distributed the horticultural materials and
helped the elderly to do work. The instructors both specialized in horticulture and horticultural
therapy. They instructed the participants of different ages to do horticultural work in order to get
empowered, improve living habits, and facilitate their psychological capacity.
Table 3
Information of program instructors
Name Gender Education level Specialty Experience

Instructor Amy Female Master ● Making Potted culture ●Teacher of the Department of Plant
Degree of plant ● Making Garden landscaping Industry in vocational schools
industry ● Instructing horticultural program ● Instructor of horticultural programs for
the elderly
● Horticultural therapy instructor of
prisoners
Instructor Female Ph.D.in tropical ● Making potted culture ● Elementary school teacher
Betty agriculture ● Instructing horticultural program ● Horticultural therapy instructor of
children
● Instructor of horticultural programs for
the elderly

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862 Data Collection and Analysis
This study applied the questionnaire surveys and interviews to collect the data.
1. Questionnaire survey
This study administered the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) scale to assess
overall cognitive function of the elderly. With the ability to assess some cognitive domains,
MoCa scale is a proven and useful cognitive screening tool for cognitive illnesses. The scale
is simple, brief, and precise and can be done in a short time. It has been commonly applied to
clinical tests (Smith, et al., 2007). MoCA scale has been translated in about 20 languages. To be
consistent with cultural backgrounds and language use in different areas, the translation versions
are adequately adjusted. MocCA has 8 subscales, including visuospatial and execution function,
naming, working memory, delayed recall, attention, language, abstraction and orientation
on time and space. The assessment can be done for around 10 minutes. MoCA scores range
between 0 and 30. A score of 26 or over is considered to be normal. For the test-taker with 12
years or less of formal education, 1 point is added to their score (Luis, et al., 2009).
Before the horticultural program, this study administered the pre-test on the participants.
One day after the horticultural program, the post-test was done. Two weeks later, the follow-up
test was done. The MoCA scale was administered based on one-to-one practice between the
study team members and the participants. The team members first explained the item of the
scale to the elderly, and then they answered by painting, oral expression, or motion. This study
analyzed the scores using the means, standard deviations, and dependent sample t-test. SPSS
software was used for the analysis.
2. Interview
Semi-structured interviews were conducted one week after the horticultural program.
By interviewing the elderly, care center volunteers and program instructors, the study aimed to
understand the learning experiences of the elderly who participated in Horticultural Program
with Life Contexts. By critical case sampling (Patton, 2002), the study members interviewed
three seniors who had participated in the activities of the center for the long term and were
familiar with other elderly participants. Information of the elderly, volunteers and activity
instructors interviewed is shown in Table 4.
The interview transcripts were analyzed applying within- and cross-case analyses
(Patton, 2002). First, the study team members separately coded each interview's transcripts
as a single case. The researchers then compared the coding of the transcripts and generated
emerging categories and properties. Second, the researchers conducted the cross-case analysis
applying a constant comparative analysis to search for or validate patterns that emerged in the
within-case analysis and identify common patterns across the cases (Wu, 2014).
Table 4
Information of interviewees
Name Identity Gender Educational level Age

Volunteer Apple Volunteer Female Junior high school 56
Volunteer Belle Volunteer Female Senior high school 61
Elderly Ann The elderly Female Senior high school 92
Elderly Beth The elderly Female Elementary School 73
Elderly Cindy The elderly Female None 70
Instructor Amy Program instructor Female Master Degree 46
Instructor Betty Program instructor Female Ph. D 44

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Research Results 863
Analysis of MoCA Scores
This study administered MoCA on the participants to assess the effect of Horticultural
Program with Life Contexts on their overall cognitive function. Total score of MoCA with 8
subscales ranges between 0 and 30; if a score is 26 or above, it means the cognitive function
of the test-taker is normal. If a score is below 26, the test-taker might have abnormal cognitive
function. As shown in Table 5, the means of pre-test, post-test and follow-up test of the
participants were all lower than 26. In other words, the participants showed the possibility of
cognitive function damage or decline. As Table 5 shows, the means of post-test (M=21.18) was
significantly higher than that of pre-test (M=15.06) (t=-6.63, p<.001). The means of follow-up
test (M=20.12) was also significantly higher than that of pre-test (M =15.06) (t=-4.59, p<.001).
Nevertheless, the means of follow-up test did not show significant difference from that of post-
test.
Table 5
Means, standard deviations, maximum, minimum and dependent-sample t-test of pre-test,
post- test, and follow-up test (N=17)
Total score
Group M Maximum Minimum SD t
of MOCA
Pre-test Pre-test 15.06 26 7 5.91
│ -6.63***
Post test Post test 21.18 28 12 4.67
Pre-test Pre-test 15.06 26 7 5.91
│ -4.59***
Follow-up test Follow-up test 21.12 30 10 5.21
Post test Post-test 21.18 28 12 4.67

│ 0.05
Follow-up test Follow-up test 21.12 30 10 5.21
***p<.001
Overall, the means of post-test and the means of follow-up test were both significantly
higher than that of pre-test. In other words, after participating in Horticultural Program
with Life Contexts, the overall cognitive function of the participants was immediately and
significantly improved. Additionally, two weeks after the program, the improved cognitive
function sustained. The results suggest that for the elderly who might have cognitive function
decline, the horticultural program has effect on improving their overall cognitive function, and
this effect may sustain.
Analysis of Interview
The research interviewed the two program instructors, two volunteers of community
care center, and three seniors who participated in the horticultural program. The interview
focused on the interviewees’ observation, experience, and feelings of the participation of the
horticultural program.

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864 By the horticultural program, the elderly obtained new planting experience. In a broader
sense, horticultural activities are part of farming. However, the seniors felt that the horticultural
program focused on potting and recreation, which was a little different from agriculture on
which the elderly relied on for a living. Therefore, the horticultural program was not only
familiar but also strange to the elderly of the study. They had the agricultural experience and
were familiar with soil, planting of economic crops and care for the plants. Nevertheless, in this
horticultural program, they managed the potting plants so that they felt that horticulture was
related to farming, but it was, in fact, a little different from farming. For the elderly of the study,
farming and horticulture were both planting; however, the methods and materials of them were
significantly different. Director Betty noted that, “I invited the elderly to make potted culture of
nageia nagi seeds; however, some of them did not know how to plant the seeds. I was surprised
that most of them never had the experience of flower arrangement or potted culture in their
lives.”
In the elderly’s opinion, potting design, planting or flower arrangement were parts of
leisure activities, which were the life experience of the rich. In the past, the elderly had to work
hard on the farms and were too busy to participate in leisure activities. Horticultural program
of this study allowed the elderly to approach delicate flowers and plants and learn to grow
and take care of them. Ann, one of the participants, said, “when I was young, I worked hard
on the farm and grew rice and betel nuts. Horticulture that we learnt recently included potted
culture and growing flowers, and it is for those who are rich and have leisure time! It is different
from our agricultural work in the past.” Cindy, one of the participants, said, “Horticulture is
different from the plantation we made in the past. Although we planted the seeds and took care
of plants both in farming and horticultural activities, the methods of them were different. In this
horticultural program, I have learnt various methods of taking care of and growing the small
plants!”
The curiosity of the elderly about horticultural program resulted in learning motivation.
In the horticultural program of the study, the elderly learnt delicate and recreational horticulture
on the basis of their farming experience. The horticultural activities were designed on the basis
of their life experiences. For instance, the activity of making photo frames of succulent plants
was associated with their experiences of leaving the hometown. Making cards of rubbing leaves
was related to the plant landscape of the community of the elderly. Thus, these horticultural
activities were strange yet familiar to them. On the basis of old agricultural work and daily
life experience, the elderly became curious about horticulture and were motivated to learn
something new.
Director Amy noted, “Once an old lady had to go to see a doctor. However, she asked
me to wait for her to go back for the horticultural activity. She said that she would feel sorry
by missing the class and these horticultural activities were interesting to her!” The senior Ann
said, “These methods of taking care of the plants, seeds and flowers are new to me! They’re
interesting! I enjoy the classes, and I don’t like to be late. If I miss the class, I would feel sorry,
and it’s a pity that I cannot learn something new!”
Integrated with life contexts, the horticultural program was meaningful and encouraged
the elderly to be engaged in the activities and recall the past. The horticultural program of this
study did not merely guide the elderly to plant, take care of plants, or make cultural potted culture.
Instead, the elderly’s life experience was integrated into the horticultural program. For instance,
the elderly were invited to recall the experiences of leaving the hometown when making photo
frames of succulent plants. Also, the participants made the garden landscaping with their old
stuff. The seniors were also encouraged to connect their travel experiences with the seeds used
as horticultural materials. Thus, in the program of the study, the horticultural activities were
related to their current and past experiences, and the activities became more meaningful for
them so that the seniors were more concentrated and engaged in the program. Beth, one of the

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participants, said, “I had attended other horticultural classes before. Before I just learn to grow 865
flowers. However, this program of the study is different! The teacher encouraged us to share
our stories and experiences when doing the horticultural work! These horticultural activities
reminded me of my past, and I became more attached to the plants that I grew in the program.
In the program, I worked hard and carefully and concentrated!” Volunteer Apple noted, “When
joining in other activities in the community center, these old ladies tended to be distracted
and felt bored! However, in the horticultural program, they were very careful, concentrated,
and quiet when growing the plants or do the horticultural work. They were engaged in these
horticultural activities”
The instructors also guided the seniors to recall and share personal life experience when
doing the horticultural work, and the seniors felt that they seemed to recollect the past more
easily. Senior Beth said, “It is usually not easy for me to look back upon the past! However, in
the horticultural program, the instructor invited us to share the stories related to horticulture so
often. Surprisingly, it became less difficult for me to recall the past!”
Improving cognitive function of the elderly by multiple of intentional instructional
methods. In this study, the instructors implemented the horticultural program by the methods
which aimed to enhance cognitive function of the elderly. By intentional repetition and
association, the elderly were more familiar with the operational process of horticultural
work, and their memory could be enhanced by memorizing the characteristics of plants and
methods of caring plants. For instance, the instructors guided the elderly to design cards with
rubbing leaves in order to stimulate their planning competence. Director Betty noted, “When
teaching the elderly to identify the plants, I helped them associate the names of plants with
their characteristics. For instance, “nageia nagi” was associated with “cypress with curly
hair”; “common dracena” resembled “red banana”. In this way, it was easier for the elderly to
memorize the names of plants.”
In fact, the operational process of different kind of horticultural work was similar. When
the seniors did the new horticultural work, the instructors would frequently remind the process
and guide them to operate the steps again in order to improve their memory. “The elderly had
learnt the basic steps of horticultural work, and they continued to operate the work according to
what they learnt. In the process of doing the horticultural work, with the instructors’ reminder
and their hand-on experiences, the elderly could memorize the steps more easily and would
become more and more familiar with the work. In this way, the seniors’ memory would be
improved,” said Director Amy.
The elderly enjoyed the interaction of horticultural and life experience. In the
horticultural program of this study, the elderly not only did the horticultural work but also
frequently shared and exchanged life experiences and horticultural acquisition. They shared
the planting experience and their past life stories. By doing so, the seniors knew each other
more and interacted more frequently, and they were more willing to share with each other.
Experience sharing requires memory retrieval, organization of contents, and expression. The
repetitive practice of experience sharing can strengthen individuals’ cognitive function.
In the program, the elderly helped each other do horticultural work while competent
seniors assisted with those who acted slowly or with inferior comprehension. The assistance
stimulated each other’s cognitive function. Volunteer Belle said, “The elderly interacted with
each other when growing flowers or doing potted culture. They discussed about the successful
work and the aesthetic positions of the plants in the work. They observed others’ work and
exchanged opinions with each other and then were improving their floral design.” Thus, the
group dynamics of the group members, including experience exchange and mutual assistance,
would enhance the cognitive function of the elderly.
Overall, the analysis of MoCA test scores suggested that 12 sessions of Horticultural
Program with Life Contexts had immediate and two-week follow-up effect on improving the

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866 overall cognitive function of the elderly. Also, in the horticultural program, the elderly obtained
new planting experience and became curious about horticulture with learning motivation.
Furthermore, integrated with life contexts of the elderly, the horticultural program was more
meaningful, and the elderly were engaged in the activities. By multiple intentional methods,
the horticultural program would improve the cognitive function of the seniors. In the process of
learning, the elderly enjoyed the exchange of horticulture and life experience.
Discussion
There were 3 phases in each session of Horticultural Program with Life Contexts,
including warm-up, main activity and integration. In the warm-up phase, the instructor
inquired the elderly about the date and reviewed the horticultural program of the previous
session. The elderly were also invited to share their plant growing experience at home. The
elderly developed meaningful set to the new horticultural activity by the warm-up activity.
Also, they were prepared for the new activity and actively sought for new knowledge and
the connection with their original cognitive structures. Previous and new activities were
combined in the meaningful way (Dirksen, 2016). Furthermore, in the integration phase, the
instructors rewarded the seniors because of their participation and special horticultural work.
Additionally, the instructor invited the elderly to recall the content of main activity and share
personal horticultural work and working experiences of that session. In this way, the elderly
could organize, review, and synthesize the activities of the session and obtain complete and
high-level meta-experience of the session.
Horticultural program with Life Contexts is different from other conventional activities
in enhancing cognitive function of the elderly. These conventional studies (e.g., M. H. Kim &
J. M. Kim, 2012) only included the main activities, and the elderly could not gradually develop
meaningful set to learning, and they could not connect what they learnt with daily life. There
were 3 phases in each session of the horticultural program with warm-up, main activity and
integration, which guided the elderly to develop meaningful and high-level activity experiences.
In turn, it would benefit the elderly’s cognitive function. In addition, regular three-phase model
allowed the elderly to be familiar with, to be prepared for, and to be engaged in the program.
Most of the existing studies which have had the effect of enhancing cognition of the
elderly have only focused on cognitive function and neglected the association between activity
content and life contexts of the elderly (e.g., Ball, et al., 2002). Although these activities of the
existing studies could improve the elderly’s cognitive function, they might lack motivation for
participation. In fact, appropriate activities for the elderly should be designed based on their life
contexts because they tend to be fixed to certain familiar experiences (Caffarella & Merriam,
2000).
The reminiscence therapy suggests that the group reminiscence process can encourage
and support the elderly to systematically recall, discuss, and share experience, and it would delay
their cognition decline (Parker, 1995). Horticultural Program with Life Contexts was designed
based on reminiscence therapy with further extension. In other words, the horticultural program
of the study was designed on the basis of the familiar farming experience of the elderly, and
integrated with their environment, such as the plant landscape of their community. Additionally,
the program also combined with the elderly’s personal life experiences, such as leaving the
hometown and travelling. Moreover, the program was extended to include the potted culture and
garden landscaping that were strange to them. With life contexts, the program easily guided the
elderly to recall their experience systematically and identify with the association and meanings
between the activities and themselves. Thus, their motivation for participating in the program
would be facilitated.

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The seniors would obtain self-confidence and sense of achievement when they learn 867
something new on the basis of their familiar experiences (Boulton-Lewis, 2010). Also, since
the horticulture was unfamiliar to the elderly of this study, it was a little challenging for them to
do the horticultural work and then they became curious about and concentrated on the program
(Friebe & Schmidt-Hertha, 2013). Overall, Horticultural Program of Life Contexts that was of
nostalgic, personal and challenging significance could facilitate the elderly to be engaged in the
program; in turn, their cognitive function would be improved.
Horticultural Program with Life Contexts was developed on the basis of diverse
cognitive function training to facilitate the cognitive competence of the elderly, including
identifying, memory, experience sharing, planning and problem-solving. Multiple cognitive
function training can not only stimulate cognitive function of the elderly but also make them
not easily tired of the activities (Johnson, et al., 2007). Some existing studies have focused on
single cognitive function training, such as reading or counting, which may make the elderly less
interested in the training (e.g., Chaikham, 2016).
Because the horticultural program of this study usually emphasized the completion
of individual horticultural work, the elderly still concentrated on their working although the
members of the group frequently interacted with each other. Besides, in order to create aesthetic
horticultural work, the elderly had to be familiar with and distinguish the plants, comprehend
the planting steps demonstrated by the instructors, plan the aesthetics and appearance of the
horticultural work, and solve all the problems in the process. Hence, in the practice of the
horticultural program, cognitive function of the elderly was stimulated and trained in multiple
ways, which would strengthen their cognitive competence (Gamberini, et al., 2006).
In the study, when the horticultural program was implemented, the elderly were divided
into 4 groups. Each group was assisted by assistants or volunteers. Although in most of the
activities, the elderly had to do personal work, they frequently cooperated with each other.
When working in groups, the elderly could get assistance immediately from group members.
In this way, it would facilitate the elderly’s comprehension operation of the work. The last
session of community garden landscaping was implemented in teamwork, and the elderly had
to cooperate for better results. Also, in the integration phase of each session, the instructors
always invited the elderly to appreciate the work of other group members and provide positive
feedback. The group dynamics resulted in positive learning atmosphere, reinforced the seniors’
social involvement, and also facilitated their cognitive function, such as identifying, memory,
experience sharing, planning and problem solving.
One of the differences between this study and others (e.g., Kojima & Kunimi, 2013)
is that this study implemented the horticultural program in groups. Although some of other
studies have been also implemented in groups, they have rarely discussed the interaction among
the members. Nevertheless, the horticultural program of this study emphasized the interaction
and assistance among group members. In fact, group dynamics, which encourages the senior
participants to influence each other and be engaged in activities quickly, plays a critical role in
therapy activities for the elderly (Ybarra, et al., 2008).
Conclusions
Based on the reminiscence therapy, the study aimed to develop the horticultural program
with life contexts for the elderly in southern Taiwan, and to explore the effect on overall
cognitive function of the elderly. It has been found that after the horticultural program with life
contexts was implemented, the MoCA scores of the participants were significantly improved,
and after the two-week follow-up, their MoCA scores were also significantly improved,
compared to the pre-test. Also, the participants obtained new planting experience and their
learning motivation was enhanced. Because of integrating with life contexts, the program was

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868 meaningful and encouraged the elderly to be engaged in the activities and recall the past. In
the process, the elderly enjoyed the exchange of horticulture and life experience. Overall, the
horticultural program has been confirmed to have an effect on improving the cognition function
of the elderly, and this effect may sustain.
In recent years, the countries around the world have actively implemented the activities
to prevent and delay cognitive function decline of the elderly. However, most of them are one-
off activities without continuity and accumulation. In the future, care institutions for the elderly
may modify Horticultural Program with Life Contexts according to the characteristics of the
seniors or communities with systematic implementation to improve the cognitive function of
the elderly.
In the future, additional research with larger sample size and a control group will help
to measure the effectiveness of Horticultural Program with Life contexts, and it would be
necessary to verify the long-term effects of the program and even explore specific effects of the
program on certain domains of cognitive function of the elderly.
References
Ball, K., Berch, D. B., Helmers, K. F., Jobe, J. B., Leveck, M. D., Marsiske, M., & Unverzagt, F. W.
(2002). Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled trial.
Jama, 288(18), 2271-2281. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.18.2271
Bassen, S., & Saltazar, V. (1997). Flowers, flowers everywhere: Creative horticulture programming at the
Hebrew Home for the aged at Riverdale. Geriatric Nursing, 18(2), 53-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0197-4572(97)90055-0
Boulton-Lewis, G. M. (2010). Education and learning for the elderly: Why, how, what. Educational
Gerontology, 36(3), 213-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601270903182877
Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S. B. (2000). Linking the individual learner to the context of adult learning.
In A, L. Wilson & E. R. Hayes (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp.55-70).
Jossey-Bass.
Chaikham, A., Putthinoi, S., Lersilp, S., Bunpun, A., & Chakpitak, N. (2016). Cognitive training program
for Thai older people with mild cognitive impairment. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 36, 42-
45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.09.007
Cheng, S. Y., Chiu, Y. C., & Xie, C. X. (2013). A mathematic training system APP for Alzheimer. Journal
of Taiwan Association for Medical Informatics, 22(4), 15-26.
Cotelli, M., Manenti, R., & Zanetti, O. (2012). Reminiscence therapy in dementia: A review. Maturitas,
72(3), 203-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.04.008
Dirksen, J. (2016). Design for how people learn. New Riders.
Friebe, J., & Schmidt-Hertha, B. (2013). Activities and barriers to education for elderly people. Journal
of Contemporary Educational Studies, 64(1), 10-27.
Gamberini, L., Raya, M. A., Barresi, G., Fabregat, M., Ibanez, F., & Prontu, L. (2006). Cognition,
technology and games for the elderly: An introduction to ELDERGAMES Project. PsychNology
Journal, 4(3), 285-308.
Jarrott, S. E., Kwack, H. R., & Relf, D. (2002). An observational assessment of a dementia-specific
horticultural therapy program. HortTechnology, 12(3), 403-410. https://doi.org/10.21273/
HORTTECH.12.3.403
Johnson, J. K., Lui, L. Y., & Yaffe, K. (2007). Executive function, more than global cognition, predicts
functional decline and mortality in elderly women. The Journals of Gerontology Series
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gerona/62.10.1134
Kim, M. H., & Kim, J. M. (2012). The effect of an occupational therapeutic intervention program using
horticultural therapy on cognition and daily living performance of the elderly with dementia. The
Journal of Korean Society of Community Based Occupational Therapy, 2(1), 75-84.

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Kojima, H., & Kunimi, M. (2013). The Effect of Horticultural Activity on the Cognitive Performance of 869
Healthy Elderly Individuals. Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture, 23(2), 5-18.
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Liu, Y.-I., & Chu, F.-Y. (2018). Effect of a Horticultural therapy program on the emotional well-being of
older adults with dementia. Journal of Research in Education Sciences, 63(3), 257-289. https://
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Luis, C. A., Keegan, A. P., & Mullan, M. (2009). Cross validation of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment
in community dwelling older adults residing in the Southeastern US. International Journal of
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Masuya, J., & Ota, K. (2014). Efficacy of horticultural activity in elderly people with dementia: A pilot
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Parker, R. G. (1995). Reminiscence: A continuity theory framework. The Gerontologist, 35(4), 515-525.
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Peng, X. D., Huang, C. Q., Chen, L. J., & Lu, Z. C. (2009). Cognitive behavioural therapy and
reminiscence techniques for the treatment of depression in the elderly: a systematic
review. Journal of International Medical Research, 37(4), 975-982. https://doi.
org/10.1177/147323000903700401
Phibbs, E. J., & Relf, D. (2005). Improving research on youth gardening. HortTechnology, 15(3), 425-
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Relf, D. (1992). The role of horticulture in human well-being. Timber Press.
Rothert, E. A. & Daubert, J. R. (1981). Horticultural Therapy at a physical rehabilitation facility. Chicago
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1177%2F070674370705200508
Thorgrimsen, L., Schweitzer, P., & Orrell, M. (2002). Evaluating reminiscence for people with
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S0197-4556(01)00135-6
Tseng, T.-H., Lu, W.-S., & Ho, C.-L. (2007). The therapeutic effects of horticultural programs on disable
elderly in nursing home. Journal of the Taiwan Society for Horticultural Science, 53(3), 345-360.
Wang, J. J. (2007). Group reminiscence therapy for cognitive and affective function of demented
elderly in Taiwan. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: A Journal of the Psychiatry
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Wu, Y. L. (2014). A socio-cultural approach to understanding the learning experiences of. vocational
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Ybarra, O., Burnstein, E., Winkielman, P., Keller, M. C., Manis, M., Chan, E., & Rodriguez, J.
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cognitive functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 248-259. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0146167207310454

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870 Appendix
Outline of Horticultural Program with Life Contexts
Session Cognitive function

Name of session Theme Content
No. training
● Greeting: meeting between lecturers and

● Matching plants the elderly
Identifying, planning,
Love of green Making potted ● Learning 6 plants which can purify the
1 problem-solving,
plants ● culture which air
experience sharing
can purify the air ● Learning how to care the plants
● Designing potted plants
● Recalling and sharing the experience of

leaving the hometown Identifying, planning,
Imagination of Creative potted culture
2 ● Learning to grow and take care of problem solving, design,
leaving the desert of succulent plants
succulent plants experience sharing
● Designing the floral frame
● Potted culture of ● Learning characteristics and value of Sorting, counting,

Beauty lies in nageia nagi seeds nageia nagi and litchi seeds planning, problem-
3
plenty amount ● Potted culture of ● Appreciating beauty of potting solving, experience
litchi seeds ● Making potted culture of seeds sharing
● Doing jigsaw puzzles of weed cards by

● Jigsaw puzzle of teamwork Matching, planning,
4 Baby of the mind weeds ● Sharing memory of childhood problem-solving,
● Weeds baby ● Making creative potted culture of weed experience sharing
seeds
● The instructor shared the personal

collection of seeds and the stories.
● Sharing travel experiences
● Key chain of seeds ● Learning seeds of native plants in Identifying, planning,
Love of Taiwan
5 ● Five-element energy Taiwan problem-solving,
seeds
bottle ● Making key chains of seeds experience sharing
●Making five-element energy bottles with
rice, salt, and five kinds of beans with a
sticker of positive saying on the bottle
● Singing their songs of flowers in lives

● Sharing meaningful flowers in life and Design, planning,
6 Midget Crabapple Floral design the stories problem-solving, and
● Making basic floral design experience sharing
● Caring for bouquets

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871
● Sharing one positive saying and writing it
down in the card
● Learning leaves of 17 kinds of plants in
Positive saying in Design and experience
7 Rubbing leaves the community
the mind sharing
● Getting one kind of leave and becoming
the spokesman of it
● Rubbing leaves and making a card
● Learning herbs
● Anti-mosquito ● Making anti-mosquito repellent of
repellent of herbs herbs with essential oil of lavender, mint,
Identifying and
8 Healthy life ● Multi-functional citronella and eucalyptus
experience sharing
cream of herbs ● Making multi-functional cream of herbs
● Massaging the peer with multi-functional
cream
● Making the map of plant landscape of
● Monopoly map of the community
Counting, planning,
plant landscape of ● Playing the monopoly with the map of
9 Monopoly problem-solving,
the community plant landscape of the community
experience sharing
● Dry bouquets ● Making dry bouquets of Chinese
Valentine’s Day
● Potted culture of ● Learning herbs Identifying, planning,

10 Memory of taste herbs ● Making potted culture of herbs problem-solving,
● herb tea ● Making and drinking herb tea experience sharing
● Learning the story of vegetarian gelatin

● Learning characteristics of vegetarian
● Cooking tapioca gelatin and tapioca
Identifying, experience
11 Ice & fire ● Washing ● Washing vegetarian gelatin and brewing
sharing
vegetarian gelatin tea with tapioca
● Tasting the beverage of vegetarian
gelatin and tea with tapioca
● Sharing old stuff and its story
● Decorating the garden of the care center
● Discussing the decoration of the
● Sharing old stuff Design, planning,
Garden decoration garden
12 ● Garden problem-solving,
and sharing ● Decorating the garden with the
landscaping experience sharing
plants and their old stuff
● Feedback to the horticultural program
and farewell
Received: June 19, 2020 Accepted: October 02, 2020

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 78, No. 5, 2020
872
Cite as: Wu, Y-L., Chao, S-R., Tsai, W-F., & Chen, M-L. (2020). The effect of horticultural
program with life contexts on the cognitive function of the elderly in Taiwan. Problems of
Ya-Ling Wu PhD in Education, Professor, Graduate Institute of Technological and Vocational Education,
(Corresponding author) National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, No.1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung
912 Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mail: karinnpust@gmail.com
Website: http://oar.npust.edu.tw/user/1676
Shan-Ru Chao PhD in Social Work, Professor, Department of Social Work, National Pingtung University of
Science & Technology, No.1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung 912 Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mail: sw7735@yahoo.com.tw
Website: https://fps.npust.edu.tw/teacher/shanchao/
Wei-Fang Tsai MD in Landscape Architecture and Recreation Management

Horticulture Instructor, Agency of Correction, Justice of Ministry,
No.132,Youngfong Rd, Jhutian Township, Pingtung County 91142 Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mail: eq98469846@yahoo.com.tw
Mei-Lun Chen PhD in Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, Teacher, Wanlun Elementary
School, No. 28, Baozhong Rd., Wanluan Township, Pingtung County 923, Taiwan, R.O.C.
E-mail: c2114433@gmail.com

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Vol. 78, No. 5, 2020
873
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References 875
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
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Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd.

URGENT ISSUES AND MODERN CHALLENGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

OBJECTIVE STRUCTURED CLINICAL EXAMINATION (OSCE) AS A RELIABLE

EXPLORING BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNIVERSITY LECTURERS’

LIMITATIONS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING REDOX: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

USEFULNESS OF MOBILE TEACHING AND LEARNING AS PERCEIVED BY ROMANIAN

TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY: TEACHERS’ PROGRESSIVE APPROACH USED FOR 21ST

AN EXAMINATION OF SYRIAN STUDENTS’ EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES AT SCHOOL

TEACHERS’ AWARENESS AND UNDERSTANDING OF STUDENTS’ CONTENT

SUBJECT PANELS AS SUSTAINABLE INNOVATION FOR TEACHER PROFESSIONAL

CHALLENGES OF DIFFERENTIATED AND INDIVIDUALIZED TEACHING IN

DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILDREN QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEASURING CHINESE

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

670 THE EFFECT OF HORTICULTURAL PROGRAM WITH LIFE CONTEXTS ON THE

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 873

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URGENT ISSUES AND MODERN 671

CHALLENGES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Received: August 31, 2020 Accepted: October 02, 2020

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.671

Luiz Fernando Quintanilha

Maria Belen Arriaga

Maria de Lourdes Lima

Bruno Bezerril Andrade

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

In this context, in order to contribute to the OSCE's validation as an effective evaluation

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research Methodology 677

Procedures and Data Collection

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678 Statistical Analysis

The normality of the sample was evaluated by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

The investigations were conducted according to the principles expressed in the

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

Conclusions and Implications

Limitations and Suggestions

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

Received: June 03, 2020 Accepted: September 12, 2020

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.674

Jane Nwakaego Egbri

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/20.78.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Research Problem 689

The concept of need is fundamental in educational institutions for teachers’ development.

Basic psychological needs are hinged on self-determination theory (SDT). Empirical

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The quantitative research was employed, with a cross-sectional correlational survey

Instrument and Procedures