VOCABULARY

Agnosticism - the view that certain claims—especially claims about the existence or non-existence of any deity, but
also other religious and metaphysical claims—is unknown or unknowable. Agnosticism can be defined in various ways,
and is sometimes used to indicate doubt or a skeptical approach to questions. In some senses, agnosticism is a
stance about the similarities or differences between belief and knowledge. Rather than about any specific claim or
belief
Inferring - To lead to as a consequence or conclusion
Predicting is a part of inferring. Inferences need to be based on references in the text and then mixed with
background knowledge. Assuming is an inference but it is not backed up by fact. Inferring is grounded in evidence
from the text and sometimes from background knowledge
Associative learning - A type of learning principle based on the assumption that ideas and experiences reinforce
one another and can be linked to enhance the learning process
Percentile Rank  - The percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are
the same or lower than it. For example, a test score that is greater than 75% of the scores of people taking the test is
said to be at the 75th percentile.
Percentile ranks are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of scores on standardized tests. For the test theory,
the percentile rank of a raw score is interpreted as the percentages of examinees in the norm group who scored
below the score of interest
Delineate To depict in words or gestures; describe. synonymous with represent
Obtrusively – Unnoticeable, doesn’t call too much attention
Elicit – to draw or bring forth
Covert – Disguise, secret, concealed
Mean – Central tendency (average)
Median – Middle number or value
Mode – Most frequently occurring number
Synthesis – the combining of the constituent elements of separate material or abstract entities into a single or
unified entity
Folkways, in sociology, are any informal mores characterized by being followed through imitation and mild social
pressure but not strictly enforced or put into law
Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures
come into continuous first hand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the
groups remain distinct
Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture by which he or she is
surrounded, and acquires values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in that culture

Ostracism a method of temporary banishment by popular vote without trial or special accusation practiced in ancient
Greece; exclusion by general consent from common privileges or social acceptance
Stickler a person who makes insistent demands
Exemplified to illustrate by example; to serve as an example
Flimsy – having little worth of plausibility. Lacking of physical strength or substance
Retaliate – to get revenge. Return like with like
Surmise - a thought or idea based on scanty evidence: conjecture
Conjecture - inference from defective or presumptive evidence
Misdemeanor – misdeed
Dwindling - To become gradually less until little remains
Schema – Prior knowledge
Egocentrism - the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world, including other people, and the tendency to
perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms of the self
Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the expectation placed
upon people, often children or students and employees, the better they perform
Concrete Thinking - a stage in the development of the cognitive thought processes in the child. During this phase
thought becomes increasingly logical and coherent so that the child is able to classify, sort, order, and organize facts
while still being incapable of generalizing or dealing in abstractions. Problem solving is accomplished in a concrete,
systematic fashion based on what is perceived, keeping to the literal meaning of words, as in applying the word
horse to a particular animal and not to horses in general. In Piaget's classification this stage occurs between 7 and 11
years of age, is preceded by syncretism thinking, and is followed by abstract thinking
Metaphor - A direct comparison between two unrelated or indirectly linked things is called a metaphor
Allegory - is a figurative mode of representation conveying meaning other than the verbal. Allegory communicates
its message by means of symbolic figures, actions or symbolic representation. Allegory is generally treated as a figure
of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be expressed in language: briefly, an allegory is a device used to present
an idea, principle or meaning, which can be presented in literary form, such as a poem or novel, or in visual form,
such as in painting or drawing.
Mnemonic or mnemonic device - is any learning technique that aids memory. Commonly encountered mnemonics
are often verbal, such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something, particularly
lists, but a mnemonic may instead be visual, kinesthetic or auditory. Mnemonics rely on associations between easy-to-
remember constructs which can be related back to the data that is to be remembered.
Affinity diagram - is a business tool used to organize ideas and data. It is one of the Seven Management and
Planning Tools. The tool is commonly used within project management and allows large numbers of ideas stemming
from brainstorming to be sorted into groups for review and analysis
Tree diagram - refers to a specific type of diagram that has a unique network topology. It can be seen as a specific
type of network diagram, which in turn can be seen as a special kind of cluster diagram
In mathematics and statistical methods, a tree diagram is used to determine the probability of getting specific results
where the possibilities are nested
Fishbone diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams or Fishikawa) are causal diagrams that show the causes of a
certain event -- created by Kaoru Ishikawa. Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product design and quality
defect prevention, to identify potential factors causing an overall effect
Symposium - A meeting or conference for discussion of a topic, especially one in which the participants form an
audience and make presentations. A collection of writings on a particular topic, as in a magazine.
Reflective thinking involves personal consideration of one’s own learning. It considers personal achievements and
failures and asks what worked, what didn’t, and what needs improvement. It asks the learner to think about her own
thinking.
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), a program of instructional material presented by means of a computer
or computer systems.
Collaborative Learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together
Spider Map - A graphic organizer used to describe the attributes and functions of a central idea or theme. Each
central theme has four or more branches to organize details, resembling a spider
Aptitude test, examination that attempts to determine and measure a person’s ability to acquire, through future
training, some specific set of skills (intellectual, motor, and so on). The tests assume that people differ in their special
abilities and that these differences can be useful in predicting future achievements
Criterion-Referenced Test is one that provides for translating test scores into a statement about the behavior to
be expected of a person with that score or their relationship to a specified subject matter. Most tests and quizzes
written by school teachers are criterion-referenced tests. The objective is simply to see whether the student has
learned the material. Criterion-referenced assessment can be contrasted with norm and ipsative assessment.
Formative assessment is a reflective process that Intends to promote student attainment. Cowie and Bell define it
as the bidirectional process between teacher and student to enhance, recognize and respond to the learning. Black
and Wiliam consider an assessment ‘formative’ when the feedback from learning activities is actually used to adapt
the teaching to meet the learner's needs. Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick have re-interpreted research on formative
assessment and feedback and shown how these processes can help students take control of their own learning
Norm-referenced test (NRT) is a type of test, assessment, or evaluation which yields an estimate of the position of
the tested individual in a predefined population, with respect to the trait being measured. This estimate is derived
from the analysis of test scores and possibly other relevant data from a sample drawn from the population. That is,
this type of test identifies whether the test taker performed better or worse than other test takers, but not whether
the test taker knows either more or less material than is necessary for a given purpose.
Authentic assessment is an umbrella concept that refers to the measurement of "intellectual accomplishments that
are worthwhile, significant, and meaningful," as compared to multiple choice standardized tests. Authentic assessment
can be devised by the teacher or in collaboration with the student by engaging student voice. When applying
authentic assessment to student learning and achievement, a teacher applies criteria related to “construction of
knowledge, disciplined inquiry, and the value of achievement beyond the school.”
Authentic assessment reflects educational policy research that recommends a "high priority on strategies that
research has already shown to increase student learning."
Authentic assessment tends to focus on complex or contextualized tasks, enabling students to demonstrate their
competency in a more 'authentic' setting. Examples of authentic assessments include:
 performance of the skills, or demonstrating use of a particular knowledge
 simulations and role plays
 studio portfolios, strategically selecting items
 exhibitions and displays
Standard deviation  - Widely used measurement of variability or diversity used in statistics and probability theory.
It shows how much variation or "dispersion" there is from the average (mean, or expected value). A low standard
deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas high standard deviation indicates
that the data are spread out over a large range of values.
Bimodal – Mixture of two normal distribution.
Plateau of Learning - A period of little or no apparent progress in an individual’s learning, marked by an inability to
increase speed, reduce number of errors, etc., and indicated by a horizontal stretch in a learning curve or graph.
Liberal Education - Philosophy of education that empowers individuals with broad knowledge and transferable skills,
and a stronger sense of values, ethics, and civic engagement ... characterized by challenging encounters with
important issues, and more a way of studying than a specific course or field of study"
Xenocentrism - is the preference for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else's culture rather than of one's
own
Ethnocentrism - The tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other
groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her
own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion.
Exodus – Large migration from a place
Negative skew - The left tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the right of the figure. It has
relatively few low values. The distribution is said to be left-skewed or "skewed to the left". 
Positive skew - The right tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the figure. It has
relatively few high values. The distribution is said to be right-skewed or "skewed to the right".
Ambivalence is a state of having simultaneous, conflicting feelings toward a person or thing. Stated another way,
ambivalence is the experience of having thoughts and/or emotions of both positive and negative valence toward
someone or something. A common example of ambivalence is the feeling of both love and hate for a person. 
Operant conditioning
Form of psychological learning where an individual modifies the occurrence and form of its own behavior due to the
association of the behavior with a stimulus. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical
conditioning (respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior"
or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while
classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions.
Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.
Classical conditioning 
Form of conditioning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure for inducing classical
conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance, the
"unconditioned stimulus." The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral
response from the organism under investigation. Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily
evokes an innate, often reflexive, response
Proactive - serving to prepare for, intervene in, or control an expected occurrence or situation,
especially a negative or difficult one; anticipatory;
tending to initiate change rather than reacting to events
Reactive - relating to, or marked by reaction or reactance; readily responsive to a stimulus; occurring as a result of
stress or emotional upset