ATP-ADP CYCLE

The secret behind the power of ATP lies in the breaking of

chemical bond between second and third phosphate groups.
When this happens, large amount of energy is released.

THE STRUCTURE OF ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

• ATP is comprised of adenosine bound to three phosphate groups.

• At the heart of ATP is a molecule of AMP (Adenosine monophosphate) which is composed of an
adenine molecule bonded to a ribose molecule and to a single phosphate group.
• Ribose is a 5- carbon sugar found in RNA and adenine is one of the nucleotides in RNA.
• The addition of a second phosphate group to this core molecule results in the formation of adenosine
diphosphate (ADP).
• The addition of a third phosphate group forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• The three phosphate groups in order to the furthest from ribose sugar are labeled alpha beta and
gamma which altogether constitute an energy powerhouse.

The structure of ATP

• Phosphoanhydride bonds
- bond between second and third phosphate groups as well as bond in between first and second
phosphate groups.
- are high energy bonds
ENERGY HARVESTED FROM ATP

Hydrolysis- process of breaking complex macromolecules apart through the splitting of water molecule
resulting to a hydroxyl group added to the detached phosphate group and a hydrogen atom.

HYDROLYSIS OF ATP (process had been explained in detail through discussion)

The hydrolysis of ATP produces ADP together with an inorganic phosphate ion (P i) and the release of free
energy.

ATP + H20 → ADP + Pi + free energy

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is reversible. Cells rely on regeneration of ATP just as people rely on
regeneration of spent money through an income.

When ATP is regenerated, third phosphate group is reattached.

In contrast to ATP hydrolysis which release energy, ATP regulation
(regeneration) requires an input of free energy. Below is an equation
showing the regeneration of ATP.

ADP + Pi + free energy → ATP + H20

To carry out life processes, ATP is continuously broken down into ADP and
like a rechargeable battery, ADP is continuously regenerated into ATP. The water which was broken down into
hydrogen atom and hydroxyl group during ATP hydrolysis, therefore, is also regenerated once ATP is
reformed.

Since it is much obvious that energy must be fused into the system to regenerate ATP, where does the energy
come from? It comes from metabolism of glucose molecules. Energy from cellular respiration is used to
convert ADP back to ATP.

Note: Glucose is basically a monosaccharide or a simple sugar having a chemical formula

C 6H 12 O 6.

HOW MUCH ENERGY IS PRODUCED UNDER STANDARD CELLULAR

CONDITIONS PER HYDROLYSIS OF ATP?

7.3- to 10 kcal/mol similar to the energy you get from a single peanut.

USE OF ATPase and ATP synthase

• ATPase- Linked with the breakdown of ATP to ADP. This enzyme helps split bonds of phosphate
groups thus release energy (from the bonds).
o ATP synthase- Used to form/synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

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Endergonic reaction
E nergy is the basic requirement for an endergonic chemical reaction to commence.
The reaction continues to absorb energy throughout the process allowing products to be

Non-spontaneous
Example: ATP Regeneration, Phosphorylation of Glucose
Other examples of endergonic reactions in living systems :

ENDERGONIC AND EXERGONIC REACTION

Reactions may be categorized according to energy gain or loss.

Photosynthesis Muscle contraction

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Exergonic reactions are favorable chemical reactions where in products are at lower energy level
than
reactants.
Example: Hydrolysis of ATP

GIBBS ENERGY
Previously known as “free” energy.
was developed in the 1870’s by Josiah Willard Gibbs.
Free energy the measure of the amount of usable energy (energy that can do work) in system.
is the maximum amount of energy which can be “freed” from the system to perform useful work.
ΔG- change in free energy of a system as it goes from some initial state, such as all reactants, to some
other, final state, such as all products.
Reactions with a negative ∆G release energy and they proceed without an energy input therefore are
considered spontaneous while reactions with a positive ∆G need an input of energy to initiate the reaction
and keep it going thus are considered non-spontaneous.

Endergonic and exergonic reactions in relation to free energy (Gibbs energy)

ATP to ADP (exergonic reaction)

- negative ∆G (releases free energy)
- spontaneous reaction
ADP to ATP (endergonic reaction)
- positive ∆G (∆G > 0) (system absorbs energy)
- non-spontaneous

COUPLED REACTION
Even without activity requiring energy, ATP breaks down into ADP and inorganic phosphate since it is a highly unstable
molecule. This energy is produced as free energy and some are lost in form of heat. But cells harness free energy within
bonds through a strategy known as energy coupling.

An example of coupled reaction (phosphorylation of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate)

ATP is linked to a process known as coupled reactions.

All chemical reactions either give off (exergonic) or take in (endergonic) energy. In a coupled
reaction, an exothermic reaction supplies the energy needed to drive an endothermic reaction.
A coupled reaction happens when freed energy from an exergonic reaction is utilized to initiate an
endergonic reaction by “joining” two reactions where they become complementary.
It means that the two reactions occur at the same time and at the same place, usually utilizing the same
enzyme complex.

Example in living systems: In plants where by the help of sunlight (exothermic

reaction), high energy glucose molecules are synthesized
(endothermic reaction) from CO2 and H20

Hydrolysis of ATP is usually involved in coupled reactions with

numerous biochemical processes such as
phosphorylation of glucose.

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PHOSPHORYLATION
The process of adding phosphate group to a biomolecule such as glucose.
Phosphorylation creates a high-energy but unstable intermediate. As process continues,
phosphate group slightly changes in shape to fit the enzymes which then transform the phosphorylated
glucose to fructose molecule. The conversion of these sugars is important because glycolysis needs the
fructose to produce energy.
The hydrolysis of ATP is an exergonic reaction because it releases energy which will then be used for an
endergonic reaction such as phosphorylation of glucose. (detailed discussion during synchronous
session)
Example: Phosphorylation of Glucose to Glucose-6-phosphate (reaction coupling process)
(detailed discussion during synchronous session)
- Process where ATP is utilized as substrate and ADP is one of the products.

Phosphorylation of Glucose to Glucose-6-phosphate (reaction coupling process)

CATABOLISM AND ANABOLISM
• are a two types of metabolism
• Metabolism- a series of chemical reactions in the body the converts food into energy.
• Catabolism- are broken down to release energy where energy may be stored for later use or used
immediately.
• Anabolism- “building substances in body” while consuming energy to allow building processes to
proceed.

COUPLED REACTIONS AS APPLIED TO CATABOLIC AND ANABOLIC REACTIONS

Usually happens in anabolic and catabolic processes involving same molecules.

ANABOLIC REACTIONS CATABOLIC REACTIONS

Endergonic reactions since energy is needed Exergonic reactions since free energy is
for the process to proceed released from break down of molecules

Energy coupling
The combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions where anabolic reactions capture energy
released from catabolic reactions. Anabolism works to synthesize complex molecules which is
initiated by energy released through catabolism. Biomolecules usually undergo anabolic
processes from simpler molecules thus simple molecules can come out as products of
catabolic reactions. The more complex the molecule is the higher its energy content as
compared to its precursors.
ANABOLIC HORMONES CATABOLIC HORMONES
growth hormone, testosterone and estrogen. adrenaline, cortisol and glucagon

THE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

Used to maintain balance in anabolism and catabolism reactions.

Maintains regular/patterned process in body within 24-hr cycle.
Circadian rhythm is disrupted when organism changes certain habits or lifestyles such as sleeping at 2 am
or eating at 2 pm.
In this case, glucose metabolism for instance, fluctuates catching up to a person’s need for energy.

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 Have you ever experienced sleeping at around 3-4 am
just to finish a task? What internal changes have you
experienced?

THREE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ATP

chemical work mechanical work transport work

ATP IN REAL LIFE

DID YOU KNOW?

ATP molecules have vital functions in your metabolism. One way to maximize your ATP output is to have healthy food
in your
diet because food helps in production and maintenance of ATP molecules in body.

METABOLISM THROUGH ATP

METABOLISM IN HETEROTROPHS

Heterotrophs obtain energy from other sources where as food is the actual source of ATP.
Digestive system breaks down food into smaller molecules and these smaller units are absorbed
into bloodstream and transported into cells. Cells use these molecules to convert ADP molecules into
ATP to build and strengthen structures.

HOW SUBSTANCES TRIGGER ATP PRODUCTION IN BODY

Carbohydrates is known as the primary source of energy for animals, primarily glucose (monomer of
carbohydrates) is considered the body’s fuel. As these substances are being digested, they are being
converted to glucose molecules (monosaccharides)and into energy by series of catabolic chemical
reactions depending on the amount of physical work to be done. Meanwhile, excess ATP and glucose
are converted into glycogen and is stored for later use.
FATS

fats contain unsaturated triglycerides which allows then to be broken down much easier compared to bad fats.
What are some sources of good fats that you know?

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Clearly, our food consumption is mainly required for ATP production. However, as the dishes become more palatable, we
are enticed to eat more than we should which lead most of our ATP sources to be stored in adipose tissues for later use.
Furthermore, problem starts when no additional energy is needed. This leads to the accumulation of more adipose tissues
which may further lead to the so-called obesity without us not even knowing. How do you prevent this?

Take note of your Body Mass Index (BMI) which refers to your body’s proportion in terms of weight and height.

BMI= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2
(ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡)

Though BMI doesn’t measure our body’s amount of fat, studies and researches have shown that it could be an
indicator for certain metabolic and disease outcomes. Determining one’s BMI is a good method of screening
for several weight categories. Note that this may be used to determine if changes in eating habits and lifestyle
should be made.

Body mass index Category

Less than 18.5 Underweight
18.5-24.9 Normal
25-29.9 Overweight
30 or 34.9 Obese
35 above Extremely obese

Sample problem:
Calculate the BMI of Cheska who has a height of 1.63 m and a weight of 67.5 kg. (Calculation will be
explained in detail during discussion)

Considering the woman’s BMI scale which falls under an overweight scale of 25-29.9, certain eating habits
should be changed to move back to the normal range.

High BMI doesn’t only affect body’s physical structure but also the body’s tendency to acquire health problems
and therefore get sick. Accumulation of saturated fats in the body may lead to clogging of blood vessels. The
hindrance in flow of blood can cause health problems such as circulatory problems. Furthermore, this is also the
reason why most obese and overweight individuals are warned of their tendency to acquire cardiovascular
diseases.

BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)

the minimum amount of energy, usually in form of calories, which your body requires to complete its
normal functions in 24-hrs. Formula for BMR:

BMR for men = (10 × weight in kg) + (6.25 × height in cm) - (5 × age in years) + 5

BMR for women = (10 × weight in kg) + (6.25 × height in cm) - (5 × age in years) – 161

The difference in BMI formula (between males and females) is due to corresponding body mass differences.

Sample problem: Illustrate a 20-year old female’s BMR if:

Height= 1.63 m
Weight= 67.5 kg
(Calculation will be presented during discussion)
If the BMR of the individual is 1433, this means that the minimum amount of calories that she should maintain
for her daily food consumption is 1433 calories. Note that this amount should be distributed in her meals all
throughout the day. Since BMR refers to the minimum number of calories required for a body to perform basic
functions at rest, this doesn’t include the number of calories you need when you perform more active

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activities which requires higher amount of energy such as walking, talking, performing exercises or even going
to the gym. In calculating for your minimum caloric intake (which will be used in creating/designing your meal
plan), you’ll have to multiply your BMR by a factor that represents your estimated energy level (Total Daily
Energy Expenditure/TDEE). Below is a list which you may use for conversion.
✓
If you are sedentary (little or no exercise)
Calories Per Day = BMR x 1.2
✓
If you are lightly active (light exercise or sports 1-3 days/week)
Calories Per Day = BMR x 1.375
✓
If you are moderately active (moderate exercise 3-5 days/week)
Calories Per Day = BMR x 1.55
✓
If you are very active (hard exercise 6-7 days/week)
Calories Per Day = BMR x 1.725
✓
If you are super active (very hard exercise and a physical job)
Calories Per Day = BMR x 1.9

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