Misa, Joshua D.

Socio 20
BA Sociology II
Comparing Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton

Read the book of Wallace and Wolf (1995) on "Contemporary Sociological Theory" and other
books which shared with you about Parsons and Merton.

1. Compare the personal and academic backgrounds of the two.

Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton are contemporary sociologists who complemented
classical theories and introduced new line of thought in the field social sciences. Both
greatly contributed to the development not only in the Structural-Functionalist perspective
but to Sociology as a discipline.

(Survival of the society/homeostasis/social equilibrium) Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979) is an

American born in Colorado from a root of English migrants. He studied biology, sociology,
and philosophy at Amhest College and graduated on 1924. He loved the social sciences and
developed an interest in Economics. He entered London school of Economics and
encountered Marx Weber’s work. Later, Parsons received an exchange fellowship in
Heidelberg where got his Ph.D. in Economics.

Teaching has been is profession since. He became a (full-time and visiting) professor in his
alma mater Amhest, and other established US universities Harvard, Berkeley, Rutgers, and
Pennsylvania. In sociological societies, Parsons became the president of the American
Sociological Association in 1942 and Eastern Sociological Society in 1949. The closely
worked on the development of sociobiology, and founded the department of social
relations composing sociology, anthropology, and psychology in one department.

His publications are The Structure Of Social Action (1937), The social system (1951), The
System Of Modern Societies (1971), and The Structure And Change Of Social Systems
(1983).

Born form a Jewish immigrant parents in the South Philadelphia, Robert Merton (1910 –
2003) was economically challenged. He was fortunate to have a scholarship and graduate
his undergraduate BA at Temple University. Additionally, He got into a fellowship program
and got doctorate in Ph.D. fellowship at Harvard University in 1936. In Harvard, he was
Parson’s graduate student.

Like Parsons, Merton also entered the academe. He became a faculty member in Tulane
University, Rockefeller University and Columbia University. All throughout his career, he
was recognized for his research and contribution to the social sciences. With this, he was
awarded as the “National Medal for Science” in 1994, first sociologist to receive such an
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award. Moreover, he was also rewarded by several honorary degrees from several
universities in and outside the US.

To name a few of his publications are Social Theory and Social Structure in 1949,
Sociological Ambivalence in 1976, and On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript in
1985.

Talcott and Merton’s roots are not from America. They are products of movements of
people. They were able to acquire a Ph.D. program through a fellowship program in the
same university. Wherein, they crossed paths. They are both equally prolific sociologist with
different background who tried to explain the complexity of society.

2. Why is Parsons associated with the "grand theory" and Merton with "middle-range theory"?

Talcott Parsons was associated with “Grand Theory” because his works are more
philosophical, abstract difficult to measure in nature. His theories provide a general
framework for systems. Which proffers a spectrum of assumptions and nth hard to quantify.
It is more of the abstract and the research methodology in the research. His works on
systems provided the knowledge and reason on the system as a whole. While Parsons'
works and even his publications revolve around theoretical frameworks of system, Robert
Merton hashed the society. This is known to be the “Middle-Range Theory.” Middle-range
lowered from the grand theory. The middle-range theory is having theories with limited
assumptions and can be empirically tested. He worked on the subdivisions in and around
systems and tackled society to people and people to social interactions.

Talcott encapsulates society as a system, while it may be true to some society on a

contextual basis, it may not demonstrate to all society. It puts premium on society’s
theoretical rationale. Merton, on the other hand, specializes in down-scaled and
quantifiable theories.

3. Describe the ideas of Parsons about the following: a system of action, action schema,
pattern variables, and system problems. What constitutes each of these concepts?

Theory Of Action & Action Schema

Action relies on an actor. When Parson said actor, he meant the individuals member of the
society. It could also be actors which can be called collectively. The actor is conditioned by
the society’s values, norms and ideals. This influences the actor’s action. As actors think its
course of action, it should consider the circumstances (from biological aspect to external
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constraints). Action involves actors puzzling decisions about sifting and coming up with a
plan to achieve the goals.

His concept of systems is structured in harmonious fit with the cultural systems, social
systems, personality systems, and the behavioral organism considering it also an organism.
This reflects his undergraduate background on biology and his work in the Department of
social relations, explaining the interdisciplinary of sociology, anthropology, and psychology.
He associated the understanding of human behavior as a cell. The outer coating is the
cultural system while the social systems make up the meat of the cell. The personality
system is inside the cell covering the core, the behavioral/physiological system. The cultural
system refers to the values and meanings that actor of the society possesses, the beliefs
and practices. Social system pertains to the interactions actor to actors. Personality system
is the actor itself. Behavioral organism is the physiological sense of the actor and the setting
of the actor.

Parson believed that society lived by values (cultural system) which are practiced by the
actors (social systems). Through socialization, actors are guided by these practices thus
acquired (personality system) then manifested in each and every single actor (behavioral
organism) in the society.

Pattern Variable
According to Talcott, the actor, before doing taking action, has to make a choice between
dilemmas. There are 5 pattern variables in Talcott’s with corresponding dilemmas. The two
dilemmas are closely associated with traditional societies (primitive communities;
mechanical solidarity) and modern societies (industrialized societies; organic solidarity).

First, Ascription & Achievement are the interactions based on who they are or inborn with.
Defining the actor based on the biological difference and performance is judging according
to the actor’s performance and capacity. Second, Diffuseness & Specificity the range of
demands that is/are expected in a relationship. Third, Affectivity & Neutrality deals with the
expectations in regards to the emotional aspect. It is when the actor is oriented towards
maximum satisfaction from a given choice.

Fourth, Universalism & Particularism the question of just and equality. Is there a fair
treatment or was there a priority status given? Judging a situation from a uniform criteria
and not on the actor's relationship with the given subject. Fifth, Collectivity & self-
orientation the source of gratification, is it for the collective populace or individual interest?
Also when the actor makes a decision based on personal interest or otherwise.
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System Problem
Talcott conceptualized the systems problems not only to further compliment his
aforementioned theories, but also it is his attempt to incorporate in his theory proposition
about the nature of goals. (Wallace and Wolf, 1995) The “AGIL model” is his hypothesis that
process in any social systems is a subject to four independent functional problems. Problem
should be mitigated for equilibrium to exist and be maintained.

As social systems are interrelated, securing and distributing resources should be even and
sufficient – adaptation. Then, the Goal attainment is setting clear social system goals.
Integration deals with the coordination of individual actors and regulated relationships of
these actors to the social systems. By this, it prevents actors from overlapping and
interfering social needs and functions. Lastly is the latency. This requirement deals with two
missions – (1) to keep the actors contribute to the system and (2) to provide a mechanism
of tension management.

4. Describe the ideas of Merton about the following: dysfunctions, manifest and latent
functions, functional alternatives, and types of deviance (innovation, ritualism, retreatism,
rebellion).

Dysfunction
In contrast to Talcott’s “institutions are inherently good,” Merton acknowledged the
existence of dysfunctions in society. It is the otherwise of function. According to Merton,
dysfunction is the undesired consequences in the society which threaten the ability of the
society to adapt and survive. Thus distorts the equilibrium.

Manifest and latent functions

Merton’s manifest and latent function (or even actions) has their corresponding
consequences. It may be intentional or not, expected or otherwise. The manifest function is
the desired and recognized consequences of actions. For example, the manifest function of
going to school is to learn and socialize. The police department is to serve and protect the
people Latent function is the unintended and unrecognized consequences of actions. To
differentiate, the latent function of going to school is dating. School has evidently become a
match-making avenue. (I could attest my parents to that) The police department is
disregarding the law and imposes fear on the people.

Functional alternatives
The structural-functionalist views that all institutions are performing a specific task for the
society’s smooth run. With that, it borders the institution's function. But Merton suggests
that institutions could perform different functions on top of their designated function. More
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so on the actors in the society, online education may be ‘functional’ for some types of
individuals. Other students opted to stop because they wanted the traditional set-up; some
were forced to take up for the sake of ‘being left behind;’ some tried and stopped; and,
some continued because of grit.

Merton's notion of there’s more than one way to skin a cat.

Types Of Deviance
Deviance is a behavior or an individual that goes against the normal. Merton’s theory of
deviance is a mix and match of the culturally accepted goals and institutionalized norms. An
acceptance of culturally accepted goals may not be conformity to the norms established by
the society (or institution). Conformity is functional. It accepts both conditions.

Innovation is accepting what is culturally accepted goals like earning money but it
introduces new means in the institution. Good examples for this are ride-sharing
applications like the Grab, MiCab, and Uber. It is providing economic opportunities in a new
method.

The opposite of innovation is ritualism. Instead of accepting the goals and rejecting the
norms, they do the otherwise; reject the goals and accepting the norms. I think an example
of this is having been employed in a company and not agreeing with the mission and vision
of the company. An employee just goes to work because it became his/her routine.

Retreatism is a rejection of both. It is doing against the accepted goals and norms in the
society, a complete dysfunction in the society. Drug addicts are, I think, the epitome of
retreatism.

Rebellion is a different breed of deviance. It is more than retreatism. They substitute the
culturally accepted goals and institutionalized norms with new goals and new means.
Terrorist groups are examples of this, like the Ku Krux Klan who is a white supremacist
group that targets non-white races in the American history.

5. Following the functionalist theory of Parsons, explain how the five social institutions (family,
religion, education, economy, and government) relate to each other.

Talcott Parson viewed society as a system. His Structural-Functionalist has two basic
assumptions: (1) society’s institutions are interdependent. Family, religion, education,
economy, and government are linked together. A change in one institution could lead to
affect other institutions as well. As influenced by Durkheim, all systems have to function
well in order to attain equilibrium, or stability. (2) Society has a general consensus of values.
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Members of the society have come up with agreements wherein which values are accepted
and not. These were laid out for the proper function of society.

In line with the system problems, the AGIL Method has corresponding institutions that
contribute to the equilibrium of the society. Adaptation is for economics (resource
allocation). Goal attainment is Political/Government. Integration is for religious entities.
Latency is on the family and education. According to Talcott, it starts in the family. Family,
as the first socialization and launching pad in preparation for adulthood, is tasked to
introduce the children to the wider society through education. Wherein children (as well as
the parents) expand their circle and learns new social norms. It is preparing the children for
adult roles. Teaching the children what are the socially accepted behaviors and what is not
(value consensus).

The right to education is provided by the law enacted by the government. It is concluded by
the leader that every child has the right to go to school from primary to secondary, and if
blessed proceed to tertiary. As the family is able to have a child, they socialize them and
teach them little to basic information. The family introduces the child to religion. They also
enroll their child in school in order to be able to learn socially accepted behaviors and
norms. Also, the school expands one’s child’s social circle. School is also a hotspot for
economic activities because of target markets and children’s pester power. The
neighborhood is booming with businesses.

6. Following the dysfunctionalist theory of Merton, describe how education or school becomes
both functional and dysfunctional.

Education, in the structural-functionalist perspective, has a function that is related to other

institutions in society. Because it is related, it also affects. By default, education in this
perspective is functional; unless it disrupts the equilibrium maintained, it becomes
dysfunctional. In the symbolic interaction theory, education can be dysfunctional when
students are being labeled. This theory goes along with Becker’s Labeling Theory. When
students are being labeled into something, it becomes a mantra of the student to embody
that; the idea of Merton on self-fulfilling prophecy. When a student is labeled by teachers,
the student absorbs what was uttered. This phenomenon suggests that it is not the
student's fault how he/she has turned out to be but because of the teacher. It is not an
internal placebo but extrinsic. Labels, especially when it is negative, create stereotype which
is harmful to individuals and groups.