Lecture 1.

Lexicology as a science
Lecture 1. The theme: Lexicology as a science
Points:
l.The object of Lexicology, two approaches to language study.
2. Aims and significance of Lexicology, the theoretical and practical value of
Lexicology. 3.Lexicology in relation to Grammar, Phonetics and Stylistics.

Key words and word combinations:

Lexis, logos, vocabulary, general lexicology, special lexicology, historical
lexicology, descriptive lexicology, vocabulary of the language, synchronic,
chronos, diachronic, pitch, loudness, rhythm, duration, juncture, prosodic,
suprasegmental, accent.

1.1 The Object of Lexicology

Lexicology ( from Gr. lexis «word» and logos «learning») is a branch of linguistics
dealing with vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main
units of language. Thus, the literal meaning of the term lexicology is «the science
of the word».
Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims and methods of
scientific research, its basic task being a study and systematic description of
vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use. Lexicology is
concerned with words, variable word-groups, phraseological units, and with
morphemes which make up words.
The term vocabulary is used to denote the system formed by the sum total
of all the words and word equivalents that the language possesses. The term
word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of
a given meaning with a given group sounds susceptible of a given grammatical
employment.
The term word equivalent denotes set expressions similar to words in so far as
they are integrated semantically, not created in speech but introduced into the
act of communication ready-made, and also because they are synchronically
treated like single words.
 The general study of words and vocabulary , irrespective of the specific
features of any particular language , is known as general lexicology. General
lexicology is part of General Linguistics. The description of the characteristic
peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language is the subject-matter of special
lexicology. It goes
without saying that every special lexicology is based on the principles of general
lexicology which forms a part of general science of language.
The evolution of any vocabulary , as well as of its single elements, forms the
object of historical lexicology which discusses the origin of various words, their
change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic
forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage.
Descriptive lexicology deals with a vocabulary of a given language at a
given stage of its development; it studies the functions of words and their specific
structure as a characteristic inherent in the system. The descriptive lexicology of
the English language deals with the English words in its morphological and
semantic structures, investigating the interdependence between these two
aspects.
As any science, lexicology directs upon its subject matter, a close scrutiny (search)
attempting to produce careful objective descriptions of linguistic facts and refine
the results of its observations.
All the words in a language, as it has mentioned above, make up what is
generally called the vocabulary of the language. The volume and the character of
the vocabulary are determined by the social-economic and cultural history of the
people speaking the language. Social, political and cultural changes in human
society cause changes in the vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary grows
and changes together with the development of human society.
Language as a whole, in all its aspects, its words and idioms, its peculiarities
and the very tones of voice, language in its completeness, is the most perfect
mirror of the manners of the age. A vocabulary is a kind of mirror, reflecting the
character, the mentality and the activity of the people who use it; it is most
sensible to changes, any kind of transformations, and never remains stable: it's in
a constant development and evolution. The rapid advances which are being made
in scientific knowledge, the extension of sciences and arts to many new purposes
and objects create a continual demand for the formation of new words to express
new ideas and notions, new agencies and new wants.
 The history of a community, its spiritual-cultural evolution must be
inevitably reflected in changes of the vocabulary; as objects and ideas are
forgotten, the corresponding words or phrases must be out of use, and as new
knowledge is gained linguistic forms to match it appear.
1.2. Two approaches to language study
There are two principal approaches in linguistic science to the study of
language material, namely the synchronic (Gr. syn- «together, with» and chronos
- «time») and the diachronic (Gr. dia - «through») approach. The distinction
between the two - diachronic (historical) and synchronic (descriptive) ways in
language investigation is a methodological distinction, a difference of approach,
artificially separating for the purpose of study what in real language is
inseparable, because actually every linguistic structure and system exists in a
state of constant development.
Language is the reality of thought, and thought develops together with the
development of society, therefore language and its vocabulary must be studied in
the light of social history. Every new phenomenon in human society and in human
activity in general finds a reflection in vocabulary.
So, the important distinction between a diachronic and a synchronic
approach must always be born in mind. Yet, it is of paramount importance for the
student to take into consideration that in language reality the two aspects are
interdependent and cannot be understood without one another. Every linguistic
investigation must strike a reasonable balance between the two, otherwise, it will
never be able determine features and tendencies that distinguish one language
from another.
The lexicology of present-day English, therefore, different from those of its
historical counterpart, cannot be divorced from the latter as the description
would have been sadly incomplete if we didn't pay attention to the historical
aspect of the problem - the ways and tendencies of vocabulary development. The
extra-linguistic forces influencing the words development are considered in
historical lexicology. Let us illustrate the point by the following example: the verb
to sack «dismiss from service» comes from the expression to get the sack, which,
probably, rose from the habit of craftsmen of old times, who on getting a job took
their own tools to the works; when they left or were dismissed they were given a
sack to carry away the tools.
Closely connected with Historical Lexicology is Contrastive and Comparative
Lexicology whose aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of
two or more languages, and find out the correspondences between the
vocabulary units of the languages under comparison. Needless to say, one can
hardly overestimate the importance of Contrastive Lexicology as well as of
Comparative Linguistics in general for the purpose of class-room teaching of
foreign languages.
1.3. Aims and significance of lexicology
Modern English lexicology aims at giving a systematic description of
modern English word-stock. It investigates the problems of word-structure and
word formation in Modern English, the semantic structure of English words, the
main principles underlying the classification of vocabulary units into different
groupings, the laws governing the replenishment of the vocabulary with new
vocabulary units.
Modern English lexicology also studies relations existing between various
lexical strata of the English vocabulary and the specific laws and regulations that
govern its development at the present time.
The source and growth of the English vocabulary, the transformations it has
undergone through its history are also dwelt upon, as the diachronic approach
revealing the vocabulary in the making cannot but contribute to the
understanding of its workings at present.
The language learner will find the Notes on Modern English Lexicology of
great practical importance: he'll obtain much valuable information concerning the
word-stock and the laws and regulations governing the formation and usage of
English words and word-groups. Besides, the very Notes is aimed at both
summarizing the practical material already familiar to the students from foreign
language classes
and at helping the students to develop skills and habits of generalizing the
linguistic phenomena observed. ' -
So, this manual on English Lexicology will cover the following basic
problems:
1. Semasiology and semantic classification of lexical units;
2. Word-groups and phraseological units;
3. Word-structure;
4. Word-formation;
5. Etymological survey of the English vocabulary;
6. Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of Modern English
word-stock;
7. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis.
All sections end with a paragraph entitled «Revision Material.» The aim of
these paragraphs is to extend the student's knowledge of the language.
Suggested assignments after each section have been arranged so that the student
could acquire as much experience in independent work as possible, thus enabling
the student to get over the chief points of the exposition of the problem or
problems under consideration. Reference material at the end of each section,
though by no means exhaustive, may be helpful to those wishing to gain a more
complete and thorough view of the lexicological problems.
1.4. Theoretical and practical value of lexicology
The theoretical value of lexicology becomes evident if we realize that it
forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary,
grammar and sound system.
Lexicology came into being to meet the needs of such branches of applied
linguistics as lexicography, literary criticism, standardization of terminology and
last but not least of foreign language teaching. Its importance in training a would-
be teacher of languages is of a quite special character as it helps to stimulate a
systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary. Lexicology not only gives a
systematic description of the present make-up of the vocabulary, but also helps
students to master the literary standards of word usage.
An exact knowledge of the vocabulary system is of certain importance in
connection with computer teaching means. Lexicology plays a prominent part in
the general linguistic teaching of every philologist by summing up the knowledge
acquired at the English lessons during all his years at the Foreign Language
Faculty. It also grants the necessary skills of using different kinds of dictionaries
and reference-books, and prepares for future independent work on increasing
and improving one's vocabulary.

1.5. Lexicology in its relation to Grammar, Phonology and Stylistics

Lexicology as a branch of linguistics has its own aims and methods of

scientific investigation; as is known, its main task is the study of the vocabulary of
a given language. It must be born in mind that the language system is so complex
that when we come to consider the best way in which one should arrange
linguistic facts we are always confronted with the problem of proper distinction
between all elements (levels) in the language system. In reality, in the actual
process of communication, all these elements are interdependent and stand in
definite relations to one another, and they cannot be treated in isolation from the
other.
No part of a language can be adequately described without reference to all
other parts.
Internal relations of elements within complex wholes are of the essence of
language with its many interdependent structures and systems at all levels, the
functions of every linguistic element and abstraction being dependent on its
relative place therein. This is, in fact, one of the fundamental features of language
and of the treatment of language in modern linguistics.
The word, for example, is studied in other branches of linguistics and not in
lexicology only, and the latter, in its turn, is closely connected with general
linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics and, especially,
grammar.
The connection of lexicology with phonetics is also important. The phonetic
interpretation of the linguistic material is of undoubted interest in modern
language learning. This dimension in phonetic analysis appears when sounds are
strung together in a sustained flow of talk. In acoustic level words consist of
phonemes, and therefore phonemes participate in signification though they have
no meaning of their own: the form-meaning unity is introduced only on a higher
level, i.e. on the level of morphemes.
When a single phoneme, for example, is examined in relation to a total
constellation of sounds in which it may appear, the factors of pitch, loudness,
rhythm, duration and juncture are at once observed. Thse 5 factors are also
phonemes. In phonemic terms they are called prosodic or suprasegmental (in
contrast to segmental phonemes). The meaning of a word may sometimes rely on
the situation of the accent expressed mainly in terms of pitch, e.g.:
absent ['aebsent] (adj.) - [aeb'sent] (v.)
object ['objekt] (n.) - [ob'jekt]
rebel ['rebl] (n.) - []ri'bel (v.)
 Further examples are such words as: anyone, anything, anybody following a
negative which may have a different meaning according to their pitch pattern,
e.g.:
I can't eat anything -1 can eat nothing.
I can't eat anything -1 can eat some things. Even more subtle, i.e. difficult to
perceive or describe, distinctions fairly common in English, can be observed in
such cases, for instance: Green house and greenhouse (теплица)
Big black snake and big blacksnake (змея).
In each of these pairs there's a difference in meaning and it is indicated not by
individual phonemes but by overall pattern they produce.
In cases when the lexical meaning of the words admits either interpretation
without lexico-grammatical incongruity, ambiguity is presented in actual speech
by contrast in intonation patterns. Thus, for instance, a dancing girl with rise in
pitch and primary stress both on the head-word girl marks dancing as a present
participle: a girl performing the act of dancing. But, a dancing girl, with primary
stress and rise in pitch both on the head-word and the modifier dancing,
identifies dancing as a verbal noun and signals the meaning a dancer «raqqosa».
There is a close relationship between lexicology and stylistics. Stylistics,
although from a different angle, studies many problems treated in lexicology. For
its great part stylistics treats of the artistic modification of speech for the sake of
securing a particular effect of emotional colouring in pictorial language. So,
stylistics deals with problems of meaning, synonymy, differentiation of vocabulary
according to the sphere of communication and some other issues.
The study of the vocabulary leads us to the observation that many words
suggest more than they literally mean, and sometimes words which have the
same literal or actual meaning (denotation) differ widely in their suggested
meaning (connotation). Some words are more general, colourless and neutral in
tone while others have a distinctly literary or poetic flavour, or suggestion, which
may be colloquial (informal), formal, humorous, vulgar, slangy, childish, learned,
technical and so on.
A close connection between lexicology and grammar is conditioned by
manifold and inseparable ties between the objects of their study. Even isolated
words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation to the grammatical
system of the language because they belong to some part of speech and conform
to some lexico-grammatical characteristic of the word class to which they belong.
The ties between lexicology and grammar are particularly strong in the domain of
word-formation. Different ways of word-making, for instance, give evidence
enough to state that word-making can be assigned equally well to the provinces
of lexis and grammar.
The categories and types of word-formation are largerly dependent on its
grammatical structure. Let's take some examples as nouns used in the plural in a
special sense:
advice = councel, advices—information;
colour= tint colours—1. plural of tint; 2. flag;
custom = habit customs—1. pi. of habit; 2. duties;
damage = injury damages—compensation for injury;
spectacle = sight spectacles—1. pi. of sight; 2. eyes-glasses.
So, here we can constitute that a form that originally expressed grammatical
meaning - the plural of nouns - becomes a basis for a new grammatically
conditioned lexical meaning. In all these cases the suffix -s signals a new word
with a new meaning.
Another point of interest is the survival of two grammatically equivalent forms of
the same word with different uses and meanings. This can be seen in the
following pairs:
Brother—brethren, brothers; Cloth—cloths, clothes;
Cow—kine n. [(pi.) old form of «cows»]. Cows; Die—dice pi. of «die» (игральная
кость), dies; Fish—fish, fishes; Genius—genii, geniuses; Index—indices, indexes;
Penny—pence, pennies. Comment:
a noun «brother,» for example, has two separate plurals, one keeping the
etymological plural form (brethren), and the other with the usual English ending
-s (brothers). Here, the form brothers is used to express the family relationship,
while the old brethren survives in ecclesiastical usage or serves to indicate the
members of some society or club. No firm line of demarcation can be drawn
between grammatical and lexical meanings.
REVISION MATERIAL
Suggested assignments on «Lexicology as a Science»
1. Be ready to discuss the subject-matter of lexicology.
2. Discuss the statement that lexicology must be viewed in relation to other
aspects of language leaning.
3. Give illustrative examples to show that lexical meaning of the word is very
often signaled by the «grammatical» context in which it occurs.
4. Give examples to show that phonetic interpretation of the linguistic units is of
vital interest in vocabulary studies.
5. Be ready to discuss the relationship between lexicology and stylistics (between
lexicology and grammar).
6. Give comment on diachronic and synchronic approach in vocabulary studies.
7. Comment on aims and significance of the Course of Modern English Lexicology.
8. Explain the theoretical and practical value of lexicology.
9. Be ready to enlighten two approaches to language study.
10. Be ready to define the meaning of the following terms:
a. lexicology; general lexicology; special (historical, descriptive) lexicology;
b. vocabulary; stylistics; etymology; с word; phoneme; morpheme;
d. word equivalent; denotation; connotation.
Questions for self-control:
1. What is the subject-matter of lexicology?
2. What is the difference between general and special lexicology?
3. Do you agree that every special lexicology is not based on the principles of
general lexicology?
4. What branch of linguistics deal with evolution of any vocabulary?
5. How do you explain the interrelation between vocabulary and grammar?
6. How many factors are observed at once when a single phoneme is examined in
relation to a total constellation of sounds?
7. Expand on the two principal approaches to language study.
8. Give a few examples of phonetic interpretation of linguistic material.
9. Is it possible to learn foreign language on a lexical basis alone? Why?
10. Dwell upon interrelation between lexicology and stylistics.