DGS-OCTF: Oil and Chemical Tanker Familiarisation

Introduction and Objectives

Introduction
The purpose of the course is to meet the requirement of Tanker Familiarization training. The course satisfies
the standards of the STCW A-V/1-1, Table
Basic Knowledge of Tankers

Introduction
Both oil and chemical cargoes are dangerous liquids and termed as such can be treated under a common
category of liquids transported on tankers. Tankers transport a wide variety of liquids in bulk (unpackaged).
These fall under three broad classifications: Petroleum liquids, chemical liquids, and special liquids.
Petroleum Liquids: Petroleum liquids consist of naturally occurring crude oil and the various products
derived (refined) from this crude that includes the following:
• Gasoline
• Fuel oil
• Diesel
• Residual fuel oil
• Kerosene
• Jet Fuel
• Lubricants
• Asphalt
• Coke
Petroleum Cargoes: International Classification
In many safety-related rules and regulations, petroleum cargoes are broadly classified as volatile liquids and
non-volatile liquids.
Volatile liquids: Petroleum liquids that have closed-cup flash points below 140°F (60°C) are considered
volatile. Over the normal range of ambient temperatures encountered during transport, cargoes in this
category are capable of producing gas/air mixtures within and above the flammable range. For this reason,
volatile cargoes are frequently transported in a tank with a controlled (inerted) atmosphere.
Non-volatile liquids: These are petroleum products that have closed-cup flash points of 140°F (60°C) and
above. Over the normal range of ambient temperatures encountered during transport the atmosphere above
these cargoes (headspace) typically contains gas concentrations below the lower flammable limit. Cargoes
associates with these cargoes, however, the application of heat is often necessary during the voyage. Caution
must be exercised with heated cargo, as the creation of a flammable atmosphere is possible if it is heated to
or near the flash point.
Chemical Liquids
A liquid chemical is any substance used in, or obtained by, a chemical process. There are literally hundreds
of different chemicals transported by tank vessels. These substances are derived from many sources and
have diverse characteristics. They may be categorized as organic or inorganic chemicals. Table shows a
sampling of each.

Special Liquids
Liquid substances other than those classified as petroleum or chemical are described as special liquids. Table
shows some examples.

From the above, you realise that while the tankers are either carrying oil or chemicals in liquid form, the
cargoes can be quite different in their individual characteristics and as such, understanding of the cargo
properties will be essential for ship's crew to transport them safely.
As of January 2017, there were 52,183 ships in the world's merchant fleets. The tanker sector stands at
14,512 ships, making it count for more than a quarter of the world fleet.
• Oil Tankers 7,244
• LNG 1,850
• Chemical Tanker 5,418
In this course we shall talk about Oil and Chemical tankers. The importance of tankers are further
underscored with the following statistics:
• In 2015, total world petroleum and other liquids supply was about 96.7 million barrels per day (b/d).
• EIA estimates that about 61% that amount (58.9 million b/d) traveled via seaborne trade.
• Oil tankers accounted for almost 28% of the world's shipping by deadweight tonnage in 2016
(UNCTAD)
Trading of Oil and Chemicals by Tankers
Oil Tankers
Oil tanker is designed for the bulk transport of oil. Basic types of tankers include crude tanker and product
tanker.
Crude tanker transports unrefined crude oil from extraction locations to refineries while product tanker ships
refined products to points close to consuming markets.
The oil value chain shows the movement from the oil fields to the consumer:
Crude oil tankers have a vital role to play within the energy value chain. Their main role is to transport crude
oil from production point to refinery, although they are also sometimes used for storing crude oil post
production. Crude tankers can also be used for carrying oil products such as fuel oil. Any clean products that
come out of the refinery are carried on 'clean' or 'product' tankers, which are smaller in size due to the
smaller parcel sizes in which these products are traded.
Crude oil tankers come in various sizes, the biggest standard size being a Very Large Crude Carrier - or
'VLCC'. These tankers take up to 2 million barrels of crude oil per shipment, while the second largest size is
the 'Suezmax' which takes around half of that amount and is the largest size ship that can sail through the
Suez Canal fully laden. The smallest size of dedicated crude oil tankers is an 'Aframax' which can carry
around 600,000 barrels of oil. There are smaller tankers in the market, but these tend to carry refined oil
products and fuel oil, not crude oil.
The dynamics of the oil market
Tanker shipping provides an economical and convenient way to transport liquid bulk for international
seaborne trade. But the tanker earnings are influenced by many factors, but the shipowners have to
maneuver within all the market challenges to remain operational and profitable.
Many maritime economists believe that the supply of tanker shipping operates under perfect competition and
is characterized by several conditions. The first feature is number of shipping service providers. There are a
number of ship owners who own tankers that provide identical shipping services. The second characteristic
is the availability of information. In the tanker market, information on freight rate can be searched via such
means as the Baltic Index (Tanker indices). Hence, shipping service providers are unable to manipulate the
price. Obstacles to entry to and exit from the industry exist but these challenges can be managed. Entry
barriers, such as government regulations, economic factors, and marketing condition, are not present in the
tank shipping industry. On the one hand, huge capital investment is needed to acquire ships (new ships from
the new building market or second-hand ships from the sales and purchase market) to enter the industry. On
the other hand, shipping firms may withdraw from the market by selling their assets (i.e., ships) in the
second-hand vessel sale and purchase market.
The tanker shipping market brings shippers and carriers together to determine the supply of shipping
capacity (i.e., fleet size) and demand for shipping services. Hence, demand for shipping service plays a
significant role in the shipping industry.
Although oil prices have experienced a sharp decrease, there is still a continuing growth in the global
demand. The increase in quantity demand for shipping services due to growth in seaborne trade volume
leads to rise in freight rate. Freight rate motivates shipping firms to adjust their fleet sizes by placing orders
for new vessels or scrapping their serving vessels. It also affects vessel prices.
And, regardless of the talk about alternative sources of energy - oil demand continues to grow. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts global oil demand to grow by 1.3m bpd in 2018.
By far the biggest factor influencing the crude tanker trade in 2018 will be the ongoing oversupply of
vessels, coupled with another year of high deliveries, which will continue to put pressure on the market over
the course of the year.
One oil expert commented, that the current state of the tanker market was a supply crisis.
The impact of policy can influence the oil market and takes many forms. Such as:
1. The building of strategic petroleum reserves in the US, China and India
2. The resumption of crude oil exports from the US
3. Rapidly increasing refinery capacity in the Middle East
4. Impact of the available supply of low sulfur fuel due to IMO regulations
These are major market policy events that will impact the tanker market and its trading lanes; apart from the
oversupply of the tankers that keeps the tanker market greatly depressed.
Global oil transportation and choke points:

The Transfer of oil from one country to another is a very large task. Billions of barrels of oil a day are
shipped in Oil Tankers to various destinations all over the world. There are many different shipping routes,
but there are eight major transit choke points which deal with the most traffic of oil tankers and are areas of
high risk for something to go wrong with the oil transfer. These are huge security concerns and cause sharp
rise in energy price in case something goes wrong at those points.
Chemical Tankers
The flourishing chemical industry and increasing use of water transportation (sea and inland waters) for
transferring chemicals from one place to another across the globe are the major driving factors for the
growth of the chemical tankers market. In 2016, the U.S. accounted for approximately 15% of the
worldwide chemical shipments. The global chemical tanker shipping market is anticipated to reach USD
2.50 trillion by 2025, according to a research finding. The growing chemical trade because of increasing
manufacturing activities across the world is projected to augment market demand.
Organic chemicals such as acetic acid, alcohols, propane, benzene, salt, benzyl acetate, methanol, formic
acid, and phenol are some of the vital substances shipped through chemical tankers across the world. The
U.S., China, India, Germany, and Russia are some of the major exporters of chemicals and are expected to
foster the global chemical trade over the coming years.
Chemicals by Product Type:
• Organic Chemicals
• Inorganic Chemicals
• Vegetable Oils & Fats
• Others (Additives, Lube Oils, and Molasses)
Chemical tankers by Fleet Size:
• Inland Chemical Tankers (1,000-4,999 DWT)
• Coastal Chemical Tankers (5,000-9,999 DWT)
• Deep-Sea Chemical Tankers (10,000-50,000 DWT)
Key finding s from a recent research:
• The global chemical tanker shipping market was valued at USD 2.07 trillion in 2016 and is estimated
to grow at a growth rate of 2.1% from 2017 to 2025 to reach a market valuation of USD 2.50 trillion
• Deep sea chemical tanker shipments accounted for the most significant share in 2016 and is
projected to grow at the highest CAGR over the coming years on account of extensive international trade
• IMO III cargo type accounted for the largest volume share in 2016 due to high shipment of vegetable
oils & fats and other non-volatile chemicals across regions
• Asia Pacific accounted for the most significant volume share due to presence of major manufacturing
countries such as China and India which have a strong foothold in the chemical industry
• Chemical tanker shipping companies are expanding their fleets to cater to the growing chemical trade
business globally. New entrants in the market are expected to result in excess supply of tankers in the
industry, thereby reducing charter rates.
• Some of the significant chemical tanker charters include Navig8 Group, Odfjell SE, Stolt Nielsen,
MSC, Stena Bulk, and Maersk Tankers
Types of Chemical Cargoes
Organic chemicals segment is the leading segment in this industry due to its increasing demand from
pharmaceuticals, food & beverages, pesticides, crop protection, fertilizers, water treatment, personal care
products & cosmetics, polymers, gasoline additives, and other products. Shale gas boom in North America
and China has triggered the organic chemical production in the region, with ethylene being the key raw
material.
Vegetable oils & fats segment is expected to emerge as the second fastest growing segment owing to its
increasing usage in culinary applications, biodiesel, pet food additives, as well as manufacturing soaps,
perfumes, candles, skin products and other personal care products. Products such as palm oil included in this
segment are traded on a large scale, especially for biodiesel production.
Inorganics account for 17.7% of the global shipments. These products find demand from several
applications such as pigments, catalysts, coatings, surfactants, fuels, medicines and agricultural applications.
These chemicals are used as additives, finished products, and industrial processes.
Shipment Routes
The deep-sea tanker volume in 2016 was recorded at 24,722.8 kilotons and estimated to derive a demand of
56.479.6 kilo tons by the end of the period 2017-2027. The growth rate predicted for this segment is 4.8% in
the eyes of the uncertainty of the dollar rate value which has appreciated significantly during 2015-2016, but
currently showing signs of decline.
The highest growth rate in this segment was attributed to deep-sea tankers. Chemical trade for the
construction & building and automotive manufacturing industries are the factors attributing the growth of
this sector.
The most significant crude oil and derivative export volume in North America remain in the Gulf of Mexico.
East coast ports include Portland ME, Philadelphia and New York. West coast ports include Long Beach,
California, San Francisco and Vancouver. Petrochemicals and crude oils are transported along the coast by
either barrage or ship.
Coastal tankers demand coming in from China and India is expected to have positive growth in near future
owing to its restructuring of policy and infrastructure. Indian workforce is highly competitive in terms of
skills and wages. India and China are also strategic gateways to import products in the Asia Pacific making
it a valuable destination as well a suitable market for chemical tankers.
Tanker Terminology
Introduction
Two sets of terminologies are included for student reference for understanding various tanker terms. As
student is introduced to tanker operation and familiarisation of various tanker terms, it will be difficult to
remember all those foreign terms. This topic should be used as a ready-reckoner and a reference point for
students as they study this course. After you have completed the course, you must make sure you are
completely familiar with all the tanker terms detailed within this topic.
Some Terms:
• Crude oil - is a naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of hydrocarbon deposits
and other organic materials.
• Refined products - are derived from crude oils through processes such as catalytic cracking and
fractional distillation. Refining is a necessary step before oil can be burned as fuel or used to create end
products
Terminology for Tankers Carrying Oil
Administration - Means the government of the state whose flag the ship is entitled to fly.
ALARP - As low as reasonably practicable.
Antistatic additive - A substance added to a petroleum product to raise its electrical conductivity to a safe
level above SO picoSiemens/meter (pS/m) to prevent accumulation of static electricity.
Approved equipment - Equipment of a design that has been tested and approved by an appropriate authority,
such as a government department or classification society. The authority should have certified the equipment
as safe for use in a specified hazardous or dangerous area.
Auto-ignition - The ignition of a combustible material without initiation by a spark or flame, when the
material has been raised to a temperature at which self-sustaining combustion occurs.
Bonding - The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.
Cathodic protection - The prevention of corrosion by electrochemical techniques. On tankers, it may be
applied either externally to the hull or internally to the surfaces of tanks. At terminals, it is frequently
applied to steel piles and fender panels.
Clingage - Oil remaining on the walls of a pipe or on the internal surfaces of tanks after the bulk of the oil
has been removed.
Closed operations - Ballasting, loading or discharging operations carried out without recourse to opening
ullage and sighting ports. During closed operations, ships will require the means to enable closed monitoring
of tank contents, either by a fixed gauging system or by using portable equipment passed through a vapour
lock.
Cold Work - Work that cannot create a source of ignition.
Combination carrier (also referred to as Oil/Bulk/Ore (OBO), Oil/Ore (0/0)) - A ship that is designed to
carry either a petroleum cargo or a dry bulk cargo on separate voyages.
Combustible (also referred to as 'Flammable') - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of
this Guide, the terms 'combustible' and 'flammable' are synonymous.
Combustible gas indicator (also referred to as 'Explosimeter') - An instrument for measuring the composition
of hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, usually giving the result as a percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit
(LFL).
Company - The owner of a ship or any other organisation or person, such as the manager or the bareboat
charterer, who has assumed the responsibility for the operation of the ship from the owner of the ship,
including the duties and responsibilities imposed by the ISM Code.
Competent person - A person who has been adequately trained to undertake the tasks they are required to
perform within their job description. For personnel in the shipping industry, they should be able to
demonstrate this competence by the production of certificates recognized by the ship's administration.
Dangerous area - An area on a tanker which, for the purposes of the installation and use of electrical
equipment, is regarded as dangerous. (For terminal, see 'Hazardous area'.)
Dry chemical powder - A flame inhibiting powder used in fire-fighting.
Earthing (also referred to as 'Grounding') - The electrical connection of equipment to the main body of the
'earth' to ensure that it is at earth potential. On board ship, the connection is made to the main metallic
structure of the ship, which is at earth potential because of the conductivity of the sea.
Enclosed space - A space that has limited openings for entry and exit, unfavorable natural ventilation, and
that is not designed for continuous worker occupancy. This includes cargo spaces, double bottoms, fuel
tanks, ballast tanks, pump rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct keels, inter-barrier spaces, engine
crankcases and sewage tanks.
Entry permit - A document issued by a Responsible Person allowing entry into a space or compartment
during a specific time interval.
Explosimeter - See 'Combustible gas indicator'.
Explosion-proof (also referred to as 'Flame-proof') - Electrical equipment is defined and certified as
explosion-proof when it is enclosed in a case that is capable of withstanding the explosion within it of a
hydrocarbon gas/air mixture or other specified flammable gas mixture. It must also prevent the ignition of
such a mixture outside the case either by spark or flame from the internal explosion or as a result of the
temperature rise of the case following the internal explosion. The equipment must operate at such an
external temperature that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited.
Explosive range - See 'Flammable range'.
Flame arrester - A permeable matrix of metal, ceramic or other heat-resisting materials which can cool even
an intense flame, and any following combustion products, below the temperature required for the ignition of
the flammable gas on the other side of the arrester.
Flame-proof - See 'Explosion-proof'.
Flame screen - A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion resistant wire-woven fabrics
of very small mesh, which is used for preventing sparks from entering a tank or vent opening or, for a short
time, preventing the passage of flame. (Not to be confused with 'Flame arrester'.)
Flammable (also referred to as 'Combustible') - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of
this Guide, the terms 'flammable' and 'combustible' are synonymous.
Flammable range (also referred to as 'Explosive range') - The range of hydrocarbon gas concentrations in air
between the Lower and Upper Flammable (explosive) Limits. Mixtures within this range are capable of
being ignited and of burning.
Flashlight - See 'Torch'.
Flashpoint - The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a flammable gas
mixture near the surface of the liquid. It is measured in a laboratory in standard apparatus using a prescribed
procedure.
Flow rate - The linear velocity of flow of liquid in a pipeline, usually measured in meters per second (m/s).
The determination of the flow rates at locations within cargo pipeline systems is essential when handling
static accumulator cargoes.
Foam (also referred to as 'Froth') - An aerated solution that is used for fire prevention and fire-fighting.
Foam concentrate (also referred to as 'Foam compound') - The full strength liquid received from the supplier
which is diluted and processed to produce foam.
Foam solution - The mixture produced by diluting foam concentrate with water before processing to make
foam.
Free fall - The unrestricted fall of liquid into a tank.
From the top, or Overall - See 'Loading over the top'.
Froth - See 'Foam'.
Gas free - A tank, compartment or container is gas free when sufficient fresh air has been introduced into it
to lower the level of any flammable, toxic or inert gas to that required for a specific purpose, e.g. Hot Work,
entry etc.
Gas free certificate - A certificate issued by an authorized Responsible Person confirming that, at the time of
testing, a tank, compartment or container was gas free for a specific purpose.
Grounding - See 'Earthing'.
Halon - A halogenated hydrocarbon used in fire-fighting that inhibit its flame propagation.
Hazardous area - An area on shore which, for the purposes of the installation and use of electrical
equipment, is regarded as dangerous. Such hazardous areas are graded into hazardous zones depending upon
the probability of the presence of a flammable gas mixture. (For ships, see 'Dangerous area'.)
Hazardous task - A task other than Hot Work which presents a hazard to the ship, terminal or personnel, the
performance of which needs to be controlled by a risk assessment process such as a Permit to Work system
or a controlled procedure.
Hazardous zone - See 'Hazardous area'.
Hot Work - Work involving sources of ignition or temperatures sufficiently high to cause the ignition of a
flammable gas mixture. This includes any work requiring the use of welding, burning or soldering
equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools, portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically
safe or contained within an approved explosion-proof housing, and internal combustion engines.
Hot Work Permit - A document issued by a Responsible Person permitting specific Hot Work to be done
during a particular time interval in a defined area.
Hydrocarbon gas - A gas composed entirely of hydrocarbons.
Inert condition - A condition in which the oxygen content throughout the atmosphere of a tank has been
reduced to 8 per cent or less by volume by the addition of inert gas.
Inert gas - A gas or a mixture of gases, such as flue gas, containing insufficient oxygen to support the
combustion of hydrocarbons.
Inert gas plant - All equipment fitted to supply, cool, clean, pressurize, monitor and control the delivery of
inert gas to the cargo tank systems.
Inert Gas System (IGS) - An inert gas plant and inert gas distribution system together with means for
preventing backflow of cargo gases to the machinery spaces, fixed and portable measuring instruments and
control devices.
Inerting - The introduction of inert gas into a tank with the object of attaining the inert condition.
Insulating flange - A flanged joint incorporating an insulating gasket, sleeves and washers to prevent
electrical continuity between ship and shore.
Interface detector - An electrical instrument for detecting the boundary between oil and water.
International Safety Management (ISM) Code - An international standard for the safe management and
operation of ships and for pollution prevention. The Code establishes safety management objectives and
requires a Safety Management System (SMS) to be established by the Company and audited and approved
by the flag administration.
Intrinsically safe - An electrical circuit, or part of a circuit, is intrinsically safe if any spark or thermal effect
produced normally (i.e. by breaking or closing the circuit) or accidentally (e.g. by short circuit or earth fault)
is incapable, under prescribed test conditions, of igniting a prescribed gas mixture.
Loading over the top (also referred to as 'Loading overall') - The loading of cargo or ballast through an open-
ended pipe or by means of an open-ended hose entering a tank through a deck opening, resulting in the free
fall of liquid.
Loading rate - The volumetric measure of liquid loaded within a given period, usually expressed as cubic
meters per hour (m3/hr) or barrels per hour (bbls/hr).
Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) - The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is
insufficient hydrocarbon to support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as Lower Explosive
Limit (LEL).
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - A document identifying a substance and all its constituents. It
provides the recipient with all necessary information to manage the substance safely. The format and content
of an MSDS for MARPOL Annex I cargoes and Marine Fuel Oils are prescribed in IMO Resolution
MSC.150 (77).
Mercaptans - A group of naturally occurring organic chemicals containing sulfur. They are present in some
crude oils and in pentane plus cargoes. They have a strong odor.
Naked lights - Open flames or fires, lighted cigarettes, cigars, pipes or similar smoking materials, any other
unconfined sources of ignition, electrical and other equipment liable to cause sparking while in use,
unprotected light bulbs or any surface with a temperature that is equal to or higher than the auto-ignition
temperature of the products handled in the operation.
Non-volatile petroleum - Petroleum having a flashpoint of 60°C (140 Deg F) or above, as determined by the
closed cup method of test.
Odor threshold - The lowest concentration of vapor in air that can be detected by smell.
Oxygen analyzer or oxygen meter - An instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen in a sample of
the atmosphere drawn from a tank, pipe or compartment.
Packaged cargo - Petroleum or other cargo in drums, packages or other containers.
Pellistor - An electrical sensor unit fitted in a flammable gas detector for measuring hydrocarbon vapors and
air mixtures to determine whether the mixture is within the flammable range.
Permit (to work) - A document issued by a Responsible Person which allows work to be performed in
compliance with the ship's Safety Management System.
Permit to Work system - A system for controlling activities that expose the ship, the terminal, personnel or
the environment to hazard. The system will provide risk assessment techniques and apply them to the
varying levels of risk that may be experienced. The system should conform to a recognized industry
guideline.
Petroleum - Crude oil and liquid hydrocarbon products derived from it.
Petroleum gas - A gas evolved from petroleum. The main constituents of petroleum gases are hydrocarbons,
but they may also contain other substances, such as hydrogen sulfide or lead alkyls, as minor constituents.
Phase of oil - Oil is considered to have three phases in which it can exist depending on the grade of oil and
its temperature. The three phases are the solid phase, the liquid phase and the vapor phase. The phases do
not exist in isolation and operators must manage the carriage of oil with an understanding of the
combinations of the phases of oil in the cargo being carried.
Pour point - The lowest temperature at which a petroleum oil will remain fluid.
Pressure surge - A sudden increase in the pressure of the liquid in a pipeline brought about by an abrupt
change in flow rate.
Pressure/vacuum relief valve (P/V valve) - A device that provides for the flow of the small volumes of
vapor, air or inert gas mixtures caused by thermal variations in a cargo tank.
Pump purging - The operation of clearing liquid from submerged pumps.
Purging - The introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition with the object of further
reducing the existing oxygen content and/or reducing the existing hydrocarbon gas content to a level below
which combustion cannot be supported if air is subsequently introduced into the tank.
Pyrophoric iron sulfide - Iron sulfide capable of a rapid exothermic oxidation causing incandescence when
exposed to air and potential ignition of flammable hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures.
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) - The vapor pressure of a liquid determined in a standard manner in the Reid
apparatus at a temperature of 37.8°C and with a ratio of gas to liquid volume of 4:1. Used for comparison
purposes only. See 'True Vapor Pressure'.
Relaxation time - The time taken for an electrostatic charge to relax or dissipate from a liquid. This time is
typically half a minute for static accumulator liquids. Not to be confused with 'Settling time' - see definition.
Responsible Officer (or Person) - A person appointed by the Company or the Master of the ship and
empowered to take all decisions relating to a specific task, and having the necessary knowledge and
experience for that purpose.
Resuscitator - Equipment to assist or restore the breathing of personnel overcome by gas or lack of oxygen.
Safety Management System (SMS) - A formal, documented system required by the ISM Code, compliance
with which should ensure that all operations and activities on board a ship are carried out in a safe manner.
Self-stowing mooring winch - A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which a mooring wire or rope is made
fast and automatically stowed.
Settling time - The time it takes for tank contents to stop moving once filling has stopped, and therefore the
cessation of further static electricity generation. Typically, this time is 30 minutes. Not to be confused with
'Relaxation time' - see definition.
SOLAS -The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 and its Protocol of 1988, as
amended.
Sounding pipe - A pipe extending from the top of the tank to the bottom through which the contents of the
tank can be measured. The pipe is usually perforated to ensure the level of liquid in the pipe is the same as
the level of liquid in the body of the tank and to prevent the possibility of spillages. The pipe should be
electrically bonded to the ship's structure at the deck and at its lower end.
Sour crude oil or products - A term used to describe crude oil or products containing appreciable amounts of
hydrogen sulfide and/or mercaptans. Spiked crude oil - A crude oil blended with a liquefied gas or
condensate.
Spontaneous combustion - The ignition of material brought about by a heat producing (exothermic)
chemical reaction within the material itself without exposure to an external source of ignition.
Spread loading - The practice of loading a number of tanks simultaneously to avoid static electricity
generation when loading static accumulator cargoes.
Static accumulator oil - An oil with an electrical conductivity of less than 50 Pico Siemens/metre (pS/m), so
that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.
Static electricity - The electricity produced by movement between dissimilar materials through physical
contact and separation.
Static non-accumulator oil - An oil with an electrical conductivity greater than 50 Pico Siemens/metre
(pS/m), so that it is incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.
Stripping - The final operation in draining liquid from a tank or pipeline.
Tank cleaning - The process of removing hydrocarbon vapors, liquid or residue from tanks. Usually carried
out so that tanks can be entered for inspection or Hot Work or to avoid contamination between grades.
Tanker - A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk, including a combination carrier when
being used for this purpose.
Tension winch (automated or self-tensioning mooring system) - A mooring winch fitted with a device that
may be set to maintain the tension on a mooring line automatically.
Terminal - A place where tankers are berthed or moored for the purpose of loading or discharging petroleum
cargo.
Terminal Representative - A person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an operation or
duty.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) - Airborne concentrations of substances under which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be exposed day after day with no adverse effect. TLVs are advisory exposure guidelines,
not legal standards, and are based on industrial experience and studies. There are three different types of
TLV:
 Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) - The airborne concentration of a toxic substance averaged
over an 8 hour period, usually expressed in parts per million (ppm).
 Short Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) - The airborne concentration of a toxic substance averaged
over any 15 minute period, usually expressed in parts per million (ppm)
 Ceiling (TLV-C) - The concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the working
exposure.
Topping-off - The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.
Topping-up - The introduction of inert gas into a tank that is already in the inert condition with the object of
raising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air.
Torch (also referred to as 'Flashlight') - A battery operated hand lamp. An approved torch is one that is
approved by a competent authority for use in a flammable atmosphere.
Toxicity - The degree to which a substance or mixture of substances can harm humans or animals.
• 'Acute toxicity' involves harmful effects to an organism through a single short term exposure.
• 'Chronic toxicity' is the ability of a substance or mixture of substances to cause harmful effects over
an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure, sometimes lasting for the entire life of
the exposed organism.
True Vapor Pressure (TVP) - The absolute pressure exerted by the gas produced by evaporation from a
liquid when gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing temperature and the gas liquid ratio is
effectively zero. See 'Reid Vapor Pressure'.
Ullage - The space above the liquid in a tank, conventionally measured as the distance from the calibration
point to the liquid surface.
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) - The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above which there is
insufficient oxygen to support and propagate combustion. Sometimes referred to as Upper Explosive Limit
(UEL).
Vapor - A gas below its critical temperature.
Vapor Emission Control System (VECS) - An arrangement of piping and equipment used to control vapor
emissions during tanker operations, including ship and shore vapor collection systems, monitoring and
control devices and vapor processing arrangements.
Vapor lock system - Equipment fitted to a tank to enable the measuring and sampling of cargoes without
release of vapor or inert gas pressure. Volatile petroleum - Petroleum having a flashpoint below 60°C as
determined by the closed cup method of test.
Water fog - A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually delivered at a high
pressure through a fog nozzle for use in firefighting.
Water spray - A spray of water divided into coarse drops by delivery through a special nozzle for use in fire-
fighting.
Terminology for tanker carrying chemicals
DEFINITIONS
Acute Toxic Effect - The effect on humans of a single exposure of short duration to high concentrations of a
toxic compound or toxic vapor (see also Chronic Toxic Effect).
Alcohol Resistant Foam (Alcohol-type Foam) - A multi-purpose fire fighting foam effective against many
water soluble cargoes. It is also effective against many non-water soluble cargoes. This is the most
commonly used type of fire fighting foam on chemical tankers.
Anaesthesia - A total loss of feeling and consciousness, or the loss of power or feeling over a limited area of
skin.
Anaesthetics - Chemicals which produce anaesthesia.
Approved Equipment - Equipment of a design that has been tested, approved and certified by an appropriate
authority, such as an administration or classification society, as safe for use in a specified hazardous
atmosphere.
Aqueous - Indicating that the compound is in solution in water.
Asphyxia - The condition arising when the blood is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen/ so that loss
of consciousness may follow.
Asphyxiant - A gas or vapor, which may or may not have toxic properties, which when present in sufficient
concentrations excludes oxygen and leads to asphyxia.
Auto-ignition Temperature - The lowest temperature to which a solid, liquid or gas requires to be raised to
cause self-sustaining combustion without initiation by a spark or flame or other source of ignition (see also
Flash Point).
BCH Code - The IMO Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in
Bulk (for Chemical Tankers constructed before 1 July 1986)
Boiling Point - The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals that of the atmosphere above
its surface; this temperature varies with pressure.
Boiling Range - Some liquids which are mixtures, or which contain impurities, boil over a range of
temperatures known as the boiling range. When this occurs, the range will be stated on the data sheet. The
low temperature is that at which components within the liquid start to boil.
Bonding (electrical) - The connecting together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.
Bulk - The term 'in bulk' refers to carriage of cargo in tanks or pressure vessels which are constructed as part
of the ship, the contents being loaded and discharged by the ship's installed handling system.
Cargo Area - That part of the ship which contains the whole cargo system and cargo Pump rooms, and
includes the full beam deck area over the length of the ship above the cargo containment system. Where
fitted, the cofferdams, ballast or void spaces at the after end of the aftermost cargo space or at the forward
end of the forward cargo space are excluded from the cargo area.
Cargo Handling (Cargo Operations) - The loading, storing, discharging, circulating and transferring of bulk
liquid cargo, and associated tank cleaning and gas freeing.
Cargo Information Form - See Data Sheet.
Catalyst - A substance that starts or changes the rate of a reaction without being itself chemically changed. A
catalyst, which reduces the rate of a reaction, is known as a negative catalyst.
Certificate of Fitness - A certificate issued by the flag administration confirming that the structure,
equipment, fittings, arrangements and materials used in the construction of a chemical tanker are in
compliance with the relevant IMO Chemical Codes. Such certification may be issued on behalf of the
administration by approved classification societies.
Certified Gas Free - Certified gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested by an
authorized person using an approved testing instrument, and found to be in a suitable condition - i.e. not
deficient in oxygen and sufficiently free from toxic or flammable gases - for a specified activity such as hot
work, and that a certificate to this effect has been issued.
Chemical Absorption Detector (Gas Absorption Detector) - An instrument used for the detection of vapors,
which works on the principle of a reaction between a vapor and the chemical agent in the apparatus; either
the vapor discolors the agent or the agent dissolves some of the vapor. Chronic Toxic Effect - The
cumulative effect on humans of prolonged exposures to low concentrations of a toxic compound or toxic
vapor or of intermittent exposures to higher concentrations (see also Acute Toxic Effect).
Closed Gauging System (Closed Ullaging) - A system whereby the contents of a tank can be measured by
means of a device which penetrates the tank, but which is part of a closed system and prevents tank contents
from being released. It can be mechanical, electronic, and magnetic or pressure operated (see also Open
Gauging System and Restricted Gauging System).
Combustible (Flammable) - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this Guide the
terms combustible and flammable are synonymous.
Combustible Gas Indicator (Explosimeter) - An instrument for detecting a combustible gas/air mixture,
usually measuring its concentration in terms of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
Corrosive Liquids - Liquids which can corrode normal constructional materials at an excessive rate. Usually
they also cause serious damage to human tissue and eyes.
Data Sheet (Cargo Information Form) - A document, in accordance with the IMO Codes and usually from
the manufacturer of the cargo that contains necessary information about the properties of the chemical for its
safe carriage as cargo.
Density - Mass per unit volume, measured in a vacuum (see also Liter Weight).
Endothermic - A process which is accompanied by absorption of heat.
Exothermic - A process which is accompanied by evolution of heat.
Explosimeter - See Combustible Gas Indicator.
Explosion Proof Equipment/Flame Proof Equipment - Equipment or apparatus which will withstand,
without damage and in accordance with its prescribed rating, any explosion of a prescribed flammable gas to
which it may be subjected under practical operating conditions, and which will prevent the transmission of
flame to the surrounding atmosphere.
Explosive Limits - See Flammable Limits.
Explosive Range - See Flammable Range.
Filling Ratio (for Liquids) - That volume of a tank, expressed as a percentage of the total volume, which can
be safely filled by liquid when allowing for the possible expansion of the liquid.
Flame Arrester - A device used to arrest the passage of flame in a pipeline.
Flame Proof Equipment - See Explosion Proof Equipment.
Flame Screen (Gauze Screen) - A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion resistant
wire woven fabrics of very small mesh used for preventing sparks from entering a tank or vent opening. For
a short period of time a flame screen will prevent the passage of flame, yet permit the passage of gas.
Flammable (Combustible) - Capable of being ignited and of burning. For the purposes of this Guide the
terms combustible and flammable are synonymous.
Flammable Limits (Explosive Limits) - The minimum and maximum concentrations of vapor in air which
form flammable (explosive) mixtures are known as the lower flammable limit (LFL) and upper flammable
limit (UFL) respectively. These terms are synonymous with lower explosive limit (LEL) and upper
explosive limit (UEL) respectively.
Flammable Range (Explosive Range) - The range of flammable vapor concentrations in air between the
lower and upper flammable limits. Mixtures within this range are capable of being ignited and of burning.
Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to be ignited. This
temperature is determined by laboratory testing in a prescribed apparatus (see also Auto-ignition
Temperature).
Foam - A froth creating an air-excluding blanket, and used for fire fighting.
Freezing Point (Melting Point) - The temperature at which the liquid state of a substance is in equilibrium
with the solid state, i.e. at a higher temperature the solid will melt and at a lower temperature the liquid will
solidify. Freezing point and melting point may not always coincide, but they are sufficiently close to enable
the difference between them to be ignored for the purposes of this Guide.
Gas - This term is used to cover all vapor mixtures or vapor-and-air mixtures.
Gas Absorption Detector - See Chemical Absorption Detector.
Gas Free - Gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested using appropriate gas
detection equipment and found to be not deficient in oxygen and sufficiently free, at the time of the test,
from toxic, flammable or inert gases for a specified purpose.
Gauging - See Closed Gauging System, Open Gauging System and Restricted Gauging System.
Gauze Screen - See Flame Screen.
Hazardous Area - An area in which vapor may be present continuously or intermittently in sufficient
concentrations to create a flammable atmosphere or an atmosphere which is dangerous for personnel.
Health Hazard - A general descriptive term for a danger to the health of personnel.
Hot Work - Work involving flames, incendive sparks or temperatures likely to be sufficiently high to cause
ignition of flammable gas. The term includes any work involving the use of welding, burning or soldering
equipment, blow torches, some power driven tools, portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically
safe or contained in an explosion proof housing, and equipment with internal combustion engines.
Hot Work Permit - A document issued by an authorized person permitting specified work to be done for a
specified time in a defined area, employing tools and equipment which could cause ignition of flammable
gas (see Hot Work).
IBC Code - The IMO International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk (for Chemical Tankers constructed on or after 1 July 1986)
Ignition Temperature - See Auto-ignition Temperature.
IMO - The International Maritime Organization; a specialized agency of the United Nations.
IMO Codes - See BCH Code and IBC Code.
Incendive Spark - A spark of sufficient temperature and energy to ignite a flammable atmosphere.
Inert Gas - A gas or vapor containing insufficient oxygen to support combustion.
Inerting - The introduction of inert gas into a space to reduce and maintain the oxygen content to a level at
which combustion cannot be supported, or to maintain the quality of the cargo.
Ingestion - The act of introducing a substance into the body via the digestive system.
Inhibited Cargo - A chemical cargo to which an inhibitor has been added.
Inhibitor - A substance used to prevent or retard cargo deterioration or a potentially hazardous chemical self-
reaction, e.g. polymerization.
Insulating Flange - An insulating device placed between metallic flanges, bolts and washers, to prevent
electrical continuity between pipelines, sections of pipelines, hose strings and loading arms, or equipment or
apparatus.
Intrinsically Safe -Intrinsically safe equipment, instruments or wiring are incapable of releasing sufficient
electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specified hazardous
atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignited concentration.
Irritating Liquid - A liquid which on direct contact with the eyes or skin will cause severe irritation, injury or
burns.
Irritating Vapor -A vapor, which will cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat and respiratory tract.
ISGOTT -The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals.
LFL or LEL -See Flammable Limits.
Liter Weight -Mass per unit volume, measured in air (see also Density).
loading Overall (Over the Top) -Loading through hatches or other deck openings by means of portable open
ended pipes or hoses.
Manifold Valves -Valves in a tanker's piping system immediately adjacent to the ship/shore connecting
flanges.
MARPOL -The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as modified by its
Protocol of 1978.
Melting Point -See Freezing Point.
MFAG -The IMO Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods.
Miscibility - The ability of a liquid or gas to dissolve uniformly in another liquid or gas. Gases mix in all
proportions but the miscibility of liquids depends upon their chemical properties. Similar chemicals mix in
all proportions (e.g. alcohol and water) but others are only partly miscible (e.g. benzene and water). Many
gases are miscible with liquids.
MSDS or Material Safety Data Sheet - See Data Sheet.
Mucous Membranes -Those surfaces of the human respiratory system lined with secretion; for example, the
inside of the nose, throat, windpipe and lungs. Can also be applied to the eyes.
Naked Lights -Open flames or fires, exposed incandescent material or any other unconfined source of
ignition.
Narcosis -A condition of profound insensibility, resembling sleep, in which the unconscious person can only
be roused with great difficulty but is not entirely indifferent to sensory stimuli.
Odor Threshold -The smallest concentration of gas or vapor, expressed in parts per million (ppm) by volume
in air, that most people can detect by smell.
Open Gauging System -A system of measuring the contents of a tank, which makes use of an opening in the
tank and may expose the gauger to the cargo or its vapor (see also Closed Gauging System and Restricted
Gauging System).
Over the Top -See Loading Overall.
Oxidizing Agent - An element or compound that is capable of adding oxygen or removing hydrogen or one
that is capable of taking one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms (the opposite of a Reducing
Agent).
Oxygen Analyzer -An instrument used to measure oxygen concentrations, expressed as a percentage by
volume.
Padding - Filling and maintaining the cargo tank and associated piping system with an inert gas, other gas or
vapor, or liquid, in order to separate the cargo from air.
Peroxides -Compounds formed by the chemical combination of cargo liquid or vapor with atmospheric
oxygen, or oxygen from another source. These compounds may in some cases be highly reactive or unstable
and constitute a potential hazard.
pH -A scale which indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Its range is Oto 14. pH 7 represents
absolute neutrality. A value of O represents high acidity (e.g. concentrated acids) and 14 represents high
alkalinity (e.g. a caustic soda solution).
Poison -A very toxic substance which when absorbed into the human body by ingestion, skin absorption, or
inhalation produces a serious or fatal effect.
Polymerization -The phenomenon whereby the molecules of a particular compound link together into a
larger unit containing anything from two to many thousands of molecules, the new unit being called a
polymer. A compound may thereby change from a free flowing liquid into a viscous one or even a solid. A
great deal of heat may be evolved when this occurs. Polymerization may occur spontaneously with no
outside influence, or it may occur if the compound is heated, or if a catalyst or impurity is added.
Polymerization may, under some circumstances, be dangerous but may be delayed or controlled by the
addition of inhibitors.
Pour Point -The lowest temperature at which a liquid will remain fluid.
Pressure -Force per unit area. Usually expressed as gauge pressure relative to atmosphere (as shown on a
gauge that registers zero at atmospheric pressure) or absolute pressure.
Pressure/Vacuum Valve {P /V Valve) -A dual purpose valve commonly incorporated in the cargo tank
venting system of tankers, the operation of which, when appropriately set, automatically prevents excessive
pressure or vacuum in the tank or tanks concerned.
Putrefaction -The natural decomposition, over time, of animal or vegetable oils, accompanied by offensive
smells. Sometimes called 'going off.
Reducing Agent -An element or compound that is capable of removing oxygen, or adding hydrogen or one
that is capable of giving one or more electrons to an atom or group of atoms (the opposite of an Oxidizing
Agent).
Reid Vapor Pressure {RVP) -The vapor pressure of a liquid determined by laboratory testing in a standard
manner in the Reid Apparatus at a standard temperature of 100T (37.8°C) expressed in pounds per square
inch absolute, and commonly written 'RVP ..... lb.'.
Relative Vapor Density -The relative weight of the vapor compared with the weight of an equal volume of
air at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Thus vapor density of 2. 9 means that the vapor is 2.
9 times heavier than an equal volume of air, under the same physical conditions.
Respiratory Tract -The human air passages from nose to lungs inclusive.
Responsible Officer -The master or any officer to whom the master has delegated responsibility for an
operation or duty.
Responsible Terminal Representative -See Terminal Representative.
Restricted Gauging System - A system employing a device which penetrates the tank and which, when in
use, permits a small quantity of cargo vapor or liquid to be exposed to the atmosphere: when not in use, the
device is completely closed (see also Closed Gauging System and Open Gauging System).
Safety Relief Valve -A valve fitted on a pressure vessel to relieve overpressure.
Self-reaction -The tendency of a chemical to react with itself, usually resulting in polymerization or
decomposition. Self-reaction may be promoted by contamination with small amounts of other materials.
Short Term Exposure Limit {STEL) -See Threshold Limit Value.
SOLAS -The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974, as modified by its Protocol of
1988.
Solubility -The ability of one substance (solid, liquid or gas) to blend uniformly with another. Solubility is
usually understood as the maximum weight of substance which will dissolve in water in the presence of
undissolved substance. The value is usually expressed as the number of grams of substance dissolving in
100 grams of water. In the case of liquid dissolving in another liquid, the term miscibility is often used
instead of solubility.
Specific Gravity -The ratio of the weight of a volume of a substance at a given temperature to the weight of
an equal volume of fresh water at the same temperature or at a different given temperature. Since
temperature affects volume, the temperature at which a specific gravity co1nparison is made needs to be
known, and is stated after the ratio.
Spontaneous Combustion -Ignition of a combustible material is termed 'spontaneous' if the inherent
characteristics of the material cause a heat producing (exothermic) chemical action and thus ignition without
exposure to external fire, spark or abnormal heat.
Static Electricity -The electrical charge produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and
separation, such as is caused by a fluid passing through a pipeline or into a tank.
Stern Discharge line -A cargo pipeline over the deck to a point terminating at or near the stern of the tanker.
Stripping -The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from a tank or pipeline.
Sweeping {Squeegeeing or Puddling) -The manual pushing of semi-liquid residues of animal fat or
vegetable oil cargoes towards the pump suction during the final stages of discharge, using sweeping sticks or
squeegees.
Systemic Toxic Effect -The effect of a substance or its vapor on those parts of the human body with which it
is not in contact. This presupposes that absorption has taken place. It is possible for chemicals to be
absorbed through skin, lungs or stomach, producing later manifestations which are not a result of the
original direct contact.
Tank Vent System {Vent Line) -The piping system and associated valves, installed to prevent overpressure
or underpressure (vacuum) in cargo tanks.
Terminal Representative - A person designated by the terminal to take responsibility for an operation or
duty.
Threshold Limit Value {TLV) {Short Term Exposure Limit) -The time weighted average (TWA)
concentration of a substance to which it is believed workers may be repeatedly exposed, for a normal 8 hour
working day and 40 hour working week, day after day, without adverse effect. It may be supplemented by
other limits.
Topping Off -The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.
Toxic -Poisonous, i.e. causing bodily harm that may be severe (see also Acute Toxic Effect and Chronic
Toxic Effect).
Toxic liquid -A liquid which if ingested or absorbed through the skin causes bodily harm that may be severe.
Toxic Vapor -A vapor which if inhaled causes bodily harm that may be severe.
UFL or UEL -See Flammable Limits.
Ullage -The depth of free space left in a cargo tank above the liquid level.
Vapor -One or more of the components of chemical products when in the vapor phase.
Vapor Pressure -The pressure exerted by the vapor above the liquid, at a given temperature. It is expressed
as absolute pressure.
Venting -The release of cargo vapor or inert gas from cargo tanks and associated systems.
Vent Line -See Tank Vent System.
Viscosity -The property of a liquid which determines its resistance to flow.
Volatile Liquid -A liquid which evaporates readily at ambient temperatures.
Volatility -The tendency for a liquid to vaporize.
Water Fog -Very fine droplets of water generally delivered at a high pressure through a fog nozzle.
Water Spray -Water divided into coarse drops by delivery through a special nozzle.
Water Spray System -A system of sufficient capacity to provide a blanket of water droplets to cover the
cargo manifolds, deck storage tanks, and boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses.
Types of Tankers
Tankers carrying dangerous liquid cargoes in bulk are crude oil, oil products, chemicals, molten sulfur etc.
The nature of their cargo requires special forms of construction and outfitting. Although LNG and LPG can
be grouped as Dangerous Liquid cargoes, they are treated separately under "Liquefied Petroleum Gas and
Liquefied Natural Gas" categories that needs different types of crew certification.
So, Tankers for Oil and Chemicals carrying dangerous liquid cargo can be divided into: oil tankers, chemical
tankers, and combination carriers.
Crude oil tanker is an oil tanker engaged in the trade of crude oil. Product tanker is an oil tanker engaged
in the trade of oil other than crude oil. A clean product tanker carries light petroleum products, a dirty
product tanker carries heavy petroleum products. The product tanker is intended for transportation and
distribution of crude oil derivatives from the refineries to consumers. The main difference between a product
tanker and a crude carrier is, that with the former, several batches of cargo of different kinds are transported
simultaneously and the respective cargo quantities are smaller. It requires a large number of cargo tanks and
a complicated pumping and piping system to facilitate a separate handling process for each type of cargo.
Combination carriers can carry oil and ore in alternate voyages, but are much less in use today.
High heat tankers are product carriers for the transportation of molten sulfur, bitumen, dirty petroleum
products, coal tar, pitch and coal tar products. They maintain a cargo temperature between the ranges of
160°C and 240°C, which places very heavy demands on the heating, insulation of the tanks and pipework, as
well as associated valves and pumps.
Chemical tankers are ships constructed to carry a cargo of noxious liquid substances (NLS) in bulk. There
are two kinds of chemical tankers: one is an exclusive chemical tanker for carriage of an exclusive cargo,
and the other one is a parcel chemical tanker capable of carrying many kinds of chemical cargoes. The two
distinct categories of chemical tanker comprise vessels with all or most of the cargo tanks fabricated from
stainless steel, and those vessels embodying only coated, mild steel tanks. An oil tanker, also known as a
petroleum tanker, is a merchant ship designed for the bulk transport of oil. Two basic types of oil tankers are
found in the industry, namely, crude oil tankers and product tankers. The crude oil tankers are normally
bigger in size compared to the other. They carry oil unrefined towards the refineries where it is refined to
different products such as petrol, diesel, etc. These refined products are then carried by the product tankers
from the refineries and to the consumer.
Crude tankers, move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries.
Product tankers, are generally much smaller, and are designed to move refined products from refineries to
points near the consuming market.
Tanker Cargo Tanks
The features of a cargo tank on tankers are as below:
A tanker is normally fitted with 3 cargo tanks abreast, this would mean that these vessels have a centre tank
and two side (called wing tanks) tanks, done by constructing two longitudinal bulkheads that run from the
engine room to the collision bulkhead.
• Tank bulkheads are strengthened to withstand oil pressure during carriage, this is done with the help
of strength members like web frames, transverse webs and stringers.
• Tanks are fitted with a wash bulkhead (a bulkhead that extends from the deck to about 3 quarter of
the vessels depth, does not extend from deck to tank top) if it exceeds 0.1 of ships length or 15 meters to
reduce free surface effect
• Tanks do not exceed 0.2 of ship's length, this helps prevent the free surface effect
• Tanks are fitted with vent lines for the purpose of releasing over pressure in the tanks.
• Cargo tanks, are provided with stairways to allow for inspection.
• Cargo tank entrances are watertight, a characteristic of a type A (vessels that carry only liquid
cargoes as defined by the Loadline Convention) vessel.
• There are butterworth manholes used to lower down the portable washing machine (these machines
are used on smaller product tankers) in case of tank cleaning or other operations. On large crude oil tankers
fixed machines are used for crude oil washing.

Cargo tanks
Specialized compartments are designed, as part of the ship structure, to be able to carry the oil cargo in bulk.
They have arrangements for loading, carrying and discharging the cargo they are designed for. High
capacity pumps make it possible to rapidly load and discharge large quantities of liquid cargo. The pumps
are located at the aft end of the cargo tanks and forward of the engine room. A maze of pipelines, valves and
other installations are found on deck and in the pump room.
Single hull tankers
This design of tankers has one hull structure which itself is divided into cargo tanks using longitudinal and
transverse bulkheads. The hull acts as a single skin between the cargo in the tank and the sea. These types
are not permitted to be constructed nowadays by regulation. The existing single hull ships are phased out
systematically by regulation.
Double hull tankers
One of the major changes imposed by regulations to the design of oil tanker is the introduction of double
hull design. A number of maritime accidents involving oil tankers and the resulting pollution to the
environment made it necessary for such a design.
Double hull tankers typically have an inner and an outer hull structure. The inner hull is divided into tanks
for carrying oil cargo while the space between the two hulls is divided strategically into a number of ballast
tanks for stability during non-loaded voyages.
This design offers an extra layer of protection in case of accident damage to the hull. It is assumed that only
the outer hull would be damaged in case of an accident, preventing catastrophic oil spills from the cargo
tanks.
Following are some extracts from Reg-19 of Marpol Annex I which prescribes the double hull design
requirements:
Wing tank or spaces extent to full height of the ship side or from the uppermost deck to the top of the double
bottom. A rounded gunwale is disregarded where fitted. The cargo tanks should be located at a distance not
less than 'w' inboard of the moulded line of the ship shell plating. 􀁱w" is measured at right angles to the side
shell at any cross section as follows:
w = 0.5 + (m) or w = 2.0 m, whichever lesser.
Minimum value of w = 1.0 m.
The height of the double bottom measured at any of the cross sections should be such that the distance 'h'
between the moulded line of the bottom shell plating and the bottom of the cargo tank is not less than:
h = B/15 (m) or h = 2.0 m, whichever is the lesser.
Minimum value of h = 1.0 m.
Some structures may protrude beyond the boundary line defined by 'h' from the cargo tank into the double
bottom such as suction wells provided they are designed as small as practicable and the distance between the
bottom shell plating and well bottom is not less than O.Sh.
Ballast related piping including sounding and vent pipes should not pass through the cargo tanks. Similarly
cargo related piping should not pass through the ballast tanks.
If the tanker is designed such that the pressure exerted by the cargo along with the vapour pressure on the
bottom shell plating does not exceed the hydrostatic water pressure of the sea where the shell plating forms a
single boundary between the cargo and sea, the double bottom can be dispensed with.
If a horizontal partition is used to fulfil the requirements, it should be located a height of not less than 6m or
B/6, whichever is lesser and not more than 0.6 times the moulded depth amidships.
Design and construction of oil tankers other than those as per these requirements also can be accepted as
alternatives if they can offer the same level of protection against oil pollution in case of collision or
grounding. Such design has to be approved in principle by the MEPC based on guidelines developed by the
IMO.
Cargo tanks are constructed with suction and discharge pipelines, entry ladders, and crude oil washing
arrangements inside the tanks. The vapour vents together with pressure vacuum vents (PV valves) and
sounding pipes are fitted on deck.
Arrangement of Oil Tanker
Pump Rooms
The cargo pump rooms for oil, chemical and other hazardous cargoes shall be so arranged as to ensure the
following:
• The pump rooms must have clear passage without restrictions from any ladder or any floor; there
must be guard railings on ladders and all the platforms.
• All necessary valves for cargo work must have clear access without restrictions, particularly for
persons wearing protective equipment.
• A stretcher must be rigged permanently for hoisting an injured person with a rescue line.
• Leakages and drainages from the cargo pumps and valves shall have drainage to the bilge. The bilge
of the pump room shall be operable from the outside and shall be fitted with a high level alarm and warning.
A shore connection pipe line with a standard Marpol coupling flange shall be provided on deck, for
transferring contaminated liquids to the shore facility.
• Contaminated bilge water or tank washings should be stored in one or more slop tanks provided in
front of the pump room.
• Where powered prime movers for driving pumps are separated through a bulkhead, gas tight seals
shall be fitted in the way of bulkheads.

Pump Room of Oil Tanker

Pump rooms are normally located at the forward of the engine room. They are categorised as hazardous
area.
A Pump-room is provided on most tankers between the cargo compartments and the accommodation. It
separates the machinery space from the cargo compartments, a safety constructional feature of the tanker so
that cargo vapor is prevented from coming into the accommodation. (Separating the cargo space from the
accommodation by a thermal and structural boundary, a SOLAS design feature).
The arrangement of the pump room shall be such that:
1. The passage from any platform, ladder and the floor is unrestricted at all times.
2. All valves involved in cargo handling should be accessible without restrictions for a person wearing
required PPE.
3. Arrangements for hoisting an injured person using a rescue line without bumping on obstructions
shall be permanently available.
4. All ladders and platforms shall be fitted with guard rails.
5. Vertical ladders shall not be used for normal access and platforms at suitable intervals should be
incorporated.
6. A bilge system should be provided to deal with possible leakages from valves and pumps. The bilge
system should be capable of being operated from outside the pump room.
7. For the purpose of storing tank washings or contaminated bilge water, one or more slop tanks shall
be provided. Arrangements like standard coupling must be provided for transferring the contaminated
liquids to shore reception facilities.
8. There must be arrangement to read the pump discharge pressures from outside the pump room.
9. If the driving unit of pump room machinery is located in the engine room with the shaft passing
through the bulkhead, gas tight seals with efficient lubrication shall be fitted.
The integrity of pumps and pipelines is important and must be maintained. Any leaks should be detected in
time and rectified. Visual examination of pipelines should be carried out and pressure testing done to verify
their condition. Other means of testing and examination like ultra-sonic thickness measurement may be
used, but should not completely substitute visual examination.
A high level alarm should be fitted in the cargo pump room bilge and should activate audio and visual
alarms in the CCR, ER and the navigation bridge.
There have been accidents in the past where the force of explosion killed people as they were attempting to
escape from a space. A trunk way should be provided which is stiffened equivalent to the adjacent
bulkheads. A series of short lengths of ladders should be provided with platforms at regular heights.
Ventilation and lighting should be available within the trunk way and the top should lead outside the pump
room above the deck housing.
The main cargo pumps, stripping pumps, eductors, ballast pumps and various valves, lines are fitted and
interconnected in this room for the purpose of cargo loading and discharging operations and for
ballasting/de-ballasting and tank cleaning operations among others.
As oil cargo releases hydrocarbon gas, this gas will at times be present in the pump room. One must note
that hydrocarbon gas is flammable and toxic, and it needs to be removed before man entry.
The pump-room is therefore fitted with equipment to ventilate and detect these gases as well as equipment to
be used in case of an emergency to save life if necessary. They are as below:
• Exhaust fans
• Gas detectors
• Alarms
• CCTV
• Emergency telephone
• Emergency Escape Breathing Device
• Fire detecting and extinguishing systems
Cargo pumproom ventilation
Given the potential p􀀸esence of hydrocarbon gas in the pumproom, mechanical ventilation by extraction is
required in a safe atmosphere.
Ships built after July 2002 must have continuous monitoring of the pumproom atmosphere and an audible
and visual alarm system that activates when the hydrocarbon gas concentration in the pumproom exceeds a
pre-set level, which should not be more than 10% LFL.
The pumproom ventilation should be interlocked with the pumproom lighting so that the ventilation operates

when the lights are switched on. This does not apply to emergency lighting.
During cargo handling, the pumproom ventilation system should be operating at the correct (lower) suction.
If fitted, the gas detection system should be functioning correctly. Ventilation should be continuous until
access is no longer required.
A skylight on top of the pump room provides for additional ventilation and the provision of natural light
during the day.
Slop Tanks
Slop tanks are fitted on tankers to collect tank draining's, tank washings and other cargo oil mixtures. It is
fitted with cargo pipe lines to discharge, transfer and strip oil wastes.
It may have overflow system that is designed to transfer excess oil wastes to another other slop tank.
Slop tanks are mandated to be provided for on oil tankers greater than 150 tons gross.
Tankers of greater than 70,000 tons deadweight and above are to be provided with at least two slop tanks.
Tank washings after cleaning cargo tanks and dirty ballast residues are transferred into the slop tanks.
Slop tanks are used to decant (separate) the oil and water mixture and for this purpose they are normally
fitted with heating coils, as heat helps in the separation of oil and water. Decanting requires time and must
be done in calm waters. After decanting is completed (takes about 24 hrs) the oil water interface is detected
and the water that settles below the oil layer in the slop tank can be pumped overboard.
Note: Allow a margin of safety when pumping out the decanted water, i.e. stop pumping slightly before the
detected oil water interface.
The total capacity of all slop tanks shall be enough to retain all slop generated by the operation of the vessel.
The capacity in any case shall not be less than 3% of the oil carrying capacity of the ship, except if the
administration agrees in the following cases:
1. 2% of the oil carrying capacity of the ship where the tank washing arrangement is such that the slop
tanks once filled is sufficient to complete the washing, including driving the eductors without having to take
in additional water.
2. 2% of the oil carrying capacity of the ship where dedicated clean ballast tanks or segregated ballast
tanks are available as per the MARPOL Annex I or where a crude oil washing system is available as per the
MARPOL Annex I. This can be further reduced to 1.5% if one or more slop tanks can be charged and same
water used to complete washing, including driving eductors, without having to take in additional water.
3. For combination carriers where cargo is carried only in tanks with smooth walls it is 1%. It can be
further reduced to 0.8% if one or more slop tanks can be charged and the same water used to complete
washing, including driving eductors without having to take in additional water.

In the diagram shown below, A, B, C and D are the cargo lines connecting to tanks 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Except
for No.2 tank all other tanks have a centre tank, port tank and starboard tank. Slop tanks are generally
located aft of all the cargo tanks on port and starboard side to collect oily water mixtures from tank
washings. The capacity of the slop tanks should be atleast 3% of the deadweight carrying capacity of the oil
tanker.
Cofferdams
Manholes for entry and inspection are provided in the cofferdam. The cofferdam should normally be dry but
sounding pipes are provided to be able to detect any leaks from the adjacent tanks.
They are provided between fuel oil tanks, lube oil tanks and fresh water tanks in the engine room. They are
also constructed all around main engine lube oil sump tank, to separate it from other double bottom tanks.
Cofferdams are also found in the engine room, for example to provide access to the holding down bolts for
the main engine.
On an oil tanker, additional to the above, cofferdams are also provided between the cargo carrying space and
the machinery space. The pump room is accepted as a cofferdam between the cargo tanks and the engine
room. All enclosed space entry procedures must be followed when entering a cofferdam, even though the
space is not meant for carrying any cargo or other toxic substance.
A cofferdam helps prevent cargo contamination, as when two different liquids are loaded in adjacent tanks
an oil leak in one of these tanks drains into the cofferdam, if one is fitted between these tanks.
Some the features of a cofferdam on an oil tanker are as follows:
• They are provided with manholes for entry and inspection
• They are provided with a sounding pipe to check for oil leakage
• They must be maintained in a dry condition to detect oil leakage.
• On chemical tankers, tank stiffening in within the cofferdam, helps prevent cling-age in the cargo
tanks (required as some chemical cargoes are very hazardous and after discharge, cargo residues must be a
little as is practicable)
• Pump rooms and ballast tanks are accepted as cofferdams; however ballast tanks encircling a slop
tank are not cofferdams
In Oil Tankers cofferdams are fitted:
Between the cargo space and the machinery space, on vessels that do not have a pump room
As a cofferdam is an enclosed space enclosed space entry precautions must be taken before man entry.

Deep Tanks
Deep tanks are sometimes found on tankers and they are located aft of the collision bulkhead. On board
tankers, deep tanks are used to carry extra bunkers which enables the ship to undertake long international
voyages without the need for bunkering enroute.
The deep tanks extend to the entire breadth and depth of the ship aft of the collision bulkhead. A void space
known as the cofferdam is found forward and aft of the deep tank.
The cofferdam and the deep tank are subdivided by longitudinal bulkheads and are fitted with heating and
pumping systems. The fore and aft watertight bulkhead plating is made thicker at the bottom so that it can
withstand the head pressure exerted by the liquid.
The centreline bulkhead and the other fore and aft bulkheads must be made of adequate strength to
withstand the free surface effect. The deep tanks are provided with heating coils and pumping arrangements.
They should also have means for measuring sounding, temperature, etc. An air pipe should be fitted for
breathing of the tank and all openings should be of the watertight closing type.
Tank Coating
Oil Tankers
The tank coating requirements developed by IMO for the purpose of preventing corrosion in cargo oil tanks
are in the form of performance standards and these standards are mandatory by SOLAS amendment-
regulation II-1 /3-11; Crude Oil Tankers - cargo oil tanks corrosion protection (adopted as per resolution-
MSC 291(87).
This applies to new crude oil tankers of 5000 dead weight and above, engaged on International Voyages
from January 2016.
The cargo tanks are coated with epoxy paints; every step in the process of the coating system should be
planned as per the requirement and preference of coating material and recommendation of makers. The
planning has to include surface preparation, dehumidification, ventilation work scheduling, application of
paint, inspection, thickness of each coating, water testing, holiday spots and touch up, etc.
Tank coating jobs are generally covered by a guarantee by the makers of the coating. Improper coating's life
is short and results in expensive renewal of the coating.
The coating of cargo oil tanks is the main option during construction of the ship according to standards for
protective coatings for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers. The coating intended to be used should be tested
according to the Marpol annex.
The compatibility of the coatings with the primer should be demonstrated and the system type approval
certificate should record it. The application of the coating system is subject to extensive controls by the
ship's classification and the shipyard. A suitably qualified coating inspector must ensure compliance of the
application with respect to the regulation. The yard is responsible to maintain record of the specifications of
the coating in the 'coating technical file'. It should also contain a record of all coating work, inspection,
maintenance, repair, criteria for coating selection and job specifications.
Corrosion, especially on the bottom areas, can be fast and dangerous due to sulphur compounds in the cargo
reacting with water forming acidic solutions. Corrosive water droplets can develop on tank ceilings due to
hydrogen sulphide. Inert gas used to purge empty tanks contains may also contain sulphur compounds.
As a measure to improve the corrosion resistance of the ship structure, corrosion resistant steel is being
developed, which is more resistant to corrosion compared to normal shipbuilding steel. Different grades of
steel are developed depending on the intended application at either top or bottom of the tank.
Oil Tanker - Cargo Piping System
The design of piping system has undergone lots of changes, evolving over a long period of time. The piping
system on a crude oil tanker is simple and straight forward, whereas, a more complicated design is adopted
in product tankers to cater to many different grades of cargo.
The layout of piping can be classified as:
1. Free flow system
2. Direct line system
3. Ring main system
Each design has its own advantages and is suited for a particular type of tanker.
Pipelines
The rate of pumping is taken into consideration to decide the cross-sectional size of the pipelines. Generally
they are found to be between 25 and 90 centimetre diameter. Short bays of pipes are joined together, using
flange joints or expansion joints. Custom designed curved sections form part of bends.
Branch lines and bell mouth
Branch lines are short lengths of pipe that branch out from the main line to end inside each tank. The branch
lines have a valve inside each tank known as tank valves. The flow of cargo to/from that tank can be
controlled using this valve. The opening of a pipe inside the tank is in the shape of a bell and is called a bell
mouth. It is also referred to as the suction or elephant foot.
Manifold
The deck pipeline openings on either side amidships of the deck area, where the shore hoses are connected
to transfer cargo to/from the ship, are called the manifold. A valve is situated at the end of each manifold,
immediately inside the connecting flange.
Main and cross-over lines
The main lines are the cargo pipelines running fore and aft. They are isolated into sections by using master
valves. Crossover lines are short lengths of pipelines running athwart ship, making a connection between
two main lines. A crossover valve controls the flow through these crossover lines.
Drop lines
Drop lines are vertical pipelines connecting the deck cargo lines with the tank main lines. This helps to route
the cargo to the tank main lines bypassing the pumps during loading operation. These lines are found in the
pump room or near the manifold. The line can be isolated using drop valves.
Free flow system
This system helps to reduce the length of pipeline needed to operate a tanker especially on long vessels like
VLCC or ULCC. It is a very simple system wherein bulkhead valves are fitted at the aft end of each tank at
the bottom also known as sluice valves. When these valves are opened, the cargos from all tanks flow by
gravity towards the aftermost set of tanks where the suction is located.
If free flow is the only system installed on a ship for pumping cargo, it would be permitted to carry only one
grade of cargo, so it is normally combined with a piping system as well. For example, wing tanks have
piping arrangement but the centre tanks have a free flow system.
Cargo is loaded using drop lines which directly serve only a few tanks and the remaining tanks are loaded
using bulkhead valves. Stripping can be done by means of a separate set of lines installed for this purpose.
The free flow system has the following advantages:
• Less piping involved which results in reduced cost
• No restriction to the flow of cargo results in faster loading/discharging
• Draining of tanks is efficient.
• Failure of one pump will slow down the rate but all tanks can be discharged.
In contract to the advantages, it has a major disadvantage:
The system does not allow for two-valve separation; so multiple grade cargoes cannot be carried.
Direct line system
This system makes use of a network of pipelines, but is most suitable for a single or limited number of
grades of cargo. It is commonly found on VLCC and ULCC where multi-grade cargoes are not frequently
carried; it is used to carry one, two or three grades of cargo, which they do occasionally. The stripping of
tanks is achieved by installing a separate set of pipelines for this purpose.
Advantages of the direct line system:
• Not many bends in the pipeline system, which results in less pipe friction, better pump suction,
thereby enabling faster loading and discharging
• Number of valves, crossovers and bends in the pipelines is less, resulting in cheap and low
maintenance.
• A user friendly layout for simple operations
• Joints and elbows are less which minimizes leaks
• Line washing is less and can be executed rapidly.
Disadvantages of the direct piping system
• Provision to carry only few grades of cargo simultaneously - lacking in versatility
• Coping with failure of pump, valve or pipeline leaks are difficult
• Lack of circular system for depositing washings makes line-washing difficult
• Need for separate stripping system adds to the installation cost.
Ring main system
Commonly found on older ships, it was best suited to vessels which frequently carried multiple grades of
cargo. The pipeline is laid out in the form of ring. The inner ring connects the after tanks to the system and
the outer ring connects the forward tanks to the system by using connections between the two rings at
approximately mid-length of the vessel.
Maintaining a two-valve separation between different grades of cargo is the norm in such vessels and it is
achieved by installing master valves forward of each crossover line and installing crossover valves at each
branching of the ring lines.
The system is given further flexibility by installing crossover on the suction and discharge side of the pumps
inside the pump room. The stripping of cargo tanks is achieved using the main pipeline branching into
smaller suctions. Drop lines in the pump room are used for loading cargo and hence the order of loading
different grades must be planned well.
Advantages of the ring main system
• Possibility to discharge any tank using any pump gives high level of versatility
• Tank washing and line washing operations are simple, using circular layout of lines
• Separate stripping line system is not required, saving installation cost.
Dis-advantages of the ring main system
• Requires high level of maintenance owing to greater number of valves, elbows, joints, etc
• Line friction reduces pumping rates
• Line-washing requirements are extensive.
Combined or cruciform system
It is used in most modern product carriers and it allows a greater degree of versatility than the ring main
system, especially during loading, by virtue of the direct drop lines that avoid the pump room area and enter
each bottom line at two different points. In this system, the inner ring serves principally the centre tanks and
the outer ring serves the wing tanks, with the crossover facility between the two rings at every set of tanks.
Stripping system
This system uses low capacity pumps usually of the reciprocating type and/or eductors. The eductors are
driven by the flow of oil, which can be diverted through them, whilst being sucked into the main cargo
pumps during discharge. At their discharge side are options for pumping into the slop tank or discharge
mains. On crude oil carriers, these pumps/eductors usually have their own pipeline system consisting of
piping of a smaller bore than that of the main system, so the main discharge process is not interrupted by the
stripping requirements. They can also be linked into the main lines in order to drain them. On product
carriers, they have the capability of being linked into the main piping system and drain the tanks by this
route.
Ballast system
The vessels complete ballast capacity requirements can be taken care of in either a totally segregated system
or by permanent ballast tanks in conjunction with the vessel's cargo tanks.
Modern tankers employ the former and, in operational terms, this system permits ballasting and deballasting
to be done without encroaching upon the cargo operations schedule. In the latter case, a separate ballast
pump and lines are employed for filling and discharging the permanent ballast tanks, whilst ballast to and
from the cargo tanks is dealt with by the cargo pumps through the cargo lines.
Valves
Nowadays the vast majority of valves are controlled automatically from a cargo control room. They are
usually operated by hydraulic power and are of the butterfly type, which simply comprises a circular metal
plate on a spindle, which rotates through 90 degrees within the pipeline.
Gate valves
Gate valves operate on a screw spindle which raises or lowers a valve gate across the pipeline to open or
close the section. They are used in key positions, such as manifold valves, either side of cargo pumps or as
sea valves. It offers no resistance to the flow of liquid and enables high flow rates. They provide a good
sealing when closed but overhauling is not easiest among valves and throttling is not effective.
Butterfly valves
Butterfly valves have a disc fixed at the centre on a spindle, turning 90 degrees to close and open. When
closed, a rubber lining along the circumference provides a seal. This type of valve is good for throttling the
flow, is easier to overhaul and occupies less space in the system. It is also possible to have one end of the
spindle extending out to give an indication of the position of the disc inside. The rubber lining used for the
sealing tends to not hold at very high flow rates but is suitable for the purpose on tankers. An actuator can be
easily mounted on it so that it can be remotely operated.

There are many types of valves that will satisfy one or more functions identified above. The mechanism of
controlling the flow can vary based on how the valve is designed. Regardless of the type, all valves have
components like: the body, bonnet, trim (internal elements), actuator, and packing. They have their bodies
furnished with flanged or screwed ends (or ends prepared for welding) for connection to the joining pipes.
It is important to also know about control valves with actuator, relief valve, cocks and quick closing valves
since they are extensively used in ships. There are non return check valves which are either self operated or
controlled by the spindle operation (Screw Down Non Return or SDNR) and here, the control of flow is
maintained by the pressure of the fluid which can be permanently set or preset with external arrangements.
(Non-return globe valve, swing type flap valve etc).
Piping Arrangement in Pump Room
On a crude oil tanker, the pump room piping is the main link between the cargo tank lines and the cargo
deck lines all the way to the manifold where the shore connection is made. The main bottom cargo lines
inside the tank run straight all the way to the cargo pumps in the pump room.
We can divide the pump room into two parts. One is known as the cargo pump's free flow side and the other
part is known as the cargo pump's discharge side. They are also commonly known as suction side and
pressure side.
The bottom lines reach the cargo pumps on the suction side. There are some cross over lines on this side to
make the system more versatile. They are marked as "x-over" on the piping diagrams and help to discharge
cargo from system no.2 using COP no.3 and so on.
As we get closer to the COP, we find a valve on each of these lines normally known as the bulkhead valves.
The name is so because they are located close to the bulkhead separating the system as cargo tank side and
the pump room side. There is also another cross-over line connecting the sea water suction. Two sea chests
are found on either side and are used to pump sea water for the purpose of water washing in cargo tanks and
lines.
Coming to the delivery side of the pumps, we find a valve immediately after the pump which is normally
referred to as the discharge valve, or delivery valve or throttling valve. This valve can be used to control the
back pressure when operating the cargo pump.
Centrifugal pumps perform best when operated under a load or when a back pressure is maintained. The
delivery valve helps to achieve this. The pipeline on the delivery side rises up vertically leading to the main
deck. On the way, we can find the crude oil washing crossover, also known as the bleed off cow.
Using the bleed off cow, we can divert part of the cargo being discharged for the purpose of cow washing.
The same can be used for supplying drive liquid for the eductors during stripping. Another cross-over line
leads to a higher inlet in the port slop tank and to a pipeline called the 'high overboard'.
This high overboard line is the one used for overboard discharge of washing water after passing through the
ODMCS. There are many more cross over lines on the delivery side that enable use of any of the riser lines
with any pump.
There are many other equipments fitted in the pump room for cargo handling as well as ballast operations. A
dedicated ballast pump is fitted in the case of a segregated ballast system. In a segregated ballast system, the
ballast tanks, pumps and lines are completely isolated from the cargo system.
The ballast system has its own sea suction, so that the entire ballast system can be operated without
involving any part of the cargo system.
A stripping pump is fitted, which helps to strip the last remaining cargo from the tanks, cargo pumps and the
pipelines and discharge ashore through a small diameter line. This stripping pump is a positive displacement
pump which does not have a high rate but has its own advantages over the main cargo pump.
An eductors is fitted in addition to the stripping pump, which is very efficient in stripping cargo from the
tanks during cow washing or water washing.
Arrangements of Chemical Tanker
Type 1
A 'type 1' chemical tanker is intended to transport Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code that have very severe
environmental and safety hazards which require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of

such cargo.
Type 2
A 'type 2' chemical tanker is intended to transport Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code with appreciably
severe environmental and safety hazards which require significant preventive measures to preclude an
escape of such cargo.

Type 3
A 'type 3' chemical tanker is designed to transport Chapter 17 cargoes of the IBC Code with sufficiently
severe environmental and safety hazards which require a moderate degree of containment to increase
survival capability in a damaged condition.

Categories of Cargo
Cargo Categories 'X', 'V', 'Z' and other substances
Category X - Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or de-ballasting
operations, are deemed to present a major hazard to either marine resources or human health and therefore,
justify the prohibition of discharge into the marine environment;
Category V - Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or de-ballasting
operations, are deemed to present a hazard to either marine resources or human health or cause harm to
amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore justify a limitation on the quantity of the discharge
into the marine environment;
Category Z - Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or de-ballasting
operations, are deemed to present a minor hazard to either marine resources or human health and therefore,
justify less stringent restrictions of discharge into the marine environment; and
Other Substances - substances which have been evaluated and found to fall outside Category X, Y or Z
because they are considered to present no harm to marine resources, human health, amenities or other
legitimate uses of the sea when discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting operations. The
discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures containing these substances are not subject
to any requirements of Annex II.
Chemical Tanker - Tank Arrangement
Chemical tankers or product tankers carry liquid chemicals and petroleum products in bulk; the
arrangement of tanks is similar to small oil tankers, i.e., the cargo tanks are arranged forward of the Bridge.
The deck longitudinals and transverse frames are arranged on the exposed side of the deck.
Numerous difficulties are faced when handling noxious liquid chemicals in bulk. The risk of contaminating
cargo is high when a single pump is used for
Several tanks and the proper draining is not done before changing to different cargoes.
Modern tankers are of double hull type and are often equipped with individual submersible cargo pumps
(Framo hydraulic pumps) to avoid contamination of various cargoes carried as parcels. The contamination
can still take place if they are connected to common or shared lines.
Chemical cargoes are reactive in nature; therefore, many of the tanks have individual pumps, pipe lines and
valves.
Cargo tanks should be segregated from accommodation, service and machinery spaces and from drinking
water and stores for human consumption, by means of a cofferdam, void space, cargo pump-room, pump-
room, empty tank, oil fuel tank or other similar space.
Cargo Tanks
The following coding system is used by the IBC code to identify different types of tanks used in the
chemical tankers:
1: Independent tank 2: Integral tank
G: Gravity tank
P: Pressure tank
The following three kinds of tanks are found on chemical tankers:
• lG - Independent-Gravity
• lP - Independent-Pressure
• 2G - Integral-Gravity
Independent tank
Independent tanks are a type of envelope to contain cargo which does not form as part of the hull structure.
This type of cargo containment system is developed specifically to prevent or minimize any stress arising
due to the stressing or motion of the hull structure. The ship’s hull can be complete in structure without the
independent tank.

The independent type of tank does not transfer the load pressure to the hull structure when they are loaded
but only the tank weight is supported by the hull through cradles or support points. They are built with
supports to prevent them slipping forward, astern, to the side or floating upwards.

Integral tank
Integral tanks are those which form part of the hull structure. Stresses and loads are experienced by the tank
similar to that of the hull structure. Unlike the independent tank, the integral tank is essential for the
completeness of the hull structure. The weight and pressure of the cargo is absorbed by the ship’s hull
because the tank forms part of the hull.

Gravity tank
A tank having a design pressure not exceeding 0.7 bar gauge at the top of the tank is called a gravity tank.
Both independent and integral types of gravity tanks are used. The standards of the administration,
temperature and relative density of the cargo are taken into account when constructing a gravity tank.

Pressure tank
A tank having a design pressure exceeding 0.7 bar gauge at the top of the tank is called a pressure tank. Only
an independent tank can be made into a pressure tank. The configuration of such tanks should be such that
the pressure vessel design criteria can be applied to the standards of the Administration.

Independent tank – (Pressure)

Tank Arrangements/Piping
Isolation method of cargo tanks and piping systems for chemical tankers /product tankers
The carriage of single parcel cargo in several tanks having a common pipe line system poses containment
problems within each tank and depends upon the tightness of the single inlet valve. Therefore, it is
recommended to have 2 valve separations between the completed tanks and pressure pipe line.
Completed tanks must be checked to ensure the level of cargo regularly.
It is a requirement that pumps and piping of cargo and venting system are separated when loading toxic
cargoes, in order to prevent contamination and the exposure to crew.
Many chemical tankers have a common pipe line wherein separation can be done by inserting blind flanges
(blank) in the pipes. When these are used attention should be made to restore to the original system when
segregation is not in use.
The pipe line arrangement of submerged cargo pumps for chemical tankers consist of cargo pipe lines and
hydraulic pipe lines for providing power for the prime mover of the pump.

The common line configuration on a chemical tanker used to be the ring main system.

However nowadays, chemical tankers use deep-well pumps that are submerged (drive shaft submerged in
the cargo tank with the pump) to discharge cargo. They have the flexibility of being located either in the
cargo tank or in the pump room (on chemical tankers they are in the cargo tank). The pump operates in a
well or a casing, and is self-priming as long as the well is full of fluid.

Deep well pumps on a chemical tanker are installed in all cargo tanks (one in each tank). Each pump has its
own set of pipelines to discharge the cargo, this prevents contamination.

A Deep well pump is normally driven by a hydraulic motor (submerged pump) or by an electric motor
housed (not favoured on a chemical tanker) on deck.
The Framo pumping system uses submerged deep-well pumps in cargo tanks for facilitating discharge.

The Framo hydraulic cargo pumping system is designed for a flexible and safe cargo and tank cleaning
operation on chemical tankers. It consists of one hydraulic motor driven cargo pump installed in each cargo
tank, ballast pumps, tank cleaning pumps, portable pumps and other consumers, all connected via a
hydraulic ring line system to a hydraulic power unit as shown in figure below.

The submerged cargo pump is a single stage centrifugal pump with the impeller close to the tank top, giving
a good pumping performance of all kinds of liquids and with excellent stripping performance.

The Framo pumping system

Pump Rooms
The arrangement of the pump room shall be such as to ensure:
Unrestricted passage is always from the floor and any ladder platform.
Access without restriction to all valves involved in cargo operation to personnel wearing proper PPE.
Permanent arrangements should be available for hoisting an injured person using a rescue line and there
should be no obstacles projecting in the path.

All ladders and platforms must have guard railings installed. The ladders used for normal access should not
be vertical and platforms at suitable intervals must be incorporated.

Suitable means should be provided to deal with any possible leakage from cargo pumps or valves and
drainage.

It should be possible to operate the pump room bilge system from outside the pump room.

Slop tanks should be provided for storage of contaminated bilge water or tank washings.
A standard coupling shore connection or other similar arrangement should be provided for onshore reception
of contaminated liquids.

Pump discharge pressure gauges should be available outside the cargo pump room.

Gas tight seals with effective lubrication or other means ensuring gas tight seal must be fitted on the
bulkhead or deck wherever a machinery drive shaft passes through it.

Slop Tanks
Any tanker which is carrying Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS) in bulk must strictly comply with the
provisions of Marpol Annex II and follow procedures as described and approved in the P&A manual, when
discharging slops. These regulations must be available on board for reference before loading such cargo.

The P&A Manual gives procedures relating to pollution prevention when cleaning of cargo tanks and
discharge of residues that arise from tank washing mixed or not mixed with the washing medium.

The Officers involved in cargo related operations should read and understand the contents of the P&A
manual specific to that ship and strictly follow the procedures there in.

Compatibility between cargoes should be an important consideration when it comes to stowage of slop.
Retaining slops of viscous or vegetable oils in slop tanks with zinc coating must be avoided.

All operations with respect to slops resulting from NLS like discharge into the sea or removal by ventilation
or discharge to shore reception facility must be recorded in the cargo record book properly.

The NLS in bulk, which are harmful to the environment, are categorised as X, Y, Z and OS. NLS listed
under category X poses the greatest threat and category Z poses little threat to the environment.

When different cargo tanks contain different incompatible cargoes, washing of each tank should be carried
out separately and the washings should be pumped to the shore separately.

Great care should be taken not to collect slops from incompatible cargoes into the same tank. Additionally,
the tank coating too has to be compatible with that cargo.

The regulatory requirements of slop tanks under Marpol Annex I will apply if the chemical tanker carries a
cargo or even part cargo of oil in bulk.

Various types of Chemical cargo tank coatings

Cargo tank coating on chemical carriers have two main roles, first to create a separation barrier to avoid
direct contact between the mild steel (tank construction) and the corrosive cargo substance. Secondly, it
must have smooth/slippery surface to provide easy tank cleaning operation.

Chemical cargo tank coatings can be categorized into two main groups:
Inorganic coatings - zinc silicates and ethyl silicate types.
Generally, the life of this coating is proportional to the thickness of the coat.
This coating is one-layer coating, comprising of inorganic silicates pigmented with high percentage of zinc
powder.
Organic coatings – epoxy and modified epoxy systems.
This type of coating consists an organic resin system, which form strong chemical bonds between the resin
molecules. This coating type has the ability to resist strong acids or alkalis but they tend to absorb
significant quantities of cargo and contamination problems can occur.

A chemical tanker’s cargo tanks are coated with epoxy paints unless they are made of stainless steel.

The main reasons for coating are:

Reduced risk of contamination and easier cleaning
Properly applied and maintained coatings may last for ten years.
On the practical operation side, a single mistake in cargo selection may ruin a coating.
There are three types of coatings, namely:
Epoxy
Zinc silicate
Resin
The paint manufacturers have their own resistance list stating approved cargoes, temperature and time
limitations etc.
Epoxy coatings
Generally, epoxy coatings are found to have good resistance to wine, vegetable oils, alkalis, seawater, lube
oils, gas oils, jet fuels, crude oils, gasoline and weak acids.
A limited resistance against aromatic hydrocarbons is seen ('solvents' such as benzene, toluene, alcohols and
ketones and some esters.)
Sometimes, resistance to stronger acids also is observed. But, considering the holidays in the applied coating
film, it may not be suitable for highly corrosive liquids.
Suffering stress beyond the resistance level from strong solvents, epoxy coatings tend to soften. Enough
time should be allowed for the coating to weather out the trapped solvents and recover before introducing
cargo or water again.
Pencils of different hardness can be used as reference to establish hardness of epoxy coatings in standardized
tests.
Temperatures beyond 60-80 degrees Celsius should be avoided with epoxy coatings during steaming and
tank washing. Still lower temperatures should be kept during loaded voyages.
Except in emergency or heavy weather conditions, ballasting of cargo tanks with sea water should be
avoided. It is best to use epoxy coating in such situations.
Before ballasting, defects should be touched up to avoid severe pitting caused by cathodic effect of SS
fittings in the tank due to temperature of water and chloride content in it.

Zinc silicate coatings for cargo tanks

Zinc coatings are next best to epoxy coatings. Most zinc coatings are difficult to clean to a high standard
because they tend to hold or trap previous cargo. The coating maker’s recommendations have to be followed
for cleaning.
Using caustic soap mixtures or caustic acid for cleaning can damage the coating and even complicate the
entire cleaning operation.
Zinc coating cleaning depends not only on the last cargo carried but other factors such as the age and
condition of the coating (blistering, areas of open rust).
The porous nature of dark coloured liquids, high melting point and viscous slops make it difficult for
cleaning.
Certain coatings have governmental approval for edible oils; pH-limitations have to be checked in such
cases.
Long-time exposure to sea water is not advisable for zinc silicates because it will unduly reduce its life span.
A thorough cleaning is recommended in zinc silicate coated tanks after carrying molasses because sour
cargo may damage the coating by remaining in the tank bottom.

Resin coating
Phenolic resins were introduced relatively recently as a tank coating on a chemical tanker. Their resistance
applies wide which includes some strong solvents which are not tolerated by the epoxy. Almost all the
products that can be loaded in zinc silicate coated tanks can be loaded in phenolic resin coated tanks.
Having a fair resistance to weak acids and alkalis, polyester coatings have poor resistance against solvents.
They are not widely used on board chemical tankers.

Maintenance of tank coatings

The most important aspect in maintaining these coatings is not to allow contact with incompatible cargoes.
The makers’ recommendations must be checked always. Coatings have limitations with regard to maximum
temperature, pH values, maximum storage time and they should be adhered to. Epoxy coatings should be
allowed to harden if found soft.
Coating epoxy on top of a previous old coating is generally not worthwhile.
If a patch of coating is to be applied, the area should be ground with a rotating grinder with grain 80-120
until reaching a bright steel finish with the edges smoothened. A proper film thickness of 200 to 300
microns is achieved by applying 1 or 2 coats of primer plus and 3 or 4 final coats. To avoid condensation on
the surface, the tank wall can be heated from behind. Preferably, the tank wall should be warmer than the
tank atmosphere.
Pumps and Eductors
Oil Tanker - Cargo Pumps
Cargo oil pumps
The cargo oil pump (COP) is a single stage or multi stage centrifugal pump driven by steam turbine or
electric motor drive; the prime mover’s coupling shaft is separated by the pump room bulkhead through a
shaft sealing. There may be many pumps for cargo discharge in a pump room. The pipe lines of the cargo
discharge pumps are inter connected.

Standard practice for operating centrifugal cargo oil pumps

The cargo pumps are centrifugal type pumps. As a recommended practice they are operated at their rated or
nominal speed (rpm) during discharge of liquid cargoes. The efficiency and pumping rate of the pumps
decrease with the reduction of speed below the nominal speed.
At low levels of the cargo tank, it is recommended to control the pump by partially closing the butterfly
discharge valve rather than reducing the pump speed for reducing the flow rate (during topping up etc.); this
is done to prevent cavitation damage to the pump’s impeller through the pump sucking gas instead of liquid,
or the formation of vortex. Cavitation is one of the causes of pump vibrations.
When the butterfly discharge valve is open fifty percent it will allow approximately the same flow rate as
when the valve is fully open.
In the cargo control room, a cargo officer must be present at all times to note the discharge pressure and
speed of the pump and to control or shut off the pumps when needed.
Caution note – The inert gas plant should be in operation during the discharging operation and there should
be continuous monitoring of O2 level.

Different types of pumps for cargo operations

Centrifugal pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are extensively used for pumping cargo because the characteristics are found to be most
suitable. The centrifugal pumps are also referred to as hydro-dynamic pumps.

The pump consists of an impeller and a casing around it. The impeller is made to spin at a high speed
imparting kinetic energy to the liquid which then will be converted into pressure energy by the design of the
casing.

One must remember that a centrifugal pump does not create suction but only pushes the liquid that reaches
the pump and build up pressure on the delivery side. They are most suitable for high rates of discharge and
require a back pressure to normally function.

The liquid to be pumped is directed to the suction side of the pump and allowed to enter the pump through
the eye of the impeller. The liquid is made to reach the pump either by gravity or by the use of a separate
priming pump.

Once the pump is started, the impeller swirls the liquid inside and centrifugal force causes it to move
outward away from the centre. The impeller is designed with backward curving vanes and the rotation gives
the liquid a combination of circular and radial movement.

The shape of the volute casing is such that the section between the impeller and the casing increases
gradually towards the delivery line acting as a diffuser. This design converts the kinetic energy into pressure
energy and sealing is achieved by use of gland packing and mechanical sealing.

Positive displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps are found on oil tankers for stripping purpose. There are two main types of
positive displacement pumps:
Reciprocating type
Rotary type

Unlike the centrifugal pumps, the positive displacement pumps give a steady rate of flow for a given speed
of operation irrespective of the discharge pressure. A positive displacement pump should never be operated
with the discharge valve closed because it will continue to pump liquid towards the discharge side resulting
in severe damage to the pump and the line.

For this reason, a safety relief valve, either internal or external, becomes absolutely necessary on the
discharge side. An internal valve should be regarded as a safety precaution and it is recommended to have an
external relief valve with a return line back to the suction side.

The most common type of stripping pump on oil tankers is the reciprocating steam driven positive
displacement pump used for stripping cargo tanks and draining cargo pumps; the pipelines are the final stage
of discharging operations.

Reciprocating pump
A reciprocating pump uses a piston in a cylinder to create a suction and discharge effect to discharge oil.
These are used primarily for stripping (removing the last remnants of oil). The piston in this pump moves
forwards and backwards (reciprocates), creating a suction and discharge effect.

A suction effect is created when there is a decrease in pressure (when the piston moves away from the
suction valve), while a discharge effect is created when there is an increase in pressure (when the piston
moves towards the discharge valve).

There are two types of reciprocating pumps, single action (only one suction and discharge cycle for each
piston cycle) or double action (two suction and discharge cycles for each piston cycle).

These pumps are normally steam driven and are positive displacement pumps (A Positive Displacement
Pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid
flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as
the cavity collapses. The volume is a constant given each cycle of operation).

Vacuum strip system

The vacuum strip system was developed on oil tankers to be used along with the centrifugal pumps to
overcome certain limitations of the centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal pumps work efficiently when there is a good level of liquid in the tank providing the necessary
head on the suction side. But as the liquid level falls in the tank, the head also reduces and at a certain stage,
it brings down the pressure on the suction side so low that the boiling point of the liquid falls to the present
liquid temperature.

This causes the liquid to boil and form vapour bubbles which eventually enter into the pump. These vapour
bubbles collide with the impeller and the casing of the pump at very high speeds causing damage to the
surface of the impeller and casing.

When this happens, a very loud noise is produced from the pump as if a load of sand particles has entered
into the pump and is called cavitation.

If the operator is careless to cause cavitation too often, then in a long term, the smooth surface of impeller
and the casing will become rough with pitting, reducing the efficiency of the pump considerably.

The vacuum strip system helps to operate the centrifugal pump even with low levels of liquid in the tank and
without causing cavitation damage. A tall chamber is installed on the suction side of the pump also known
as separator.

The liquid level is maintained at a positive head inside the separator by the use of a vacuum pump located at
the top of the pump room. Hence the pump gets a positive head on the suction side even though the level of
liquid in the tank is low.

The vacuum pump is made to start and stop by receiving signals from level sensors located in the separator.
While this helps to maintain the liquid level inside the separator, the discharge valve, which is also made
automatic, opens and closes according to the level of liquid in the separator.

All of these components of the vacuum strip system when in working order can easily bring down the liquid
in the tank to stripping level without the need for a person to throttle and watch over the pump continuously.
On double hull ships, the suction wells below the bell mouth makes it even more effective by almost
emptying the tank.

Cargo pump temperature monitoring

it is ideal that temperature sensors should be fitted to the main cargo pumps such that the temperature of
casing, bulkhead seals and bearings can be read remotely.
Local trips for cargo pumps
Manual trip activation for the main cargo pumps must be available at the bottom level of the pump room.

Eductors
On tankers, the eductor is used for stripping oil or water from the tank, lines and pumps. It is used to
continuously recover the washed oil from the tanks during crude oil washing. The cargo pump is used to
supply the drive liquid for the eductor to function. Normally, the discharge from the eductor leads to one of
the slop tanks.

Whenever a liquid is pressurised using a pump and then directed through a nozzle on the drive end of the
eductor, a low pressure is created at the suction end. The liquid suffers a low pressure and high velocity at
the throat further improving the suction. The velocity again slowly decreases and the pressure increases in
the diffuser. This explains the flared shape of the eductor.

Advantages of using an eductor

It is almost completely maintenance free since it has no moving parts.
Very minimum preparations are required before using it being a very simple system.
It can strip crude oil of high vapor pressure with very good performance.

Disadvantages of using an eductor

The eductors use has limitations during the discharge of multiple grades of oil. The drive liquid and the
stripped cargo cannot be of different grades.
The slop tank accumulates more sediment sludge.
Sometimes, very high vibrations are experienced, even leading to damage of gauges and pipes in rare cases.

Chemical Tanker - Cargo Pumps

Normally, one will find chemical tankers fitted with one cargo pump in each tank and a separate line
running from the pump discharge right up to the manifold. This arrangement is to avoid the risk of mixing or
contamination of different cargoes.

The cargo pumps are the submersible type and usually made of stainless steel.

The submersible pumps are located at the aft end of each tank so that efficient stripping can be done.
Deep well pumps
This is the most common type of cargo pump found on chemical tankers. The impeller is located at the
bottom of the cargo tank and driven by a drive shaft and electric motor.

The liquid is discharged through the shaft vertically upwards to deck. Up to three impellers are sometimes
used and then they are called multi stage deep well pumps. The discharge valve and the motor can be
controlled from the cargo control room.

Framo pumps
Framo pumps are located inside the cargo tank designed as a vertical centrifugal pump. The pump is driven
by hydraulic pressure motor which helps to eliminate electric hazards. The hydraulic pressure is generated
by hydraulic power unit which is located on the deck or in a pump room.
Cargoes such as phenol, palm fatty acid distillates, lauric and stearic acid, have high melting points and tend
to form lumps inside the cargo tank. Hence, it is recommended that the cargo pump should be turned at
regular intervals during the voyage and before the discharging begins. This will help to avoid surprises in the
last minute at discharge port. The lines used for loading/discharging such cargoes should be blown back.
Cargo heating System
Following processes explained:
In crude oil carrier the purpose of heating, tank heating arrangement, oil temperature required, heating coil
arrangement, coil material.
In product carrier the recommended international code of practice on tank heating arrangement, temperature
control, heating procedure in port.
Ship staff responsibility in respect of cargo oil heating monitoring and cargo oil heating planning.

Crude Oil Carrier

Purpose of heating
The optimum temperature to which the cargo should be heated is largely dependent upon the pour point,
cloud point, total wax content and the viscosity of the cargo. Furthermore, it may be necessary to heat the
cargo required for Crude Oil Washing to a higher temperature than bulk cargo. Heavy fractions, such as fuel
oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and in order that such oils can be loaded and discharged
without delay, it is necessary to keep them heated.

Today the oil trade is so vast and wide spread, that the average oil tanker may be trading in the tropics one
voyage, and in Arctic conditions the next. It is therefore, necessary that cargo heating systems be designed to
cope with extreme conditions.

The ambient weather and sea conditions also influence the heating requirements. Due to the fact that a
loaded tanker has comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the sea water through which the vessel is
passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the ship’s side and bottom, and across the
decks, rapidly reduce the temperature of the cargo and makes the task of heating it much harder. Warm sea
water, however, has the reverse effect, and can be very useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the
cargo with a minimum of steam.

Heating arrangement
Steam is used to heat the oil in ships tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of the vessel’s deck.
Generally, the catwalk is used for this purpose, the main cargo heating steam and exhaust pipes being
secured to either the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately below the foot treads. At intervals,
manifolds are arranged from which the steam for the individual cargo tank is drawn. Each tank has its own
steam and exhaust valves, which enables the steam to be shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will.
Generally the main steam lines are well lagged, but obviously it would not be a practical proposition to lag
the individual lines leading from the manifold to the cargo tanks.

The heating arrangements in the actual cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread over the
bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches from the bottom plating. In wing tanks, it is the
usual practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but not up the ship’s side.

When it becomes necessary to heat the cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The coils in the
bottom of the tanks become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity. The warm oil rises slowly and is
replaced by colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation system in each tank.

The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides, while they are subject themselves to the cooling
action of the sea not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship’s side. It is, therefore, advisable to
set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger share of the steam vessels, where the coils are
passed through the longitudinal bulkheads between the centre and wing tanks.

Oil temperature
Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 50deg C, and 58deg C.
Within this temperature range, they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the heavier types require
heating, are always the subject of special instructions as they vary widely in quality, gravity and viscosity.
Some types of Heavy Gas Oil have very high pour points, and it is necessary to keep the cargo well heated
to avoid it going solid. Provided the temperature of this type of oil is twenty to thirty degrees above its pour
point, it offers no difficulty when loading or discharging though a wax skin will form on the sides and
bottom of the ship.

Some crude oils which contain paraffin wax or have high-pour points are also heated when transported by
sea. The main reason for this is to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on cooling surfaces. The heating
requirements for such cargoes varies considerably. Waxy crudes with pour points over 38deg. C may require
heating to 45deg.C to 55deg.C .

Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships, as it requires more heat compared to the normal cargo
system. For this reason, bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo tanks are insulated by wing
tanks which are reserved for ballast, and by double bottom under the cargo tanks. This coupled with extra
coils, arranged on platforms at different levels, helps to keep the bitumen heated.

Economical heating
Heating of fuel oil and certain crude oil cargoes is normally only required to ensure suitable viscosity. When
loading part cargo which has to be heated, the centre tanks should preferably be used in order to reduce heat
loss to the sea. The cargo should be so placed that as few tanks as possible are slack.

Heating of cargo is an operation common to the deck and engine departments. Careful plans shall be made
to ensure that the heating procedure and control of heating is arranged in the most practical and economical
manner. For all heated cargoes, temperatures shall be checked throughout the voyage and a record made
thereof in the temperature book. On those voyages where heating of cargo is required, the charter party will
contain provisions about the extent to which heating is to be undertaken.

The nature of the cargo and the weather conditions on the voyage may be such that the temperature with
advantage can be reduced to the minimum allowed for the particular cargo. At a suitable time before the
arrival at the port of discharge steps shall be taken to begin raising the temperature to that required for
discharge. The aforesaid procedure must not be used, however, except by arrangement with the company.

To supplement the heating instructions, the master shall on arrival at the loading port try to obtain directions
(if possible in writing) from the shippers about heating of the cargo. Such directions should indicate the
minimum temperature to which the cargo may be allowed to fall on the voyage. The directions shall be
communicated verbatim to the company which in return will inform the master whether or not the cargo
temperature may be allowed to drop on the voyage to the minimum indicated.

It is of essential importance to the economical result of the voyage that heating in accordance with
charterer’s/shipper’s instructions/directions is carried out with the lowest consumption of bunkers.

Heating Coils and water separator

When steam is admitted to heating coils, the admission shall commence at a slow rate to avoid shocks in the
pipelines and consequent risk of bursting of packings and pipes.

Heating coils are divided up in several sections in each tank, and in each section is provided with a water
separator and an inlet and outlet valve. When a heating coil section is in use, both inlet and outlet valves
shall be fully open so that the water separator governs the flow of steam in the heating coil section.
Adjustment of cargo temperature is carried out by opening/closing one or more sections. In order to utilize
the heating surface to the full and thereby achieve a fair economy during cargo heating, it is important that
the water separator functions correctly, and care must therefore be taken to ensure that the valve and the
filter incorporated in the water separator are clean.

Steam drains
As soon as the steam has been supplied to a section of heating coils and before the return water is passed to
the observation tank, the return water must be examined by opening the test cocks on deck. If any oil is
found in the water, steps must at once be taken to ensure that such oil , as far as possible, is not transferred to
the observation tank, and oily return water must not in any circumstance be fed to the boilers.
Coil material
Heating coils in both product carriers & tankers can interact with the products being transported. In ships
carrying heavy lubricating oils which require heating, the coils are generally ordinary steel pipe, but vessels
carrying crude oils which have to be heated, are now equipped with cast iron or alloy coils. The reason for
this is that the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive corrosion from the lighter fractions in the crude,
and ordinary steel pipe does not stand up to the corrosive action so well as the other materials mentioned.
Copper based heating coils in crude oil tankers need special attention to prevent excessive tank to pitting or
other galvanic corrosion problems.

Product Carrier
The following is the recommended International code of practice for the storage and transport of all crude or
processed edible fats and oils in bulk.

Tank Materials
 All materials used in the construction of tanks and for ancillary equipment including heating
facilities should be inert to oils and fats, and should be suitable for use in contact with food.
 Stainless steel is the most preferred metal for the construction of tanks. It is particularly
recommended for the storage and transport of fully refined oils and fats. Tanks of mild steel should
preferably be coated with an inert material on the inside, for example phenolic epoxy resins. Their
suitability for contact with foodstuffs, particularly oils and fats, should be obtained from coating
manufacturers. Zinc silicate coatings for mild steel tanks are also suitable, but it should be noted that
deterioration of the oil can take place if used with crude oils and fats with high acid values.
 Copper and its alloys such as brass, bronze or gun metal should not be used in the construction of the
storage installation or in a ship or road/rail tanker used for transport that has contact with the oils or
fats such as piping, pipe connections, seals, valves, heating coils, strainers, pumps, temperature
gauges or in sampling apparatus. Temperature gauges containing mercury should not be used.

Note:
Stainless steel heating coils in product tankers carrying naphtha require special attention in the new building
and commissioning stage to ensure that the surfaces are in good condition and are correctly passivated using
suitable chemical treatment before the vessel enters service.

Heating arrangement
Heating coils should be of stainless steel construction. Heating coils constructed from alloys containing
copper are not suitable. Use of means of heating should be by design, construction and procedures, such as
to avoid contamination and damage to the oil.
Suitable means of heating are as follows:
Bare Hot Water Pipes - Heating by hot water (about 80°C) circulated through coils is the best procedure
because it is least likely to cause local overheating. Coils should be self draining or mechanical or vacuum
pump draining.
Bare Steam Pipes - Heating by steam with pressure up to 150 kPa (1.5 bars) gauge (temperature of 127°C)
can also be used. Coils should be self draining or mechanical or vacuum pump draining.

Temperature control
All ships and storage tanks with heating facilities should be equipped with temperature sensors and control
devices to prevent overheating of oil in the tank and associated lines. Thermometers must be carefully sited
and away from heating coils. It is useful to have automatic recording type thermometers to provide records
of temperature control. The recorder should be installed in a conspicuous location such as the supervisor's
office or the ship's operations room.

Steam tracing
In temperate and cold climates, pipelines used for oils and fats which may solidify at ambient temperatures
should preferably be lagged and also provided with heating, for example by steam tracing lines or electrical
heating tape. When clearing pipelines in such climates, steam may be used.
Heating procedure in port
While loading and unloading before transfer, solid, semi-solid and high viscosity oils and fats in storage
tanks, shore tanks, ship tanks and subsequent means of transport should be heated slowly so that they are
liquid and completely homogeneous. Heating should start at a time calculated to give the required pumping
temperature without ever exceeding the maximum rate of 5°C over a 24 hour period. If steam is used, the
steam pressure should not exceed 150 kPa (1.5 bars) gauge to prevent localised over-heating. The coils
should be covered completely before heating of the tank begins. To prevent excessive crystallisation and
solidification during short-term storage and shipping, oil in bulk tanks should be maintained within the
specified temperature ranges. The temperatures apply to both crude and refined oils in each grade.

The temperatures are chosen to minimise damage to the oil or fat. Heating can be limited to the extent
requested by receiver, or to those few cargoes, which are not “pumpable” in cold. In newly found design on
heating by means of deck mounted heat exchangers and forced circulation by Framo (pdf) submerged cargo
pumps such problems have been avoided.

Maintenance
Regular maintenance checks should be made, preferably as part of a properly planned maintenance
programme. They should include functioning of steam pressure regulation valves; all steam supply valves
and steam traps for leakage; thermometers, thermostats, recording thermometers, weighing equipment and
any gauge meters for function and accuracy; all pumps regulated by thermostat for leakage; integrity of tank
coatings; hoses (internal and external) and condition of tanks and ancillary equipment.

Shipstaff responsibility
Cargo oil heating monitoring
Heating of tanks properly according to the Charterer’s instructions, if any.
 The Chief Officer is responsible for monitoring the temperatures and will liaise with the Chief
Engineer for the operation of the cargo heating system.
 The Chief Engineer is responsible for the correct operation and adjustment / maintenance of the
cargo heating system.
 The boiler cascade tank shall be monitored regularly and alarms where fitted should be in good
operational condition.
 Chief Engineer also should consider extra fuel consumption for heating cargo.

Cargo oil heating Plan

 Prepare a suitable heating plan & maintain/monitor heating record
 Consider the following factors when preparing the heating plan:
1. Adjacent Cargo / Ballast tank temperatures and condition (loaded/empty).
2. Ambient air temperature, sea condition & spray on deck, causing cooling effect on heated cargoes
 Condition & technical limitations of steam coils / lines with respect to:
1. Steam trap blockages
2. Limitation of machinery & equipment design
3. Selection of first discharging tanks
 Adjustment of steam valves based on daily cargo tank temperature record
 Steam main line pressure and the number / degree of opening of steam valve to tanks (recorded in
“Heating Record”).
 Additionally when high cargo temperatures are to be attained:
1. Design & structural limitations and capability of cargo steam heating system
2. In case of vapor segregation, rapid rise in temperature could lead to high inert gas/vapor pressure
build up inside tanks (Limitation – IN PORT)
Note: Inform the company / operator promptly in case of such temperature discrepancy.
Inert Gas System
An inert gas system is required to be fitted on crude oil tankers of above 20,000 tonnes deadweight. The
inert (not chemically reactive) gas system delivers inert gas to the vessel’s cargo tanks and serves two
purposes which are:
 Reducing the fire and explosion risk in the cargo tank
 Inhibiting corrosion in the cargo tank (as rust forms in the presence of Oxygen)

Inert gas on a tanker is normally produced by processing flue gas wastes from boiler uptakes. It could also
be produced by means of an inert gas generator that burns gas oil to generate the gas.

The flue gas from the sources mentioned above is then delivered to a scrubber through an isolating valve.

In the scrubber the gas is cooled and cleaned (sulphur dioxide and particulate soot removed) using seawater.
The scrubber has a demister unit whose function is to remove water droplets from the cooled & cleaned gas.

The gas is then delivered to the cargo tanks through blowers. A gas pressure regulating valve is fitted after
the blowers to regulate the flow of gases to the cargo tanks. The deck water seal, is the non-return valve that
prevents back flow of gas delivered.

A liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum from causing
structural damage to the cargo tanks. It releases gas when there is excess pressure or takes in air when there
is a vacuum created because of deficient pressure.

A vent provided for between the gas pressure regulating valve and the deck water seal is to vent any leakage
of gas when the IG plant is shut down.

The inert gas is delivered to the cargo tanks by an inert gas deck main line. This line runs from forward of
the deck mechanical non-return valve and the isolating valve (both these valves are mandatory SOLAS
requirements) for the length of the cargo deck. From this main line, inert gas branch lines lead to the top of
each cargo tank to deliver the gas.

The inert gas system is used during cargo discharge, de-ballasting, tank cleaning and for topping up gas
pressure as and when required during the voyage.

Schematic Diagram of inert gas plant

Inert gas system
The purpose of the inert gas system plant is to prevent unforeseen fire and explosion by filling the cargo oil
tank with a gas of sufficient low oxygen content.

Crude oil and fractions of crude oil always contain volatile elements, and these will evaporate from the
cargo oil surface, to form explosive gas air mixtures in the ullage space.

There are two elements to take place a fire or explosion of these air mixtures, and one of them is in the
condition that the gas / air mixture is within the explosive range and the others is presence of flame or a
spark of sufficient energy and temperature.

At only one case of raising these two elements simultaneously, a fire or explosion takes place. It is inert gas
system to eliminate a fire or explosion by replacing the oxygen rich air in ‘ullage’ with inert gas.

Composition of inert gas:

Design specification on the assumption that boiler exhaust gas having the following composition is supplied:
Carbon di oxide : 12 – 14 %
Oxygen : 2 – 4 %
: 0.3 – 0.5 %
Nitrogen : remainder.
Water vapour : 5 %
Solid particles : 250 mg /

The flue gas are allowed to pass through the scrubber at inlet temperature 400°C and are designed to be inert
gas having the following composition:
Carbon di oxide : 12 – 14 %
Oxygen : 2 – 4 %
: 0.03 %
Nitrogen : remainder.0
Water vapour : saturated condition
Solid particles : 8 mg /
Water : 0.125 % weight (max)

Source:
The ‘true’ inert gases, i.e., helium, argon, krypton, neon etc. are ruled out due to high cost.
The ‘semi-inert’ gases i.e., and nitrogen are also expensive. Nitrogen is employed with certain cargo types.
The main disadvantage of is that it generates intense electrostatic field in the cargo space. when dissolved
in water produce weak acid.
Product of combustion of fuels from following sources :-
Internal combustion engines – The combustion gasses from such engines contains high excessive and are
not suitable.
Boiler.
Inert gas generators burning heavy fuel oil or diesel fuel oil.
So, production of inert gas using the products of combustion from boiler and inert gas generator are only
used.

Advantages / Disadvantages:
No explosive mixtures can form in the tank.
Reduces corrosion.
Voyage cleaning of tanks is unnecessary.
Reduces pumping time because of positive pressure in the tanks at all times.
Cargo Measurement Systems
The purpose of cargo measurement is to verify the quantity said to have been loaded in the tanks from shore
and the quantity of free water upon completion of loading. However the bill of lading is made based on the
quantity of cargo measured from shore tanks.

The measurements of shore tank are normally witnessed by a petroleum inspector who is independent.
Sometimes a loss control auditor may be present employed by the shipper and occasionally the cargo insurer
too sends a representative. It is obvious that different parties will benefit by manipulating the quantity of
cargo, any gross exaggeration can be easily detected.

Manipulation can be done either way by choosing the next lower or higher degree of temperature and also
by choosing to read the next lower or higher mark when the reading falls between two graduations.

If this practice is applied consistently, a significant net gain can be produced without violating any law or
contract.

Numerous studies on petroleum loss control have shown that most of the cargo losses in transit were not
actually losses but inaccuracies in calculation of quantity.

The Ship’s Officer needs to be well versed with the calculations involved in quantifying the cargo onboard.
The volume of cargo in the ship’s tanks is determined by measuring the ullage. Ullage is the vertical
distance from the surface of liquid to a fixed datum point in the tank top or the ullage pipe.

Even though it is not difficult, close attention is necessary when measuring ullage since it can result in
inaccuracies. Normally inaccuracy in ullage can result because of one of the following reasons:
Measuring technique improper
Worn-out or non-standard equipment for measuring
Accuracy in ullage and temperature insufficient

Many inaccuracies are likely during measurement. The ship itself is floating on water and there is liquid
cargo in the tanks. It results in motion of the surface of the cargo during measurement. The datum point for
ullage may be eroded due to years of service.

An old ullaging tape may be elongated or the eye connecting the bob may be worn out increasing the overall
length. Bad weather or darkness can increase the inaccuracies if observed by tired or inexperienced crew.

Appropriate steps must be taken to minimize these inaccuracies so that the ship’s figure of cargo quantity
correlates with the shore figures.

Ullage measurement
Measurement of cargo quantity on board tanker ships is a necessity as part of the operations. The obtained
quantity must be accurate because inaccurate measurement can lead to discrepancies between interested
parties and also pose a threat to the marine environment. Cargo measurement is important not only at the
start and end of a loading/discharging operation but also to continuously monitor the progress and to prevent
overflowing.

There are many different methods of ullaging a cargo tank. Let us discuss some of the commonly found
devices.
Float gauges
It is a very simple type of ullaging device and widely used on tankers. It consists of a float which is
suspended inside the tank by tape. The float always remains at the liquid surface and the length of tape
inside the tank indicates the ullage. The ullage can be read locally on the device or remotely from the cargo
control room. Isolation valve is fitted below the device so that maintenance can be carried out on the float
and tape mechanism on top.
Radar gauges
This method of ullaging uses the principle of the radar. Most modern tankers nowadays use this type of
ullaging owing to its reliability and accuracy. Very high frequencies in the range of 11 GHz are used. The
location of the transmitter is important for accurate results.

A few advantages of using the radar gauge as follows:

1. Highly accurate and reliable
2. Limited moving parts
3. Radar waves are unaffected by the atmosphere in the tank.

Ultrasonic gauge
The working principle of the ultra sonic gauges closely resembles that of the echo sounder. They are
normally designed to measure the ullage of a tank but can also be used to measure the sounding. The
receiver is accordingly located either at the tank top or the tank bottom. This type of ullaging is not very
reliable compared to some other methods. Variation in temperature and pressure can influence the accuracy
of measurement.

UTI indicators

This is a portable device and is widely used on crude oil tankers. As the name suggests, this device can
measure ullage, temperature and interface all at once.
It is useful especially during the final stages of a loading operation when topping up the tanks. It is an
electronic instrument mounted on the tank top. A sensor is lowered into the tank by a graduated tape. The
sensor activates a beep sound when in contact with oil and another distinct beep when in contact with water.
The ullage can be read from the graduations on the tape.
Physical and chemical properties of oil and chemicals

Introduction
Bulk transportation of oil and chemical on tank ships is the best economical way to transport such cargoes.
But while carrying a massive amount of dangerous liquids as cargo in ship's tank, they exhibit a number of
physical and chemical behavior, based on their individual characteristics. Most oils gassify and create a
vapor pressure on top of the tank. They also get viscous with drop in temperature. The emitted cargo vapor
could be toxic and poisonous. Some cargoes get contaminated if the tanks have not been prepared correctly
before filling up with new cargo. There are many issues that arise from their density, vapor pressure,
toxicity, pour point and such other properties. It will be important for you to study the oil and chemical
properties to get the basic idea of the nature of the cargo and how perhaps to carry them on board and
transport them safely across the sea.

Classification of Oil cargoes:

Crude Oil
Raw crude oil is pumped directly into a ship’s cargo tank. It varies widely in chemical composition, sulphur,
and water content. Depending on its chemical composition, the prevailing components of crude oil are
naphthenic, paraffinic, or aromatic hydrocarbons. Crude oils are carried in bare steel tanks and tanks coated
with epoxy coal tar or epoxy paints.

White Oil
This group of liquid cargoes consists mainly of aliphatic hydrocarbon products and includes gasoline, diesel
oils, kerosene, virgin stock, aviation fuels, heating oils, etc. These cargoes are not very aggressive, and they
usually are shipped in conventional epoxy coated tanks. However, some unleaded gasolines may require a
modified epoxy or zinc silicate coating system.

Solvents and Chemicals

This complex group of liquid cargoes includes alcohols, ketones, glycols, esters, ethers, aromatic
hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc. These cargoes vary from mild to very aggressive. They are
shipped in tanks coated with epoxy, modified epoxy, and zinc silicate. Some of these products require
extreme care in the choice of coating and cargo handling.

Vegetable and Animal Oils

Vegetable and animal oils may vary in composition. The most important factor is their free fatty acid
content, which greatly affects the suitability of coatings. Refined vegetable oils with low acid value are
usually acceptable for carriage in conventional epoxy-coated tanks. Those with a higher acid value are more
aggressive and may require a more resistant coating system. Crude vegetable oils, fatty acids, and by-
products (fatty acid distillates and acid oils) may pose serious problems for carriage in coated tanks. Water
content and loading/unloading temperatures can make these cargoes even more aggressive.

Lube Oils and Additives

This group of cargoes (excluding halogenated, phosphated, and ester types) usually poses no problems for
carriage in coated cargo tanks, but contamination of cargo may be a problem, requiring thorough cleaning
and drying of tanks before loading. These products usually can be carried in tanks coated with conventional
epoxy

Physical Properties
The physical properties are most commonly used in petroleum are as under:
 Density
 Specific gravity
  Volume
 Viscosity
 Refractive index
 Fluoresence
 Optical activity
 Colour
 Odour
 Boiling point

Specific Gravity
 Specific gravity of oil generally lies in between 0.73 and very slightly above 1.0
 The gravity was formerly expressed in degrees of the European Beaumé scale read directly
hydrometer this means the degree goes up as the density goes down. The high gravity is not a heavy
oil.
 The value of API Gravity is high correspond to low Specific Gravity.
 And the low API Gravity value correspond to High Specific Gravity.
 Between oils in the same reservoir rocks but in separate traps.
And between oils within the same reservoir rocks but different structural position.
 The most favorite grade of crude oil is about 37° API, equivalent to a relative density of 0.84.
 Very light crude above 40° API, occur in large quantity in Algeria, south eastern Australia and in
some Indonesian and Andean fields.
 Very heavy crudes dominant production from California, Mexico,Venezuela and Sicily.
Gravity of Crude oil at different temperature
Gravity at 60 °F change in gravity for each 1°F change in T.

Colors
 Paraffinic oils are light color: Yellow to Brown by transmitted light.
 Asphalt-base oils are commonly brown to black; many of them are known as “Black oils”. Color is
commonly determined with the Saybolt Colorimeter.
Refractive Index
 Absolute refractive index (RI) of a substance is the inverse ratio of the speed of light.
 The range of refractive indices for petroleum is from 1.42 to 1.48.
 The lower indices are the lighter oils. The refractive index is dependent on the density of the oils, the
heavy (lower API Gravity) oils have the higher indices.
Refractive Indices of Representative Oils

Fluorescence
 The all oils show more or less fluorescence. The aromatic oils being the most fluorescent. The
fluorescent colors of crude oils range from Yellow through Green to Blue.
 Fluorescence is observed under ultraviolet radiation that most generally used for Petroleum having
wavelengths of 2,537 and 3,650 angstrom unit.
Odor
 Due to the light hydrocarbons some oils is agreeable like gasoline odor
 Aromatics impart pleasant odors.
 Oils containing sulfur and certain nitrogen compounds usually a disagreeable odor.
Viscosity
 Viscosity is the internal friction of fluid causing it is resistant put change of form.(viscosity is
conventionally defied by the Greek letter eta, ?).
 It is the ratio of stress to shear per unit time. Shear with liquid is not a constant but is proportional to
time viscosity is defined by the ratio, force*distance / area*velocity
 The CGS unit of viscosity is the poise which is too larger unit of practical purpose in the oil industry.
Viscosity of oil are therefore
 conventionally measured in centipoises.
 Such a unit is a saybolt universal second(SUS):
SUS = viscosity in centipoises*4.635 / relative density
 Hydrocarbons having viscosity higher then 10,000 mPa are now to be called natural tar.
 A useful indicator of the viscosity of a crude oil is it pour point. This is the lowest temperature at
which the crude will flow under described controlling conditions. pour point is above 40
degree(more than 100 F) a relatively common among crudes having highest contents of paraffin's
wax.
Volume
 Oil in the reservoir contains dissolved gas, and the volume of the solution depends upon the
formation gas-oil ratio and the reservoir pressure.
 Gas may be dissolved in oils under increasing pressure and increase the volume in solution.
 The volume of liquid petroleum, at constant pressure.
 The volume of surface equivalent gas will dissolve in a unit volume of reservoir oil. Increases as the
reservoir pressure increases until the oil is finally saturated with gas and no more gas will dissolve in
the oil.

Boiling Point

 Atmospheric true boiling point (TBP) data are obtained through distillation of a petroleum mixture
using a distillation column with 15-100 theoretical plates at relatively high reflux ratios (1-5 or
greater).
 The high degree of fractionation in these distillations gives accurate component distributions for
mixtures. The lack of standardized apparatus and operational procedure is a disadvantage, but
variations between TBP data reported by different laboratories for the same sample are small.
Pressure and Temperature
True Vapor Pressure
All crude oils and the usual petroleum products are essentially mixtures of a wide range of hydrocarbon
compounds. The boiling points of these compounds range from -162°C (methane) to well in excess of
+400°C, and the volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends primarily on the quantities of the
more volatile constituents.

The volatility (the tendency of a crude oil or petroleum product to produce gas) is characterized by the vapor
pressure. When a petroleum mixture is transferred to a gas free tank or container, it starts to vaporize, that is
it liberates gas into the space above it.

There is also a tendency for this gas to re-dissolve in the liquid, and equilibrium is ultimately reached with a
certain amount of gas evenly distributed throughout the space. The pressure exerted by this gas is called the
equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid, usually referred to simply as the vapour pressure.

The vapor pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. The vapor pressure of a mixture
depends on its temperature, constituents and the volume of the gas space in which vaporization occurs; that
is, it depends upon the ratio of gas to liquid by volume.

The True Vapor Pressure (TVP), or bubble point vapor pressure, is the pressure exerted by the gas produced
from a mixture when the gas and liquid are in equilibrium at the prevailing temperature. It is the highest
vapor pressure that is possible at any specified temperature.

As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the TVP exceeds
atmospheric pressure, the liquid starts to boil.

The TVP of a petroleum mixture provides a good indication of its ability to give rise to gas. Unfortunately,
this is a property that is extremely difficult to measure, although it can be calculated from a detailed
knowledge of the composition of the liquid. For crude oils, it can also be estimated from the stabilization
conditions, making allowance for any subsequent changes of temperature or composition. In the case of
products, reliable correlations exist for deriving TVP from the more readily measured Reid Vapor Pressure
and temperature.

Reid Vapor Pressure

The Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) test is a simple and generally used method for measuring the volatility of
petroleum liquids. It is conducted in a standard apparatus and in a closely defined way. A sample of the
liquid is introduced into the test container at atmospheric pressure, so that the volume of the liquid is one
fifth of the total internal volume of the container. The container is sealed and immersed in a water bath
where it is heated to 37.8°C. After the container has been shaken to bring about equilibrium conditions
rapidly, the rise in pressure due to vaporization is read on an attached pressure gauge. This pressure gauge
reading gives a close approximation, in bars, to the vapor pressure of the liquid at 37.8°C.

RVP is useful for comparing the volatility of a wide range of petroleum liquids in a general way. It is,
however, of little value in itself as a means of estimating the likely gas evolution in specific situations,
mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature of 37.8°C and at a fixed gas/liquid
ratio. For this purpose, TVP is much more useful and, as already mentioned, in some cases correlations exist
between TVP, RVP and temperature.

Saturated vapor pressure

Vapor above the surface of oil exerts a pressure called vapor pressure which varies directly with the
concentration of vapor above the liquid. It is therefore zero when no vapor is present and maximum when
the space is saturated. Maximum vapor pressure at the existing temperature is known as saturated vapor
pressure (SVP). If the temperature of the oil increases, the vapor concentration increases and causes the SVP
to rise.
Important Fuel Properties when using on Board
In todays shipping, the operation cost is high due to high fuel price and owners not likely to reduce it. The
fuel oil extracted by fluid catalytic cracking vis-a-vis breaking, has produced residual fuel of very poor
quality. The proper analysis will give properties and characteristics of fuel oil. The operating engineer
should know the source of crude oil and refinery process and its properties and characteristics. You should
also be aware of the harmful constituents, their effects on the engine components and the remedies to
counter the harmful properties.

Carbon residue, asphaltenes

Asphaltenes are components of asphalt which are made of macro molecules of high molecular weight, which
consists of poly nuclear hydrocarbon derivatives containing hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur and
metals like iron, nickel and vanadium.

The Carbon residue is the tendency of fuel oil to form carbon deposits during combustion and is measured
by Conardson Carbon Residue (CCR) or Micro Carbon Residue (MCR). Combustion of fuels having high
levels of carbon residue lead to formation of carbon deposits and other materials in the combustion chamber
and exhaust system. This affects exhaust valves, turbocharger exhaust gas sections etc. The maximum limit
of carbon residue content in fuel is 22 %.

Asphaltenes in fuel oil contributes to the energy released during combustion of fuel. A high level contents of
carbon residues and asphaltene affect the fuel oil combustion quality E.g : Ignition delay, after burning of
carbon deposits which lead to wear and fouling of engine and engine components causing reduction in
efficiency and performance of engine.

Paraffin derivatives are added in fuel to make asphaltenes soluble to prevent formation of sludge in storage
tank, filters and centrifugal purifiers etc good quality fuel has up to 8% asphaltenes and standard heavy fuel
oil will have up to 14 % asphaltenes.

Sulfur
Sulfur in fuel oil present in varying forms and concentrations. Oxides in sulfur combine with water to form
highly corrosive sulfuric acid which is detrimental cylinder liner and piston rings. Source of water may
emerge from water present already in fuel oil or condensed water vapor in the combustion chamber or
moisture from scavenges air system.

As sulfur is soluble in oil and cannot be eliminated from fuel by centrifuging method, so sulfur content can
be reduced by adding alkaline additives in cylinder lubricating oils

High sulfur content in fuel leads to ignition lag and poor fuel combustion and subsequently exerts high
pressure on cylinder lubricating oil film in combustion chamber with resultant effect of formation of more
corrosive acids, more un burnt carbon and increase in wear rate of cylinder liners and piston rings. Post
combustion of sulfur in fuel emits sulfur oxides (SOx) to atmosphere. By using alkaline cylinder lubricating
oil of right or appropriate base number sulfur content in fuel oil can be neutralized.

Increased rate of abrasive wear of cylinder assembly is evident when low sulfur content fuel is used with
high alkalinity cylinder lubricating oil, as excess of alkaline additive material forms hard and abrasive
deposits during combustion, leading to increased abrasive wear of cylinder liners and piston rings. Thus,
when burning low sulfur content fuel, the lube oil with low Total Base Number (TBN) should be used.

Sodium and Vanadium

Sodium in fuel can come from various sources, during handling and storing activities involved right from
time fuel leaves the refinery to the delivery of the bunkers. Sodium is found in combined form of common
salt, NaCL, which is an alkaline, metallic element. It is soluble in water and can be eliminated by
centrifuging separators.
Vanadium contents in the fuel vary broadly depending on the crude oil source or crude oil mixes used in the
refinery process. Vanadium is a metallic element soluble in oil and it can be neutralized during combustion
by the use of chemical inhibitors such as magnesium or silicon.

Sodium and vanadium when chemically combined with fuel cannot be removed by centrifuging. They react
with each other at combustion temperature to form a highly corrosive molten ash, which can lead to high
temperature corrosion, formation of deposits in the turbocharger, overheating, and eventual burning away of
exhaust valves, valve faces, and piston crowns. This results in low compression pressure and loss of engine
efficiency.

Alumina and Silica (Catalytic Fines)

Alumina and silica are porcelain-like particles used for petroleum refining. Their presence in fuel oil is
regarded as presence of catalytic fines (cat fines). Cat fines cause high abrasive wear to piston rings and
cylinder liner. Catalytic fines of the size 10 to 20 microns damage most. With proper centrifuging of fuel oil,
alumina and silica contents can be reduced to tolerable quantities of 15mg/kg. For proper treatment the
throughput quantity should be reduced and fuel oil input temperature to centrifuge is maintained at 980c.

Ash / Sediments
The ash in the oil includes metallic content, other non-combustibles and solid contaminants.

Ash content after fuel combustion includes solid foreign materials, such as rust sand and catalytic particles,
and dissolved inorganic materials, such as iron, calcium, nickel, sodium, vanadium etc.

Ash deposits on exhaust valves, cylinder liners surface can cause localized over heating and can lead to
corrosion. Excessive ash deposits may clog the fuel injectors and nozzles. And also lead to abrasive wear of
piston rings, cylinder liners, valve seats and injection pumps.

Soluble metal compounds which are disbursed in fuel, cannot be removed by centrifuging. And these metal
compounds can form hard deposits on cylinder heads around exhaust valves, piston crowns and valve faces
and valve seats.

Sediment is another fuel contaminant, which includes rust, weld slag, scale, dirt etc. Sediments in fuel can
come from various sources during shipping, storage or in pipe line. Most of the sediments are removed by
settling or filtering, or centrifuging on boardship.

Sediment removal is vital to minimize high ash or particulate contamination of a fuel, as both can contribute
to high level of deposits, corrosion or abrasive wear.

Water
Fuel oil may be contaminated with fresh or salt water during shipment or as a result of condensation during
prolonged storage. Salt water in fuel can cause fouling, deposits and corrosion of engine components. It can
also cause excess amount of sludge volume due to water/sludge emulsification during centrifuging.

Fuel contamination with water may lead to microbial matter growth in fuel, which may corrode filters,
strainers and separators. Addition of chemical “biocide” additives in fuel can kill the growth of microbial
matter for short range solution.

For long range solution, centrifuging, draining of storage, settling and service tanks are the best method of
reducing water content in fuel oil.

Water content in fuel should be removed in order to reduce the quantity of catalytic fines and sodium in the
fuel oil. To achieve a good separation, the throughput and the temperature of the fuel must be adjusted in
relation to the viscosity. With high viscosity fuels, the separating temperature must be increased whereas the
throughput must be decreased in relation to the nominal capacity of the separator.
Physical Properties of Chemicals
Chemical tankers are required to transport a wide range of different cargoes, and many tankers are designed
to carry many segregated products simultaneously. In a single voyage many cargoes with different
properties, characteristics and inherent hazards may be carried. Moreover, in port several products may be
handled simultaneously at one berth, typically including different operations such as discharge and loading
as well as tank cleaning. Even the less sophisticated chemical tankers are more complex to operate than oil
tankers. Thus, understanding the physical properties of the so called dangerous liquid (DL) cargoes will be
important for safe handling and vessel operations.

Specific gravity
Cargo tanks on a chemical tanker are normally designed to carry cargoes of a higher specific gravity than an
oil tanker. Sometimes the design strength even differs between tanks on the same ship. The master must be
familiar with any restrictions that may be imposed on loading heavy cargoes. Especially important is the risk
of slack loading a tank because this can lead to sloshing forces that may cause damage to the tank structure
or its equipment. Likewise, the tank's design capacity must be strictly observed: exceeding it is dangerous.
Note that the cargo's specific gravity and its vapor pressure must be considered together.

The oil and gas industry, especially in the United States, often uses specific gravity instead of density.
Specific gravity is used by the American Petroleum Institute (API) to classify various “weights” of oil. The
density of a crude or refined product is thus measured as API gravity (ºAPI), which equals (141.5/specific
gravity)—131.5.

Finding Specific gravity by hydrometer

A hydrometer is an instrument used to determine specific gravity. It operates based on the Archimedes
principle that a solid body displaces its own weight within a liquid in which it floats. Hydrometers can be
divided into two general classes: liquids heavier than water and liquids lighter than water. In the standard
hydrometer scale, known as the specific gravity scale, distilled water equals 1.000, the initial point of
measurement. Liquids lighter than water are scaled below 1.000 specific gravity, and liquids heavier than
water are scaled above 1.000 specific gravity.
Function, Scale Types and Use

A hydrometer is made up of a thin glass or plastic tube sealed at both ends with a graduated or printed scale
calibrated to a specific gravity. One end of the tube is bulb shaped and weighted with a ballast of either fine
lead shot or steel shot. The ballast causes the instrument to float upright in a liquid like a fishing bobber. A
second glass or plastic cylinder, commonly known as a hydrometer jar, is filled with the liquid being
measured. The hydrometer is then placed in the hydrometer jar containing the sample liquid. The specific
gravity of the sample liquid is indicated when the level of the sample liquid in the jar aligns with a point on
the hydrometer scale. Depending on which scale is used, the number of times heavier or lighter than water
the sample liquid weighs can now be recorded. In addition to reading specific gravity values, scales on a
hydrometer can be calibrated to Baume, Brix, Alcohol, API (American Petroleum Institute Index) and others
for specific chemicals.
Method of Reading

Some hydrometers have one or more scales printed on the hydrometer. To use the hydrometer, fill the
hydrometer jar with the sample liquid. Place the hydrometer in the jar and give it a quick twirl to dislodge
any air bubbles. Once the hydrometer has settled, take the reading from the appropriate scale. In order for
the measurement to be accurate, the sample liquid must be at 60°F. If the liquid is not at 60°F, the
measurement should be adjusted.

When reading transparent liquids, the eye should be placed slightly below the plane of the surface of the
liquid and then raised slowly until this surface, seen as an ellipse, appears as a straight line. The point at
which the line sits on the hydrometer scale should be recorded as the reading of the hydrometer. When a
liquid is not sufficiently clear and a reading cannot be made as described above, it will be necessary to read
from above the surface and estimate as accurately as possible, the point to which the liquid rises on the
hydrometer.
Accuracy

Accuracy depends on three main factors:

1. Cleanliness - The hydrometer, hydrometer jar and the liquid in which the readings are taken should
be cleaned properly. The surface of the hydrometer and the stem are especially important so that the
liquid can rise uniformly, merging into an almost invisible film on the stem.
2. Temperature - The hydrometer and liquid should be the same temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere. This will prevent changes in density during the testing.
3. Proper Immersion - A hydrometer jar should have an inside diameter of approximately 1 inch
(25mm) greater than the outside diameter of the hydrometer.

Vapor pressure and boiling point

The oil and gas industry, especially in the United States, often uses specific gravity instead of density.
Specific gravity is used by the American Petroleum Institute (API) to classify various “weights” of oil. The
density of a crude or refined product is thus measured as API gravity (ºAPI), which equals (141.5/specific
gravity)—131.5.

At any given temperature every liquid exerts a pressure called the vapor pressure. The liquid will boil when
its vapor pressure equals the external atmospheric pressure.

In a closed cargo tank a liquid will boil when the vapor pressure is equal to the external vapor pressure plus
the pressure setting of the pressure/vacuum (P/V) valve. The tanks and vent systems are designed to
withstand this pressure, plus the hydrostatic pressure of the cargo.

Cargoes that exceed the normal atmospheric pressure at 37.8°C (100°F) should not be loaded into a tank that
is not specially designed for that duty.

Vent line systems must be checked for correct operation at regular intervals, as structural damage can easily
result from malfunction or blockage due to freezing of cargo vapor, polymer build-up, atmospheric dust or
icing in adverse weather conditions. Flame screens are also susceptible to blockage, which can cause similar
problems.

The higher the vapor pressure the more vapors will be released, a fact that may require use of personal
protective equipment.

Freezing point
Most liquids have a defined freezing or solidification point, sometimes described as the melting point. Some
products, such as lubricating oil additives, vegetable and animal oils, polyols etc. do not have a defined
point, but a freezing or melting range. For such cargoes, viscosity is used as a measurement of the product's
liquidity or handling characteristics, and the term pour point is used instead.

Cargoes with a freezing point higher than the ambient temperature of the ship's trading area will need to be
heated in order to remain liquid.

Temperature effects
The structure and equipment of a ship normally impose a limitation on the carriage of heated cargoes.
Exceeding this limitation could damage the tank coating or its structure. Excessive heat will also create
thermal stresses, and the risk of cracking will increase. (Note that moderate heat increases steel strength; it is
expansion forces that are the immediate limiting factor.) Caution should be exercised when carrying high
heat products because cargo in non-insulated pipes and vents may freeze and clog the systems. Heating
arrangements must be operated in accordance with design safety precautions; for example, pressures inside
heating coils in tanks must be kept higher than the cargo pressure, and any interceptor tanks between heating
return lines and the engine room must be checked regularly to detect any contamination. For certain cargoes,
heating coils must be blanked off in accordance with IBC Code requirements. Uninsulated cargo pipes used
for high heat products pose a further safety hazard, as they may cause severe burns if touched.

Cubic expansion
Liquids will expand as temperature rises, or contract when temperature falls. Sufficient space must be
allowed in the tank to accommodate any cubic expansion expected during the voyage. A useful formula is:

Filling ratio (% full) = 100 (1 - RT) - S

Where R = coefficient of expansion per °C (from cargo data sheet)

T = expected maximum temperature rise in °C (during voyage)

S = safety margin, usually 2% of tank capacity.

Vent line systems must be checked at regular intervals. Their design capacity is based on vapor flow only;
structural damage may result if vent systems become full of cargo liquid due to thermal expansion.

Vapor density
Vapor density is expressed relative to the density of air, as heavier or lighter. It is weight of a unit volume of
gas or vapor compared to (divided by) the weight of an equal volume of air (or, sometimes, hydrogen).
Substances lighter than air (such as acetylene, methane, oxygen) are said to have vapor densities less than
1.0 and substances heavier than air (such as butane, chlorine, ethane) are said to have vapor densities higher
than 1.0..Most chemical cargo vapors are heavier than air. Caution must therefore be exercised during cargo
operations, as vapor concentrations are likely to occur at deck level or in lower parts of cargo pump rooms.

Solubility
Solubility is expressed in different ways: either as a simple yes or no, as slight, or as a percentage, but
always in relation to water. Solubility is temperature dependent. A cargo with low solubility will form a
layer above or below a water layer depending on its specific gravity.

Most non-soluble chemicals are lighter than water and will float on top but some others, such as chlorinated
solvents, are heavier and will sink to the bottom. Chemicals that are heavier than water can cause a safety
risk in pump rooms when the overlying water is disturbed, and in drip trays. Even in cargo tanks they may
be trapped under water in pump wells, and pose a danger even after the tank atmosphere is tested and found
safe for entry.

Electrostatic charging
Certain cargoes are known as static accumulators and become electrostatically charged when handled. They
can accumulate enough charge to release a spark that could ignite a flammable tank atmosphere.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a cargo determines how easy it is to pump, and the amount of residue that will be left after
unloading. Viscosity is related to temperature and, in general, a substance will become less viscous at higher
temperatures, but note that certain cargoes (such as lube oil additives) show increased viscosity when
heated. IMO standards define high and low viscosity substances and require cargo tanks that have contained
substances with a high viscosity to be pre-washed and the washings discharged to shore reception facilities.
Chemical Properties
Chemical properties of Petroleum
 Hydrocarbons are found in nature in many different forms, mainly as:
 Liquid Petroleum: known as “crude oil” to distinguish it from “refined oil”. It is most important
commercially.
 Natural Gas: which is the lighter fraction of hydrocarbons, can be free or dissolved.
 Asphalt, Tar, Pitch: these are solid or semi-solid forms of hydrocarbons, the heavy fraction.
Hydrocarbon Series
 A saturated hydrocarbon (sometime called Alkane) is one which the valence of all the carbon atoms
is satisfied by single bonds For each carbon atom is connected to each other carbon atom by a single
covalent bond e.g Parrafins.
 An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one in which the valence of some of the carbon atom is not satisfied
by single bond, so that these atoms are connected to one another with two or more covalent bonds e.g
Benzene.
 It is generally agreed that Hydrocarbons of Four different Series or Types are present in important
Quantities in Petroleum.
Parafins
 Paraffins are also called alkanes and have the general formula of CnH2n+2, where n is the number of
carbon atoms
 Paraffins from C1 to C40 usually appear in crude oil and represent up to 20% of crude by volume.
Since paraffins are fully saturated (no double bond), they are stable and remain unchanged over long
periods of geological time.
Napthenes
 Naphthenes or cycloparaffins are ring or cyclic saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula of
CnH2n.
 Thermodynamic studies show that naphthene rings with five and six carbon atoms are the most
stable naphthenic hydrocarbons. The content of cycloparaffins in petroleum may vary up to 60%.
Aromatics
 Aromatics are an important series of hydrocarbons found in almost every petroleum mixture from
any part of the world.
 This series of aromatics is called alkylbenzenes and have a general formula of CnH2n-6 (where n ?
6).
 Its example are Benzene C6H6
Asphaltenes
 They are composed of fused benzene-ring network, but they contain impurity atoms and are not true
hydrocarbons.These impurities are the high in moleculer weight compound previously referred to as
NSO compounds.
 Asphaltenes are heavy compounds of crude oil and the major components in many natural tars and
asphalts.
Chemical composition of typical Petroleum

Classification of crude oils

Crude oil may be classified by their relative enrichment in the four hydrocarbon groups or series describe
above.most normal crude oils fall within only three of these fields. They can be either.
1. Paraffinic oil: rich in paraffins.
2. Paraffinic-Nephthenic Oil: They can have nearly equal amounts of Paraffins and naphthenese which
togeather make up more than 50% of the crude.
3. Aromatic intermediate Oil: They can have subequal amount of Paraffins and nephthenes, which total
less than 50% and the composition is dominated by the aromatics and asphaltenes.

Organic Chemistry of Oil Products

Fuel Chemistry is made of a mixture of different hydrocarbons, namely alkenes, these are also sometimes
knows as branched or linear hydrocarbons.

A significant percentage of the remaining chemical compound is the made up of aromatic hydrocarbons and
cycloalkanes. Additionally it also contains several more complex hydrocarbons such as asphaltenes.

Each oil field will produce a raw fuel with a different combination of molecules depending upon the overall
percentage of each hydrocarbon it contains, this directly affects the coloration and viscosity of the petroleum
chemistry.

The below media will explain the structure of Aromatic hydrocarbons.

The primary form of hydrocarbons in the chemistry of fuel are the alkanes, which are also often named
paraffins. These are termed saturated hydrocarbons and exhibit either branched or straight molecule chains.

The paraffins are very pure hydrocarbons and contain only hydrogen and carbon; it is the alkanes which give
petroleum chemistry its combustible nature. Depending upon the type of alkanes present in the raw
petroleum chemistry it will be suitable for different applications. For fuel purposes only the alkanes from the
following groups will be used: Pentane and Octane will be refined into gasoline, hexadecane and nonane
will be refined into kerosene or diesel or used as a component in the production of jet fuel, hexadecane will
be refined into fuel oil or heating oil.

When it comes to the chemistry of petroleum which does not contain a significant quantity of the kinds of
paraffin required to produce a combustible fuel, then things become simpler, as many non-fuel applications
of petroleum are far more lenient in the chemical compound of the raw petroleum.
The exception to this are the petroleum molecules which have less than five carbon atoms, these are a form
of natural petroleum gas and will either be burned away or harvested and sold under pressure as LPG
(Liquid Petroleum Gas).

The cycloalkanes, which are also often referred to as the napthenes are classed as a saturated form of
hydrocarbon. By saturated we mean the molecule contains either one or several carbon rings with atoms of
hydrogen attached to them. These hydrocarbons display almost identical properties to paraffin but have a
much higher point of combustion.

Finally, the aromatic hydrocarbons are another form of unsaturated hydrocarbon. The specific difference
between the other hydrocarbons in the petroleum molecule is that the aromatic hydrocarbons will contain
benzene rings, with atoms of hydrogen attached to them. Aromatic hydrocarbons tend to produce far more
emissions when burnt, many will have a sweet, sickly smell to them, hence the name aromatic hydrocarbons.

The quantity and percentages of the specific types of hydrocarbons in raw fuel chemistry can be determined
by testing in a laboratory. The process involves extracting the, molecules using some form of solvent and
then separating them using gas chromatography. Finally an instrument such as a mass spectrometer will be
used to examine the separate molecules in the chemical compound of the sample.
Chemical Symbols of Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable, complex and variable mixture of hydrocarbons
plus other organic compounds in the liquid state. Petroleum contains 83- 87% carbon, 10 to 14% hydrogen,
with trace amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. The sulfur content of oil can be as high as 6%. In general,
crude oil with sulfur content in excess of 1 % is considered sour crude. Under 0.05% content of sulfur, the
crude oil is considered sweet, and less costly to refine, so it commands a higher price.
Crude oils vary dramatically in color, odor, and flow properties. There are light and heavy crude oils; they
are sweet or sour (i.e., have high or low sulfur content, with an average of 0.65%). The number of carbon
atoms In these compounds can vary from one to over a hundred. The complexity of the molecules, their
molecular weights, and their carbon numbers Increase with the bolling point.

Each fraction of distilled petroleum Is a complex mixture of chemicals, but these mixtures can be somewhat
categorized. A certain sample of straightrun gasoline (light naphtha) might contain nearly 30 aliphatic
(containing no benzene ring), noncyclic hydrocarbons; nearly 20 cycloaliphatlc hydrocarbons (mainly
cyclopentanes and cyclohexanes), sometimes called Naphthenes; and 20 aromatic compounds (such as
benzene, toluene, and xylene).
Petroleum Fractions
The PNA classes (parafflnic, naphthenic and aromatics) of petroleum fractions are common classifications
of the most common components in petroleum. Paraffins include the alkane series, naphthenes include the
cycloalkanes and aromatics include the all compounds that contain one or more ring structures similar to
benzene.
Hydrocarbons in Crude Oil
Thus, there are four main types of hydrocarbons found in crude oil.
1. paraffins (15-60%)
2. naphthenes (30-60%)
3. aromatics (3-30%)
4. asphaltics (remainder)
The hydrocarbons primarily are alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Elemental Composition of Petroleum
Although there is considerable variation between the ratios of organic molecules, the elemental composition
of petroleum is well-defined:
1. Carbon - 83 to 87%
2. Hydrogen - 10 to 14%
3. Nitrogen - 0.1 to 2%
4. Oxygen - 0.05 to 1.5%
5. Sulfur - 0.05 to 6.0%
6. Metals - < 0.1%
The most common metals are Iron, nickel, copper, and vanadium.

Chemical Symbols
Alkanes
The series have single carbon bonds with the general formula, CnH-in + 2. All alkanes after ethane have
Isomers, which have the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms, with single bonded carbon atom. The
n-butane is the normal single chain of carbons, while the I-butane has a Y arrangement, or a branched chain
molecular structure. The Isomers have identical molecular structure, but somewhat different properties.
Cycloalkanes
As the name suggests, these are similar to the alkanes, however there is one or more ring structures. The
elements of the cycloalkanes are bound by single bonds.

Aromatics
Often referred to as the benzene series, because the series has a similar cyclic structure to benzene. Benzene
ls 􀂼H6 the first compound of this series. The structure of benzene is shown in the two diagrams below. Both
show six carbon atoms connected In a hexagonal geometry. One hydrogen
Atom is linked to each carbon atom The diagram on the left is more correct, as there Is no double bond in
benzene.
The C-C bonds, were shown from X-ray diffraction to have all the same length. The electrons for the C-C
bonds are equally distributed. Thus, to show the delocalization nature of bonding, the bonds are conceptually
shown as a circle. This structure is common in organic chemistry.
The aromatics such as benzene, toluene, and xylene are important industrial chemicals, used in drugs,
solvents, plastics, synthetic rubber and dyes.
Benzene is a well known carcinogen and as such, its use in gasoline is limited.

Other non- hydrocarbon elements

Sulfur is found to some extent In all crude oils and produced gas. It may be In the form of free sulfur, H2S
and organic sulfur compounds. The lower API Gravity crude oils are more likely to contain sulfur.
Nearly all crude oils contain small Quantities of nitrogen.
Oxygen is also found In crude oils either as free oxygen or as part of a radical of a larger compound
Octane Number
One cannot talk about the chemistry of gasoline without understanding octane numbers. When gasoline is
burned in an JC engine to CO2 and H20, there is a tendency for many gasoline mixtures to burn unevenly.
Such combustion creates a "knocking" in the engine.
Certain rules have been developed for predicting the octane number of different types of gasoline, depending
on the ratio of different types of hydrocarbons in the mixtures:
1. The octane number increases as the amount of branching or the number of rings increases.
2. The octane number increases as the number of double and triple bonds increases.
Knowledge and Understanding of tanker safety culture and safety management
Introduction
What is a safety culture?
A safety culture is an organizational culture that places a high level of importance on safety beliefs, values
and attitudes-and these are shared by the majority of people within the company or workplace. It can be
characterized as 'the way we do things around here'. A positive safety culture can result in improved
workplace health and safety (WHS} and organizational performance.
Shipping is known as one of the most dangerous and international occupation in the world. The maritime
industry has witnessed catastrophic accident throughout the years such as Herald of free Enterprise, Costa
Concordia and Deep Water Horizon. Regulatory bodies developed the International Safety Management
(ISM) code in order to avoid reoccurrence of these accidents.
Following the implementation of the ISM Code, which became mandatory for all ships via the SOLAS
Convention between 1998 and 2002, there has been a significant reduction in maritime casualties, serious oil
spills, and - most importantly - the number of lives lost on board international cargo ships. However, a
number of recent high-profile incidents suggest that the absence of a fully implemented safety culture is still
an issue which some shipping companies may need to address with additional rigor.
Unfortunately, the maritime industry traditionally adopted a reactive approach to eliminate these errors
therefore none of these measures provide the desired level of safety. Only recently, the maritime industry
has started to adopt proactive approaches by developing an appropriate safety culture.
There is a vital need for all concerned to understand the relationship between unsafe acts and serious
incidents that may cause loss of life or serious damage to property and the environment. The importance of
changing behaviour and avoiding negative attitudes or complacency towards safety and environmental
protection is also underlined.
Accident investigation reports attribute the majority of marine accidents to human errors and extensive
organizational checklists and regulator paperwork. None of these efforts provide the desired safety level.
Currently, the maritime industry is starting to implement proactive approaches and has tried to avoid
reoccurrences by implementing an appropriate safety culture. One unique way to internalize the concept of
Safety culture is to define it as, how an organization behaves when no one is watching". The safety culture
approach describes humans as a means for improving safety rather than someone to blame for failure. A
positive safety culture with commitment from all levels in the company can achieve the required safety
levels in the maritime industry.
Safety culture is a concept defined at group or higher level and reflects on the shared values among all the
shipboard, shore side, and organization members.
• Safety culture is concerned with formal safety issues within an organization.
• Safety culture emphasizes the contribution from everyone at all levels of the organization.
• The safety culture of an organization has an impact on its employees' behaviour at work and potentially
away from work.
• Safety culture may be reflected by the relationship between the reward system and safety performance.
• Safety culture is reflected in the organization's willingness to develop and learn from errors, incidents, and
accidents.
• Safety culture embraces communication and teamwork.
Safety Culture comprise of 5 significant levels
• Pathological: Employees only react to the safety matters not to get caught by regulatory compliance.
• Reactive: Employees do not follow the basic safety instructions. The importance of safety is understood
only after a serious accident.
• Calculative: There is an effort within the company to collect the safety associated data and arrange regular
audits. Employees have more
Understanding about 􀂩how the system works", but the data are not analysed to enhance safety.
• Proactive: This stage focus more on 􀄻what might go wrong in the future" instead of analysing occurrence
data. The interaction between employers and employees increases.
• Generative: This is the most advanced stage a company can have. The company uses human errors to
improve safety rather than apportion blame. There is a really good feedback and reporting system between
all workers within the company. The company is always prepared for the unexpected.

FIRST, you need to have the know-how for the job. If you don't know what you are doing, don't know your
limits, then you are putting yourself and others at risk. You're the hazard. So you need to be honest about
what you know you can do safely. Keep your skills up to date. Make sure you have the know-how for the
job.
SECOND, you've got to co-operate with the people working alongside you. Be open, share your knowledge
and experience, if something doesn't look safe, then say so. Be willing to listen. If a colleague has something
to say to you about safety, then learn from them. That is called cooperation.
THIRD, you've got to remember, you always have a choice. Every day you can choose, to cut corners, to
take risks, or you can chose to think safe. You can think about the hazards. Think about what you have to
lose, and then you can choose to do the right thing, the safe thing. So, it is your choice.
• Your know-how
• Your cooperation
• Your choice
That is what we mean about a personal responsibility for safety. It starts with us, but it ends with you!
The Role of Safety Culture in Preventing 'Accidents'
The above illustrative model can be used to show the concept of causal factors combining to lead to an
accident. The model uses the concept of 'swiss cheese slices' to represent barriers, physical and procedural,
that are placed by the company to prevent accidents.
At the risk of stating the obvious, the underlying purpose of a Safety Management System (SMS) that
embraces an effective safety culture is to prevent 'accidents'. Accidents and unintended pollution incidents
do not just happen - they are caused, usually by more than one factor coming together at a particular place
and time. Change any one of these factors, even slightly, and the accident would probably not occur. Instead
one would experience what is termed a 'hazardous occurrence' or a 'near miss' - in other words a 'near
accident.
The introduction of the ISM Code in the 1990s was an attempt by governments to create a culture of self-
regulation of safety and pollution prevention, in which the application of a safety culture goes beyond
unthinking compliance with externally imposed rules. The ISM Code places particular emphasis on internal
management of safety, and requires companies and their personnel to establish targets for performance.
Culture of compliance
A development through the 2oth Century which involved the regulation of safety by prescription, where the
industry was given sets of rules and regulations to follow. For example, the provisions of the SOLAS,
MARPOL and STCW Conventions, together with the Collision Regulations, Load Line Convention and
various specialist IMO Codes, provide the basis of the external regulatory framework for international
shipping. This stage was an advance because it was designed to attack known points of danger before actual
harm occurred. This has led to the modern culture of compliance with external rules. However, a number of
serious maritime accidents during the 1980s confirmed that compliance with regulation was not always
enough to achieve safety and pollution prevention. Although still of utmost importance, adherence to
external rules is no longer seen as an end in itself.
Culture of self-regulation
The adoption by IMO of the ISM Code, and its mandatory enforcement by flag states, represented a most
important step towards the creation of a new culture of self-regulation in shipping, albeit imposed through a
mandatory regime. Self-regulation alone is not, however, wholly effective. In order to achieve safer seas and
environmental protection it is necessary for all three approaches to regulation to coexist. Each stage of
regulatory development still plays a significant part in influencing company and individual behavior.
A safety culture will also help to eradicate any tendency towards behavioral complacency, when the need to
adhere strictly to safety and pollution prevention procedures can be overlooked, either on shore or at sea,
because of the misconception that if a particular type of accident has never previously happened it may
never occur. Analysis of serious accidents in shipping has demonstrated that the personnel involved are
usually highly trained, competent and experienced, and that the underlying cause of the accident, which
could have been prevented, was a failure to follow established procedures.
The key to maintaining a safety culture is for all concerned to recognize that it is a matter of enlightened self
interest. The crew will be less likely to be the victims of accidents, and the company can use safety culture
as a means of maximizing the financial benefit and cost savings that may be derived from implementing
effective Safety Management Systems.
It is important that companies recognize that investment in safety produces financial savings and is thus not
a 'cost'. It is a fact that the improvement of safety saves lives as well as money.
Commitment from the Top
As identified by the ISM Code, commitment from the highest level of the company is vital to ensure that
personnel will act safely at all times. Without commitment from senior management the efforts of everyone
else in support of the Safety Management System will be wasted. To develop the commitment of senior
management it is essential that they completely understand the full cost of accidents in human,
environmental and financial terms.
It may sometimes be questioned why safety should be the first priority when compensation for accidents and
pollution is often met by insurance, and many safety measures appear at first sight to be expensive to
implement. However, it is important for senior managers and sea staff to appreciate that: Insurance seldom
covers all losses and becomes more expensive following accidents;
• Criminal penalties for negligence can be considerable;
• During repair periods, vessels are not earning;
• Accidents and pollution fines damage a company's reputation with charterers, shareholders and
personnel, including those at sea;
• Accidents lead to increased scrutiny by flag administrations and port state control inspectors; and
• Accidents and prosecutions adversely affect the public's perception of the company and of the
industry as a whole.
To reiterate, commitment from the top to the fostering of an effective safety culture is a matter of
enlightened self interest. Apart from the tragic human costs of death or serious injury, it is estimated that the
indirect financial costs of accidents for a company are generally about three times those of insurance claims
involving personnel, cargo damage or pollution.

Key Features and Measurement of an Effective Safety Culture

1 Recognition that all accidents are preventable and only usually occur following unsafe actions or a failure
to follow established procedures
2 Management and personnel who think constantly about safety
An effective safety culture will support a shipboard environment that encourages and requires all on board to
proact1vely consider their own and others' safety In this way md1v1dual seafarers assume respons1b11ity
for safety rather than relying on others to provide 1t Through mutual respect, increasing confidence in the
value of the safety culture results in a more effective Safety Management System.
3. Always setting targets for continuous improvement, with a goal of zero accidents and ISM Code non-
conformities.
There are perhaps three key components to developing an effective safety culture:
• Commitment from the top;
• Measuring current performance and behaviour; and
• Modifying behavior.
Measuring Current Performance and Behavior
In order to achieve an effective safety culture it is essential to have the means to monitor the company's
current performance in order to identify ways in which safety can be improved. While the SMS required by
the ISM Code provides such a mechanism, a readily comprehensible means of monitoring the effectiveness
of particular safety regimes and policies is the Lost Time Incident (LTI) rate, which is commonly used
across many industries to measure personnel injuries
A Lost Time Incident is an incident which results in absence from work beyond the date or shift when it
occurred. The LTI rate is usually calculated as the number of LTls that occur during one million working
hours, although sometimes different multiples are used.
Following the introduction of the ISM Code, research by P&l Clubs has demonstrated that if the number of
personnel accidents is reduced then the number of other accidents, such as those involving damage to
property or the environment will also be reduced. The goal of a company should therefore be to reduce the
LTI rate to zero. Companies regarded as being at the cutting edge of safety culture seek to achieve negligible
LTI rates.
The most common forms of LTIs are 'slips, trips and falls'. By adopting a culture that will prevent these and
other minor injuries from occurring, lives will ultimately will saved.
More strikingly, research has also shown that for approximately every 330 unsafe acts or non-conformities,
30 are likely to result in minor injury. Of these 30 injuries one is statistically likely to be an LTI. Thus the
prevention of 330 unsafe acts is likely to prevent a significant injury. Statistics also suggest that the
prevention of 30 LTIs is likely to result with the saving of a life!

Also known as the Lost Time Accident (LTA) or Lost Time Injury (LTI).
Companies will also need to ensure compliance with the ILO Maritime Labour Convention, including its
requirements on health and safety protection and accident prevention (Title 4, Reg 4.3). Companies should
also take account of the ILO Code of Practice on Accident Prevention on Board Ships at Sea and in Port' and
other national guidance on preventing occupational injuries. The ISF Guidelines on the Application of the
ILO Maritime Labour Convention provides comprehensive advice.
There are a number of performance monitoring techniques that measure different accident data, or which are
derived from statutory reporting requirements within national legislation. It is most important that
companies employ some means of monitoring their safety performance over time.
Many companies find it useful to compare their safety records with those of other similar companies or
industries. Members of the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF), and the Informal Tanker
Operators' Safety Forum (ITOSF), for example, compare their safety statistics, as do members of the
International Support Vessel Owners' Association (ISOA). It is recognized that conditions existing in
different trades cannot be readily compared, but it can be productive to establish informal arrangements with
other companies operating in broadly similar circumstances to exchange information and experience.
Modifying Behavior
A key aim of a safety culture should be to modify the behavior, where required, of company personnel so
that they 'believe in safety, think safety and are committed to safety'.
Developing an effective safety culture based on the concept of continuous improvement, personal
commitment and responsibility by all, is a long term process and involves much hard work and effort.
Experience gained through the proper implementation of an SMS should result in changes in behavior, but
other measures may also be required. Some companies may wish to conduct 'behavioural assessment'
programs, using outside consultants to oversee changes to the company's safety culture.
Reporting Accidents, Near Misses and Non-conformities
When a major incident occur it is common for considerable time, effort and money to be spent establishing
what happened. Following the investigation, when the causal factors are known, it is often discovered that
these were apparent and visible long before the incident occurred.
Reporting such events at an early stage, followed by appropriate remedial action, can prevent accidents that
lead to pollution, damage, injury or loss of life.
With the objective of improving safety and pollution prevention, the ISM Code requires the company to
ensure that the SMS includes procedures to investigate and analyze 'non-conformity, accidents and
hazardous situations'.
The need to record accident data is universally accepted. However, it is also important for the company and
personnel to recognize the importance and value of reporting non-conformity and hazardous occurrences, so
called 'near misses'. In particular, it is important to ensure that all personnel, both ashore and at sea,
understand that when a non-conformity or near miss is reported that the intention is not to find someone to
blame or punish.
Rather, the identification of non-conformity or 'near misses' provides an opportunity to investigate why they
occurred, since the causal factors underlying 'near misses' are fundamentally the same as those which lead to
accidents resulting with injury, loss of life, or pollution.
By having an understanding of why incidents have occurred, sometimes gained by interviewing those
involved, it is possible to introduce corrective action. Once a corrective action has been taken, the chances of
an actual accident, resulting in injury, damage or pollution, will be greatly reduced.
Every effort should therefore be made to modify behavior by reassuring those who fear that reporting
incidents could have negative consequences.
IMO Guidance on Near Miss Reporting
A near miss is defined by IMO as a sequence of events and/ or conditions that could have resulted in loss.
This loss was prevented by a fortuitous break in the causal chain of events and/or conditions". IMO
Guidance provides examples of near miss incidents and notes that barriers may be created against near miss
reporting, particularly where a blame culture exists. Ship and shore staff should be encouraged to study the
IMO Guidance in detail.
It includes the following general advice on near miss reporting:
• The ultimate objective of near miss reporting, and investigating is to identify areas of concern and
implement appropriate corrective actions to avoid future losses. To do so requires that reports are generated,
shared, read, and acted upon. Companies are encouraged to consider whether their reports should be
disseminated to a wider audience;
• It may take years for safety trends to be discerned, and so reporting should be archived and revisited
on a timely basis. Near miss reports should be considered along with actual casualty or incident reports to
determine trends.
• There should be consistency in the identification and terms used to describe causal factors across
near miss and casualty/incident reports.
The 'Just Culture ‘Approach
The IMO Guidance referred to above also addresses the question of 'blame culture' by recommending that
the industry should instead develop a 'just culture ‘approach.
A 'just culture' features an atmosphere of responsible behavior and trust whereby people are encouraged to
provide essential safety related information without fear of punishment. However, this is qualified by
recognizing that a distinction must be drawn between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Unacceptable
behavior cannot be ignored, and individuals must still face consequences if they engage in it.
Within the context of a 'just culture' it is essential that the company clearly defines the circumstances under
which they will guarantee a nondisciplinary outcome and confidentiality. It is important that companies
provide training and information about their approach to adopting a 'just culture' for sea staff, as well as for
shore management and superintendents.
Assessment of Safety Culture
Recent research finding in Europe identified that communication, fatigue, language skills and intercultural
cooperation have a crucial impact on shipping safety at an individual level The study indicated that seafarers
need proper training to understand other cultures and learn how to communicate with them effectively to
enhance the maritime safety.
In another study, which was performed by Havold (2005), results demonstrated that management attitude to
safety, safety behavior, knowledge, attitudes towards safety rules/instructions and employee satisfaction
were the most crucial factors in the 10 factors.
Table 1. Overall scores of shore staff and crew members. Scores for shore staff(%) /Scores for crew
members (%)
1. Communication 82.56 /75.7
2. Employer-Employee Trust 85.1/ 76.8
3. Feedback 84.5/ 77.3
4. Involvement 81.7 /79.5
5. Mutual Trust 77.8/ 74
6. Problem Identification 77.2/ 76.6
7. Promotion of Safety 76.6 /71.7
8. Responsiveness 74/ 71.5
9. Safety Awareness 78.7/ 77.1
10. Training and Competence 82.9/ 78.2
Av. score 80.11/ 75.84
The detail of the 10 attributes are explained herewith for your further exploration􀀇 1:
The aim of the safety culture assessment and improvement framework is to identify the safety related
problems of any shipping company, address the vulnerabilities and develop improvement strategies to
enhance the maritime safety. After a detailed review of assessment tools in the maritime industry, ABS's
safety culture assessment methodology was used to assess a companies' safety culture.
An overview of the assessment methodology can be seen in Figure below.

The research
found that
there is a
requirement
for
continuous

consideration, effort and action to enhance the safety culture in a shipping company. The safety culture
assessment framework requires commitment from all of the bodies in a shipping company for successful
implementation.
The study concluded that the Crew members, needed further efforts and hard work in order to enhance their
safety culture. Crew member overall scores was lower than for the shore staff. Insufficient training,
communication issues due to multicultural crews onboard, the inadequate manning levels on the ships as
well as the unsatisfactory provision of time of rest to the employees are detected as the main weaknesses.
Significant efforts are made to eliminate these errors in the maritime industry, but after each catastrophic
accident, the maritime industry adopts a reactive approach which results in new regulations and an
excessive.
Importance of Measurement
Some measurement techniques focus on attitudes, values and opinions, where others focus on behavior and
work activities. The goal of a positive safety culture is the fostering of professional behavior in routine and
emergency situations, but assessing behavior is not straightforward because:
• People have a tendency to change their behavior when they know they are being watched
• Apparent routine behavior may not be sustained in an emergency, or stressful situations
• Behavior assessment can be very time-consuming
• Behavioral assessment requires corroboration by assessments of attitudes and values.
Attitudes, values and should be drawn out as they are central to most definitions of safety culture. If direct
observation of behavior is excluded, then it should be included indirectly by asking employees about their
perceptions of their own and coworker's behavior. There may be a reluctance to comment on others behavior
unless anonymity is guaranteed.
To identify if and where perceptions differ at various levels within an organization, it may be important to
conduct a safety culture survey at various levels of the organization's operations. Usually, the higher an
individual is on the organization chart, the more optimistic he or she will be about the company's program.
Upper management generally understands the program's intent and is cognizant of its cost and 'feel' that it
must be working. Higher ranking crew members may tend to have a more practical view and provide more
critical feedback on actual implementation of any safety recommendations. This feedback may be also based
on maritime experience, corporate memory, and cultural influences. Lower ranking crew members may be
most apt to respond to 􀁃what really happens on board", however these responses may be influenced by the
lack of maritime experience where their judgment is based on their previous employers or different cultural
norms/expectations.
The results of the safety culture assessment should be used in the organization's continuous improvement
program. There are three primary reasons for this:
1. The personnel who shared their views and contributed to the safety culture assessment will feel a certain
amount of ownership of the project and will expect improvements based on their efforts and activities. If no
changes are attempted, they could feel that their input and effort have been disregarded. This could
negatively affect safety culture.
2. The analysis is likely to uncover areas for improvement that require addressing for a lasting improvement
in safety.
3. The analysis is likely to uncover areas of organizational strength that require action to ensure these
strengths are sustained

SMS and the Safety Culture

The goals of the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, and the goals of Safety Management
Systems (SMS) are the attainment of peak safety performance (i.e. no operational incidents, no personal
injuries, and no harm to the environment). The maritime industry is still some way from achieving this goal
since these codes and practices no doubt help in bringing down the losses and casualties, they do not
necessarily transition into a mature safety culture where everyone does what he/she is supposed to do even
when no one is looking, so to say.
There is a general recognition in the industry that more rules, regulations, and procedures are unlikely to
improve safety performance. Instead, the industry needs a better understanding of the social and
organizational factors that foster professionalism in the seafarer in routine and emergency situations. The
impact of safety culture on the outcome of safety performance is well documented and notes that operational
incidents are not a result of human error, technical failures, or environmental factors alone, but a
combination of those and other causes such as failure of management, employees not performing their
duties, and a breakdown in documented systems.
A mature safety culture ensures that the working environment cultivates safe attitudes and behaviors
benefiting safety performance. There should be a close relationship between an organization's safety culture
and a Safety Management System (SMS). An effective SMS has to take account of all factors that have an
impact on safety including the human and organizational factors; and conversely, the safety culture
influences the way in which the SMS is implemented. Consequently, the assessment of safety culture and
the SMS should be complementary.
Development of Positive Safety Culture
Safety Culture Development at Maersk Line Limited (MLL)
Maersk experience shows a direct correlation between safety and operational performance. Safety standards
mitigate risk, thereby safeguarding operational performance.
To maintain a safe and hazard-free environment at sea, MLL tracks LTAs, grades their severity, and
institutes behavior-based safety techniques. Several of MLL ships have gone over 1,000 days LTA-free.
MLL attains the highest level of safety onboard the vessels through implementation of innovative safety
programs. At its own expense, MLL conducts quarterly Safety Boot Camps for officers and unlicensed
mariners to build and improve the culture of safety across the fleet on a continuous basis.
Each of MLL's vessels has safety management and environmental protection procedures that dictate required
drills, tests, inspections, and critical systems maintenance. These procedures provide checklists, which must
be completed and retained for safety and environmentally sensitive activities such as entering and leaving
port, confined space entry, working aloft, working over side and electrical system tag-out.
A Safety Competency Framework, a process borrowed from the Australian Construction industry,
identified nine broad behaviors, or culture actions, that are considered essential to the development of a
positive safety culture. These are listed below.
1. Communicate company values
2. Demonstrate leadership
3. Clarify required and expected behavior
4. Personalize safety outcomes
5. Develop positive safety attitudes
6. Engage and own safety responsibilities and accountabilities
7. Increase hazard/risk awareness and preventive behaviors
8. Improve understanding and effective implementation of safety management systems
9. Monitor, review and reflect on personal effectiveness.
he detail of the Culture actions to inculcate a positive safety cu/ture.G.l.kk...ru!re]:
Conclusion
There is no one method to develop and maintain a supportive safety culture. The shipping companies must
know and accept their existing company culture ( this is the biggest hurdle and often an external consultant
will be necessary who could give them an unbiased feedback on that. That is a good start. Often times, the
fault lies with the shore-based management staff that includes the CEO, CFO, Fleet managers and the Ship
managers at all company departments. It will be important for the CEO to be genuinely interested in finding
where he is with his people and how company-wide communication is at play. How much are the power
distances that stratifies people and their behavior; is there a companywide ethos about implementation of
safety practices across the fleet? An honest understanding of that will be key to slowly stich the gaps and
celebrate the gradual development of a genuine safety culture across the company; for a shipping company,
it tends to be easier with the prescribed safety regimes that must be followed. Thus, what to do is clear: why
it is not being done as always, will be the question to ask. The answer comes from patient collection of
safety data, accidents and near misses and then identifying the root causes behind people behavior that leads
to safety violation and improper operational practices. The cause could be incompetence, lack of
communication, cultural and language barriers, power distances, fatigue and lack of rest, complacency and
deliberate non-adherence of safe practices, and so on. The central challenge is how to change people
behavior at the work place, irrespective of all the individual differences that must exist amongst people. It is
to do with meticulous implementation of the SOP no doubt, but more importantly it is the nurturing of a no-
fear attitude amongst people where crew will admit to making mistakes without losing face or, being
reprimanded. It is to do with inculcation of mutual respect between people irrespective of their ranks- easily
said, than done! It is thus important to have punitive as well as regulatory measures to work side-by-side: it
is a necessary evil, until the self- sustaining “just culture” emerges from all the good efforts and
consciousness that we observe across our industry today.
Hazards
Specific Learning Objectives
After going through this topic, student should be able to,
• Describe various types of hazards that may occur while carrying dangerous liquid on tank ships
• Describe the effect of those hazards on health, environment and personal safety
Introduction
Tanker operation creates different types of hazards namely, health hazards, environmental hazard, reactivity
hazards, flammability hazards, electrostatic hazards, toxicity hazards and so on. Major number of these are
extremely dangerous for human health and the rest can damage and destroy the vessel itself and some cause
long term environmental damage when spilled or leaked. It is important to identify the nature of such
hazards so that we can think of preventative measures to combat them. We should learn all the prevention
and control measures in the next topic, but here, you must identify all the possible situations on board that
can compromise your personal well-being and that of the ship as well as the environment.
Health hazards
Nitrogen Asphyxiation Some chemical cargoes release nitrogen, an inert gas which is non-flammable,
nontoxic and colourless As nitrogen is an inert gas it could lead to death, if inhaled (because of lack of
oxygen) One must note that 1t 1s undetectable to the human senses
Be constantly vigilant during operations involving Nitrogen.
Toxic and poisonous - is the property of a substance to harm you when it enters your body, at times it could
be fatal (can kill). Chemical cargo vapours can enter your body - through inhalation; by skin contact and by;
swallowing the liquid.
Use proper personal protective equipment to protect yourself.
Chemical tankers also carry 'i.e. and the hazards associated with these cargoes are as follows:
• Burns - as these cargoes are carried at high temperatures
• Slips and falls caused by escaping oil from pipelines
• Asphyxiation & toxic poisoning, as these cargoes have a tendency to oxidise, therefore tank
atmospheres may be oxygen deficient as during oxidation, oxygen is absorbed; and if they decompose, these
oils release gases like methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide that are toxic
• Carbon monoxide (CO) could be produced when these cargoes are heated, CO is a colourless and
odourless toxic gas
• Take enclosed space entry precautions when going into a vegetable oil tank
Precautions to be taken with Vegetable oils are as below:
 Follow enclosed space entry procedures when entering tanks containing remains of these cargoes
Tank coatings carrying these cargoes must be of the non-absorbent type Corrosive liquids
 Health - when contacted, destroys human tissues - accompanied by severe pain or in lesser cases
only an irritation.
Hazards of oil cargoes
the hazards of chemical cargoes are

• Exposure to human health (ship’s crew)

• Contact to skin, eye and inhalation
• Threshold limit value (TLV) being low

Environmental hazards
Marine pollution is a major hazard of oil cargoes and is a cause of growing international concern. The
various causes of marine pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing material,
garbage, sewage and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. The MARPOL Convention is
the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships.
Oil pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious offence around the
world. Nowadays, the ship-owners are heavily penalized and punitive action is taken against the Master,
crew member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every individual on board should ensure that the
ship complies with the pollution regulations at all times. It is the responsibility of every watch keeper to
ensure that adequate precautions are taken to avoid pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution,
maintain pollution prevention equipment, report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain proper
records, as required by the regulations.
• Damage to marine environment and living resources
• Sea water pollution
• Damage to other ships
Reactivity Hazards
Some cargoes could be self-reactive; react with air; react with other cargoes or with water. When they react
it could cause a chemical reaction that could lead to any of the following:
• Generation of heat
• Produce a rise in pressure because of expansion
• Release dangerous vapours
• Increase the danger of fire or explosion
• Causes polymerization (solidification)
• Can affect the quality of cargo
The possibility of cargo reaction is removed by
• Separation and segregation of cargo tanks and systems
• For self-reactive cargoes, separation from adjacent heated cargo and the adjacent of a chemical
inhibitor to the cargo make it more stable and safe
• Inerting the cargo space with nitrogen to prevent cargo coming into contact of air
• Avoid the use of metals, or other materials, in the cargo system that the cargo may react with
• By carrying water reactive cargoes, in type 1 and type 2 ships to ensure complete segregation from
the ship side plating
• By blanking off steam heating coils in tanks carrying water reactive cargoes
• By avoiding drip tray contamination/mixing
Reactive cargoes are carried in stainless steel or coated tanks, provided the cargo does not react with the
tank material. When reactive cargoes can react with moisture in the air the tanks receiving them must be
super dry, which is achieved by using air or nitrogen with a very low dew point.
Chemical reaction
• Reaction with air (air pollution)
• Reaction with hold coating
• Reaction may produce heat that may accelerate the reaction
• May cause formation of flammable or harmful vapours
• Self-reaction (e.g. polymerisation) may be promoted by contact with other chemicals, air or certain
types of metals
• Reaction with another chemical upon mixing. Reaction with water.
Corrosion hazards
Hazards associated with the carriage of chemical cargoes, and methods of controlling these hazards
Corrosive - would mean that they can destroy human tissue that could be permanent, they can corrode tank
construction materials, and they could become flammable when in contact with other materials.
One must wear personal protective equipment; if you are splashed with corrosive liquid, remove your
clothes and wash with plenty of water. Report all accidents to the duty officer.
Corrosive liquids
• Corrosivity - corrode most of the material used for construction. Tanks to be constructed with
compatible material. Fire - during corrosion hydrogen may be produced, which forms flammable mixture
with air
• Health - when contacted, destroys human tissues - accompanied by severe pain or in lesser cases
only an irritation.
Explosion hazards
011 cargo 1s highly flammable and toxic It 1s not the hqu1d which 1s susceptible to 1grnt1on but the vapour
given off by the hqu1d 1s inflammable
For this vapour to ignite and burn as a visible flame, it needs to mix with the right proportions of air.
The vapour cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This limitation is
expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper and lower flammable
limits. When the temperature of a liquid reaches the lower flammable limit, it is known as the flash point of
the liquid.
LEL, LFL, UEL
Lower explosive limit (LEL): It is the lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapour in air capable
of producing a flash of fire in the presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat). The term is considered by
many safety professionals to be the same as the lower flammable limit (LFL).
The LFL usually expressed in volume percent is the lower end of the concentration range over which a
flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure.
The maximum concentration of a gas or vapour that will burn in air is defined as the Upper Explosive Limit
(UEL). Above this level, the mixture is too 'rich' to burn. The range between the LEL and UEL is known as
the flammable range for that gas or vapour.
Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimize the chances of an accident. Such procedures
include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for conducting hot work, the
operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes
in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and pump rooms, etc.
Oil tankers calling at ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange information with
the terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes doubts and ambiguity. The tanker
should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly, the terminal should know the condition of the
ship's tanks, the ship's draft and trim before and after the operations, the ship's manifold details, the location
of fire wires (emergency towing off wires), etc.
Chemical fire hazards
• Flammable hazards (flammable cargo and combustible cargo)
• Combustion product of chemical cargo
• Behaviour in fire
• Electrical fire
Some chemical cargoes are flammable, observe no smoking and other precautions to prevent the ignition of
cargo vapour.
Fire&. Explosion in unprotected cargo tanks of oil tanker can have wide variety of causes-
• One specific instances is the use of high capacity tank washing machines and consequential of high
levels of static electricity.
• Spillage due to cargo handling with ignition possibilities.
• Vapours from lifting or leaking cargo tank relief valves with ignition from lighting discharge.
• Empty tank gases ignited during cleaning or collision resulting an explosion and rupture on the main
deck.
• Very rich vapour expelled from tank opening during last stage of loading which after dilution may be
ignited by accommodation ignition sources or the like.
• Auto-ignition - the vapour from flammable liquids (including oil fuel and lubricating oil) may ignite
if the liquid comes into contact with a surface heated above the auto-ignition temperature (e.g., steamlines,
overheated equipment) despite the absence of external flame or sparks.
General precautions
 Before any power tool is used, and before any hot work, hammering, chipping etc., the area to be
treated and satisfy himself that such work can be safely under taken. To ensure that:
1. The area is free of flammable vapour (less than 1%LFL),
2. No flammable vapour can be introduced to the common vent pipes,
3. Adequate fire extinguishers are readily available.
• Non sparking hand tools to be used. Portable electrical equipment should not be used inside cargo
tanks, cargo pump or adjacent spaces unless:
a) The compartment also the adjacent compartment is free of flammable vapour, b) all other
compartments that are not free of flammable vapour are closed.
• Matches & lighters - personnel should not carry matches or, more particularly lighters.
• Communication equipments should not be used unless certified safe. Main radio transmitter should
not be used during cargo operation.
• Aluminium equipment should not be dragged or rubbed across the steel since it is possible to cause
an incendive spark.
• The equipment circuit and extension cable are intrinsically safe.
• Air driven lamps of an approved type may be used in non-gas free atmosphere, although to avoid the
accumulation of static electricity on the lamp it should be either earthed or hose should have a resistance low
enough to allow static dissipation.
• Only approved safety torches or hand lamps should be used.
• Pipe lines and equipments may still contain cargo even though the tanks have been declared gas free,
and hot work on should not be permitted until they are found safe.
• To avoid auto ignition immediate steps should be taken to remove any leakage which may result in
the liquid coming in contact with hot surfaces. Care should also be taken to avoid rags or other materials
soaked in oil or chemical from coming in contact with hot surfaces, and lagging should not become saturated
with oil. For this reason, cotton waste, canvas bedding or similar absorbent materials in bulk, bales or
bundles should be not be left lying on jetty, on deck on or around pipe lines etc., and should not be stowed
near oil, paint etc.
• Smoking - Smoking should be permitted only under controlled conditions at times and in places
specified by master.
Fire and Explosion Details
The vapour given off by a flammable liquid will burn when ignited provided it is mixed with air in the
correct proportion.
• The proportions expressed as a percentage of flammable vapour in air are known as the Lower
Flammable (Explosive) Limit (LFL or LEL) and
• Upper Flammable (Explosive) Limit (UFL or UEL).
The data sheet for individual cargoes will give the limits.
Concentrations below LEL (too-lean) or above UEL (too-rich) are incapable of burning. Combustion of
vapour and air mixture may result in expansion of gases, which if constricted in an enclosed space may raise
pressure rapidly to the point of explosive rupture. Also, it must be borne in mind that the proportion of a
mixture is not necessarily even in an entire cargo tank, as a gas does not distribute equally in the tank.
The cargo must be at or above a temperature high enough for it to give sufficient vapour for ignition. This
temperature is known as Flash Point. With increase in temperature, the vapour pressure and vapour
concentration above the liquid increases.
The more readily the liquid vapourizes, the lower the temperature at which the LEL is reached. Some
cargoes form flammable mixture at all ambient temperatures, others only at higher ambient temperatures and
others only when heated.
For the purposes of the safe handling procedures dealt with in this guide, the flammability characteristics of
cargoes are divided into three broad categories according to the flash point: -
 Flammable cargoes those with a flash point below 60
 Combustible cargoes - those with a flash point above 60
Non-Combustible cargoes - those which have no flash point and do not burn. The above description of
flammability considers cargo vapour mixed with air.
When inert gas is introduced into a cargo tank's vapour space, it will exclude oxygen. This ensures that the
mixture is no longer capable of supporting the combustion of chemical vapour. However, It must be noted
that an inerted mixture may become flammable on mixing with air, for instance, on venting the mixture to
atmosphere or during gas freeing with air.
Rules and Regulations
As per SOLAS For Ships carrying chemicals or oils in bulk, it require a fixed deck foam system for
extinguishing fires on deck or in tanks. In principal, the systems required are identical. however, for
chemical tankers, IMO type 2 and 3, the foam system is considerably larger than for crude oil tankers, due to
the higher risk of fire in chemicals.
If the cargo is not compatible for foam then other arrangements are made to the satisfaction of
administration. Regular protein foams should not be used.
The arrangements for providing foam should be capable of delivering foam to the entire cargo tanks deck
area as well as into any cargo tank, the deck of which is assumed to be ruptured.
The deck foam system should be capable of simple and rapid operation.
The main control station for the system should be suitably located outside of the cargo area, adjacent to the
accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the event of fires in the areas protected.
Flammability Hazards
Fire hazards and prevention
Fire hazard, defined by flash point, boiling point, flammability limits and auto ignition temperature of the
chemical.
Many chemicals are flammable and potentially explosive. Additionally, many of them are corrosive and
toxic. Vapors from cargo may be very toxic as well as flammable.
The vapours from some cargo reacts strongly with oxygen so that there is violent combustion. Fires in a few
chemicals are almost impossible to extinguish and there are restrictions on the type of firefighting medium
that may be used.
Some cargoes, which are toxic substances, absorbed through the skin or by ingestion (swallowing). To give
oxygen to someone who has breathed in such fumes would produce unpleasant results.
The effects and remedies are so diverse that Reference Books are necessary and available, these containing
data on the different hazards and methods of combating them.
Liquid residues in tanks and pump rooms must be considered as potentially dangerous. They may not be
easily identifiable (many corrosive liquids have nothing to distinguish them from water) and the content can
only be guessed at from knowledge of previous cargo. Such liquid may be corrosive, or a poison which can
be absorbed through the skin. If volatile, the vapor may be toxic or flammable.
Pump room in chemical tankers are very dangerous because of the risk of leakage from pump glands, of
toxic / flammable vapor and corrosive or otherwise harmful liquids. To make them suitable for chemical
pumping there will be a different gland arrangements and shaft bearings of Teflon.

Sources of ignition
• The risk of fire and explosion is very high in a tanker ship. The necessary precautions are to be taken
to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being present in the same place at the same time.
• In the case of cargo compartments, pump rooms, and at times the tank deck, flammable gases are to
be expected and the strict elimination of all possible sources of ignition in these locations is essential.
• Cabins, galleys and other areas within the accommodation block inevitably contain ignition sources
such as electrical equipment, matches and cigarette lighters. While it is sound practice to minimise and
control such sources of ignition, it is essential to avoid the entry of flammable gas.
• In engine and boiler rooms, ignition sources such as those arising from boiler operations and
electrical equipment cannot be avoided. It is therefore essential to prevent the entry of flammable gases into
such compartments. The contamination of bunker fuel by volatile cargo through bulkhead leaks, pipeline
mixture or any other cause will introduce an additional danger.
• The routine checking of bunker spaces for flammability by tanker and terminal personnel is therefore
to be encouraged.
• It is possible, by good design and operational practice, for both flammable gases and ignition sources
to be safely controlled in deck workshops, store rooms, forecastle, centre castle, dry cargo holds etc. The
means for such control must, however, be rigorously maintained. In this connection it should be realized that
an additional danger would be introduced into such areas by the contamination of bunker tanks with volatile
cargo.
Although the installation and the correct operation of an inert gas system provides an added measure of
safety.
Precautions must be taken to eliminate potential sources of ignition.
They are as follows:
Smoking is prohibited by Company's regulation outside the smoking spaces designated by Master.
No portable electrical non-intrinsically safe equipment should be used within cargoes areas or
compartments. These include but are not limited to mobile phones, radios, radio pagers, calculators,
photographic equipment, torches etc. The adjacent compartments must also be gas-free, inerted or filled with
water or a safe liquid.
Illumination shall be obtained only from explosion proof lamps.
All communication equipment or equipments used on deck shall be intrinsically safe.
Precautions for tank washing and gas freeing equipment shall be complied with.
Work Permits shall be issued as per company requirements
Dangerous cargo stains may cause gas to evaporate, which may lead to other hazards such as fire, explosion,
or poisonous vapor.
Suitable portable fire-extinguishing equipment for the products to be carried should be provided and kept in
good operating order.
Cargo pump-rooms
The cargo pump-room is provided with a fixed fire extinguishing system carbon dioxide system as specified
in regulation of SOLAS.
The system is only to be used for fire extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the electrostatic
ignition hazard.
The alarms as per SOLAS amendments should be safe for use in a flammable cargo vapor-air mixture.
The usage and fire fighting in cargo pump room is similar to tanker.

Electrostatic Hazards
Introduction to Charges of Electricity
All matters in universe are made up of atom. An Atom has a nucleus which constitutes of proton and
neutron. Further they have surrounding shell which is made up of electron. Basically the protons are positive
charged, and electrons are negative charged, and neutrons are neutral.
An atom is said to be neutral if the number of protons and electrons are equal. If the number of protons and
electrons are not same then an atom is said to be an ion. If the number of protons in an ion is more than
number of electrons then it is said to be positively charged ion. If it has more electrons than protons then it is
negatively charged ion.
Various Sources of Static Electricity
If you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth or if you rub a piece of amber with wool, the glass and amber will
develop a static charge that can attract small bits of paper or plastic. When two such materials come in
contact with each other the transfer of electrons takes place. The material which gains electrons becomes
negatively charged. The material which loses electrons turns to be positively charged. The gaining and
losing of electrons from the materials depends on how strong an atom holds its electron. This is called
triboelectric property. Based on this property of the materials Triboelectric Series is formed. In Triboelectric
Series, the materials are listed on the basis of their electronegative or electropositive property. The
accumulation of charges continues if the materials are rubbed with each other. Hence static electricity of
high voltage range can also be produced.
Static electricity is commonly produced in the following cases:
• Flow of liquid through a pipe or hose
• Pouring of liquid
• Filtering of liquid
• Conveyor belts
Liquid Transmission Through Pipelines
Effects of Static Electricity in Cargo shipping
The static electricity is a major hazard in cargo shipping in case of carrying petroleum or other flammable
products. This static electricity is generated when the inflammable liquid to be carried comes in contact with
other materials such as pipe lines which carries the liquid from one place to another, walls of the tank in
which the liquid is stored and sprinkling of liquids against a solid surface. When two particular, dissimilar
materials come in contact with each other a chemical bond is formed between them. This leads to transfer of
electrons between the materials. The material which gains electron becomes more negative and the material
loosing electron becomes more positive. The strength of charge accumulation on materials depends on the
friction between the two materials. If the friction is more than strength of the charge is high in materials.
Piping of oil Products
The static electricity build up takes place in piping of oil products. The materials associated with static
electricity build up are the pipe line and the liquid flowing through the pipe. The charge accumulation occurs
when the liquid moves in contact with pipelines. The discharge of accumulated charge will be in the form of
spark. The static electricity will be severe during the following circumstances in cargo loading process,
• Splashing the fluid from nozzle at the beginning of tank loading operation.
• At the filtering unit especially in micropore filtering.
• Presence of impurities such as water, rust etc inside the tank.
Loading of tank from the top causes deliver of charged liquid into the tank. This charge delivery produces a
charged mist and increases the hydrocarbon gas concentration.
The same scenario is repeated during unloading the cargo. The unloading is done by transporting the fluid
through pipes. The static electricity discharge will be high when the tank level is low.
Spark Discharge
The charges accumulated at a particular place get discharged in the form of Incendive sparks which is the
minimum spark level capable of igniting the flammable liquids. This incendive spark produces adequate
energy to ignite flammable substance. The discharge will be some times in the form of “Corona”.
Static Electricity On Board:
It is possible for a static charge to build up in the cargo system on materials with low resistance, e.g.
pipework that are electrically insulated from each other. A sufficiently large potential difference between the
piping system and the hull may result in a discharge of static electricity, which may cause a spark which
could result in the ignition of a flammable gas/ air mixture. To minimise the risks of static discharges the
cargo system must be properly bonded through to the hull. This will normally be done by the fitting of
bonding straps at each flange in the cargo pipework and on the mounting of pumps and valves.
Toxicity hazards
TOXICITY
Toxicity is a measure of poisonous nature and potential health risks associated with oil cargoes.
Threshold Limit Value -Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA)
The term threshold limit value-time weighted average (TLV-TWA) is used in the oil industry to express the
toxicity of vapors from a substance. The TLVTWA of a substance is usually expressed as the number of
parts per million (ppm) by volume of vapor in air. Threshold Limit Values refer to airborne concentrations
of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed day after day without adverse health effects. When expressed as a time weighted average, the
concentration is considered over a normal eight-hour workday and a forty-hour workweek.
Permissible Exposure limit - Time Weighted Average (PEL-TWA)
The permissible exposure limit (PEL) of a substance is a regulatory value that must not be exceeded in the
workplace.
Threshold Limit Value-Short-Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL)
The threshold limit value-short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL) defines the concentration of a substance to
which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time, provided that the daily TLV is not
also exceeded.
The STEL is a fifteen-minute time weighted average exposure that should not be exceeded at any time
during the workday, even if the eight-hour time weighted average is within the TLV.
Exposures at the STEL may not be longer than fifteen minutes and cannot be repeated more than four times
per workday. There must also be at least sixty minutes between successive exposures at the STEL.
Threshold Limit Value-Ceiling (TLV-C)
The threshold limit value-ceiling (TLV-C) is the maximum concentration of vapor in air, expressed as either
a TLV or PEL that must not be exceeded even for an instant. Where there is no established limit, the TLV
STEL is used.
Toxic Hazards of Hydrocarbon Vapors
Petroleum gas is noxious and harmful to the body.
Hydrocarbon Gas concentration
(Volumetric Proportion in Air) Effects on the Human body
0.02% 300ppm Industry Permissible concentration (TLV-TWA for 8 Hrs) or 2% LEL
0.1% 1,000ppm Irritation in the eyes within an hour.
0.2% 2,000ppm Irritation in the eyes, nose or throat within 30 minutes, dizziness and unsteadiness.
0.7% 7, 000ppm Signs of giddiness within 15 minutes.
1.0% 10,000ppm sudden giddiness occurs and if the body is exposed to the same conditions continuously,
unconsciousness results, and can sometimes lead to death.
2.0% 20,000ppm sudden giddiness, unconsciousness, resulting in death.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S)
Characteristic of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
H2S is a highly toxic, corrosive and flammable gas that in low levels will smell like rotten eggs. It is
Colorless and Heavier than Air, having relative vapor density of 1.189. Exposure to high levels of H2S can
be fatal after a very short period of time.
H2S Gas Concentration
(Ppm by Vol. in air) Physiological Effects on the Human body
0.1 - 0.5 ppm First Detected by smell
10 ppm May cause some nausea, minimal eye irritation
25 ppm Eye and respiratory tract irritation. Strong odour
50 - 100 ppm Human sense of smell starts to break down. Prolonged exposure to concentrations at 100 ppm
induces a gradual increase in the severity of these symptoms and death may occur after 4 - 48 hours of
exposure
150 ppm Loss of sense of smell in 2 - 5 minutes
350 ppm could be fatal after 30 minutes of inhalation 700 ppm RAPIDLY induces consciousness (few
minutes) and death. Causes seizures, loss of control of bowel and bladder. Breathing will stop and death will
result, if not rescued promptly.
700 ppm IMMEDIATELY FATAL
Precautions for Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)
In cases where H2S concentrations are known to be greater than 100 ppm in the vapor space and likely to be
present in the atmosphere, Emergency escape Breathing Apparatus shall be made available to personnel
working in the hazardous area, who, should already have a Personal (pocket-able) H2S gas monitoring
alarm/ instrument.
Vapour leaks and clouds
From liquefied gas cargoes:
If there is no immediate ignition of a spill, a vapour cloud may form. The vapour cloud is long, thin, cigar
shaped and, under certain meteorological conditions, may travel a considerable distance before its
concentration falls below the lower flammable limit. This concentrate is important, for the cloud to ignite
and burn, with the flame travelling back towards the originating pool.
The vapour is denser than air and thus, at least initially, hugs the surface. Weather conditions largely
determine the cloud dilution rate, with a thermal inversion greatly lengthening the distance travelled before
the cloud becomes non-flammable.
The major danger from a vapour cloud occurs when it is ignited. The heat from such a fire is a major
problem. A deflagration (simple burning) is probably fatal to those within the cloud and outside buildings
but is not a major threat to those beyond the cloud, though there will be burns from thermal radiations.
Basic knowledge of hazard controls
Introduction
There are a number of systemic controls by way of ship and equipment design to provide hazard safety or
control of hazardous situations going out of hand. Controlling the tank environment by adding inert gas on
top of the cargo carried is one such innovation. Even padding by water on top of a highly oxidizing cargo
could be a preventative control. There are a number of processes and equipment that ensures such hazard
control: among them are, tank drying, monitoring of tank environment and status, tank ventilation,
segregation of cargoes, and checking and following the MSDS are among the measures that are discussed.
Beyond the systemic controls, the crew competency in adhering to the standard operating procedures (SOP)
will be fundamental in being able to control hazards around you at work on a tanker.
Inerting
Tanker loading, transportation and discharging operations involve risks due to pollution, fire and explosion.
Oil carried in tanks have risks associated with it and one risk could lead to another. These hazards can be
avoided by the application of simple but effective rules. Oil cargo is highly flammable and toxic. It is not the
liquid which is susceptible to ignite but the vapor given off by the liquid. For this vapor to ignite and burn as
a visible flame, it needs to mix with the right proportions of air.
The vapor cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This limitation is
expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper and lower flammable
limits. The temperature at which a liquid gives of sufficient vapour to reach lower flammable limit, is known
as the flash point of the liquid.
LEL, LFL, UEL & FLASH POINT
Lower explosive limit (LEL): The lowest concentration (percentage) of a gas or a vapor in air capable of
producing a flash of fire in presence of an ignition source (arc, flame, heat) is termed as LEL. The term is
considered by many safety professionals to be the same as the lower flammable limit (LFL).
The LFL usually expressed in volume percent is the lower end of the concentration range over which a
flammable mixture of gas or vapor in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure.
The maximum concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn in air is defined as the Upper Explosive Limit
(UEL). Above this level, the mixture is too 􀁅richN to burn. The range between the LEL and UEL is known
as the flammable range for that gas or vapor.
The flash point of an oil is that temperature at which it will form an inflammable vapor. Example the flash
point of kerosene may be between 70 and 150 degrees Fahrenheit, depending upon the grade.
Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimise the chances of an accident. Such procedures
include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for conducting hot work, the
operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes
in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and pump rooms etc.
Oil tankers calling ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange information with the
terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes doubts and ambiguity. The tanker
should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly, the terminal should know the condition of the
ship's tanks, the ship's draft and trim before and after the operations, the ship's manifold details, the location
of fire wires (emergency towing off wires) etc.
Spontaneous combustion
Certain types of petroleum cargo are susceptible to spontaneous combustion and auto ignition. Spontaneous
combustion is the phenomenon where materials soaked with oil ignite without any external application of
heat. Auto ignition is caused when petroleum liquids ignite when heated, without the application of a naked
flame.
General Precautions
All tankers while alongside a petroleum berth should comply with procedures and precautions that enhance
tanker safety. Tanker and terminal personnel contact should be clearly identified before the operations begin.
Other precautions include:
• Adequate man power and fire fighting equipment on board
• Means of communication between the ship and shore
• Safe access to the ship
• Access control
• Display of warning posters

Water Padding
Padding - by filling the cargo tank (after loading) and associated piping systems with a liquid, gas or vapour
which separates the cargo from the air, and maintaining that condition.
The gas should be introduced into the cargo tank through a connection at the top of the tank feeding directly
into the ullage space. Compressed gas must not be introduced into the vessel tank through the manifold or
pump stack since doing so invites relatively larger volumes (and higher pressures) of gas, thus creating
increased risks of displacing cargo into the venting system and over pressurizing the vessel. Specific
carriage instructions must be complied with and the vessel must ensure she has adequate supplies of nitrogen
for the period the cargo(es) will be on board. Each tank will require to have an operational manometer and
the daily nitrogen log must be completed.
Water padding on a chemical tanker
Carbon disulphide: Carbon disulphide may be carried either under a water pad or under a suitable inert gas
pad as specified in the following paragraphs.
Carriage under water pad procedures:
1. Provision shall be made to maintain a water pad in the cargo tank during loading, unloading and
transit. In addition, an inert-gas pad shall be maintained in the ullage space during transit.
2. Water or inert-gas displacement may be used for discharging cargo, provided the cargo system is
designed for the expected pressure and temperature.
Nitrogen Padding
Nitrogen is a colourless odourless gas which can cause you to lose consciousness in as little as 20 seconds,
death follows rapidly.
Nitrogen is not a poisonous gas. It only serves to dilute the action of oxygen in air. Nitrogen exposure causes
cyanosis-change of skin colour to dark blue due to lack of oxygen and loss of red blood.
Nitrogen is chemically inert due to its non polar nature and high ionization energy. It is only slightly soluble
in water. It is a food antioxidant.
Uses:
For quality control of cargo (reduced oxidation)
To retard dangerous reactions
To remove moisture from tank
To avoid explosion (inerting)
Nitrogen is lighter than air and will rise and remain on top of the tank. Do not waste nitrogen by not
understanding that heavier oxygen in tank must be removed from bottom by lighter nitrogen from top.
When nitrogen padding, each tank must have its own pressure gauge.
Prior to loading cargo requiring either a nitrogen blanket or an inerted tank, the whole tank should be
pressurised to approximately the PV valve opening pressure. Any leaks noted should be rectified. (Silicon
sealant should only be used where tank packings are suspect and there are no spares on board, or if hatches
are not in good condition as silicon can damage good packings.)
NITROGEN BOTTLE BANK
There are usually 30 to 40 bottles on board for padding purposes only. The bottles on board are usually of 68
litres capacity. Storage temp of nitrogen bottles should never exceed 52C. The number of bottles should be >
5% of the total volume of cargo space to be inerted.
Nitrogen you have in the bottle bank on a chemical tanker is industrial dry by fractional evaporation of
liquid air. Chemical dry is expensive and not used. There is a filter, regulator and relief valve. The regulator
has a drain cock. There is a check nut to be loosened prior adjusting the regulator. The nitrogen on board is
reduced from 200 bars to 4 bars and then to 0.15 bars. For topping up at sea or padding in port the 0.15 bars
reducing valve is used. The relief valve is set at 0.2 bars. There are two lines -one of them only for
emergency use.
The small dia, nitrogen line system should be regularly blown through, to ensure that no contaminants are in
the lines. A 68 litre nitrogen cylinder at 200 bars pressure can give out about 13.6 cubic metres of free
gaseous nitrogen. Compressed nitrogen gives 200 times free nitrogen. Liquid nitrogen is not used on
chemical tanker as they can be stowed only in insulated tanks (-196 deg c.)
Drying agents
whenever a water-reactive cargo has to be carried, the cargo tank atmosphere must have all moisture and
water vapour removed before loading to prevent an unsafe reaction with the cargo. To achieve this, the
cargo tank is dried, generally with nitrogen or with specially dried air, and then the tank and associated
piping and equipment are filled with moisture-free gas or vapour that has a dew point of -40°C or less. The
dry conditions should be established prior to loading, and maintained during loading, transport by sea and
discharge.

Monitoring Techniques
Specific Precautions
Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal has to be clear and concise. Information
regarding loading, discharging or even bunkering should be clearly understood by all concerned parties.
Some of the points discussed between the tanker and terminal are as follows:
• Approved loading/ discharging plan and maximum loading or discharging rates, number and size of
loading arms, manifold connections available for different grades etc.
• Quantity of cargo to be loaded or discharged and the location of tanks
• Characteristics of cargo including the toxicity, flash point and estimated loading/ discharging
temperatures
• Type of venting procedure and method of handling ballast during cargo operations
Continuous lines of communication between the tanker and the terminal is of paramount importance for safe
and smooth cargo operations. All concerned parties should be fully aware of the various signals used to
indicate the starting and stopping of loading and discharging, slowing down and emergency stops. Remote
shut off arrangements, also known as quick closing valves, are provided to shut off the fuel oil supply in the
event of a fire. The remote shut off valves are located either at the entrance to the engine room or in remote
fire control stations. .
The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) of the petroleum cargo to be loaded is provided by the loading
terminal, gives the chemical, physical and flammable properties of the Cargo.

Anti-static measures
Introduction
You have already learnt about static electricity, its generation and sources. In some cases, static electricity
causes damage to components of printed circuit boards and electrical appliances and often leads to shock in
human who are working on those components. Lightning is a form of tremendous static electricity
discharge, causing untold damages in many cases. In relevant to our course, the hazards of static electricity
in cargo loading system are quite serious, which will be discussed in this topic.
Liquid Transmission through Pipelines
The static electricity results in fire and explosion hazards while handling flammable liquids and also during
tanker operations like cleaning, dipping, ullaging and sampling. During certain operations, electric charges
are released instantaneously and the electrostatic discharge with the sufficient amount of energy required for
igniting the flammable product gas/air mixtures. Thus it is very important to handle the static charges during
liquid transmission through pipelines as it may lead to severe electrostatic hazards.

Bonding and Grounding

Bonding is a process of creating an electrical connection between the conductors, in which charge
accumulation takes place. The electrical connection is made with the use of wire or rod. Due to bonding, the
connected conductors are maintained in the same potential level. Therefore occurrence of static sparking is
reduced. In bonding, the charges are not eliminated.
Grounding is a particular form of bonding in which one or more conductive materials are connected between
ground and the conductor, in which the charges are generated. Since the conductors are grounded directly,
the static charges drain out quickly as they are produced and hence accumulation is avoided. For proper
grounding system there should be a designated ground source. The motive of grounding and bonding is to
prevent incendive discharge (discharge which causes ignition).
The most important countermeasure that must be taken to prevent an electrostatic hazard is to bond all
metallic objects together to eliminate the risk of discharges between objects that might be charged and
electrically insulated. To avoid discharges from conductors to earth, it is normal practice to include bonding
to earth ('earthing' or 'grounding'). On ships, bonding to earth is effectively accomplished by connecting
metallic objects to the metal structure of the ship, which is naturally earthed through the sea.
Some examples of objects which might be electrically insulated in hazardous situations and which must
therefore be bonded are:
• Ship/shore hose couplings and flanges, except for the insulating flange or single length of non-
conducting hose required to provide electrical isolation between the ship and shore.
• Portable tank washing machines.
• Manual ullaging and sampling equipment with conducting components.
• The float of a permanently fitted ullaging device if its design does not provide an earthing path
through the metal tape.
The best method of ensuring bonding and earthing will usually be a metallic connection between the
conductors. Alternative means of bonding are available and have proved effective in some applications, for
example semi-conductive (dissipative) pipes and 'O' rings, rather than embedded metallic layers, for GRP
pipes and their metal couplings.
Any earthing or bonding links used as a safeguard against the hazards of static electricity associated with
portable equipment must be connected whenever the equipment is set up and not disconnected until after the
equipment is no longer in use.
Avoiding Loose Conductive Objects
Certain objects may be insulated during tanker operations, for example:
• A metal object, such as a can, floating in a static accumulating liquid.
• A loose metal object while it is falling in a tank during washing operations.
• A metallic tool, lying on a piece of old lagging, left behind after maintenance.
Every effort should be made to ensure that such objects are removed from the tank since there is evidently
no possibility of deliberately bonding them. This necessitates careful inspection of tanks, particularly after
shipyard repairs.
Other Methods
Humidification
The static electricity disappears when the humidity of the environment is more. Hence installing humidifier
and increasing the air humidity to 40-50% will reduce the development of static charge.
Static Collectors
A static collector is a device that collects Static electricity. Static collectors are mostly used in moving
nonconductive materials like conveyor belts, drive belts which carry static charges. The static collectors
generally used are needle pointed copper comb, spring copper brushes, tinsel bars. These static collectors are
placed near the source that produces static electricity. If static charges are accumulated on a material, it is
collected by this static collector and spark discharge is prevented. The static collectors should be properly
grounded so that the collected static current can be discharged properly.
Additives
Additives are anti-static substances which when mixed with liquids reduces the resistance and increases
conductivity. The increase in conductivity reduces the time of flow of the static charges to the ground.
Ventilation
The enclosed space must be thoroughly ventilated before entering. Factors influencing the time to ensure
thorough ventilation are the size of the enclosed space, the capacity of the system used, the degree of

contamination and the capacity of the ventilation system.

After the space has been thoroughly ventilated, the following points should be checked in the enclosed
space:
• Content of oxygen should be tested with a suitable and reliable detector: For entering an enclosed
space, 21 % oxygen is necessary. One should thoroughly understand the principle of calculating the
appropriate levels of oxygen in a confined space and interpretation of the value obtained. Atmospheric air
consists of 21 % of life-sustaining oxygen and other gases constitute about 79% that are breathable, but do
not sustain life. Therefore it should be confirmed that the atmosphere in the enclosed space consists of 21 %
oxygen.
• A combustible gas indicator should be used in case of suspecting the presence of a flammable
cargo vapour. The content of flammable cargo vapour may be as low as practicable, but should not exceed 1
% LFL in the atmosphere.
• If suspecting the presence of a toxic gas, an appropriate toxic gas detector should be used to
check the level to ensure that it is below the safe operational exposure limit, based on the nature of the
substance carried in that space.
Ventilation should be stopped about 10 minutes before starting the tests and should not be restarted until
completing the tests. Breathing apparatus may be required to test the atmosphere. Before judging the space
to be safe, number of samples must be collected from different locations.
Measurements should be done at several levels like top, middle and bottom levels. This is because the
suspected vapours having higher relative density than air will be found at the bottom and the vapours having
low relative density than air will be found at the top of the enclosed space. Suspected vapours may also be
present where the ventilating air flow is least effective.
Personnel trained in using the equipment and with adequate knowledge in understanding the obtained results
should only perform sampling and measurement. It is vital to use the appropriate instruments because a
combustible gas indicator will neither indicate oxygen deficiency nor the presence of toxic gas or flammable
vapour in inert gas.
Only approved equipment should be used for testing the atmosphere. Such equipment must also be correctly
maintained and prepared for use as per the manufacturer's guidance. Regular check-tests must be conducted
against standard samples.
Even after the atmosphere is checked free of toxic vapours and found to contain enough oxygen, the
presence of local pockets of gas should always be suspected. Tank coatings or residual scale may contain
cargo residues. Even after the removal of loose scale, the possibility of generation of new vapour should be
considered.
Therefore a person should remain alert to face the possible need to perform further testing when moving to
different areas of a tank or compartment, or moving to the lower part after working in the upper part.
Cargo Segregation
 Isolation method of cargo tanks and piping systems for chemical tankers /product tankers
 The carriage of single parcel cargo in several tanks having a common pipe line system poses
containment problems within each tank and depends upon the tightness of the single inlet valve.
Therefore, it is recommended to have 2 valve separations between the completed tanks and pressure
pipe line.
 Completed tanks must be checked to ensure the level of cargo regularly.
 It is a requirement that pumps and piping of cargo and venting system are separated when loading
toxic cargoes, in order to prevent contamination and the exposure to crew.
 Many chemical tankers have a common pipe line wherein separation can be done by inserting blind
flanges (blank) in the pipes. When these are used attention should be made to restore to the original
system when segregation is not in use.
 The pipe line arrangement of submerged cargo pumps for chemical tankers consist of cargo pipe
lines and hydraulic pipe lines for providing power for the prime mover of the pump.

Cargo Inhibition
In certain conditions of heat, pressure and in the presence of Oxygen, some chemical cargo types can
become viscous and possibly solid and dense in nature. This self reaction can cause some cargoes, especially
in the presence of high temperatures and Oxygen, to begin an exothermic reaction, becoming self heating
and rapidly expanding which may result in possibly disastrous consequences for the vessel.

As a precaution against this, a chemical inhibitor may be added to prevent the cargo from bonding with
itself, however, one aspect of inhibitors is that they sometimes require Oxygen to activate them and this
means that the tank cannot be inerted.

There are many inhibitor types, most of which are toxic and need to be handled with care. Usually the
inhibitor is added by the Terminal personnel during the loading programme.

Shippers of inhibited cargoes must advise the vessel (and present an inhibitor certificate onboard prior to
loading) of the quantity of inhibitor added, the hazards of the inhibitor, the time validity of the inhibitor, the
temperature parameters within which the inhibitor will work and the emergency actions should these be
exceeded. Masters are to check that the Inhibitor validity is sufficient for the voyage length.

The temperature of inhibited cargoes must be checked and recorded daily in order to be able to note any
abnormal rise that may indicate either inhibitor failure and/or polymerisation.

Inhibited cargoes often need the presence of some oxygen in the tank atmosphere in order to permit the
inhibitor to work properly. The minimum level of oxygen is usually stated on the inhibitor certificate but, as
a general rule, a cargo containing an inhibitor that needs oxygen should not be carried in an inerted tank.

Cargo Compatibility
There are various risk factor involved in transporting of dangerous and noxious liquid chemicals in bulk.
Between some chemicals violent reactions may occur if the chemicals are mixed in certain proportions. The
result may possibly be an eruption and tank rupture. Such an occurrence must be prevented.

Leakages through bulkheads occur at times in any tanker. Normally, however, such leakages are only minor
seepages. They will not cause any violent reaction due to the great disproportion in mixture from dangerous
proportions. Regulations prohibit the placement of inter-reactive cargoes on both sides of a bulkhead. There
must be an empty tank, a cofferdam or a tank with a cargo neutral to both products in between.

There must be complete separation of piping systems so that one product cannot inadvertently be pumped
into another. To this effect strategic pipe bends may have to be removed and blind flanges fitted on each
pipe end. Modern chemical tankers will have blind flange valves fitted. Such a blind flange valve must have
a double separation between the products with a drain in the interspace. A single blind flange is not
acceptable. Remember also to separate drain lines or slop connections to avoid the possibility of cargo
mixing.

Atmospheric control
PV Valve
Pressure Vacuum relief valve (P/V valve) – A device that provides for the flow of the small volumes of
vapour, air or inert gas mixtures caused by small thermal variations in the tank – it lets in air when there is a
vacuum created, while it allows the volumes mentioned above to flow out when there an increase in tank
pressure.

PV Breaker
A liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or vacuum from causing
structural damage to the cargo tanks. It releases gas when there is excess pressure or takes in air when there
is a vacuum created because of deficient pressure. It is fitted on the inert gas main line of a tanker.

Pressure Vacuum Valves

Design requirement
High velocity vent and vacuum relief valve is designed to protect marine vessel systems, including cargo
tanks, that may be subject to gas/vapour pressure or vacuum outside the design parameters of the system /
tank. This valve is also designed for devices to prevent the passage of flame into cargo tanks in tankers and
to relieve excessive over pressure or under vacuum of cargo tanks during cargo loading, discharging,
ballasting and thermal variations.

PV valves are available on the market in a variety of configurations. These valves, however, are designed to
vent gas rather than liquid at full-loading rates. The limitation can be overcome with a piping design, so that
any liquid overflowing one tank and entering a gas exhaust header can flow down into a tank that is not
being loaded. Even if this contaminates one cargo with a different one, the cost of reprocessing the
contaminated cargo should be considerably lower than the costs of potential damages and cleanup of a major
spill.

Main factors for sizing of PV valve

Tank venting systems should be designed and operated so as to ensure that neither pressure nor vacuum
created in the cargo tanks during or unloading exceeds tank design parameters. The main factors to be
considered in the sizing of a tank venting system are as follows:
 Design loading and unloading rate ;
  Gas evolution during loading : this should be taken account of by multiplying the maximum loading
rate by a factor of at least 1.25 ;
 Density of the cargo vapour mixture ;
 Pressure loss in vent piping and across valves and fittings ;
 Pressure / vacuum settings of relief devices.

Gas Testing
Use of various Instruments to Check the Gases in a Compartment

Gas Detection Instrument (Portable)

Portable or personal gas detectors are sophisticated instruments that are effective, simple to use and easy to
maintain. They are used by ship’s crew, repairers, surveyors and emergency service personnel.

Normally every person entering an enclosed space is required to have his personal gas measuring instrument
to check the levels of hazardous gases and oxygen; if this is not possible due to the number of persons
entering the space, the instrument should be given to the leader of the team. The meters must be calibrated
periodically as per maker’s instructions. The alarms on the personal gas monitor must be set in accordance
with the regulations.

The various meters are:

 Oxygen content meter/analyser
 Explosimeter
 Tankscope
 Multi-gas detector
Material safety data sheet (MSDS)

Contents
 SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking
1. Product identifier
2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet
4. Emergency telephone number
 SECTION 2: Hazards identification
1. Classification of the substance or mixture
2. Label elements
3. Other hazards
 SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients
1. Substances
2. Mixtures
 SECTION 4: First aid measures
1. Description of first aid measures
2. Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed
 SECTION 5: Firefighting measures
Extinguishing media
Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Advice for firefighters
 SECTION 6: Accidental release measure
Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
Environmental precautions
Methods and material for containment and cleaning up
Reference to other sections
 SECTION 7: Handling and storage
Precautions for safe handling
Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Specific end use(s)
 SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection
Control parameters
Exposure controls
 SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties
Information on basic physical and chemical properties
Other information
 SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity
Reactivity
Chemical stability
Possibility of hazardous reactions
Conditions to avoid
Incompatible materials
Hazardous decomposition products
 SECTION 11: Toxicological information
Information on toxicological effects
 SECTION 12: Ecological information
Toxicity
Persistence and degradability
Bioaccumulative potential
Mobility in soil
Results of PBT and vPvB assessment
Other adverse effects
  SECTION 13: Disposal considerations
Waste treatment methods
 SECTION 14: Transport information
UN number
UN proper shipping name
Transport hazard class(es)
Packing group
Environmental hazards
Special precautions for user
Transport in bulk according to Annex II of MARPOL73/78 and the IBC Code
 SECTION 15: Regulatory information
Safety, health and environmental regulations/legislation specific for the substance or mixture
Chemical safety assessment
 SECTION 16: Other information

Safety
Specific Learning Objectives
Introduction
The topic of safety is perhaps the most important of all areas of knowledge in tanker operation. Thus, this
topic is further subdivided into subtopics, all related to safety equipment, safety procedures and safe
working practices. The cargo carried on tankers are dangerous liquids and each one of these present many
hazards to human health and environment. And, with all safety precautions, accidents still happen and ship's
crew must also have to deal with any incidental injuries on board. The ship's crew must practice the safety
drills and be inculcate work safety habits, wearing appropriate personal protective device. The gas
monitoring equipment provides the early indication, if an enclosed space, such as a ship's cargo tank is safe
to enter, or remains in a condition which is safe for work; thus, the maintenance of the gas monitoring and
oxygen analysing equipment and other tank protection devices are kept in good working order. Remember,
one small mistake or error of judgment can cause catastrophic disasters including loss of life and damage to
the environment.

Gas Measuring Instruments

Introduction
We will discuss the principles, uses and limitations of portable instruments for measuring concentrations of
hydrocarbon gas (in inerted and non-inerted atmospheres), other toxic gases and oxygen. Certain fixed
installations are also described. For detailed information on the use of all instruments, reference should
always be made to the manufacturer’s instructions and the product’s MSDS. It is essential that any
instrument used is:
 Suitable for the test required.
 Sufficiently accurate for the test required.
 Of an approved type.
 Correctly maintained.
 Frequently checked against standard samples.

Measurement of Hydrocarbon Concentration

The measurement of hydrocarbon vapors on tankers and at terminals falls into two categories:

The measurement of hydrocarbon gas in air at concentrations below the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
 This is to detect the presence of flammable (and potentially explosive) vapors and to detect
concentrations of hydrocarbon vapor that may be harmful to personnel.
 The instruments used to measure % LFL are Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas (CFCG) Indicators,
which are usually referred to as Flammable Gas Monitors or Explosimeters
 A CFCG Indicator should not be used for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres.
  These readings are expressed as a percentage of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) and are usually
recorded as % LFL.
The measurement of hydrocarbon gas as a percentage by volume of the total atmosphere being measured.
 On board a tanker, this is usually carried out to measure the percentage of hydrocarbon vapor in an
oxygen deficient (inerted) atmosphere.
 The readings obtained are expressed as the percentage of hydrocarbon vapor by volume and are
recorded as % Vol.
 Instruments used to measure hydrocarbon vapors in an inert gas atmosphere are specially developed
for this purpose.
 Non-Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicators (usually referred to as Tankscopes)
 Refractive Index Meters.
 Electronic instrument using infra-red sensors with the same function as the Tankscope.

Flammable Gas Monitors (Explosimeters)

Explosimeter
The explosimeter is a device that is used to determine the content of hydrocarbon in the atmosphere of a
pump room or tank spaces on ships. The scale used in the explosimeter is marked in terms of lower
explosive or flammable limit and as a percentage of the lower limit (LEL). The scale may also be marked in
parts per million (p.p.m).

Lower flammable limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive Limit (LEL), is usually expressed in volume per cent, is
the lower end of the concentration range over which a flammable mixture of gas or vapor in air can be
ignited at a given temperature and pressure. The upper end of the concentration range is called the Upper
flammable limit (UFL).

The explosimeter works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge, (A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit
used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit) one leg of which
includes the unknown component. The Wheatstone bridge is supplied with a battery and there is no flow of
current through the meter when the bridge resistance is balanced.

One resistance is a hot filament in a combustion chamber. An aspirator bulb and flexible tube are used to
draw a gas sample into the chamber. The gas will burn in the presence of the red hot filament causing the
temperature of the filament to rise. Rise of temperature increases the resistance of the filament and this
change of filament resistance unbalances the bridge. The current flow registers on the meter which is scaled
in percentage of LFL or ppm.

A lean mixture will burn in the combustion chamber, because of the filament. False readings are likely when
oxygen content of the sample is low or when inert gas is present. The instrument is designed for detecting
vapor in a range up to the lower flammable limit and with large percentages of gas (rich mixture) a false
zero reading may also be obtained.
The instrument and batteries must be tested before use and samples are taken from as many places as
possible particularly from the tank bottom for accurate results.

Note a reading of 100% and above indicates that the space is explosive, while a reading between 60 and
100% indicates that the atmosphere is approaching the Lower explosive limit when the tank atmosphere
would become flammable.
Flammable Gas Monitors - Pellistor type
Flammable Gas Monitors (Explosimeters): Modern flammable gas monitors (Explosimeters) have a
poison resistant flammable pellistor as the sensing element. Pellistors rely on the presence of oxygen
(minimum 11% by volume) to operate efficiently and for this reason flammable gas monitors should not be
used for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres.

Operating Principle: A simplified diagram of the electrical circuit incorporating a pellistor in a Wheatstone
Bridge is shown below. Unlike early Explosimeters, the pellistor unit balances the voltage and zeros the
display automatically when the instrument is switched on in fresh air. In general, it takes about 30 seconds
for the pellistor to reach its operating temperature. However, the operator should always refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions for the start up procedure. A gas sample may be taken in several ways:
 Diffusion.
 Hose and aspirator bulb (one squeeze equates to about 1 metre of hose length).
 Motorised pump (either internal or external).

Flammable vapours are drawn through a sintered filter (flashback arrestor) into the pellistor combustion
chamber. Within the chamber are two elements, the Detector and the Compensator. This pair of elements is
heated to between 400 and 600ºC. When no gas is present, the resistances of the two elements are balanced
and the bridge will produce a stable baseline signal. When combustible gases are present, they will
catalytically oxidise on the detector element causing its temperature to rise. This oxidation can only take
place if there is sufficient oxygen present. The difference in temperature compared to the compensator
element is shown as % LEL. The reading is taken when the display is stable. Modern units will indicate on
the display when the gas sample has exceeded the LEL.

Simplified diagram of a flammable gas monitor incorporating a pellistor

Care should be taken to ensure that liquid is not drawn into the instrument. The use of an in-line water trap
and a float probe fitted to the end of the aspirator hose should prevent this occurrence. Most manufacturers
offer these items as accessories.

Please Note: Only cotton filters should be used to remove solid particles or liquid from the gas sample when
hydrocarbons are being measured. Water traps may be used to protect the instrument where the sampled gas
may be very wet. Guidelines on the use of filters and traps will be found in the operating manual for the
instrument.
Cautions - Poisons and Inhibitors: Some compounds can reduce the sensitivity of the pellistor.
Poisons - these are compounds that can permanently affect the performance of the pellistor and include
silicone vapours and organic lead compounds.
Inhibitors - these compounds act in a very similar way to poisons, except that the reaction is reversible.
Inhibitors include hydrogen sulphide, freons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. If the presence of hydrogen
sulphide is suspected, this should be tested for before any measurements of hydrocarbon vapours are carried
out.
Pressure: Pellistor type instruments should not have their sensors subjected to pressure as this will damage
the pellistor. Such pressurisation may occur when testing for gas in the following conditions:
Inert gas under high pressure or at high velocity, such as from a purge pipe or high velocity vent.
Hydrocarbon gas mixtures at high velocity in vapour lines or from a high velocity vent.
The above is also relevant when using multi-gas instruments. For example, when an infrared sensor is being
utilised for taking a % Vol gas reading, any pellistor sensor in the instrument may suffer damage if the inlet
gas stream into the instrument is at a pressure or has a high velocity.

Condensation: The performance of pellistors may be temporarily affected by condensation. This can occur
when the instrument is taken into a humid atmosphere after it has been in an air conditioned environment.
Time should be allowed for instruments to acclimatise to the operating temperature before they are used.

Combustible Mists: Pellistor instruments will not indicate the presence of combustible mists (such as
lubricating oils) or dusts.

Instrument Calibration and Check Procedures: The instrument is set up in the factory to be calibrated
using a specific hydrocarbon gas/air mixture. The hydrocarbon gas that should be used for calibration and
testing should be indicated on a label fixed to the instrument.

Precision of Measurement: The response of the instrument depends upon the composition of the
hydrocarbon gas being tested and, in practice, this composition is not known. By using propane or butane as
the calibration gas for an instrument being used on tankers carrying stabilised crude oil or petroleum
products, the readings provided may be slightly in error by giving a slightly high reading. This ensures that
any reading indicated will be “on the safe side”. Factors that can affect the measurements are large changes
in ambient temperature and excessive pressure of the tank atmosphere being tested, leading to high flow
rates which in turn affect the pellistor temperature. The use of dilution tubes, which enable catalytic filament
indicators to measure concentrations in over rich hydrocarbon gas/air mixtures, is not recommended.

Operational Features: Older instruments are fitted with flashback arresters in the inlet and outlet of the
detector filament chamber. The arresters are essential to prevent the possibility of flame propagation from
the combustible chamber and a check should always be made to ensure that they are in place and fitted
properly. Modern pellistor type instruments have sintered filters usually built into the pellistor body. Some
authorities require, as a condition of their approval, that PVC covers be fitted around meters with aluminium
cases to avoid the risk of incendive sparking if the case strikes rusty steel.

Non-Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicators

The working of catalytic gas indicator depends on the property of its combustion with air. Since the inerted
atmosphere is deficient in oxygen the catalytic gas indicators cannot be used in inerted atmospheres.
Instruments used in inerted atmosphere have a filament sensitive to the variations in the heat conductivity.
These meters are good for monitoring inerting operations.

Operating Principle
The sensing element of this instrument is usually a non-catalytic hot filament. The composition of the
surrounding gas determines the rate of loss of heat from the filament, and hence its temperature and
resistance.
The sensor filament forms one arm of a Wheatstone Bridge. The initial zeroing operation balances the
bridge and establishes the correct voltage across the filament, thus ensuring the correct operating
temperature. During zeroing, the sensor filament is purged with air or inert gas that is free from
hydrocarbons. As in the Explosimeter, there is a second identical filament in another arm of the bridge
which is kept permanently in contact with air and which acts as a compensator filament.

The presence of hydrocarbon changes the resistance of the sensor filament and this is shown by a deflection
on the bridge meter. The rate of heat loss from the filament is a non-linear function of hydrocarbon
concentration and the meter scale reflects this non-linearity. The meter gives a direct reading of % volume
hydrocarbons.

When using the instrument, the manufacturer’s detailed instructions should always be followed. After the
instrument has been initially set at zero with fresh air in contact with the sensor filament, a sample is drawn
into the meter by means of a rubber aspirator bulb. The bulb should be operated until the meter pointer
comes to rest on the scale (usually within 15-20 squeezes) then aspirating should be stopped and the final
reading taken. It is important that the reading should be taken with no flow through the instrument and with
the gas at normal atmospheric pressure.

The non-catalytic filament is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its working scale. The
instrument reading goes off the scale and remains in this position as long as the filament is exposed to the
rich gas mixture.

Instrument Check Procedures

The checking of a non-catalytic heated filament instrument requires the provision of gas mixtures of a
known total hydrocarbon concentration. The carrier gas may be air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide or a mixture
of these. Since this type of instrument may be required to measure accurately either low concentrations (1%-
3% by volume) or high concentrations (greater than 10% by volume) it is desirable to have either two test
mixtures, say 2% and 15% by volume, or one mixture between these two numbers, say 8% by volume. Test
gas mixtures may be obtained in small aerosol type dispensers or small pressurized gas cylinders, or may be
prepared in a special test kit.

Precision of Measurement
Correct response from these instruments is achieved only when measuring gas concentrations in mixtures for
which the instrument has been calibrated and which remain gaseous at the temperature of the instrument.

Relatively small deviations from normal atmospheric pressure in the instrument produce significant
differences in the indicated gas concentration. If a space that is under elevated pressure is sampled, it may be
necessary to detach the sampling line from the instrument and allow the sample pressure to equalize with the
atmosphere pressure.

Tankscope
A tankscope is an instrument used to measure the hydrocarbon content by percentage volume in a given
atmosphere.

It can measure HC content in an inerted atmosphere which makes it very useful in an oil tanker.

A heated filament shows alteration in temperature and enhances the change of resistance. This change in
resistance is measured and translated to display the content of HC present.

It is a special instrument for a specific application. It contains a thermal conductivity sensor that can detect
hydrocarbon gas in an inerted atmosphere. It is used in cargo tanks onboard oil tankers.
The gas from the sample cools the sensor filament resulting in an imbalance in proportion to the
concentration. This imbalance is measured and instantly displayed as percentage hydrocarbon.

The instrument is easy to use. Turn the on/off switch, and then carry out the zero adjustment using the knob
provided while sampling fresh air. Now introduce the sampling tube into the tank and squeeze the aspirator
bulb to sample the atmosphere in the tank.

It is normally powered by ‘D’ cell batteries and can operate continuously for 24 hours. The instrument is
built for rugged use; it is housed in a shock-proof casing and is waterproof.

The lid is hinged so that it falls flat along the back of the case. This gives easy access to the controls and the
display is backlit for low light conditions.

The following are the salient features of a tankscope as given by one of the manufacturers:
 Shock-proof, waterproof made of stainless steel
 Specially designed with full hinges for easy access to controls
 Backlighting for display to easily read under low lighting
 Automatic Off function for power saving when lid closed
 Hands-free operation using neck and waist straps
 Particularly designed for use onboard ships
 Limited controls with only one switch and one knob
 Simple to calibrate
 Quick and easy replacement of battery and filament
 More flexibility using accessories.

Tank Scope
A Tankscope is a device used for measurement of hydrocarbon gas in inerted atmospheres.

This instrument is not as sensitive as the explosimeter. The reading it gives is expressed as a percentage of
the volume of the hydrocarbon vapour present. It is used to detect the presence of hydrocarbon vapor during
inerting / purging of tank with inert gas prior gas freeing operations when Oxygen content in the atmosphere
is low.

It is to be used purely to measure the volume of the hydrocarbon vapors present inside any enclosed space,
and is not meant for measuring for man-entry.

It uses the same principle as that of an explosimeter except that the gas does not burn inside the sample
chamber (as oxygen is insufficient or not present); instead it measures hydrocarbon content by the detection
of an alteration in the temperature of the heated filament which enhances the change in resistance (filament
is heated by the instrument battery and it cools when the hydrocarbon gas passes through it).

This change in resistance gives the percentage of hydrocarbon vapors present in the compartment.
Interferometer
Operating Principle
An interferometer is an optical device that utilizes the difference between the refractive indices of the gas
sample and air.

In this type of instrument, a beam of light is divided into two and these are then recombined at the eyepiece.
The recombined beams exhibit an interference pattern that appears to the observer as a number of dark lines
in the eyepiece.

One light path is via chambers filled with air. The other path is via chambers through which the sample gas
is pumped. Initially, the latter chambers are filled with air and the instrument is adjusted so that one of the
dark lines coincides with the zero line on the instrument scale. If a gas mixture is then pumped into the
sample chambers, the dark lines are displaced across the scale by an amount proportional to the change of
refractive index.

The displacement is measured by noting the new position on the scale of the line that was used initially to
zero the instrument. The scale may be calibrated in concentration units or it may be an arbitrary scale whose
readings are converted to the required units by a table or graph. The response of the instrument is linear and
a one-point test with a standard mixture at a known concentration is sufficient for checking purposes.

The instrument is normally calibrated for a particular hydrocarbon gas mixture. As long as the use of the
instrument is restricted to the calibration gas mixture, it provides accurate measurements of gas
concentrations.

The measurement of the concentration of hydrocarbon gas in an inerted atmosphere is affected by the carbon
dioxide present when flue gas is used for inerting. In this case, the use of soda lime as an absorbent for
carbon dioxide is recommended, provided the reading is corrected appropriately.

The refractive index meter is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its scale range. The instrument
reading goes off the scale and remains in this position as long as the gas chambers are filled with the gas
mixture.
Instrument Check Procedures
A mixture of known hydrocarbon, e.g. propane in nitrogen at a known concentration, should be used to
check the instrument. If the hydrocarbon test gas differs from the original calibration gas, the indicated
reading should be multiplied by the appropriate correction factor before judging the accuracy and stability of
the instrument.

Infra-red (IR) Instruments

Operating Principle
The infra-red (IR) sensor is a transducer for the measurement of the concentration of hydrocarbons in the
atmosphere, by the absorption of infra-red radiation.

The vapour to be monitored reaches the measuring chamber by diffusion or by means of a pump. Infra-red
light radiation from the light source shines through a window into the chamber, is reflected and focused by
the spherical mirror, and then passes through another window and hits the beam splitter. The portion of the
radiation that passes through the beam splitter passes through a broadband interference filter (measuring
filter) into the housing cover of the measuring detector, and is converted into an electric signal.

The portion of the radiation reflected by the beam splitter passes through the reference filter to reach the
reference detector.

If the gas mixture in the chamber contains hydrocarbons, a part of the radiation is absorbed in the
wavelength range of the measurement filter, and a reduced electric signal is given. At the same time, the
signal of the reference detector remains unchanged. Gas concentration is determined by comparing the
relative values of the reference detector and the measuring detector.

Differences in the output of the IR light source, dirt on mirrors and windows as well as dust of aerosols
contained in the air have an identical effect on both detectors and are therefore compensated.

Instrument Check Procedures

This instrument should be checked using a check gas of a known mixture of hydrocarbons. The IR sensor
does not require the presence of air or inert gas in the gas concentration, as it is reliant solely on the
hydrocarbon molecules. In general, these instruments are very stable and require little maintenance.
Calibration should be checked frequently in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and ship’s
Safety Management System procedures.
Measurement of Low Concentrations of Toxic Gases
Chemical Indicator Tubes
Probably the most convenient and suitable equipment for measuring very low concentrations of toxic gases
on board tankers are chemical indicator tubes.

Measurement errors may occur if several gases are present at the same time, as one gas can interfere with the
measurement of another. The instrument manufacturer’s operating instructions should always be consulted
prior to testing such atmospheres.

Chemical indicator tubes consist of a sealed glass tube containing a proprietary filling which is designed to
react with a specific gas and to give a visible indication of the concentration of that gas. To use the device,
the seals at each end of the glass tube are broken, the tube is inserted in a bellows-type fixed volume
displacement hand pump, and a prescribed volume of gas mixture is drawn through the tube at a rate fixed
by the rate of expansion of the bellows. A color change occurs along the tube and the length of
discoloration, which is a measure of the gas concentration, is read off a scale integral to the tube.

In some versions of these instruments, a hand operated injection syringe is used instead of a bellows pump.

It is important that all the components used for any measurement should be from the same manufacturer. It
is not permissible to use a tube from one manufacturer with a hand pump from another manufacturer. It is
also important that the manufacturer’s operating instructions are carefully observed.

Since the measurement depends on passing a fixed volume of gas through the glass tube, any use of
extension hoses should be in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

The tubes are designed and intended to measure concentrations of gas in the air. As a result, measurements
made in a ventilated tank, in preparation for tank entry, should be reliable.
For each type of tube, the manufacturers must guarantee the standards of accuracy laid down in national
standards. Tanker operators should consult the ship’s flag administration for guidance on acceptable
equipment.

Draeger–Tube System

The most commonly used multi gas detector onboard ship is the Draeger–tube system. Glass vials known as
Draeger tubes are filled with chemical reagents. The reagents in the tube react with a specific chemical or a
family of chemicals. A specific volume of the atmosphere is drawn through the tube using an aspirator
bellow pump designed for the purpose. The reagent in the tube changes color if the targeted gas is present
and the length of color change indicated the concentration of the gas.

The pump used in the Draeger tube system is an accuro pump which requires no lubrication as opposed to
the piston pump. The pump itself is built to resist corrosion and harsh chemical environments.

The results obtained using the Draeger tubes are highly accurate. Many tubes can show a standard deviation
of +/-10% in the results. It is most important to control the volume of the sample of atmosphere passing
through the tube to prevent excessive deviation in the readings.

The reagents used in the Draeger tubes are specific to the gas to be measured. Sometimes, pre-layers are
used to filter other inferring gases so that only the targeted gas is measured accurately.

The tube-system is one of the easiest to read. The wider the tube, the easier it is to read the gas
concentration. The color change over the length of the tube can be read off from the graduations usually in
ppm.

There are over 200 different tubes for measuring some 500 different gases.

Draeger Instrument
The Draeger instrument is used to detect targeted gases and vapors, using detector tubes that are filled with a
reagent (a substance or mixture for use in chemical analysis or other reactions). Each tube is very specific to
the type of gas to be detected (there are several tubes, one for each gas that is to be detected), so care has to
be taken to ensure that correct tube is used for the particular type of gas.

The Draeger instrument consists of a portable bellows pump and detector tubes, described above. The
detector tube is a vial filled with the specific reagent that will react with the gas to be detected, when
exposed to the gas in the detection environment. The tubes are sealed when delivered for use.

In order to use it we have to break the two ends of the tube and insert it into the pump according to the
directions mentioned on the tube. Now start pumping 3-4 times (or as specified by the manufacturer) to suck
in the particular gas from the atmosphere that is to be tested.

If the atmosphere contains that particular gas or vapor, then the color of the tube will change. The length of
the color change can be read from the tube and compared to obtain the concentration level of that particular
gas or vapor in parts per million can be ascertained.

Gases that the Draeger instrument can be used detect include carbon monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide,
organic arsenic compounds, arsine, and phosphoric acid esters, hydrocarbons, among others.

An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapor present at various places in a
compartment that may not be accessible. When using the tubes with the hose, insert one end of the hose into
the pump, the tube is inserted at the other end, the hose is then laid out to the place in the compartment
where the gas is to be detected. The pump is then used to suck the gas.
Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors are based on the fact that cells can be constructed that react with the measured gas
and generate an electric current. This current can be measured and the amount of gas determined. The
sensors are low cost and are small enough to allow several to be incorporated into the same instrument,
making them suitable for use in multi-gas detectors.

There are numerous electrochemical sensors available covering a number of gases which may be present in
the shipboard environment, such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide.

Electrochemical sensors can be used in stand-alone instruments, which may provide a warning at a
predetermined concentration of vapor, or they can be fitted in a multi-sensor instrument to provide a reading
of the concentration of the vapor, usually in parts per million (ppm).

These sensors may give erroneous readings due to cross-sensitivity. This occurs, for example, when
measuring toxic gases with hydrocarbon gases present, for example H2S in the presence of nitric oxide and
sulfur dioxide.

Fixed Gas Detection Installations

Fixed gas detection installations have become a requirement if the ship is over 20000 DWT, and are used on
petroleum tankers to monitor the flammability of the atmosphere in spaces such as double hull spaces, pump
rooms and pipe tunnels in double bottoms.

Three general arrangements have been developed for fixed monitoring installations, as follows:
 Sensing devices distributed throughout the spaces to be monitored. Signals are taken sequentially
from each sensor by a central control.
 A gas measurement system installed in the central control room. Samples of the atmospheres to be
checked are drawn sequentially, usually by vacuum pump, through sample lines to the central gas
measurement system. It is important to ensure that there is no leakage of air into the system as that
would dilute the samples and cause misleading readings.
 Infra-red sensors located in the space being monitored with the electronics necessary for processing
the signals located in a safe location, usually the central control room.

Fixed gas detection units are usually fitted as a means of detecting leakage and not for gas testing prior to
entry. Gas testing for entry should only be carried out using equipment that has been calibrated and tested
and that has appropriate indicator scales. Some fixed gas detection units do meet these criteria.

Measurement of Oxygen Concentrations

Portable oxygen analyzers are normally used to determine whether the atmosphere inside an enclosed space
(cargo tank for example) may be considered fully inerted or safe for entry. Fixed oxygen analyzers are used
for monitoring the oxygen content of the boiler uptakes and the inert gas main.

The following are the most common types of oxygen analyzers in use:
 Paramagnetic sensors.
 Electrochemical sensors.

All analyzers, regardless of type, should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
If so used, and subject to the limitations listed below, the analyzers may be regarded as reliable.
Oxygen Analyzer
The oxygen analyser is an instrument that measures the oxygen content in a compartment. It can be used to
check whether the oxygen content is 5% or below, to check if the tank is inerted or if it is 21% for the
purpose of man entry.

Many types of oxygen analyzers are in use across industries. It is a very important instrument on board ships
for enclosed space entry and inerting procedures. There are many manufacturers and models for the oxygen
analyzer. The most commonly used type on ships is the one that uses the paramagnetic property of the gas.
Paramagnetism is the property of a substance to be attracted towards a magnetic field. So the principle of
working of the oxygen analyzer is based on the paramagnetic property of oxygen gas.

Measurement of Oxygen Concentrations: Portable oxygen analyzers are normally used to determine
whether the atmosphere inside an enclosed space (cargo tank for example) may be considered fully inerted
or safe for entry. Fixed oxygen analyzers are used for monitoring the oxygen content of the inert gas main.
The following are the most common types of oxygen analyzers in use:
 Paramagnetic sensors.
 Electrochemical sensors.
All analyzers, regardless of type, should be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
If so used, and subject to the limitations listed below, the analyzers may be regarded as reliable.

Oxygen analyser (circuit)

Use of Oxygen Analysers- Paramagnetic Sensors: Oxygen is strongly paramagnetic (i.e. it is attracted by
the poles of a magnet but does not retain any permanent magnetism) whereas most other common gases are
not. This property means that oxygen content can be measured in a wide variety of gas mixtures.

One commonly used oxygen analyser of the paramagnetic type has a sample cell in which a lightweight
body is suspended in a magnetic field. When sample gas is drawn through the cell, the suspended body
experiences a torque proportional to the magnetic susceptibility of the gas. An electric current passing
through a coil wound around the suspended body produces an equal and opposing torque. The equalising
current is a measure of the magnetic force and is thus a measure of the magnetic susceptibility of the sample,
i.e. related to its oxygen content.

Before use, the analyser should be tested with air for a reference point of 21% oxygen and with nitrogen or
span gas for a 0% oxygen reference point.

Please Note: Releasing nitrogen or carbon dioxide in a confined or unventilated area can lower the
concentration of oxygen to a level that is immediately dangerous to life or health. Calibration should
therefore only be carried out in well ventilated areas.

The analyser readings are directly proportional to the pressure in the measuring cell. The unit is calibrated to
a specific atmospheric pressure and the small error due to atmospheric pressure variations can be corrected if
required. Continuous samples should be supplied to the instrument by positive pressure. They should not be
drawn through the analyzer by negative pressure as the measuring pressure then becomes uncertain.

The filter should be cleaned or replaced when an increase in sample pressure is required to maintain a
reasonable gas flow through the analyzer. The same effect is produced if the filter becomes wet due to
insufficient gas drying. The need for filter cleaning or replacement should be checked regularly.

Electrochemical Sensors: Analyzers of this type determine the oxygen content of a gas mixture by
measuring the output of an electrochemical cell. In one commonly used analyzer, oxygen diffuses through a
membrane into the cell, causing current to flow between two special electrodes separated by a liquid or gel
electrolyte.

The current flow is related to the oxygen concentration in the sample and the scale is arranged to give a
direct indication of oxygen content. The cell may be housed in a separate sensor head connected by cable to
the read out unit. The analyzer readings are directly proportional to the pressure in the measuring cell, but
only small errors are caused by normal variations in atmospheric pressure.

Certain gases may affect the sensor and give rise to false readings. Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
interfere if they are present in concentrations of more than 0.25% by volume. Mercaptans and hydrogen
sulfide can poison the sensor if their levels are greater than 1% by volume. This poisoning does not occur
immediately but over a period of time; a poisoned sensor drifts and cannot be calibrated in air. In such cases,
reference should be made to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Maintenance, Calibration and Test Procedures: As these oxygen analyzers are of vital importance, they
should have a valid calibration certificate and should be tested strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions before use. It is essential that, each time an instrument is to be used, a check is made of batteries
(if fitted) and zero point (21% oxygen) setting. During use, frequent checks should be made to ensure
accurate readings are obtained at all times. Testing is simple on all analyzers using atmospheric air to test
the reference point (21% oxygen) and an inert gas to test the 0% oxygen reference point (nitrogen or span
gas).

In the gas cargo tanks the content of oxygen needs to be checked regularly so that lack of oxygen may not
create any trouble during man entry. Checking the presence of oxygen in the tank atmosphere is done using
oxygen analyzers.

There are two resistance wires made of platinum each exposed to a different chamber. An artificially created
magnetic field surrounds one chamber. The first chamber contains the sample of atmosphere that needs to be
monitored along with the magnetic field and the second chamber contains the same sample of atmosphere
but without the magnetic field.

A Wheatstone bridge circuit is formed using the two wires. It is used to measure a resistance by balancing
two legs of the circuit.
The sample of atmosphere is filtered and passed through a diffuser before reaching the two chambers. One
chamber is with a magnetic field and the other without a magnetic field. A difference in the thermal
conductivity of the oxygen with respect to air is developed and this causes an imbalance in the resistance.
The degree of this imbalance is measured and translated to the percentage by volume content of oxygen in
the sampled atmosphere.

There are several types of Oxygen analysers but the one described below uses a Zirconia sensor.

Zirconia oxygen analyzers determine oxygen concentration using the conductivity of a zirconia ceramic cell.
Zirconia ceramic cells only allow oxygen ions to pass through at high temperatures.

With reference gas on one side and sample gas on the other, oxygen ions move from the side with the
highest concentration of oxygen to that with the lowest concentration. The movement of ions generates an
EMF (Electro Motive Force) which can be measured to determine the oxygen content.

Multi-Gas Instruments
Multi-gas instruments are now widely used and are usually capable of housing four different sensors. A
typical configuration would comprise sensors for measuring:
 Hydrocarbon vapor as a % LFL (explosimeter function using a pellistor sensor).
 Hydrocarbon vapor in inert gas as a % Volume (tankscope function using an infra-red sensor).
 Oxygen (using an electrochemical sensor).
 Hydrogen Sulfide (using an electrochemical sensor).
Multi-gas instruments should be tested at regular intervals in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.

Multi-gas instruments may be supplied for gas measurement use and be fitted with a data logging capability,
but without an alarm function.

Care should be taken when using multi-gas instruments to check for hydrocarbons in an inerted atmosphere
under pressure as the pellistor within the instrument could be damaged if subjected to pressure.

Multi-gas instruments should be tested at regular intervals in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. Multi-gas instruments may be supplied for gas measurement use and be fitted with a data
logging capability, but without an alarm function. Care should be taken when using multi-gas instruments to
check for hydrocarbons in an inerted atmosphere under pressure as the pellistor within the instrument could
be damaged if subjected to pressure.

Portable Gas Detector Instrument

There are several portable multi-gas detectors in the market today, produced by companies such as Draeger
and Crowcon. The Crowcon multi–gas detector uses infra-red technology to detect gases and can detect up-
to 5 different gases (simultaneously). It uses a lithium battery as its power source.

A typical multi-gas detector will be capable of measuring, hydrocarbon vapor as a % of LFL, hydrocarbon
vapor in inert gas as a % of LFL, Oxygen and hydrogen sulfide.

The screen readout of the Crowcon multi-gas detector is as in the diagram below.

Multi-gas detector
Personal Gas Monitors
Multi-gas instruments may be supplied as compact units fitted with an alarm function for personal protective
use during tank entry. These personal monitors are capable of continuously measuring the content of the
atmosphere by diffusion. They usually employ up to four electrochemical sensors and should automatically
provide an audible and visual alarm when the atmosphere becomes unsafe, thereby giving the wearer
adequate warning of unsafe conditions.

Disposable personal gas monitors are now available. They usually provide protection against a single gas
and are available for low oxygen level, and high concentrations of hydrocarbons and other toxic vapors. The
units should provide both audible and visual warning at specified levels of vapor concentration, which
should be at or below the TLV-TWA for the monitored vapor. These monitors typically weigh less than 100
grams and have a life of about 2 years.

Gas Sample Lines and Sampling Procedures

Gas Sample Lines
The material and condition of sample lines can affect the accuracy of gas measurements.

Metal tubes are unsuited to most cargo tank gas measurements and flexible lines should be used.

The gases from crude oils and many petroleum products are composed essentially of paraffinic
hydrocarbons and there are a number of suitable materials available for flexible sample tubing. The problem
of material selection is more difficult for those gases containing substantial proportions of aromatic
hydrocarbons, in particular xylene. It is recommended that in such cases suppliers of sample tubing should
be asked to provide test data showing the suitability of their product for the purposes for which it will be
employed.

Sample tubing should be resistant to hot wash water.

Sample tubing which is cracked or blocked, or which has become contaminated with cargo residues, greatly
affects instrument readings. Users should check the condition of the tubing regularly and replace any found
to be defective.

In order to prevent liquid from being drawn up the gas sampling line and causing contamination of the line,
manufacturers provide a float termination or a probe termination to prevent the ingress of liquid. Operators
should consider using these fittings, but should be aware of any limitations on their use to avoid static
hazards.

Filters in Sample Lines

Cotton filters are used to remove water vapor in some hydrocarbon gas meters, of either the catalytic or non-
catalytic filament types, and additional filters are not normally needed. In extremely wet conditions, e.g.
during tank washing, excessive water can be removed from the gas sample using materials that retain water
but do not affect the hydrocarbons. Suitable materials are granular anhydrous calcium chloride or sulfate. If
required, soda asbestos selectively retains hydrogen sulfide without affecting the hydrocarbons. However, it
also retains carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide and should not be used in tanks inerted with scrubbed flue
gas.

Water traps are often used in modern gas measurement instruments. These utilize a Polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) membrane that prevents liquid and moisture passing onto the sensors.

The use of water-retaining filters is essential with oxygen meters, particularly of the paramagnetic type,
because the presence of water vapor in the sample can damage the measuring cell. Only manufacturer’s
recommended filters should be used.
Sampling Procedures
Every tank has ‘dead spots’ where the rate of change of gas concentration during ventilation or purging is
less than the average in the bulk of the tank. The location of these dead spots depends on the positions of the
inlet and outlet through which ventilating air or inert gas is admitted and expelled and also on the disposition
of the structural members in the tank. Generally, but not invariably, the dead spots are to be found within the
tank bottom structure. The sample line should be long enough to permit sampling in the bottom structure.

Differences in gas concentration between the bulk volume of the tank and the dead spots vary depending on
the operating procedures in use. For example, the powerful water jets produced by fixed washing machines
are excellent mixing devices which tend to eliminate major differences in gas concentration between one
location in the tank and another. Similarly, the introduction of ventilating air or inert gas as powerful jets
directed downwards from the deckhead produces good mixing and minimizes variations in concentration.

Safety Equipment
Specific Learning Objectives

Introduction
The skill and competency in selecting the right PPE and don them in time is probably the difference in life
and death on board a tank ship. This needs continual training and updating your knowledge on such
equipment. Many newer and more sophisticated PPE have been in the market and much criticism about
them being uncomfortable and difficult to maneuver ideas have largely been overcome with lighter and
better materials and also with new design features. You need the knowledge to know how they work: but
you also need to know how to use them in situations that require their applications. Time and again we still
hear crews dying in ship's tanks due to lack of oxygen or inhaling toxic fumes and lose consciousness etc; all
of these were preventable just with the use of the correct PPE. So, read this topic for your own safety and
safety of your colleagues on board.

Breathing Apparatus
Introduction
The Breathing Apparatus or the BA set as it is commonly known as, forms the standard part of the fireman's
outfit. When used correctly it assists fireman in rescue operation keeping him safe. The designated fireman
in a fire party should regularly practice donning of the BA set so that he does not miss out any steps during
actual fire fighting.

Breathing Apparatus or BA
The B.A must be carried before donning, otherwise you will become the casualty and might lead to loss of
your life while fire fighting.

BREATHING APPARATUS CONTROL

Prior to entry it is important that each Breathing apparatus Breathing apparatus. wearer reports to control
so that the following are recorded:-
 Name
 Cylinder pressure
 Time entering
 Location of team and job in hand.
The average person uses 40 liters of air/minute. However, during physical exercise and the likely adrenalin
flow in an emergency situation this consumption is likely to be much higher, coupled to this you have the
actual fitness levels of the personnel involved. Thus although the theoretical exit time will have been
calculated this could vary quite considerably from the actual time someone may have. Thus it is the
responsibility of the wearer to regularly check the contents of his pressure gauge.

With this in mind the wearer should allow time to exit the space he is in but also maximize the working air
available. The working air is defined as the difference between the full bottle pressure and the whistle
pressure, ie you should be out of the space and in fresh air when your whistle sounds.

For example:- 300 bar , 9 liter cylinder ........... Total Time 61 mins
Whistle Time 10 mins
Working Time 51 mins

200 bar, 9 liter cylinder ........... Total Time 45 mins

Whistle Time 10 mins
Working Time 35 mins

Thus , you must be thinking about exiting the space when you have used half the working air i.e.
start press....... .............. 200 bars
whistle press .............. 60 bars
Available working press ..... 140 bars
return to exit.................... 130 bars

If a team fails to re-appear at the exit after calculated exit time then rescue team should be sent in to find
them.

SEARCH AND RESCUE TECHNIQUES

Searching for a casualty or for a fire in a space is always hazardous especially if that space is dark, full of
smoke and possibly damaged.

The term search in fire fighting terms means we are able to move through an incident in such a way that:
 We can enter an area and safely locate hazards
 Follow a known route whether team is familiar with space or not
 Search a complete area with confidence
 Ensure the team can find way back to entry point
 Maintain safety of team to best of our ability.
Left and right hand search is used and in simple terms the principle is to follow our hand against a bulkhead
to guide us through that space. The team must assume that unless any restrictions are made by OIC then they
will go through every door and go up or down every ladder always keeping the same hand in contact with
the bulkhead. It is essential that they do not deviate from such a path in order to ensure their exit and should
any mishap overtake them the emergency team will find them following the same brief.

THE BA SHUFFLE
Both members of a team will move using this method to ensure the ground is safe ahead before committing
their weight to it. The BA wearer keeps his weight on one foot and then sweeps the ground ahead in a semi
circular motion with his other foot. At the same time he uses his free hand to sweep above his head and
infront to ensure a clear route. No.2 will shuffle along beside him (DEMONSTRATE).

When opening a door it is always important to ascertain which way the door opens ie towards or away from
you, and then using door or frame as protection in case of backdraft on opening. Only ever crack open door
and keep low until you are sure it is safe to proceed.

SEARCHING OUT
It is important to make a thorough search of an area quickly. To achieve this No1 will maintain contact with
the door frame whilst No2 reaches out as far as possible away from direction of travel - don’t forget most
likely place to find casualty is behind or close to the door! Once the area around door is clear the team
swings around so that No1 has contact with appropriate bulkhead and No2 remains out towards the middle
of the space but always in contact with No1.

TURN ROUND AND RETREAT

When team deem it is time to retreat be means of gauge checking or because they have found casualty they
turn around and follow the other hand out of the incident ie a left hand search in becomes a right hand search
out.

LADDERS AND STAIRWAYS

Both are potentially hazardous to the BA wearer, if possible teams must be made aware of any during brief
prior to entry. You should always go backwards down stairs testing each step prior to committing your
weight. No2 should be guided by No1. When bringing casualty down No1 will go first and No2 will drag
casualty down behind him being guided and supported by No1.

It is vital teams are correctly briefed and are clear which hand search they are to carry out with any
restrictions imposed. The team themselves must take care to follow brief exactly for their own safety and the
safety of those following.All vessels are to carry at least two emergency escape breathing devices (EEBD)
and one spare device within accommodation spaces. The numbers varies as per administrative (Flag state)
requirement. These are marked in fire control plan.

Tank Evacuating Equipment

Neil Robertson Stretcher
This stretcher is used to ensure stability before and during lifting. The Neil Robertson’s unique spliced slat
design is used in difficult rescue situations when a casualty needs to be lowered or lifted to safety.
It is made from spliced, ram-in slats with a tough rot-proof cotton exterior.
Casualty is held safely in place with buckled cotton straps and regularly spaced eyelets.
Durable manila support ropes enhance rescuer confidence and help resist chaffing.
Strong and supportive head restraints offer stability during vertical lifting.

Neil Robertson Stretcher

Escape respiratory protection

Known as EEBD (emergency escape breathing devices), they provide the wearer with an independent
breathable air supply for a short duration, usually 10 to 15 minutes, enabling the entrant to get back to the
entry point safely if the air quality deteriorates.

(EEBDs provided in fixed places in E/R, ECR, Accommodation and in crew cabins according to type of
ship/ type of cargoes allowed in COF/ flag state requirements. They are used only for emergency escape of
duty personnel from E/R or ECR and personnel from accommodation in case of fire or release of toxic gas
from cargo in to surrounding atmosphere. EEBDs are never carried to work place or enclosed spaces).

The most common EEBD is the compressed air type but alternatives such as a chemical type are available.
Whatever the preferred option, it must be remembered that EEBDs are designed for escape purposes only.

Compressed air EEBD fall into two main types.

 The constant flow (or hood type), when activated, delivers a constant flow of air from the cylinder to
a hood which is pulled over the wearer’s head. This is the easiest type to wear as it requires very
little training or knowledge. The user simply opens the bag which activates the cylinder valve, takes
out the hood and pulls it over their head. A constant flow of air is then delivered to the wearer. The
 disadvantages are that vision is partially impaired because of the hood, it’s a bit noisy due to the air
feed into the hood and some wearers may get a feeling of claustrophobia.
 The positive pressure (or facemask type) EEBD uses a facemask in place of the hood. When
activated, and the facemask donned, air is delivered to the wearers facemask ‘on demand’. This type
requires a little more technical ability to use as the seal is made only when the facemask is in
position and secured in place by a head strap.
Both types are similar in size and weight and can be carried either by a loop strap or worn as a jacket for
added comfort and ‘hands free’ operation.
 Chemical EEBDs have the advantage of being smaller and lighter than their compressed air
counterparts but must be stored in sealed containers. Once opened and used, they must be returned to
the manufacturer for re-servicing. They operate on the principle of a chemical reaction i.e. the CO2
and moisture from your exhaled breath activates the chemical (KO2) which in turn produces oxygen
for the wearer to breathe. Operational durations vary dependent on the model purchased and can
range from 30 to 90 minutes’ usage.

Harnesses

Wearing a harness for entry into an enclosed space is part of shore legislation in many countries, but is still a
relatively new concept for those at sea. The need for such equipment is apparent when a rescue is needed. If
the casualty is already wearing a harness, essential minutes are saved by clipping the harness onto the hoist
and evacuating the person quickly.

Harnesses come in many designs and are normally worn as part of a fall restraint system. The type of
harness which should be worn are ‘rescue harnesses’.

They are specifically designed to ensure that during vertical extrication operations the person will lean not
more than 10 degrees from the vertical axis: ideal when winching through restrictive openings such as those
encountered on board a vessel. Although they may be awkward to wear in an enclosed space, they have the
added advantage of giving robust lifting points for manhandling a casualty during horizontal extrication.

Protective Clothing and Equipment

The minimum requirements for lifesaving equipment on board all ships are laid down by national and
international regulations. All equipment should be inspected regularly and kept ready for immediate use in a
dearly marked and accessible place. Practical demonstrations, training and drills should be regularly
undertaken so that personnel become experienced in the use of all safety equipment and know the location
of each item.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE GEAR

1. Protective Clothing : Protective clothing is a coverall which protects the body of the crew member
from hazardous substance like hot oil, water, welding spark etc. It is popularly known as “boiler
suit”. This includes conventional or disposable overalls, boiler suits, aprons, chemical suits thermal
wear. The choice of materials includes flame-retardant, anti-static, chain mail, chemically
impermeable, and high-visibility.
2. Helmet : The most important part of the human body is the head. It needs utmost protection which is
provided by a hard plastic helmet on the ship. A chin strap is also provided with the helmet which
keeps the helmet on place when there is a trip or fall.
3. Safety Shoes : Maximum of the internal space of the ship is utilized by cargo and machinery, which
is made of hard metal and which make it clumsy for crew to walk around. Safety shoes ensure that
nothing happens to the crew member’s feet while working or walking on board.
4. Safety Hand gloves : Different types of hand gloves are provided on board ship. All these are used in
operations wherein it becomes imperative to protect ones hands. Some of the gloves provided are
heat resistant gloves to work on hot surface, cotton gloves for normal operation, welding gloves,
chemical gloves etc.
 5. Goggles : Eyes are the most sensitive part of the human body and in daily operations on ship chances
are very high for having an eye injury. Protective glass or goggles are used for eye protection,
whereas welding goggles are used for welding operation which protects the eyes from high intensity
spark.
6. Ear Muff/plug : Engine room of the ship produces 110-120 db of sound which is very high for
human ears. Even few minutes of exposure can lead to head ache, irritation and sometimes partial or
full hearing loss. An ear muff or ear plug is used on board ship which dampens the noise to a
bearable decibel value.
7. Safety harness : Routine ship operation includes maintenance and painting of high and elevated
surfaces which require crew members to reach areas that are not easily accessible. To avoid a fall
from such heightened area, safety harness is used. Safety harness is donned by the operator at one
end and tied at a strong point on the other end.
8. Face mask : Working on insulation surface, painting or carbon cleaning involves minor hazardous
particles which are harmful for human body if inhaled directly. To avoid this, face mask are provided
which acts as shield from hazardous particle.
9. Chemical suit : Use of chemicals on board ship is very frequent and some chemicals are very
dangerous when they come in direct contact with human skin. A chemical suit is worn to avoid such
situations.
10. Welding shield : Welding is a very common operation on board ship for structural repairs. A welder
is provided with welding shield or mask which protects the eyes from coming in direct contact with
ultraviolet rays of the spark of the weld.

Additional notes on work hazards and personal protection equipment/gears

Appropriate protective clothing should be worn as necessary to protect those involved in cargo operations
from the hazards associated with the cargo. The suits, gloves, boots, goggles, face shields and other items
used should be suitable for the cargo. Many plastics become brittle and crack when subjected to low
temperatures, or can be dissolved by the cargo, although clothing of PVC or similar material is less
susceptible to absorption, and should be worn when exposure to vapor or liquid emissions is involved.

In particular, gloves should be worn when handling cold equipment, valves or slip tubes, face protection
should be worn when there is a danger of liquid emission (e.g. dismantling cargo equipment, using slip
tubes, or sampling) and respiratory protection should be worn during cargo operations involving toxic or
asphyxiating gases.

Cargo vapor may be absorbed into working clothing in sufficient quantities to create a hazard when taken
into accommodation, galley, smoke room etc.

Eyes
Hazards
Chemical or metal splash, dust, projectiles, gas and vapor, radiation

Options
Safety spectacles, goggles, face screens, face shields, visors

Note
Make sure the eye protection chosen has the right combination of impact/dust/splash/molten metal eye
protection for the task and fits the user properly

Head and neck

Hazards
Impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting tangled in machinery, chemical
drips or splash, climate or temperature
Options
Industrial safety helmets, bump caps, hairnets.

Note
Some safety helmets incorporate or can be fitted with specially-designed eye or hearing protection
Replace head protection if it is damaged
Ears
Hazards
Noise – a combination of sound level and duration of exposure, very high-level sounds are a hazard even
with short duration

Options
Earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert/canal caps

Note
Provide the right hearing protectors for the type of work, and make sure workers know how to fit them
Choose protectors that reduce noise to an acceptable level, while allowing for safety and communication
Hands and arms
Hazards
Abrasion, temperature extremes, cuts and punctures, impact, chemicals, electric shock, radiation, vibration,
biological agents and prolonged immersion in water
Options
Gloves, gloves with a cuff, gauntlets and sleeves that covers part or all of the arm
Note
Avoid gloves when operating machines such as bench drills where the gloves might get caught
Some materials are quickly penetrated by chemicals – take care in selection, see HSE’s skin at work
website.
Barrier creams are unreliable and are no substitute for proper PPE
Wearing gloves for long periods can make the skin hot and sweaty, leading to skin problems. Use of
separate cotton inner gloves can help to prevent this
Feet and legs
Hazards
Wet, hot and cold conditions, electrostatic build-up, slipping, cuts and punctures, falling objects, heavy
loads, metal and chemical splash, vehicles

Options
Safety boots and shoes with protective toecaps and penetration-resistant, mid-sole wellington boots and
specific footwear, eg foundry boots and chainsaw boots Rubber and chemical boots.
Note
Footwear can have a variety of sole patterns and materials to help prevent slips in different conditions,
including oil - or chemical-resistant soles. It can also be anti-static, electrically conductive or thermally
insulating
Appropriate footwear should be selected for the risks identified
Lungs
Hazards
Oxygen-deficient atmospheres, dusts, gases and vapors
Options
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE)
 Some respirators rely on filtering contaminants from workplace air. These include simple filtering
facepieces and respirators and power-assisted respirators
 Make sure it fits properly, e.g., for tight-fitting respirators (filtering facepieces, half and full masks)
 There are also types of breathing apparatus which give an independent supply of breathable air, eg
fresh-air hose, compressed airline and self-contained breathing apparatus
Note
  The right type of respirator filter must be used as each is effective for only a limited range of
substances
 Filters have only a limited life. Where there is a shortage of oxygen or any danger of losing
consciousness due to exposure to high levels of harmful fumes, only use breathing apparatus – never
use a filtering cartridge
 You will need to use breathing apparatus in a confined space or if there is a chance of an oxygen
deficiency in the work area
 If you are using respiratory protective equipment, look at HSE’s publication Respiratory protective
equipment at work: A practical guide

Resuscitators
On board ship, the resuscitation is generally limited to manual resuscitators and administering CPR and
Mouth-to-Mouth breathing and that does not need equipment, but very good First-Aid training. Ship's
carrying dangerous goods such as LNG/LPG now carries pressurized oxygen and hospital equipment to
facilitate such treatment. But this will require also quality medical training to shipboard crew, as part of their
competency.

UNITOR : Manual Resuscitator : (bag-valve and mask-resuscitator complete with oxygen reservoir and
face masks in 2 sizes) 1 Guedel Airway in 3 sizes Nebulizer with aerosol mask and oxygen tubing
The process for helping the victim is as shown below:

The Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG), requires vessels carrying dangerous goods to carry 40 liter@200bar
oxygen cylinder(s) in the ships hospital. The Ship Registry considers carrying such large quantities of
oxygen inside the accommodation may pose both fire and safety issues.
The MFAG for use in accidents involving dangerous goods came into force on the 01 July 2002 and applies
to all vessels to which SOLAS applies.

OXYGEN ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROLLED VENTILATION

Oxygen is necessary for life. Some intoxications may interfere with normal oxygenation of the blood or
tissues. In particular, oxygen can be lifesaving to casualties who have inhaled smoke and other toxic gases
but it needs to be given with all speed. Basic training is required to administer oxygen.

Diagnosis
 There is difficulty in breathing with an increased rate at first (over 30 per minute). Later it may
become slow and stop.
 The pulse is rapid, usually over 100 per minute.
 There is blueness of the skin with purple lips and tongue.
 The casualty may be agitated at first but become apathetic, with muscular weakness.
Unconsciousness may follow this.
 The pupils of the eyes will react to light at first. If they become large and do not react to light, life is
in danger.

Treatment
 Give oxygen by means of a face mask. It makes assisted or controlled ventilation possible. It is better
to have the casualty well oxygenated with controlled artificial respiration than to have him poorly
oxygenated from breathing spontaneously.
 Place a mask over the nose and mouth. It is essential that the face mask is held firmly in place so as
to avoid leakage.
 Check that the equipment is correctly assembled according to the manufacturer's instructions and that
sufficient oxygen is contained in the cylinder (a cylinder of 2.5 liter capacity, filled under a pressure
of 200 bar, delivers 500 L oxygen).
The commonest emergency requiring medical assistance on board is toxic gas inhalation from fires or
specific toxic gases. Combustion in fires on board may well involve substantial release of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen cyanide. In these cases oxygen should be given at a flow rate of 8 L per minute.

In life-threatening conditions, such as lung oedema or circulatory failure, oxygen should also be given at a
flow rate of 8 L per minute.

Warning: Smoking, a naked flame or light fires must not be allowed in the same room during the
administration of oxygen because of the risk of fire.

MFAG for carrying Oxygen on board

In order for a vessel to comply with Column A or B of Appendix 14 of the MFAG the following quantities
of oxygen available in the ship’s hospital for resuscitation purposes are required:
 40 liter@200 bar, medical oxygen cylinder in ships hospital assembled for direct use with 1 flow
meter unit with two ports for supplying oxygen for 2 persons at the same time. If more than 1 non-
portable oxygen cylinder is used there must be 2 flow meter units for supplying oxygen for 2 persons
at the same time.
 One complete portable set with 2liter@200 bar of oxygen ready for use and a spare cylinder of
2liter@200 bar.
All other vessels that do not have to comply with the MFAG are only required to carry a 2liter@200 bar
portable oxygen set, and a spare cylinder of 2liter@200 bar.

Storage of Medical Oxygen Cylinders

The Ship Registry considers that the storage of large quantities of oxygen in an accommodation space is
potentially dangerous and that it may pose a fire and safety hazard.
In order to resolve the conflict between the intentions of MFAG and the fire and safety issues the Ship
Registry recommends that compliance with the MFAG requirements can be achieved by :-

1. The supply of smaller cylinders inside the accommodation

The required amount (40L@200bar) of medical oxygen in a number of smaller capacity (e.g. 4 cylinders of
approximately 10 liters@200bar each, or equivalent) for use inside the accommodation.

One of the cylinders should be stored in the hospital ready for immediate use. The other remaining cylinders
are to be securely stored in a suitable space outside the accommodation, where the cylinders will be
protected from deterioration and where the risk of fire and explosion is minimized.

As a consequence of the difficulty that can be experienced in obtaining and refilling 10 liter cylinders, in the
event that a 40 liter cylinder is installed it is recommended the following guidance is used :

2. Use of a single 40 Liter Cylinder

The use of the 40 liter@200bar medical oxygen cylinder can be stored in either of the following locations:
1. Outside the accommodation block, as close to the hospital as is reasonably possible, in a secure and
weather protected cabinet.
2. Inside the accommodation block in the hospital beside the bed(s), provided the cylinder is securely
locked in a frame connected directly to the steel structure of the ship.
The Ship Registry recommends that a 40 liter oxygen cylinder situated either inside or outside the
accommodation block should be fitted with the following safety device to prevent accidental release of high
pressure oxygen into the hospital:

The oxygen regulator in the pipework from the 40 liter cylinder should have a relief valve fitted with a
discharge line piped outside the hospital to free air. This ensures that if there is a fault in the system, high
pressure oxygen cannot escape into the low pressure side of the system, and will be vented outside of the
accommodation.

3. All systems should be maintained and inspected as follows:

 Inspected annually on board by a competent person in compliance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
 Note: a competent person may be a senior member of the ships staff.
 Medical oxygen has a limited shelf life of 3 years and should be landed ashore for re-charging at the
expiry date.
 The cylinders are to be hydraulically tested every 5 years, or at an interval specified by the
manufacturer, whichever occurs sooner.
 Oxygen pressure regulators should be serviced at least every 5 years.
 Grease or oil should not be used to lubricate high pressure oxygen fittings.
 All high pressure pipes from the bottle to the regulator should be subject to a pressure test every 3
years by the manufacturer or his appointed agents.
 The hospital ventilation system should be maintained as per the manufacture’s instructions and
operating correctly at all times.
 There should be a warning sign on the hospital door stating ‘high concentrations of oxygen may be
present’.
 There should be a sign in the hospital adjacent to the oxygen installation stating, ‘all system valves to
be shut when not in use’.

Rescue and Escape Equipment

Rescue equipment
The worst case scenario during any enclosed space entry is to have to rescue casualties. To ensure to carry
out rescue operation quickly and efficiently, dedicated rescue equipment is essential.

Almost every case of enclosed space entry on board a ship will involve ascending or descending through
restrictive entries into a tank or chamber. Where a vertical entry is being made, extrication equipment should
be set up prior to entry in order to enable an effective rescue to be implemented immediately. Removing
someone with a rope and pulley is strenuous, time consuming and carries a serious risk of injury to the
casualty.

Chain blocks, rope and pulley systems or indeed man handling are accepted methods of rescue on many
ships and installations. These methods should be replaced, where possible, by using mechanical man-riding
winches.

Man-riding winches can effect casualty retrievals from varying depths and are certified to lift up to 150 kg
on the man-riding mode.

Features will vary depending on the manufacturer, with some dependent on a tripod or a four-legged
arrangement, while others can operate independently.

Mechanical winches drastically reduce the need for manual handling and make casualty extrication less
onerous on the rescuers.

Winches of all types depend on having an effective anchorage point. These may be fixed anchorage points
such as eye bolts, lifting beams and certified cross members or mobile anchorage points such as davit arms,
tripods, girder clamps or strops and shackles. Whatever type of winching arrangement is chosen,
consideration should always be given to the location and strength of anchorage points.
Basic Knowledge of Safe Working Practices

Safe Working Practices on Oil tankers

 This section deals with both crude and product tankers.
 The appropriate national and international requirements should be observed.
 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and
Terminals (ISGOTT) which provides comprehensive information on the safe operation of tankers.
 Seafarers employed on tankers should be properly trained in accordance with applicable national and
international requirements.
 For each operation the Master should designate a competent professional who is familiar with the
safe operation of tankers. The Master should ensure that the designated professional has available an
adequate number of trained and competent hands.
 Particular attention is drawn to the following specific issues:
1. The need for a well-structured on board “safety policy” backed up by the appropriate Safety
Committee with designated responsibilities;
2. The need for compliance of strict smoking and hot-work policies;
3. The need for crew members to fully understand the hazardous nature of cargoes carried;
4. The need for crew members to be aware of the precautions necessary to enter an enclosed space;
5. The need for crew members to be aware of the inherent dangers of cargo pump rooms. Pump
rooms(*), by virtue of their location, design and operational needs, constitute a particular hazard and
therefore necessitate special precautions;
6. The need for crew members to be made aware of the carcinogenic health hazards resulting from
exposure to minor concentrations of benzene vapor in the air. This danger can result from breathing
vapors of benzene-containing cargoes such as gasoline, JP-4 and some crude oils;
7. The need to ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and emergency action to
be taken in the event of spillage.
(*) - Special Precautions on Entering / Working in Cargo Pump Rooms

It is well-known that on account of their design, location and operational requirements, cargo pump rooms
constitute a hazard and therefore necessitate the adoption of special precautions, as follows:-
 “Permit to enter”(*) procedures to be complied with and the Master’s permission must be obtained
for “Enclosed Space Entry”(**);
(*) – Entry permitted when the atmosphere is proved to contain 21% O2 by volume, hydrocarbon vapor
concentration less than 1% LEL and contains zero toxic or other contaminants.
(**) – Enclosed Space Entry Check List to be completed by a Responsible professional.
 All entries into the pump room shall be recorded, showing the name, designation and the timing of
entry / exit, by the designated Duty Officer, manning the Navigation Bridge or the Cargo Control
Room;
 Ventilation fans (in drawing air out of the pump room) shall be started before switching on the
pump-room lighting. Ventilation must not be stopped until all personnel have left the pump room.
Special attention is to be paid to the levels below the lower platform, where petroleum gas is liable to
accumulate. The impellers, shafts, seals of the ventilator fans and associated trunking should be
visually inspected. Functioning of change-over flaps and fire-dampers should be verified. Routine
vibration monitoring shall help in identifying component wear.
 Frequent communication checks must be made at commonly agreed intervals. Alarm should be
raised in case of failure to receive a response from the insider(s) of the pump room
 There should be a notice at the pump-room entrance, prohibiting access without prior authorization
from a responsible shipboard professional
 Operation / repair involving the opening of pumps, valves, etc. should be carried out only with the
immediate and clear knowledge of the responsible professional. The risk of unsuspected pockets of
petroleum, liquid, gas or inert gas may be released when such components / equipment are opened
up. This can happen even after a tanker / tank has been pronounced gas free.
  Integrity of the pump room approved lighting system must be maintained. If additional lighting is
required to be fitted, only approved equipment ought to be used. Proper maintenance of the lighting
system is essential
 Pump room bilges should be kept free of wastes, rubbish and, oil should not be allowed to
accumulate. Bilge level monitoring devices together with appropriately located alarms, are to be
provided preferably.
 Draining of cargoes to the pump room bilges should be prohibited
 Integrity of bulkhead-penetrations, pipelines, valves are to be examined visually and subjected to
routine maintenance and pressure tests, to verify their condition.
 The centrifugal cargo pumps ought to be provided with double-seal arrangements, so that leakages
are contained from the shaft seal.
Safe working practices on a Chemical Tanker
 Relevant aspects of the last section may also apply to this section.
 Ships intended for the carriage of Chemicals in Bulk should comply with the appropriate national
and international regulations.
 Ships intended for the carriage of Chemicals should carry only those Chemicals for which their
construction and equipment are suitable, and which are specified in the Certificate / International
Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk.
 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of the Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) which
provides comprehensive information on the safe operation of Chemical tankers.
 Seafarers employed on Chemical tankers should receive specialized training and be instructed on the
safe carriage of all chemicals which the ship may be required to carry, as appropriate to their duties.
 For each operation the Master should designate a competent professional who is familiar with the
safe operation of tankers. The Master should ensure that the designated officer has available an
adequate number of suitably
 Particular attention is drawn to the following specific issues:
1. The need to ensure that any cargo offered is listed in the shipping documents by the correct technical
name;
2. The need to ensure that in case a cargo is a mixture, an analysis is provided indicating the dangerous
components which contribute significantly to the hazard of the product. This information should be
available on board, and be freely accessible to all concerned;
3. The need to ensure that a full description of a cargo's physical and chemical properties is supplied
with each cargo loaded;
4. The need to ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and the emergency
action(s) to be taken in the event of spillage or crew exposure to possible contamination by
chemicals;
5. The need to ensure that cargoes requiring stabilizers or inhibitors, and which are not accompanied by
the required Certificates, are not accepted for shipment;
6. The need to carry out emergency drills using protective equipment and safety and rescue devices at
regular intervals;
7. The need to plan effective first-aid treatment in the event of accidental personal contact.

Entering Enclosed Spaces

Potentially Dangerous Spaces

Often a question on board will be what an enclosed space constitutes. What is an enclosed space is a
frequently asked question.

IMO defines an enclosed space as being one which has any of the following characteristics:
 Limited openings for entry and exit
 Inadequate ventilation
 Is not designed for continuous worker occupancy.
The definition includes, but is not limited to, the following compartments:
 Cargo spaces
 Double bottoms
 Fuel tanks
 Ballast tanks
 Cargo pump-rooms
 Cargo compressor rooms (Liquefied Gas)
 Cofferdams
 Chain lockers
 Void spaces
 Duct keels
 Inter-barrier spaces
 Boilers
 Engine crankcases
 Engine scavenge air receivers
 Sewage tanks.
To overcome any doubts whether or not a particular compartment is an enclosed space, it is advisable to
carry out a risk assessment in accordance with IMO recommendations. As circumstances may change, the
process of carrying out a risk assessment to identify enclosed spaces should be repeated at regular intervals.

Should there be any unexpected reduction in or loss of the means of ventilation of those spaces that are
usually continuously or adequately ventilated then such spaces should also be dealt with as dangerous
spaces.

When it is suspected that there could be a deficiency of oxygen in any space, or that toxic gases, vapors or
fumes could be present, then such a space should be considered to be a dangerous space.

If there is lack of ventilation in some spaces either continuously or adequately, then such spaces should also
be considered has dangerous spaces. if there is any doubt that there could be a deficiency of oxygen because
of generation of toxic gases, vapors or fumes, then such spaces could be treated as dangerous spaces. Risk
assessment to be done for entering these spaces.

Cargo Tanks
The tanks of oil, chemical and gas carriers are hazardous places with brackets, frames, floors and several
other steel parts. The moving time from one end of the double bottom tank to another end may take more
than fifteen minutes.

A person can be affected if deprived of oxygen for about four minutes.

Intrinsically safe portable fans are required for the ventilation of enclosed spaces before the person enters.
The air supply blowers should be used to blow clean air into the space, driving out the foul air through
ventilators and manhole covers, at the extreme far end of the tank. The oxygen content in the tank must be
21 percent prior to entry.

An exercise for inclusion in the ship’s regular safety drills is to practice a rescue from an enclosed space,
followed by the first aid drill and the medical treatment exercise.
Rescue from an enclose space should be a part of regular safety drill and should be practiced, followed by a
first aid and medical treatment exercise.

Fuel and Ballast Tanks

The ballast tanks of a ship have the most favorable conditions for corrosion. One has to watch every step
when inside these tanks. The corrosion damage may not be readily visible so great care should be taken
when moving around.

Even though oxygen depletion is the main concern during entry into these tanks, there have been rare cases
where traces of random toxic gases were present. One has to be alert to the slightest indication of anything
out of the normal when inside theses spaces.

If the ship has been ballasting at river mouths where fine mud sediments enter the tanks, extra care should be
taken. The sediments settle over the surfaces in the tank and can be slippery.

To make it worse, the sediment layer is too smooth to distinguish from the deck and sometimes, the surface
appears to be dry on top but there could be a wet sediment layer underneath. A person moving carelessly can
slip and fall.

Fuel tanks can be very slippery depending on the grade of fuel carried. Proper personal protective equipment
is a must. Generally, the fuel tanks are not box shaped and reaching some parts inside can be tricky.

To minimize the risk of slips and falls, potential hazards such as unguarded openings, wet or muddy surfaces
and lightening holes in intermediate decks within ballast tanks should neither not be overlooked, including
the need for personnel to be properly equipped.

A person should properly dress up to avoid and minimize the risk of slips and falls on wet or muddy surfaces
and lightening holes on deck or elsewhere.

A MAIB Investigation Report on an accident that took place during a routine inspection of a ballast tank
reiterates that particular care must be taken by personnel in ballast tank, and sufficient lighting should be
provided to enable safe movement through the space.

Pump Rooms
Gas detection
it is mandatory that pump rooms on tankers be fitted with a fixed gas detection system capable of
continuously monitoring the presence of hydrocarbon gas.

The gas detection system should be provided with a pre-alarm function,which, for example, could be set to
alarm at a gas concentration of about 10% LEL, and a primary alarm, set to activate at gas concentrations of,
say, 30% LEL. Set procedures should be established with regard to actions to be taken in the event of an
alarm occurring, especially relating to vacating the pump room or stopping cargo pumps.

Oxygen detection
Means should be provided to enable the oxygen content within the pump room to be measured from the deck
using a portable meter and sampling tube prior to pump room entry. Any arrangement utilized should ensure
the effective monitoring of the remote parts of the pump room.

Entry procedure
Permit system is used to control pump room entry, whether or not a fixed gas detection system is in use, and
those procedures are established with regard to entry checks.

Arrangements should be established to enable effective communication to be maintained at all times

between personnel within the pump room and those outside. Regular communication checks should be made
at pre-agreed intervals and failure to respond should be cause to raise the alarm.
Communication systems should provide links between the pump room and the navigation bridge, engine
room and cargo control room. In addition, audible and visual repeaters for essential alarm systems, such as
the general alarm should be provided within the pump room.

Inspection and maintenance of ventilation fans

Pump room ventilation fans are required to operate by drawing air out of the space. As a consequence,
should gas be present in the pump room the vapors will be drawn through the blades of the fan impeller and
could be ignited, if for example, the blades contacted the casing or if the fan's bearings or seals over-heated.
The condition of the fan trunking should be inspected and the proper operation of change-over flaps and fire
dampers confirmed.

Cofferdams
An empty watertight space located between two tanks which carry different liquids is known as a cofferdam.
The purpose of a cofferdam is to prevent the two liquids from the adjacent tanks from mixing with each
other in the event of damage to one of the bulkheads.

The cofferdam has manholes for entering and carrying out inspections at regular intervals. Arrangement is
provided for taking soundings to check for leaks from adjacent tanks. Normally, the cofferdam must be
maintained dry so that new leaks can be detected easily.

A cofferdam is an enclosed space and all enclosed space entry measures have to be observed before
attempting to enter it.

One can be easily be fooled in the case of a cofferdam because it is maintained empty and there are virtually
no sources of any toxic gases. However the possibility of depletion of oxygen over a period of time in an
enclosed space should not be forgotten.

When doing preparations for entry into a cofferdam, a very important factor to consider is the possible
presence of fumes from liquids or gases carried in the adjacent compartments in case of a leak in the
bulkhead.

Before entering into a cofferdam, it would be prudent to check the cofferdam for gases likely to be found in
the adjacent compartments additional to checking for oxygen. All entry into enclosed spaces must be
planned and carried out with great care irrespective of whether it carried any liquids, gases or not.

Duct Keels
Double bottom ships are provided with a duct keel, a tunnel running from the forward bulkhead of the
engine room to the collision bulkhead. The space is used for piping and cabling. An entrance to the duct keel
is normally provided at the aft and the forward end, sometimes one at amidships as well.

The width of a duct keel is limited to 2.0 m and it need not extend aft of the engine room. It is strengthened
from the tank top and also from the keel plating to maintain a continuity of strength of the transverse floors.

The duct keel is provided with extractor fans for ventilation and sometimes can have access from the pump
room. Often entry is planned into the duct keel in order to access one of the double bottom tanks from
within.

The duct keel and the double bottom tank in this case must be regarded as two separate enclosed space
entries. A stand-by person at the entrance of duct keel and a standby person at the entrance of DB tank
inside the duct keel must be present.
Since the duct keel is a relatively long and narrow space with limited openings, communication by wireless
radio may be hampered. Sufficient arrangements for continuous communication links should be made,
including conducting more frequent checks of communication during entry.

Numerous accidents have occurred in the duct keel. They could have been prevented if the crew had
followed every detail of the prescribed procedures and checklists.

Moving about inside a duct keel can be tricky especially for tall persons and it is not convenient. One must
watch every step so as to not cause injury.

It is provided with lighting but one should not totally rely on the fixed lighting in an enclosed space like duct
keel. It will be prudent to still carry a flash light for each person.

Fixed ventilation fans are fitted on deck and they must be started well in time before entry as per the
procedure and must be running continuously during entry. Sometimes it may be necessary to open up the
entry hatch for proper ventilation when the fan is running.

Precautions before Entering Enclosed or Contaminated Spaces

A ship’s structure is complicated. It has several small and enclosed spaces. Some machinery or workshop
equipment are installed in the enclosed spaces. A ship has a matrix of pipelines, which run through each of
its parts, including enclosed spaces.

An enclosed place can be used for several purposes. When one has to enter these enclosed places for any
reason it is essential to ensure that it is safe to enter.

The enclosed places generate and store toxic gases for many reasons because of lack of ventilation. If an
enclosed space is entered without taking precaution, he or she may suffer unconsciousness and sometimes
even death.

For safety and wellness of the person entering the enclosed space a proper procedure has to be followed.

Procedure for entering an enclosed space

The following are the points that need to be followed before entering an enclosed space:
 A competent officer must carry out a risk assessment as enclosed or confined space is likely to be
deficient in oxygen and dangerous.
 A list of work to be done in an enclosed space should be made. This list helps in carrying out the
work quickly, efficiently and easily.
 Risk assessment including work to be done and rescue operation plan needs to be carried out.
 Potential hazards are to be identified, such as presence of toxic gases.
 Opening and securing has to be done and precautions should be taken to check if the opening of
enclosed space is pressurized or not.
 If hot work is to be carried out, all fire hazard possibilities should be minimized This can be done by
emptying the fuel tank or chemical tank nearby the hot work place.
 The enclosed space should be well ventilated before entering.
 Oxygen content and other gas content needs to be checked with the help of oxygen analyzer and gas
detector. Safe content for man entry is 20% by volume. Less than 20% content is not acceptable.
 Enclosed space should be sufficiently lit and illuminated before entering.
 A checklist to be made and a work permit to be issued after ensuring safety, so as to prevent any
accident which can endanger life.
 Work permit is valid only for a certain period of time. If time period expires then a new permit is to
be issued after a new checklist is filled out.
 Work permit for working in confined space has to be checked and permitted by the Master of the
ship
  Proper signs and 'Men at Work' sign boards should be provided at required places so that person
should not start any equipment, machinery or any operation in the confined space endangering lives
of the people working.
 Before entering the enclosed space the duty officer has to be informed and the work permit issued by
competent authority to be shown to him.
 The checklist has to be signed by the person involved in entry and also by a competent officer.
 With the person inside the space one person always has to be kept on standby for communication
purposes.
The person may also carry a life line inside.
 The person entering the enclosed space should carry oxygen analyzer. The analyzer should be ‘on
all the time to monitor the oxygen content. If the oxygen level drops, the analyzer should sound an
alarm and the person should leave the space without any delay.
 No source of ignition has to be taken inside unless the Master or competent officer is satisfied.
 No extra person should enter the enclosed space. Only adequate an number of persons who are
actually needed inside for work should enter the enclosed space.
Breathing air apparatus and other rescue equipment and spare charge bottles should be readily available
outside the confined space.
 Means of hoisting an incapacitated person should be available.
 After finishing the work and when the person is out of the enclosed space, the after work checklist
has to be filled. After work checklist has been finished when the person comes out of the enclosed
space after completing his work.
 The permit to work has to be closed after this.
The above mentioned procedure is extremely important before a person enters an enclosed space. These
points are imperative to avoid risking any crew member’s life while entering a confined space.

The IMO recommends that “In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the attending
crew member enter the space before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the
safety of those entering the space to undertake rescue operations. Only properly trained and equipped
personnel should perform rescue operations in enclosed spaces” is of particular importance.

To help others in difficulty is instant human nature. The urge to help another risking his or her own life must
be resisted. Proper procedure has to be followed before helping others.

However, another reason for depletion in oxygen content may be due to the contamination of air in the space
by contaminants such as cargo vapor. Presence of cargo vapor or inert gas should always be suspected in
cargo tanks. Leakage of cargo vapor into adjacent enclosed spaces separated from cargo tanks by a single
gas-tight bulkhead should also be anticipated. Similarly, the presence of cargo vapor or inert gas should be
anticipated in enclosed space containing cargo handling or inert gas equipment.

Oxygen content lower than 21% may be a problem in all kinds enclosed spaces. If some work being carried
out inside the tanks such as welding, cutting or brazing, the level of oxygen in the tank will decrease rapidly.
The oxygen level can be decreased by certain chemical reactions like, rusting and paint drying. There may
be possibilities of some spaces called as pockets of atmosphere with less levels of oxygen; therefore, the use
of portable oxygen meter with audible alarm is strongly recommended.

It is not recommended to use a fan to suck air from a space, as in these circumstances the air in the vicinity
of the fan may become explosive or foul. Hence the use of portable blowers.

Need of Preparing Safety Check List

Entry permit should be issued to personnel before entering an enclosed space. It is recommended that the
Master or a responsible officer expressly delegated by him shall sign the permit.

Clear indications regarding maximum period of validity (this should not exceed a normal working day) and
the maximum hours the enclosed space can be left unattended (this should not exceed four hours) should be
mentioned in the entry permit. It is important to ensure that while personnel are working inside, the oxygen
levels and the presence of any contaminants are frequently checked and are within safe limits. If suspicious,
appropriate breathing apparatus and personal protective equipment should be worn along with a lifeline if
possible.

The responsible officer should ensure that:

 The space is thoroughly ventilated by natural or mechanical methods to ensure sufficient oxygen
content and to remove any toxic or flammable gases throughout the space.
 Personnel who are very well trained about the enclosed space entry procedures and familiarization
with safety and emergency procedures should only enter the enclosed space. Also the personnel must
be aware of the procedure of the ship for issuing an entry permit to the enclosed space.
 Always a trained crew person stands at the entrance.
 Establishment of a reliable system of communication that can be understood both by the crew person
standing by at the entrance as well as the personnel entering the space
 Suitable officer of the watch on the bridge or in the cargo control room or in the engine room with
adequate knowledge about the enclosed-space entry operations.
 Rescue procedures are placed appropriately.
Rescue equipment (including lifelines and harnesses) and breathing apparatus are readily available and
resuscitation equipment is prepared.

There must be clear indications in the rescue procedures on how to raise the alarm and call for assistance.
Arrangements should also be made for accessing the concerned space, deployment of reserve equipment and
communication between the place of emergency and command center.

In case of emergency, the attending crew member should not enter the space under any circumstances before
help arrives and evaluates the situation is evaluated to ensure the safety of the people carrying out rescue
operations.

The enclosed spaces must be thoroughly ventilated prior to entry by crew/ personnel and the space to be kept
continuously ventilated.

CHECKLIST
Entry procedures/activities
 Advise the Master, duty officer as necessary
 Carry out risk assessment
 Carry out safety analysis
 Ensure space is ventilated
 Isolate valves and secure the space
 Guarding of all openings
 An attendant standing by at the entrance
 Carry out atmosphere testing
 Confirm the atmosphere to be safe.
 Prepare emergency rescue equipment stand-by
 Establish communication and test it
 Confirm access is safe
 Ensure satisfactory lighting.(Portable lighting intrinsically safe)
 Fall prevention equipment ready
 Work related tools and equipment ready
 Personnel available for rescue
 Entry permit prepared and issued
 All related parties intimated of intended entry
 Enter the space
 Ventilation continuous and regular communication check.
On completion of the work
 Confirmation that all personnel are out of the space
  Confirmation of removal of all equipment
 Close and secure all openings
 Close the permit.

Equipment
Only intrinsically safe equipment should be used in flammable atmosphere.

The OCIMF and ISGOTT guidelines, the safety check list provided in the ISM and safety department of the
dry dock (if the vessel is in the dry dock or repair berth) must be followed in the preparation of the check list
and permit to entry.

The vessel to provide completed information regarding the risks and hazards to the shipping company so
that they make a proper document of the safety checklist and permit to entry and that the operations are
carried out safely.

The Master, Chief Engineer and the Company must agree to the proposed hot work. The following
information should be provided by the ship:
 Arrangements of access and location
 Scope of the hot work
 Identified hazards relation to surrounding spaces having flammable material and explosion risks
including pipelines
 Proposed precautions for the hot work
 Continuous ventilation method
 Competence and experience of personnel involved
 Equipment planned to be used
 When the ship is within port limits, the port authority has to be informed.
A checklist is provided in the PDF Safety checklist (PDF, 146 Kb)

Additional permits, as per the ship’s SMS, may be required when working in an enclosed space, like for hot
work or working at a height. The need for additional permits should be analysed before starting work inside
an enclosed space.

Repair and Maintenance Work

Based on the findings of the risk assessment, appropriate control measures should be put in place to protect
those who may be affected.

General
 Welding and flame cutting in places other than the workshop should be the subject of a permit to
work. No hot work even in E/R workshop during port stay, cargo operations, tank cleaning and gas
freeing operations.
 Operators should be suitably trained in the process, familiar with the equipment to be used and
instructed where special precautions need to be taken.
 Where portable lights are needed to provide adequate illumination, they should be clamped or
otherwise secured in position, not handheld, with leads kept clear of the working area.
 Harmful fumes can be produced during these operations from galvanizing paint and other protective
materials. Oxygen in the atmosphere can be depleted when using gas-cutting equipment and noxious
gases may be produced when welding or cutting. Special care should therefore be taken to provide
adequate ventilation when welding and flame cutting in enclosed spaces. The effectiveness of the
ventilation should be checked at intervals while the work is in progress and, if appropriate, local
exhaust ventilation should be considered. In dangerous spaces, breathing apparatus may be required.
Hot and Cold Work
Hot Work
Before carrying out any 'hot work' in the machinery spaces, it should be ensured that there are no
combustible materials in the vicinity. Hot work should never be carried out on surfaces covered with oil or
flammable materials.

Fuel tanks, pipelines, pumps and other spaces should be free of flammable liquids and gases before any
repair work is undertaken. Checks should be made in adjacent spaces, double bottoms, cofferdams and
tanks. Such checks should be carried out at regular intervals to ensure that the atmosphere is free of
flammable vapors during the entire operation.

Hot work on board is a hazardous operation, which can result in a fire or an explosion, if correct procedures
are not followed. Examples of hot work are cutting, welding, soldering and the use of pneumatically
operated maintenance equipment.

Safe procedures should be followed as per the company's safety manuals. A Safety Management System
approved hot work checklist should be used whenever carrying out hot work operations. A hot work
"permit" (PDF, 285kb) should be obtained after satisfying the necessary requirements as per the guidelines
and assessing the work area. Once the checklist has been filled, it should be cross checked by another
competent person, i.e. the Chief Engineer. This is to ensure that there are no safety lapses in the intended
work. Finally, the Master should countersign the checklist to approve the hot work permit. A permit is valid
only for a 12 hour operation. Lunch breaks and other breaks should be taken into account. Any deviation in
the conditions during the operation will result in the seizure of hot work.

The maritime safety committee has developed a list of common "principles for hot work" (PDF, 170kb)
onboard all types of ships. This was done with the objective of helping seafarers develop specific on board
instructions to suit their operational needs.

Designated Hot work Area

Hazardous area in Ships and safe working practice- Hot work

Hazards in welding, gas-cutting, miscellaneous hot work and associated precautions
General precautions
Welding, gas-cutting and other hot work should be conducted by following the "permit-to-work" system,
whenever carried out in a non-designated (i.e. say outside workshop) location.

Arc welding with all protective gear

1. Operators should be conversant with the equipment to be used, which should be inspected by a
competent person before use.
2. Hazardous fumes may be produced and the level of oxygen reduced, during working. Special care
should be taken while working in enclosed places and, enclosed space entry and working procedures
should be adhered to, as necessary.
3. An assistant should be continuously on stand-by attendance and be thoroughly briefed / practiced to
deal with emergency procedures.
Personal protective equipment
1. Clean and approved Personal protective equipment should be used by the operator and other persons
involved in the work.
2. The operator should normally wear:
(a) A welding helmet and the appropriate eye shield;
(b) Leather working gloves;
(c) A leather apron when appropriate; and
(d) Other appropriate personal protective equipment, as necessary.
Precautions against fire, explosions and non-life-supporting environments

1. Before any operation begins, inspections and tests should be carried out to verify that there are no
combustible solids, liquids or gases in any compartment, adjacent to the work location which might
be ignited by heat or sparks originating from the work.
2. Surfaces which are to be welded, or upon which hot work is to be done, should be free of oil, grease
or any flammable or combustible material.
3. All openings through which sparks might fall should be blanked-off / shut, as far as is possible.
4. Cargo tanks, fuel tanks, cargo holds or other tanks or spaces (including cargo pumps and pipelines)
that have contained flammable substances should be certified by a competent person as being free of
flammable gases, before any work commences.
5. All operations should be properly supervised and a fire-vigilance maintained, all around, including in
the spaces on the other side of the affected spaces. Because of the possibility of fires taking place,
even after the hot-work is completed, the fire-vigilance should be maintained, say, for an hour or
two, even after the work has been completed.
6. Compatible portable / non-portable fire extinguishers should be kept handy for ready use.
Use of Electric welding equipment
1. Even though AC power sources are used, Direct Current (DC) power source is preferable since they
can be operated at lower voltages and thereby, minimizes the risk from electric shock.
2. The "go and return" system in which the welding set has two cables should be used, with the "return"
cable being separately earthed to the ship's structure. The lead and return cables should be of the
shortest length possible (and of an appropriate cross-section) to avoid voltage drop.
3. Cables should be inspected before use and connectors should be fully insulated.
4. Suitable means should be provided for rapidly cutting-off current from the electrode, in case the
operator encounters difficulties.
Precautions to be taken while doing electric-arc welding
1. Non-conducting safety footwear should be worn in addition to the personal protective equipment.
Clothing should be kept as dry as possible.
2. If the operator is in contact with the ship's structure, protection should be provided by way of the
welder, sitting / standing, on dry insulated mats or boards.
3. Welding should not be carried out in hot/humid conditions which might be the cause of sweat or
damp clothing. Welding under wet conditions is prohibited.
4. The electrode-holder should be isolated from the current supply before a used electrode is removed
and before a new electrode is inserted. This precaution is necessary because some electrode coatings
may have extremely low resistance.
Flame-cutting and brazing
1. Equipment should have back pressure valves fitted adjacent to the torch in the oxygen and acetylene
lines and, flame arrestors fitted at the low pressure side of the regulators.
2. Oxygen pressure should always be sufficient to prevent acetylene from entering the oxygen line.
3. Acetylene may explode under excessive pressure. Therefore, it should not be used at a pressure
exceeding 1 atmosphere gauge.
4. If a backfire occurs, the valves on the oxygen and acetylene cylinders should be closed immediately.
Personnel should be trained in the appropriate methods for cooling and/or jettisoning cylinders which
become hot. An acetylene cylinder which becomes overheated is very dangerous as an impact could
cause internal ignition and explosion.
5. Only hoses which have been specially designed for flame-cutting and brazing operations may be
used. Hoses in which a flashback has occurred ought not to be used.
Hazards caused from painting and precautions.
General precautions
1. Paints containing toxic substances should not be used. Besides, a paint without the manufacturer's
information is not to be applied anywhere on board.
 2. Certain paints dry-up by evaporation of the paint's solvent and the process could cause flammable or
toxic vapors to be generated. All interior and enclosed spaces should be well-ventilated while
painting activity is in progress and right until the paint has fully dried-up.
3. Smoking should not be allowed during painting. Naked lights, such as matches, should not be used in
spaces until the paint has fully dried-up
4. Precautions should be taken when mixing paints from two diverse sources. As a chemical reaction
takes place during mixing, the reaction may be exothermic and heat /fumes are liable to be generated.
5. Chemical rust-removers are corrosive and precautions should be taken to protect the eyes and skin.
6. Spaces where paints and allied equipment are stored, should be well free of unnecessary items and
positively ventilated.
Spray Painting
1. Manufacturer's instructions on the operation of spray equipment should be closely followed by the
personnel involved.
2. To protect from unwanted ill-effects, a "paint mist" may form during spraying operations and the
personnel should wear suitable personal protective equipment. This may include a combination suit,
hood, gloves and eye protectors. It may be prudent to keep a respirator handy.
3. Paints containing mercury, lead or any toxic compounds are not to be sprayed in the interiors.
4. Spray equipment which are “airless”, eject paint at a very high pressure. The operation is fraught
with the hazard of the paint penetrating the skin or cause eye injury. Great care should be taken in the
use of such equipment.
5. Seafarers should be trained in the correct methods of un-blocking nozzles according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

Electrical Safety
Hazardous area in Ships and safe working practice -Working with Electrical Equipment

General precautions
1. National and international regulations governing the design and construction of electrical
installations should be observed, with account being taken of the unusual conditions which may be
encountered in service.
Examples of such conditions are exposure to:
(a) Moisture, steam and oil vapor, salt-laden atmosphere, sea spray, high winds and ice formation;
(b) Abnormal vibrations, deformation and mechanical shock;
(c) Unusually high or low temperatures; and explosive mixtures when used in certain areas.
2. Seafarers should receive adequate briefing before being permitted to work on electrical installations.
3. The installation should be maintained and protected to minimize the possibility of fire, electrical
shocks and danger to seafarers.
4. All live parts should be effectively insulated and enclosed in conduits or otherwise protected and be
so maintained.
5. All electrical equipment should be regularly inspected to ensure that it is suitable for its intended use.
Any electrical faults or other defects should be immediately reported to the appropriate person and
repaired by a competent person.
6. Attention must be paid to the maintenance of the emergency source of electrical power.
7. All electrical appliances should be clearly marked to indicate the voltage at which they operate
safely.
8. Flickering lights should be examined and repaired by a proper professional.
9. Circuits and appliances carrying different voltages in the same installation should be conspicuously
identifiable by notices, markings on distribution boxes.
10. Seafarers should not interfere with a design and installation intended to prevent circuits and
apparatus from being subjected to voltages which exceed those for which they were designed.
11. Repairs to electrical installations should be carried out only by a competent person or when a
"permit-to-work" (electrical isolation permit)has been issued.
 12. Effective means of ensuring safe isolation of every circuit, sub-circuit and apparatus, such as
facilities to lock off isolators, key control or signing, should be provided to minimize or eliminate
danger to seafarers.
13. Every circuit should be protected against overload currents, so as to reduce damage to the system and
keep the danger of fire to a minimum.
14. Redundant circuits or apparatus should be disconnected or dismantled.
15. Personal protective equipment, such as rubber gloves and rubber boots, should be used whenever
there is a risk of electric shock, but should not be regarded as being capable of providing full
protection against such a risk.
16. Protection provided against contact with live equipment comprises of:
(a) Placing live parts out of reach;
(b) Effective enclosure of live parts; and
(c) Adequate insulation.
17. The enclosures of live circuits, such as terminal boxes, should be so designed that they can be
removed only by authorized persons.
18. Suitable fuses or circuit-breakers should be placed in each circuit to limit the current to the rating
that is considered to be safe for the cable or equipment through which it flows.
19. Where fuses are used, they should bear clear markings indicating the rated, current and capacity.
Fuses when replaced should be of the compatible rating.
20. Fuses should be replaced only by authorized persons.
21. All fuses should be protected to prevent accidental contact.
22. Means should be provided to ensure that persons removing or inserting fuses will not be endangered,
in particular, by any adjacent live parts.
23. It should not be possible to remove or insert fuses in a circuit unless it has been made dead by means
of an isolating device on the incoming side.
24. The following notices should be exhibited at suitable places:
(a) A warning notice prohibiting unauthorized persons from entering electrical equipment rooms, interfering
with switchboards, and handling or interfering with electrical apparatus;
(b) A warning notice specifying the person to be notified in the event of an electrical accident, indicating
how to contact that person;
(c) A notice specifying the voltage as live in the equipment or conductors; and
(d) A notice prohibiting the use of naked flames in the vicinity of the battery room.
25. Only authorized persons should have access to and enter the rooms containing live electrical
equipment or have access to the rear of the live switchboards.
26. No work should be done in dangerous proximity to a conductor or installation until it has been made
dead and corroborating signs have been conspicuously posted.
27. If a conductor or an installation is in the immediate vicinity of a work location and cannot be made
dead, special precautions should be taken in their handling.
(2) Any such operation should be supervised by a competent person.
28. All conductors and equipment should be considered to be live unless it has been verified to be to the
contrary.
29. Before the current is restored, a competent person should ensure that no seafarers are present in a
dangerous position.
30. After work has been completed on an electrical equipment, the power should be switched on again
only on the formal orders of, a competent professional.
31. Distribution apparatus and switch gear should be protected in all circumstances, particularly against
dripping or splashing of water.
32. If temporary connections have to be made while repairs are being carried out, the connections should
be made with cables having an adequate margin of current and voltage rating and by a competent
professional. They should be disconnected and removed as soon as they are no longer required.
33. Seafarers not authorized to carry out electrical work should never install new equipment or alter
existing equipment.
Wandering leads, portable lights, electric tools and other movable equipment
1. All flexible cables should be:
(a) of sufficient size and current rating that is compatible with the purposes for which they are to be used;
(b) so constructed, insulated, secured and protected as to ensure that danger to seafarers will be reduced to a
minimum.
2. Every electrical connection should be of suitable construction with regard to conductivity, insulation,
mechanical strength and protection, with account being taken of the need to use such equipment in
exposed locations.
(1) Cables and conductors should be mechanically protected and properly and durably insulated at points
where they are joined, branched or led into any apparatus.
(2) For these purposes, junction boxes, sleeves, bushings, glands or equivalent connecting devices should be
employed.
(3) Where practicable, flexible cables should be joined by junction boxes or plug and socket couplings, and
the attachment should be fixed by screwing, clamping, soldering, riveting, brazing and crimping or
equivalent means.
(4) Where armored cables are joined, care should be taken to continue the conductive bond between the
armoring of the cables by the bridging and the junction boxes.
3. All conductors and apparatus liable to be exposed to a flammable or explosive atmosphere should be
so constructed as to negate the possibility of being the cause of ignition of the vapor.
4. The supply voltage to portable tools and appliances should not exceed 240 volts.
5. Hand-held electrical tools should be provided with a spring-loaded switch-mechanism that will break
the circuit automatically when the tool is released from the hand.
6. Portable electrical tools and appliances should not be used in a potentially flammable or explosive
atmosphere, unless they are of a type certificated for use in such an atmosphere and the action is
authorized by a responsible professional.
7. Any portable lamp should be of an approved type with effective protection for the bulb and with a
robust cover of glass or other transparent material. Such equipment should be dust and water proof
and, where necessary, gas-proof.
8. Flexible cables should:
(a) not be laid on surfaces that are oily or wet with corrosive liquids;
(b) be kept clear of moving loads, running gear and moving equipment;
(c) not be used to lift the portable lamp or portable tools to which they are connected;
(d) have additional protection where they are likely to be subjected to rough usage or moisture.
9. When seafarers use portable equipment or portable lamps they should ensure that any flexible cables
passing through doors, hatches, manholes, etc., are protected and that their insulation is not damaged
by the closing of doors, covers or lids.

High-voltage systems
1. As high-voltage systems present considerable danger they should be worked upon only by specially
trained and certified seafarers.
2. Manufacturer's instruction manuals should be provided for all high voltage equipment and need to be
closely followed.
3. Care should be taken to observe the requirement that all high-voltage equipment should be enclosed
or protected so that access can be obtained only by authorized professionals using a special tool or
key that is retained by a competent person, unless the equipment is designed in a way to ensure that
any attempt to access will automatically isolate and render the system safe.
Rectifiers and electronic equipment
 No maintenance or repair work should be attempted until the equipment has been effectively isolated
and any stored energy dissipated.
 Special attention should be paid to the hazard of working near charged capacitors associated with
rectification circuits.
 Only competent professionals must be authorized to repair electronic equipment.
Radio communication equipment
 Aerials and open wire feeders should be placed and guarded in a way to make them inaccessible to
unauthorized persons.
 Conductors that pass through areas of high electromagnetic flux, should be insulated or otherwise
duly guarded in areas to which seafarers have access.
  Any work in the vicinity of transmitting aerials should be carried out only within the "permit-to-
work" system. Warning notices should be posted at prominent places as long as the work continues.
 No seafarer should be allowed to work in the vicinity of transmitting aerials whilst there is a
possibility that such aerials could get energized.
 Suitable means should be provided and maintained to exclude any persons from the vicinity of
equipment where there is a danger from shock, radio frequency burns and injury from X-rays or
other radiation.
Batteries and battery rooms
1. Battery rooms should be adequately ventilated to avoid accumulation of explosive gases, usually
generated in the operation of batteries.
2. Light fittings and any electrical equipment in the battery room should be of a type certified as being
suitable for operation in an atmosphere containing hydrogen.
3. Dangers when charging batteries are hydrogen explosion and short circuits. During charging, a
battery gives off hydrogen and oxygen and the subsequent mixture can be easily ignited. Short
circuits may cause arcing which could lead to an explosion or burn to the seafarers.
4. Only authorized persons should enter battery rooms and, when doing so, they should ensure that they
do not introduce any source of ignition. Smoking is prohibited in battery rooms.
5. Care should be taken when using metal tools or implements to avoid making contact with the metal
battery case or terminals.
6. Battery rooms should be kept clear of any equipment, including any other electrical equipment,
likely to act as a source of ignition, and should not be used as store rooms.
7. Lead-acid batteries and alkaline batteries should not be stored in the same room because of the
possible interaction of the electrolytes.
8. Safe and effective means of inspecting and servicing the batteries should be provided by adequate
lighting and access to each cell, and personal protective clothing, gloves and goggles should be worn
by seafarers engaged in topping up the batteries.
Warning: Open flames and naked lights should not be used to inspect battery cells.

Work with visual display units (VDUs) including microcomputers

 Seafarers should be given adequate individual training in the use and capabilities of VDUs and
microcomputers.
 Work with VDUs can be mentally tiring and measures should be taken to minimize the risk of
eyestrain. Lighting should be adequate for the task, with glare and reflection cut to a minimum, and
the display screen should be clear and easy to read. Rest periods should be provided.
 Symptoms such as neck and arm pains may arise as the result of bad posture. VDU operators should
avoid sitting in a slumped or cramped position and should be provided with an adjustable chair.
Screens and keyboards should be adjustable to the correct height and the correct distance from the
operator.

Basic Knowledge of First-Aid

Introduction
In every MSDS or Material Safety Data sheet for the cargoes that you carry, you have a First Aid and
Emergency Procedures instruction and that should be consulted before any first-aid measures are
undertaken.

For example, from the MSDS of HYDROGEN SULFIDE cargo, the following First Aid and Emergency
Procedures is to be followed:

First Aid and Emergency Procedures: Hydrogen Sulfide

For freeze burns, immediately flush effected area with tap water for at least fifteen minutes, seek immediate
medical attention.
Eye: Flush eyes with running water for at least fifteen minutes. If irritation or adverse symptoms develop,
seek medical attention.

Skin: Wash skin with soap and water for at least fifteen minutes. If irritation or adverse symptoms develop,
seek medical attention.

Inhalation: Immediately remove from exposure. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. If breathing ceases,
administer artificial respiration followed by oxygen. Seek immediate medical attention.

Ingestion: If illness or adverse symptoms develop, seek medical attention.

Prompt medical attention is mandatory in all cases of overexposure to hydrogen sulfide. Rescue personnel
should be equipped with NIOSH/MSHA approved self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Rescue
personnel should recognize the hazards of overexposure due to olfactory fatigue.

The use of rescue equipment which might contain ignition sources or cause static discharges should be
avoided.

Nitrite treatment as medical therapy has been used in persons overexposed to hydrogen sulfide, but the
benefits of this treatment are still considered by some to be of questionable usefulness.

Therapy can only be undertaken by qualified emergency medical personnel.

Treatment should be initiated with inhalation of amyl nitrite for fifteen to thirty seconds of each minute until
10 ml of a 3% solution of sodium nitrite can be injected intravenously at a rate of 2.5 to 5 ml per minute.
Sodium nitrite injections may be repeated if necessary."

For refreshing your basic knowledge on First Aid-Please Click here

Common injuries that survivors could incur in an accident and their immediate treatment are discussed here.
This should be considered to be a first-aid only using the onboard kit. Click here (pdf)

For serious injuries, victims to be shifted ashore by helicopter rescue.

The process of treatment is dealt more extensively under the topic: “Medical care”. Some immediate and
common injury treatment is dealt Click here (PDF).

First aid is used when the patient suddenly becomes unconscious and stopped breathing due to lack of air.
All cases of poisoning, regardless of which kind of poison, require certain basic common methods of
treatment. Additionally, a few particular cases of poisonous substances may require antidotes.

In case of NDL ( Noxious Dangerous Liquid) cargoes, all personnel should be familiar with the first-aid
procedure set out in the Data Sheets for the cargoes carried. Professional medical treatment should always
be sought in cases where casualties have been overcome by gas. Ensure that rescuers are equipped with self-
contained breathing apparatus so that they do not become the next casualty. Rescue personnel must not take
undue risks themselves, don't therefore rush down into tanks or pump rooms where vapor may be present.

Usage of full face vapor mask and vapor canisters are not recommended in a hazardous situation. Breathing
apparatus is to be worn for all operations where there is a risk. Vapor canisters and masks are not fully
protected. Best method for safe breathing is to use a compressed air breathing apparatus set filled by a
dedicated compressor with a clean air certificate.

ABC: The method stands for Air, Breathing, and Circulation. The priority of first-aid training and practice is
of great importance. All personnel should be instructed and trained in the technique of mouth-to-mouth (M-
T-M) resuscitation and basic first-aid treatment. The better you are at first aid in an emergency; the chance
of a good outcome is greater.

Air: Try to free the airflow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head backwards, remove any dentures,
vomit, etc.

Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5 breaths/insufflations. Use the “Pocket
Mask” as an option. Hold the head curved backward, check the pulse on the neck. If pulse is felt, continue
with 12 respiration’s per minute.

Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the heart. If this has no
effect, start external heart compression once per second.

Treatment and Prevention

Treatment of Patient:
1. Exposure of Gas:
Medical treatment for exposure to gas first involves the removal of the casualty to a safe area from the
dangerous atmosphere. Shift the patient as soon as possible out into the fresh air . To check that the patient is
breathing tilt the head firmly backwards as far as it will go to relieve obstructions and listen for breathing
with the rescuer’s ear over the patient’s nose and mouth. Oxygen should be administered in case of weak
breathing. It is an IMO Code requirement to have oxygen resuscitation equipment on board.

i. Patient Not Breathing:

a. Give artificial respiration at once
b. Give cardiac compression if the pulse is absent

ii. After an Acute Case of Poisoning, Patient Breathing But Unconscious:

a. An unconscious person should be laid on his side, face down, with one arm and one leg bent to prevent
him from rolling over. Loosen the clothes around the neck and waist and remove false teeth.
b. Check there are no obstructions in the mouth. First, keep the breathing passages free (prevent the
tongue from falling back).
c. Remove any dentures
d. Insert an Airway; leave in place until the patient regains consciousness
e. Administer oxygen
f. Keep the patient warm
g. Give nothing by mouth
h. Give no alcohol, morphine or stimulant

Note: Mouth to mouth artificial breathing may be necessary (avoid mouth to mouth contact with severely
poisoned or contaminated patients as the rescuer may then be at risk). Heart massage may be necessary.

iii. Patient Conscious But Having Breathing Difficulty:

The patient to be brought into fresh air with as little effort and strain to himself as possible. Undue strain on
the patient may affect him adversely later
Keep the patient in a comfortable inclined sitting position and administer oxygen
Even if the patient is free of all symptoms he should be kept quiet and rest as some gases have delayed
effects (nitrogen oxides in combustion inert gas, nitrous gases).
If breathing does not improve despite these measures, then asphyxia or other lung problems may have
occurred
In such circumstances, or if the patient’s condition deteriorates rapidly, obtain medical advise.

2. Physical Contact
i. After Splash in the Eyes:
Immediately wash the eyes in gently flowing water, in a washbasin, in a jug or a special plastic eye bath
with a bottle of water. The eyelids may have to be forced open and the patient told to move the eyes in order
that all parts will be thoroughly rinsed out. Washing out the eyes may be very painful and pain-relief eye
drops can be used. Continue to wash for another 10-15 minutes. In case of acids or alkalies (caustic) the
washing must be repeated for a couple of minutes every 15-30 min for the next 4-5 hours, preferably with a
NaCl (table) salt solution (0, 7 - 0, 9 %). A sterilizing eye ointment should be applied several times during
the day. In case of acids and alkalies: obtain medical advice.

ii. After Skin Contact:

Regardless of product the area should be rinsed liberally with water, clean sea water can be used. Soiled
clothes, rings, watches, shoes etc must be taken off. Wash the area thoroughly with soap and water. Also
products which do not dissolve in water will be partly removed by washing in soap water. (Poison dissolved
in the skin fat will then be washed off).

iii. After Swallowing:

If the patient is unaffected give him a couple of glasses of liquid to drink for dilution of the poison,
preferably water (never any alcoholic drink). After intake of alkalies (caustic) a drink of lemon juice can be
given, or a solution of acetic acid that neutralizes caustic soda. If available give medicine coal which absorbs
a number of poisons and which in itself is harmless (30-60 crushed coal tablets or coal granulate in some
water). Make the patient vomit, NOT, however, in the case of corroding (acids or caustic) products or oil
products like kerosene, gasoline, jet fuels, when vomiting may be life-threatening. Dilution of the stomach
contents, however, is important. In case of doubt: do not cause the patient to vomit. Vomiting can be caused
by giving warm salt water (one table spoon of salt to one glass of water). Then by putting two fingers down
the throat and moving them about gently vomiting usually follows.

After certain products antidotes should be given. The most likely cargo for which an antidote may have to be
used is acrylonitrile ("AN") and acetone cyanohydrine. The remedy then is to douse some clean rag with an
ampoule of amyl nitrite from the medicine kit and hold it under the patient's nose 5 times with 15 s interval.

3. First Aid in General:

4. Prevention of Exposure:
 Prevention of exposure is achieved through a combination of cargo containment, which prevents
toxic fumes or liquid from contaminating the workplace, and the use of personal protective
equipment (PPE). It is a clear responsibility of the Owner, the master and the officers to inform their
staff about the cargoes to be carried, safety procedures etc and to arrange for the proper training.
Information should be given partly in the form of written notices combined with informal meetings
with the entire crew present when new cargoes are to be loaded or when inexperienced staff is signed
on. Among other things the following information should be given:
 Cargoes to be loaded; their characteristics as regards handling, pumping, toxicity, corrosiveness, first
aid etc.
 The cargo loading plan to be posted in places where it will be clearly seen by everyone on board and
at the accommodation ladder, when in port.
 Post cargo information cards for products to be loaded or are contained on board. For "new" products
ask the shipper for safety brochures and leaflets
 The personal safety equipment to be used by those involved in cargo handling, pumping, sampling
etc.
 Have available on board literature on chemical cargoes, medical advice etc,
 Inform in particular if the cargo to be loaded has an odor threshold which is higher than the TLV-
value and about cargo danger which cannot always be sensed in advance ( e.g ., allyl alcohol, carbon
tetra chloride, ethylene dichloride).
 Give information that most vapors are heavier than air and have a tendency to accumulate in low
spaces. Therefore work below gratings in pump rooms, cofferdams, pipe tunnels etc is extra
dangerous
 Never take work clothes into your cabin. Soiled clothes must be washed before being used again or
in the case of toxic products, destroyed.
 Wash your hands before meals.
 Give information about fire fighting methods for each type of cargo on board.
 Give information if the cargo is water-reactive or reactive to other cargoes on board. Give
information on segregation required.
 For some very toxic cargoes mouth to mouth artificial breathing might be dangerous to the rescuer (e
g acrylonitrile, acetone cyanohydrine).
 Information must be given particularly if the cargo danger lies primarily in vapor inhalation (e g
acrylonitrile, trichlorethylene) or skin contact (e.g phenol, caustic soda, sulfuric acid).
 State where eye washing bottles are located (deck office, at cargo manifolds on deck, in pump
rooms, on fore deck etc).
 Insist on that nobody should work with cargo gear without anyone standing by. Have people report
when going to and returning from pump rooms!
 Give information if any cargo is so toxic that an escape breathing mask must be used in an
emergency.
Dangers of Skin Contact
General
Contact with any chemical substance or product should be avoided. All necessary care should be taken to
prevent skin and eye contact.

The skin needs protection against corrosive and dangerous chemicals. A garment with leak proof fastenings
and manufactured from chemically resistant material constitutes the correct protection. Ideally, the clothing
should combine the greatest degree of comfort with the maximum level of protection.

Care and maintenance of the clothing is important. Contaminated clothing should always be washed or
hosed down before the wearer takes it off. This ensures a longer service life for the coated fabric and
prevents contamination the next time the clothing is worn. Used protective clothing should always be stored
in a ventilated area outside the accommodation.

A full protective suit should be used when entering areas contaminated with toxic products or areas where
the cargo vapor is toxic, especially in conditions which cause perspiration and, therefore, the possibility of
vapor penetrating the skin through the sweat. Boots and gloves should be permanently attached and either a
full face breathing mask incorporated into the suit or the hood tailored for the fitting of a full face breathing
mask.

Types of chemical resistant clothing

The type and degree of protection required is dependent on the physical, chemical or toxic properties of the
cargoes being handled, whether the job is continuous or intermittent, and the environmental conditions
prevailing. The cargo data sheet should be consulted.

For light duty, cotton with out any coating is conventionally used in the form of overalls, coveralls, smocks
etc., and is satisfactory for operators who are at only slight risk from chemicals and where there is the
occasional danger of a splash from mild substances. Over time, personal working clothing might absorb
small and otherwise harmless amounts of cargo vapors to the point where it becomes noticeable when worn
into accommodation, particularly in public rooms or mess rooms.

For medium duty, the apron provides protection. Aprons are made in a wide range of sizes, weights and
thickness from natural rubber, synthetic materials such as nylon coated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and
neoprene or polyurethane coated nylon. Heavyweight aprons produced from heavy base fabrics coated with
PVC can be used for protection against most chemicals.

PVC coated fabrics generally provide protection against a wide range of chemicals, including some of the
most corrosive acids and alkaline substances. There are a few very strong organic solvents which can leach
out the plasticisers from PVC, making it stiff and brittle. When handling organic solvents it is best to use
protective clothing manufactured from polyuretfaane, chlorobutyl rubber or neoprene coated fabrics. The
latter are also useful where resistance to mineral oils, vegetable oils and greases is required, although oil and
fat resistance is built into some PVC coated fabrics.

For heavy duty protection a wide range of chemical resistant clothing is available, including boiler suits,
long surgical coats, bib and brace overalls, leggings and three-quarter length coats, all with machine stitched
seams electronically welded to stop penetration, and generous over and under wraps. A wide range of
protective head gear is also manufactured in the form of caps fitted with neck and shoulder covers. Visors
are also fitted, with coated fabric attached for protection of the face and neck.

PVC coated base fabrics woven from synthetic material such as nylon and terylene are used for contact with
extremely hazardous and corrosive chemicals, because the base fabric substrates provide strength, tear
resistance and improved impermeability. Neoprene coated and polyurethane coated materials are also
available for protection against very strong solvents and some specific chemicals. The use of such heavy
clothing is ideal for protection against possible continuous contact with hazardous chemicals, or even the
possibility of deluge or spillage conditions. In the latter case, the correct clothing will provide the person
concerned with sufficient time to leave the affected area and either be hosed down or have the clothing
removed before the PVC coating on the fabric is affected.

EYE PROTECTION
Loss of eyesight is a devastating disability and results in total incapacitation for a long period. Eyes are
particularly vulnerable to injury from corrosive and toxic liquids and vapors. It is therefore essential that
they receive special consideration when assessing the need for personal protection.

There is a wide range of eye protectors for chemical hazards. Care should be taken to evaluate the chemical
hazard properly, guided by the cargo data sheet, and select the eye protector accordingly. There are three
types of eye protectors to choose from:
 Safety goggles give complete chemical and mechanical eye protection, and can generally be worn
comfortably over most spectacles.
 Face shields, usually combined with a safety helmet, provide eye and face protection from splashes
of liquid and mechanical hazards, but not against vapor hazards.
 Safety spectacles, with or without lateral protection (side shields), are available with different lens
materials. Safety spectacles rarely fit properly over ordinary spectacles and therefore care should be
taken to achieve an effective fitting.
For protection against splashes of liquid and where there is doubt about the adequacy of protection provided,
safety goggles or a face shield should be used.

HAND PROTECTION
The number of hazards for which hand protection may be required can range from simple dust or vapor to
protection against fuming nitric acid. Obviously the type of glove has to be selected carefully and it is
important to understand the hazard or combination of hazards, which may be present. These could include
corrosive chemicals, toxic chemicals that can be absorbed through the skin, and high temperature cargoes.
Fortunately there is a wide choice of gloves which can adequately protect the hand against most hazards.

PVC or rubber gloves are available in a range of thickness and weights, and the choice will depend on the
cargoes being handled. Neoprene or nitrile rubber gloves have excellent resistance to solvents, petrol, oils
and many chemicals. When choosing the correct gloves, as for body clothing, one should be guided by the
cargo data sheet, the resistance of the gloves' fabrics or material to the chemicals, whether the working
conditions are continuous or intermittent, and the environmental conditions. Generally, when only gloves are
being worn, it is advisable for the gloves to have long cuffs which can reach over the sleeves of normal
clothing.

FOOT PROTECTION
Rubber or PVC boots need to be worn when there is a risk of coming into contact with corrosive or toxic
chemicals. Boots that have reinforced toe-caps are preferable as they also give protection against solid
objects.

Fire Safety and Fire Fighting operations

Introduction
Any tanker fire incident is responded with a fire emergency preparedness, in-depth planning and practice
drills from the ship's crew under an organization under the Master, where each officer and crew members are
part of a team, allocated with resources, skills and knowledge to fight a fire, big or small as discussed
further.

Composition of Emergency Teams

Emergency organisation
Five core teams to deal with emergencies are given here. Variations may exist with different employers.
1. Command team
 2. Emergency team
3. Support and First Aid
4. Roving Team/Engine Room Ream
5. Crew for Rescue Boat
The command team will be on the bridge (called command centre) and take overall charge of all
operations. Hence frequent feedback, short and crisp, is necessary from each team to the Command Centre.
Navigation, communication, maintenance of records of all actions and their timings, etc. will be carried at
this centre.

The Emergency team would be divided into two, depending on the emergency. Where the emergency is in
the Engine Room, the Second Engineer will be the leader of the primary team and the Chief Officer would
lead the back-up team. If the emergency is elsewhere, the Chief Officer will be the leader of the primary
team and the Second Engineer would lead the back-up team.

The Support and First aid team will look after administration of first aid if and when required. Prepare
patients for evacuation. Prepare lifeboats in case of necessity to abandon ship at short notice. Shut water-
tight doors. Provide drinking water to those in field operations, essential snacks where the operations are
sustained for a long period. Provide assistance anywhere else as directed by the command team.

Roving Team/Engine Room Team will be under the Charge of the Chief Engineer. They attend to E/R
systems and controls. Isolate electricity from compartments on fire, shut off ventilation systems to
compartments on fire. Provide assistance anywhere else as directed by the command team.

Crew for rescue boat: This team is mainly for man overboard. They will prepare the rescue boat and, on
specific instruction of the Command Team, lower the boat, rescue the man and get hoisted back on board.

Some employers list out various emergencies that could occur:

Explosion/fire, Man Overboard, Oil spill/Pollution, hull failure/flooding, Collision, Grounding/stranding,
Personal injury, Main Engine failure, Steering failure, Piracy, Search & Rescue, Chemical/noxious cargo
spill, Vapour emissions, Tank rescue, etc. and list out duties to be performed by each of the five teams in
each such emergency.

Fire Response Organization

Actions upon hearing the emergency alarm signal
 Recognize the fire alarm in case of an outbreak of fire.

The fire alarm is a continuous sounding of the ships electric alarm or the ships whistle.

This will initiate a visible and audible alarm at the bridge control panel. Activation of manually operated call
points (and automatic detectors) provides the location of the section where the activation took place. If the
signal has not been acted upon within two minutes, it will cause an alarm to be sounded through the crew
accommodation spaces, control stations and machinery spaces.

Manual fire alarm call points are installed throughout the accommodation spaces, service spaces and control
stations. One call point shall be located at each exit and no part of a corridor is to be more than 20 m from a
call point.

Within 24 hours of embarkation of all passengers, the crew will conduct a mandatory muster drill in which
the General Emergency Alarm is sounded. The purpose of the drill is to educate passengers and crew of
emergency procedures should an actual emergency occur. The signal alerts passengers and crew of an
emergency so that they will begin proper procedures in which all persons collect their life jackets and
proceed to their assigned muster stations.

There is also an abandon ship alarm which is used should it become necessary to abandon ship, after all
other efforts have been exhausted. This signal is given audibly by the ship's Master over the PA system. It is
never given by automatic means or with recorded media.

Fire on Board

If a fire breaks out

 Raise the alarm – Use nearest manual fire alarm in alleyways. Announce location and nature of fire
on public address system
 Shout “Fire, Fire”
 Inform bridge / duty officer /duty engineer giving location of fire and his name
 Identify chemicals involved and any other chemical which may be at risk if the fire spreads.
 Assess the situation any body trapped inside, Any toxic fumes or vapors present. Check the MSDS of
the cargoes and details from IMDG.
 Decide quickly if foam or other Fixed Fire Fighting System is to be used and it is suitable with the
cargo.
 If possible remove inflammable substance in adjacent tanks and vicinity
 Stop any operations related to cargo immediately
 Stop Cargo work, bunkering, tank cleaning or ballasting operations immediately.
 Disconnect hoses if alongside the terminal or a ship.
 Inform the terminal/ship if alongside the terminal/ship.
 If at the terminal, external help may be summoned.
 Cast off any boats, which are alongside.
 If at anchor, alert port authorities.
 Shut all ventilators, doors, openings, booby hatches etc. Advise bridge which ventilators have been
closed.
 Wear fireman suit and SCBA to make entry if necessary,
 In addition to the preparations for fire on deck keep the foam system in readiness and confirm with
fire team in charge whether same is required to be released.
 Check compatibility of cargoes on board with available firefighting medium like water.
 Cool other compartments especially if they carry flammable cargo.
 Steer vessel away from traffic, coast or shallow depths prior stopping, if possible.
 Adjust ships course and speed to minimize wind effect.
 Be alert to the fact that toxic fumes may enter the accommodation and an evacuation of non-essential
crew and visitors may become necessary.

General Emergency Alarm

Introduction
The General Emergency alarms and Fire alarms are very important on the ship. They alert the crew on board
and warn them of the emergency situation on the ship. All said and done, it is vital that unless you know that
it is an emergency you would not be prepared accordingly. That is why these alarms are distinct from other
sources of sounds on board. All staff must be familiar with the sound of these alarms so that they are well
aware of it.

General Emergency Alarm

The General Emergency Alarm is a alarm used on board ships in times of emergency. The signal is
composed of seven short blasts followed by one long blast on the ship's whistle and internal alarm system.
Within 24 hours of embarkation of all passengers, the crew will conduct a mandatory muster drill in which
the General Emergency alarm is sounded. The purpose of the drill is to educate passengers and crew of
emergency procedures should an actual emergency occur. During the drill it is important to explain to their
passengers and the crew about all the emergency signals used on board. They should be made to actually
hear the same as different ship may have a different sound. The signal alerts passengers and crew of an
emergency so that they will begin proper procedures in which all persons collect their life jackets and
proceed to their assigned muster stations.

Some ships may have a fire alarm which is separate from the other emergency alarms. But in such cases, it
shall be clearly mention in the muster list and should be explained during the drills.

Fire alarm should not be confused with the Abandon ship signal. The abandon ship signal is given audibly
by the ship's Master over the PA system. It is never given by automatic means or with recorded media.

Fire Control Plan and Muster List

Introduction
The Fire Control Plan is a mandatory requirement. The fire control plan provides us information about fire
station on each deck, on various bulkheads, and in spaces enclosed by class division, “A” & “B".
Information about various fire alarm systems, sprinkler installation, extinguishing appliances, means of
escape to different compartments and decks, and ventilation system including particulars of remote
operation of dampers and fans, can be obtained from the Fire Control Plan. The type of fire detection system
and fire fighting systems available on ship is also mentioned in the fire control plan. The position of various
dampers, their marking and which fan is for particular compartment or deck is also explained so that
required damper and fans can be closed in case of fire.

Fire plan holder

Fire plan FPFF

IMO Sign for Fire plan

Fire control plan and muster list

The emergency muster list is exhibited in conspicuous places throughout the ship, including the navigating
bridge, engine room and crew accommodation. The muster list must contain details of the general
emergency alarm and other emergency signals and the action to be taken by the crew and passengers. It is
also important to keep one copy of fire control plan along with the muster list at the access points of the
ship. This provides as a guide and assists the external fire fighting team when coming to fight fire from
outside the ship.

Where passengers are carried duties include warning and assembling passengers, controlling their
movement, seeing that they are suitably clad and wearing their life jackets correctly.

Where appropriate, communication equipment, channels, used during an abandonment or other emergency
should be specified. The means by which the order to abandon ship is to be given must also be included.

Muster list must show the duties to be carried out by each member of the ship's complement in an
emergency. All crew should be familiarised with the contents of muster list and they should be aware of
their job in emergencies. During every drill the officer in charge should ensure that the crew remember their
duties.
The media below shows the fire plan kept at the access point. It also shows the contents of a fire plan along
with the muster list explaining the duties of each individual crew. Different ships may have different types
but all are in same format as laid down in SOLAS chapter III.

IMO Symbols and Signs

The IMO symbols are marked for fire, safety equipment and emergency escape routes. The symbols are
shown in the below media. You have to run the media to see them all.

A muster list is displayed in prominent areas of the vessel so that every crew member/passenger on on board
can read it. Some of the important areas where the muster list is posted are - Bridge, Engine room,
accommodation alleyways etc., areas where ship’s crew spends the maximum of their time.

The Important features displayed in the muster lists are:

Types of Emergency and different alarms for the same
Main emergencies like fire, man overboard, abandon ship, oil spill are listed along with indication of visual
and audible alarms.

Instruction to follow in case of different types of emergency

Brief instruction is given in case the alarm for a particular emergency is sounded, which includes action to
be taken by the crew on board.

Common Muster point for all the crew

The common muster point is clearly described if any emergency alarm is sounded. Normally life boat deck
area is made as a common muster point.

Crew list of all crew member with assigned life boat

The qualified and competent crew name and his team (passengers etc,) is displayed along with the assigned
life boat for abandon ship emergency. Normally two life boats are assigned for all the crew members i.e.
port side and starboard side life boats.

Assigned duties for abandon ship

All the crew listed in the muster list are assigned with duties to perform in emergency situation like carrying
EPIRB and SART, lifeboat and life raft launching etc.

Communications
Introduction
Communications form an integral part of fire fighting as well as any other emergency. Good communication
ensures proper flow of information from one team to the other within the ship as well as from ship to outside
parties. It is not possible for the team in-charge to be at different places on the ship at the same time. This
further emphasises the need of proper communication. Various equipment that are available on board to
enable good communication. Good operating knowledge of these equipment by practice during drills will
save a lot of valuable time during emergencies.

The basic communication inside ship are

 Public address system
 Ship's UHF and VHF unit
 Telephones
 Portable Walkie talkie

The communication equipment available between ship, shore and to other ship.
 EPIRB
 INMARSAT – B
  INMARSAT – C
 MF / HF DSC
 VHF DSC

EPIRB
EPIRB or the Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon is fitted on the side bridge wing by means of a
hydrostatic release unit (HRU). If the ship sinks, at a depth range of 2 to 5 meters, the HRU releases the
EPIRB, which will float to the surface and transmit signals to the satellite. This EPIRB is sea-water
activated. Some of the EPIRB may be activated as soon as they are removed from the installed housing.

While abandoning ship, the EPIRB should be removed from it’s stowed position and switched on manually.
It can even be towed behind the survival craft using the lanyard attached to it.

The EPIRB transmits the ship’s ID and other particulars on 406 MHz for the COSPAS-SARSAT satellites
and a homing signal on 121.5 MHz for a SAR aircraft.

This EPIRB does not transmit ship’s position. The dedicated SAR satellites, which are polar satellites,
calculate the vessel’s position using Doppler shift. For a satellite to pick up the signal from the EPIRB, the
latter has to be in the “foot print” of the satellite. Once the signal is received by the satellite, Missio Rescue
Co-ordination Centre or MRCC is notified and a global alert is activated.

INMARSAT – B
The vessel is fitted with Sat-B system which provides distress communication in telex and voice mode. A
qualified person is required for detailed distress procedure, meanwhile an undesignated distress alert can be
sent by any crew member (upon receiving Master’s instructions to do so). To do so, peel off the protective
cover of the Sat-B distress button (telex or telephone). These buttons are located on the bulkhead above the
computer monitor. Press the appropriate button and keep pressed for more than 6 seconds. The buzzer will
beep intermittently for a few seconds and then the tone will change into a continuous beep. The vessel’s ID,
time and position will be automatically transmitted to a MRCC.

If the telephone button is pressed, direct voice communication with the MRCC is possible by picking up the
telephone handset and dialing the LES ID (3 digits) followed by a # within 15 seconds of the
commencement of the continuous beep.

INMARSAT – C
Sat-C distress alerting procedure is same as for Sat-B, except that there is no voice communication. One
distress button is located on the radio console on the left-hand side of the MF/HF DSC terminal and another
near the port side VHF set.

MF / HF DSC
The undesignated distress alert button is located on the MF/HF DSC terminal on the radio console.
Triggering this button causes your distress message being transmitted on all MF/HF distress watch
frequencies monitored by all ships fitted with GMDSS as well as to Coast Radio Stations (CRS).

VHF DSC
Distress buttons are located on the VHF sets. The range of this transmission is only about 30 miles. On the
high seas, any vessel receiving an alert on VHF DSC automatically knows that the distress vessel is in close
vicinity. In coastal waters, i.e. within range of a CRS keeping watch on VHF DSC, this alerting ensures
immediate assistance.

Fire Hazards
The following are the major fire hazard in oil tanker
 Smoking in non designated places
  Use or carrying of matches and cigarette lighters outside accommodation spaces.
 Use of naked lights and hot work outside machinery space.
 Lamps and Other Electrical Equipment on Flexible Cables (Wandering Leads).
 Air Driven Lamps with accumulation of static electric charges at the appliance.
 Flashlights (Torches), Lamps and Portable Battery Powered Equipment of unapproved design.
 Fixed electrical equipment non approved type and not properly maintained.
 Use of hand tools without permit and non- approved type.
 Bare aluminum metal dragged on steel deck and giving spark
 Cathodic protection anodes in cargo tanks of unapproved type and it produce incendive sparks.
 Piling up of oily rags and ignited by spontaneous ignition. ( oil of vegetable origin, are liable to
ignite without the external application of heat as the result of gradual heating within the material
produced by oxidation. The risk of spontaneous combustion is smaller with petroleum oils than with
vegetable oils, but it can still occur, particularly if the material is kept warm, for example by
proximity to a hot pipe.)

Rules and Regulations

Regulations
The precise requirements for cargo tank protection (and for fires on deck) for oil tankers are more complex
but, broadly speaking, inert gas systems are required for all tankers over 20,000 tons dead weight and all
other tankers with crude oil washing systems or using high capacity (over 60m3/h ) tank washing machines.

Tanker companies operate stringent procedures before and during cargo operations and fires on deck are
fortunately infrequent. Nevertheless, the effects of fire on board an oil tanker may be disastrous. Therefore,
as per regulations foam installations consisting of monitors and foam applicators are required on ships built
after May 1981 and many older vessels are fitted with less comprehensive systems discharging low
expansion foam.

Cargo Tank Protection

Fires and explosions in unprotected cargo tanks of oil tankers can have a wide variety of causes. One
specific cause is the use of high capacity tank washing machines and consequential generation of high levels
of static electricity. However, regardless of the mechanism of the production of sparks or potential source of
ignition, it is impossible for a fire or explosion to take place in an intact tank in which the atmosphere has
been rendered inert by the reduction of the oxygen level. This reduction is normally achieved by treating the
flue gases from the ship's boilers and directing them into the cargo tanks to displace the gases in the tank
atmosphere until the oxygen level falls below 8%.

If an inerted tank is breached, then the concentration of hydrocarbon gases when diluted in the atmosphere
could produce an incendiary mixture although the probability is less than that for a non-inerted tank.
Similarly, an inert gas system does not provide tank protection in the case of deck spills of cargo.

In tankers additional isolations are fitted not more than 40m to isloate damaged section of fire main

Cargo Handling
During Cargo Operations:
Fire fighting appliances: Prior to cargo transfer, the ship’s fire fighting system should be made ready. A
portable DCP extinguisher should be placed conveniently for use near the manifold.

Radio Equipment and Radar: The operation of radio equipment and radar during cargo work must be in
accordance with the following:
 The transmission of radio waves from radio equipment (excluding VHF 1 kw or less output) and the
starting up of radar is prohibited. The main transmission antenna must be either taken down or
appropriately grounded.
  The AIS should be switched off or to low power
Central air conditioning and ventilation systems

The accommodation should be kept under positive pressure to prevent the entry of hydrocarbon vapours.
Bear in mind :
· Intakes for air conditioning units are usually located in a safe area and will not draw in vapours under
normal circumstances
· A positive pressure will be maintained only if the air conditioning system is operating with its air
intakes open and if all access doors are kept closed except for brief entry or exit.
· The system should not be operated with the intakes fully closed, in 100% recirculation mode, as the
extraction fans in galley, sanitary spaces and any other relevant spaces (e.g. smoking rooms, laundry
facilities, etc.) will reduce the atmospheric pressure in the accommodation to less than the ambient pressure
outside.

During Gas-free Operations:

The transmission of radio waves from radio equipment must be prohibited. When the radio equipment and /
or radar are to be operated during gas-free operations, a safety check must be made taking into consideration
the existence of an outflow of explosive gas, and if so, the quantity and the apparent wind direction and
force.

On a vessel which is fitted with an inert gas system the gas freeing operations are to be carried out in
accordance with the procedures detailed in the vessel's Inert Gas System Operation and Maintenance
Manual.

On a vessel which is not fitted with an inert gas system the gas freeing operations are to be carried out in
accordance with the appropriate recommendations of ISGOTT. If portable fans are used for gas freeing,
injector nozzles and/or flexible ducting are not to be used until the hydrocarbon gas concentration is less
than 100% of the lower flammable limit.

Inerting of Tanks
Chapter II-2 of the SOLAS lays down rules regarding inert gas systems for tankers above 20,000 tonnes
deadweight. These rules should be in accordance with the fire safety systems code.

The requirement of the inert gas system shall have the following functions:
 Inert empty cargo tanks by reducing the oxygen content of the atmosphere in each tank to a level
where combustion is not supported
 Maintain the oxygen content in the atmosphere of the tank below 8% by volume
 Inert gas should be at a positive pressure at all times when the tanker is in port or at sea, except when
gas freeing is in progress
 Eliminate air from entering the tank during normal operations except in cases when gas freeing is in
progress

Purge empty cargo tanks of hydrocarbon gas so that subsequent gas freeing will not create a flammable
atmosphere in the tank

Transportation
Maximum allowable quantity of cargo per tank
The quantity of a cargo required to be carried in a type 1 ship shall not exceed 1,250 m3 in any one tank.

The quantity of cargo required to be carried in a type 2 ship shall not exceed 3,000 m3 in any one tank.

Tanks carrying liquids at ambient temperatures shall be so loaded as to avoid the tank becoming liquid-full
during the voyage, having due regard to the highest temperature which the cargo may reach.
Cargo information
A copy of IBC Code, or national regulations incorporating the provisions of this Code, shall be on board
every ship covered by this Code.

Any cargo offered for bulk shipment shall be indicated in the shipping documents by the product name
under which it is listed. Where the cargo is a mixture, an analysis indicating the dangerous components
contributing significantly to the total hazard of the product shall be provided, or a complete analysis if this is
available. Such an analysis shall be certified by the manufacturer or by an independent expert acceptable to
the Administration.

Information shall be on board, and available to all concerned, giving the necessary data for the safe carriage
of the cargo in bulk. Such information shall include a cargo stowage plan, to be kept in an accessible place,
indicating all cargo on board, including, for each dangerous chemical carried:
1. A full description of the physical and chemical properties, including reactivity, necessary for the safe
containment of the cargo;
2. Action to be taken in the event of spills or leaks;
3. Countermeasures against accidental personal contact;
4. Fire-fighting procedures and fire-fighting media;
5. Procedures for cargo transfer, tank cleaning, gas-freeing and ballasting; and
6. For those cargoes required to be stabilized or inhibited, the cargo shall be refused if the appropriate
certificate required by these paragraphs is not supplied.

Compatibility with Chemical Cargoes

Some important points to remember in a chemical fire are:
 Some cargoes give out oxygen when on fire, thereby supporting the fire.
 Some chemical fires, the source of ignition may be heat from a reaction within the cargo itself or
through mixing with other chemicals.
 Chemicals miscible in fire will render normal foam useless. For such chemicals alcohol resistant or
dual-purpose foam shall be used.
 Some chemicals are miscible in water and hence their presence may not be recognized.
 Some chemicals are heavier than water and insoluble in water. These may be smothered using water.
 Some chemicals evolve large volumes of toxic vapors when heated.
 Some chemicals have a low auto-ignition temperature. There is a risk of re-ignition of these
chemicals.
If a fire breaks out in a chemical carrier
 Raise the alarm – Use nearest manual fire alarm in alleyways. Announce location and nature of fire
on public address system.
 Shout “Fire, Fire”
 Inform bridge / duty officer /duty engineer giving location of fire and his name
 Identify chemicals involved and any other chemical which may be at risk if the fire spreads.
 Assess the situation any body trapped inside, Any toxic fumes or vapors present. Check the MSDS of
the cargoes and details from IMDG.
 Decide quickly if foam or other Fixed Fire Fighting System is to be used and it is suitable with the
cargo.
 If possible remove inflammable substance in adjacent tanks and vicinity
 Stop any operations related to cargo immediately
 Stop Cargo work, bunkering, tank cleaning or ballasting operations immediately.
 Disconnect hoses if alongside the terminal or a ship.
 Inform the terminal/ship if alongside the terminal/ship.
 If at the terminal, external help may be summoned.
  Cast off any boats, which are alongside.
 If at anchor, alert port authorities.
 Shut all ventilators, doors, openings, booby hatches etc. Advise bridge which ventilators have been
closed.
 Wear fireman suit and SCBA to make entry if necessary,
 In addition to the preparations for fire on deck keep the foam system in readiness and confirm with
fire team in charge whether same is required to be released.
 Check compatibility of cargoes on board with available firefighting medium like water.
 Cool other compartments especially if they carry flammable cargo.
 Steer vessel away from traffic, coast or shallow depths prior stopping, if possible.
 Adjust ships course and speed to minimize wind effect.
 Be alert to the fact that toxic fumes may enter the accommodation and
 An evacuation of non-essential crew and visitors may become necessary.

Some important points to remember in a chemical fire are:

 Some cargoes give out oxygen when on fire, thereby supporting the fire.
 Some chemical fires, the source of ignition may be heat from a reaction within the cargo itself or
through mixing with other chemicals.
 Chemicals miscible in fire will render normal foam useless. For such chemicals alcohol resistant or
dual-purpose foam shall be used.
 Some chemicals are miscible in water and hence their presence may not be recognized.
 Some chemicals are heavier than water and insoluble in water. These may be smothered using water.
 Some chemicals evolve large volumes of toxic vapors when heated.
 Some chemicals have a low auto-ignition temperature. There is a risk of re-ignition of these
chemicals.

Fixed fire-fighting Foam

Fixed Fire Fighting Foam System
It is essential when using foam to ensure that there is a sufficient supply of foam solution available to
maintain an adequate rate of discharge to control the fire. If the supply is interrupted or otherwise
inadequate, the heat will break down the foam blanket and the fire will burn back.

On the outbreak of a tanker deck fire, the general alarm should be sounded (and if in port, the ship's whistle
would be sounded to alert shore personnel, and the local fire department's help requested). The cargo pumps
and cargo valves must be shut down to reduce the supply of fuel and the foam system should be activated.

Fixed foam fire fighting systems are classified into two types. They are:
 Fixed high expansion foam system
 Fixed low expansion foam system

High expansion foam is produced by foam generators. Its expansion ratio is 1000:1. Foam fire extinguishing
systems that use foam concentrates of high expansion type should be approved as per maritime safety
committee circular number 670, published by the IMO.

Low expansion foam is produced by self aspirating branch pipes. Its expansion ratio ranges between 5:1 to
15:1. The foam concentrates used in low expansion foam fire extinguishing systems should be approved as
per maritime safety committee circular number 582/Corr.1, published by the IMO.
Fire Fighting Procedure
Foam from the nearest foam monitor, on the windward side of the fire, between the fire and the
accommodation block should be lobbed onto the near edge of the fire. The foam blanket should be steadily
formed by side to side movement of the nozzle until the spill area is completely covered. Any areas shielded
from the monitor stream should be covered by foam from the foam applicators.

During this operation, the fire-fighters should be protected as necessary by a fine spray curtain from fire
hose nozzles which would not be allowed to dilute or otherwise destroy the foam blanket. Foam is the only
medium which remains effective after it has been discharged. If the supply of foam is depleted before the
fire is controlled, the action should be continued using as many fire hose lines and fine spray nozzles as
could be manned from the windward side of the fire. The firefighters should advance slowly and never in
such a way as to endanger themselves through a possible flash back. The attack should be continued until all
surfaces have been cooled down, the fuel supply shut down and the flammable liquid washed overboard.

Procedure to operate Foam System:

 Open valve A.
 Start fire Pump.
 Open valves C and D.
 Start foam pump M.
 Open monitor or hydrant valve as required and fight fire.
Precautions for fighting Oil Fires on deck:
1. Never direct the foam mixture directly on the burning oil as this will cause the oil to splash and
spread the fire.
2. Direct the foam mixture so that it flows over the surface of the burning oil, and thus gradually covers
and smothers the fires. Use the prevailing wind or slope of the deck to assist this flow wherever
possible.
3. Use one monitor and/or two applicators when fighting fire, if more are used, the effectiveness of
each will be reduced.
After using the Deck Foam System:
1. Shut down fire pump and foam pump.
2. Close valve D.
3. Open valve B.
4. Start fire pump and foam pump. Operate the forward monitor on the tank deck until clear sea water
comes out, and then operate all the other monitors for a few seconds.
5. Stop fire pump and foam pump.
6. Revert all valves to the stand-by position.
7. Refill foam tank as soon as possible.
Care and maintenance
The following checks are to be carried out on fixed foam fire fighting systems:
 Display the operation instructions in the foam room.
 Ensure that the moving parts in foam monitors are free.
 Check the foam liquid level in the foam tank.
 Operate the foam pump for short durations to ensure quality of foam generated.
 Top up the foam tank and flush the system after completion of the above operation.
The technique used for foam as fire fighting
 Bounce-off Technique
 Bank-in Technique
 Rain-down Technique

Portable fire-fighting foam

Foam eductor operates using the venturi effect. The inlet of the eductor has a large diameter as compared to
the small diameter in the center or Venturi area of the unit. The outlet of the eductor returns to the original
inlet diameter. The result is that all the water entering the eductor is forced through the small center opening.
In order for this to occur, the velocity of the water must increase in small diameter. The increase in velocity
reduces pressure in the Venturi area, which allows the foam concentrate to enter the water stream as
atmospheric pressure pushes on the concentrate in the foam tank. When using foam eductor, remember that
they are situation-sensitive. They must be operated in precisely the correct parameters to operate effectively.
For example, the flow through the eductor must match its rating. Drastic variations and/or incorrect flow
will affect the pressure drop through the Venturi and, therefore, prevent its operation. The eductor must also
be matched to the correctly adjusted nozzle, which must discharge at a constant rate.

When the operation is complete, the eductor must be flushed. It is important that there is no traces of foam
concentrate in the eductor as it will dry, attract dirt and plug the small orifices. Eductors can be great tools,
but they must be set up and operated properly to be effective. Regular practice with your equipment will
ensure that the steps for proper operation are second nature when emergency arises onboard.
Fixed Dry Chemical Powder
Dry powder fire extinguishing systems onboard chemical tankers
Some new chemical tankers use dry powder extinguishing system as the main fire fighting method in the
cargo tank extinguishing area.

There exist centralized powder systems with possibilities of discharging several thousand kgs of powder.
Release boxes and hose reels are strategically located on deck so that any point can be reached by two hoses,
each being usually max 25 m length.

On smaller vessels self-contained powder containers of 1000-3000 kgs are located in small deckhouses.

IMO accepts dry powder as equivalent to foam. Dry powder has decided limitations, as stated below.

The extinguishing effect of dry powder originates mainly from an inhibiting effect on the combustion. The
smothering and cooling effects are small.

Dry powder has a particularly good extinguishing effect on larger volumes of burning gases and strongly
vapourizing liquids, as compared with other means of fire fighting. But it has virtually no cooling effect on
any steel, cargo liquid or other matter that has become heated from the fire. Once the flames have been
extinguished with dry powder there is a great risk for a fire back flash which can be more violent than the
original fire. At a major fire therefore, the fire area should be cooled down with water fog as much as
possible prior to application of powder.

Water cooling must be continued after the flames have been extinguished If a fire can be fought immediately
after its outbreak and only little heating has occurred one should of course immediately start with dry
powder, not awaiting water fog assistance.

Common types of dry powder have a tendency to break down a foam layer. Therefore the two methods
should be avoided being used together. Always place two dry powder extinguishers at hand on deck aft of
the cargo manifold, when loading /unloading.
Fixed Dry Chemical Powder Installation

Spill containment
Chemical cargo spills:
The biggest risk of a cargo spill is during cargo handling operations, either because of equipment failure or
improper handling procedures. Cargo spills are therefore most likely to happen in port.

Following actions should be taken in the event of spill:

1. Activate the alarm
2. Stop all cargo operations and close valves and hatches
3. If alongside a berth, notify the terminal staff of the chemicals involved and possible risk posed to the
personnel
4. Notify local port authorities, usually through the terminal staff
5. Prohibit smoking and use of naked lights throughout the ship
6. Clear all non-essential personnel from the area
7. Close all accommodation access doors, and stop all non-closed circuit ventilation
8. Arrange for main engine and steering gear to be brought to stand-by
9. Use of SOPEP items to contain the oil spill.

The main course of action is dependent upon the nature of chemicals involved and size and location of spill.
If there is possibility of vapors entering accommodation or engine room, measures should be taken to
counteract this. Personnel exposure to be dealt with by using MSDS and EmS (Emergency schedule) and
MFAG from Supplement to IMDG code.
Notification of spillage into the sea:
Reporting requirement will apply to actual or probable release of noxious liquid substances, and for ships
certified to carry NLS, Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (required as per MARPOL regulation
17) should be consulted.

Cargo Operations
Introduction
It is during the ballast voyage that the cargo tanks are full of inert gas and sediments at the tank bottom. The
tanks may need to be cleaned ( e.g. Crude Oil Washed) and got rid of cargo remains as sediments before the
next cargo may be loaded. For thorough cleaning of cargo tanks and if the tanks need to be entered, the tanks
are vented, made gas-free and oxygen rich (>21% by volume) before manual cleaning could be done.

For crude oil, it may not be necessary to clean the tanks except the COW operation, before loading the next
cargo. The tank atmosphere is always maintained inert to avoid any possibility of combustion within the
tank.

After loading, a positive inert gas pressure on top of the tank ensures safe passage.

CARGO LOADING AND DISCHARGING CYCLE FOR TANK SHIPS

Ballast voyage
The ship crew must be on high alert during a ballast voyage as much as on a loaded voyage. One should not
forget that hydrocarbon vapours are still present with inert gas in the cargo tanks after the discharge was
completed. An explosion is possible if proper precautionary measures are not observed.

It is equally important during the ballast voyage as in the loaded voyage to maintain the oxygen content less
than 8% in the tanks unless a tank is gas freed. If the oxygen content is allowed to rise, it can form a
flammable mixture along with hydrocarbon at the right proportions.

Since the tanks are going to remain inerted and closed, the pressures in the tanks have to be monitored.
Pressure fluctuates with variation in atmospheric temperature but the Chief Officer has to ensure that it
remains within limits considering the tank structural design.

The ballast tanks will have water in them but every ballast tank is filled up completely. Ballast is carried
enough to ensure a positive stability in the absence of cargo. This is called normal ballast. Some ballast
space is left to take in more water in case of an extreme bad weather. This is called heavy weather ballast.
The fixed gas detection system has sampling points in the ballast tanks, one at the top and another at the
bottom. Three way valves are provided to change over to the top sampling point during the ballast voyage so
that water will not enter the system. The Chief Officer must ensure this before the ballast tanks are filled up.

The ballast voyage is an opportunity for the crew to gas free the required cargo tanks for man-entry and
carry out maintenance, repair works on valves and pipelines or a regular inspection. Such operation should
be carefully planned based on the length of voyage so that the cargo tanks can be inerted again and ready for
loading upon arrival at load port.

Some of the inspection, testing and maintenance works on cargo equipment according to the planned
maintenance system (PMS) cannot be carried out during the loaded voyage.

These works can be carried out during the ballast voyage and documented accordingly.

Cargo operation - Oil tanker

Carrying out cargo operations on an oil tanker involves many complexities and hence it has to be carefully
planned special consideration to safety. This topic will familiarize you with the fundamental aspects of
different cargo operations on an oil tanker.

There are many hazards involved in the daily operations on an oil tanker. All prescribed safety procedures
and checklists must be followed to ensure safe working atmosphere.

One has to be fully aware of the hazards of the particular ship type and also the cargo carried. The Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and other relevant information should be readily available for reference. The
crew should familiarize themselves with the relevant MSDS before participating in any operation involving
that substance.

Oil cargo is usually pumped into the ship’s tanks using shore pumps and discharged using ship’s pumps. The
cargo is carried in fully closed tanks with inert gas filling the space above the liquid if the flash point is less
than 60°C.

Preparation before loading

Utmost diligence is required in planning the operations before hand, with high regard for safety. The
following are some of the important steps in repairing the vessel for loading oil cargo.

The atmosphere in the cargo tanks must be checked for oxygen content less than 8%. Inerting should be
carried out to reduce the oxygen content if it is found to be 8% or more. This 8% is prescribed by the IMO
and the vessel will not be permitted to load otherwise.

A detailed cargo plan is prepared by the Chief Officer prior arrival at the load port. The plan must be posted
at the Cargo Control Room (CCR) and the crew briefed on its contents. It should be distributed the
personnel directly involved in the operation. They must sign to confirm that they have read and understood
the plan.

The Chief Officer also prepares a watch schedule for the crew and the officers in-charge. Prior to
commencing the loading, the Chief Officer conducts a cargo safety meeting with the concerned crew and
officers.

The ballast pumps must be tested and in all readiness when arriving at a load port.

The appropriate checklists must be completed at each step in preparation as well as loading. These checklists
must be signed and retained for future verification. Some checklists and permits will require the approval of
the Master.
The Duty Officer or the Chief Officer must be present at the Manifold while connecting the cargo transfer
hose or arm.

For Oil Tankers

The subsequent topics cover the following:
 Cargo Data
 Inerting Operations
 Loading Operations
 Discharging Operations

Ship/Shore Liasion
Ship/Shore Safety Checklist
 Checks pre-arrival
 Date and time:
 Port and berth:
 Tanker:
 Terminal:
 Product to be transferred:

Ship/Shore Safety Checklist

Checks after mooring

Ship/Shore Safety Checklist

Checks pre-transfer conference

Checks after pre-transfer conference

For tankers that will perform tank cleaning alongside and/or gas freeing alongside

Repetitive checks during and after transfer

Checklist while bunkering

Bunker checklist

Pre-arrival
Date and time:
Port and berth:
Receiving ship:
Bunker facility:

Checks after mooring

Pre-transfer conference

Pre-bunkering

Repetitive checks
Post-bunkering

Inerting Operations
Tank Inerting
This means that during normal operation of oil tankers the following operational modes frequently take
place:
 Inerting of empty tanks
 Inerting during loading and simultaneous discharge of ballast
 Inerting during loaded sea voyage
 Inerting during discharging and ballasting

Note 1 - On board vessels without purge pipes but with stand-pipes i.e. vent pipes from deck level and about
2500 mm up vertically from deck level, are to be opened instead of the purge pipes .

Note 2 - The vessel which is not fitted with SBT (Segregated Ballast Tank) capacity according to MARPOL
73/78, and ballast water has to be carried in cargo oil tanks on ballast voyages.

Empty gas-free tanks

Tanks that have been cleaned and gas-freed should be re-inerted preferably during the ballast voyage prior to
cargo handling or following a breakdown and repair of the inert gas system, non-gas-free and non-inerted
tanks should be re-inerted. Purge pipes/vents should be opened to atmosphere. The oxygen content in the
tanks should be checked frequently, at least every half hour. The inerting should be continued until the gas
leaving the tank has had an O2 content of less than 8% for a minimum of 30 minutes. This is because of the
possibility of local air pockets in the tanks.

De-ballasting during cargo loading

The vessel is supposed to arrive at the loading port with all cargo tanks inerted. If the ship is fitted with a
central gas vent outlet, all tanks to be loaded are connected to the vent system. In case only local Pressure
Vacuum (P/V) valves are fitted, the valves are checked and adjusted for evacuation of gas through the high-
speed valves. It should be checked that all tank hatches are closed and possible float level indicators are
operating correctly.

Discharge of ballast:- can be done either before or during the loading. During discharge of ballast, before
loading is commenced, the inerting procedure is the same as during discharge of cargo. At simultaneous
loading of cargo and discharge of ballast, the loading capacity is normally higher than the ballast water
discharge capacity. This means that the inert gas volume available in the usage space above the oil level in
the tanks being loaded is more than sufficient for the inert gas needed in the ballast tanks during discharge.
By simply connecting the ballast tank to the cargo tanks with the inert gas lines on deck, inert gas will flow
from the cargo tanks to the ballast tanks. The inert gas system can be operated if required, but will normally
not be required to deliver any gas to the deck lines.

Cargo loading
During loading without de-ballasting, it is normally not necessary to operate the inert gas system. All
openings to the cargo tanks except the connections to the mast risers or equivalent venting arrangement
should be kept closed to minimize flammable vapor on deck. Before loading commences, the flame screens
in the mast risers or equivalent venting arrangements should be inspected and any stop valves isolating the
cargo tanks from the inert gas main locked in the open position. The ventilation mast P/V valve should be in
the open position or bypassed during this operation. This is to allow free flow of the inert gas above the oil
level to the atmosphere during the loading. At this moment the 'usage' volume in the tanks is filled with inert
gas mixed with hydrocarbon gases at about atmospheric pressure. If this mixture of inert gas and
hydrocarbon gas has an oxygen content of 8% by volume or below, this atmosphere is non-explosive and
safe.
Loaded sea voyage
During the loaded passage the positive pressure may, however, be disturbed with a pressure drop in the tank
due to escape of inert gas and the possibility of ingress of air into the tanks by several factors. The most
common are:
 Leakages in valves and hatch covers
 Change of pressure in the tanks due to temperature variations (i.e. sea/air temperature changes)
 Rolling and heaving in rough sea.

A positive pressure of inert gas of at least 100 millimeters water gauge should be maintained in the cargo
tanks. When topping up the inert gas pressure in the cargo tanks, an oxygen concentration of 5 per cent or
less shall be maintained in the inert gas supply before introducing the gas into the cargo tanks.

Cargo discharging
When the vessel arrives at the discharge port, the inert gas system should be tested and ready for operation
in due time for discharge. Before pumping of cargo oil is started, the inert gas system should be in operation
and connected to the deck line, with the pressure control in the "automatic" position. It may be necessary to
relieve the inert gas pressure in the cargo tanks on arrival to permit manual measurement before cargo is
discharged. If this is done, no cargo or ballasting operation is to be undertaken and a minimum number of
small tank openings are to be uncovered for as short a time as necessary to enable these measurements to be
completed. The tanks should then be re-pressurized before discharge commences. Cargo discharge should
not be commenced until all the conditions have been checked and are in order. During discharge the oxygen
content and pressure of the inert gas in the inert gas main should be continuously recorded as per regulation.

Ballasting during Cargo discharge

Normally, taking in ballast while discharging may save time. This is normally done in the last period (during
stripping) of the discharge. This means that some tanks displace inert gas while some take in inert gas.
During the stripping of the last tanks, the discharge rate is normally less than the ballast rate. In this case
there is a surplus of inert gas, which will be transferred from ballast tank to cargo discharging tank and the
inert gas system may, if desired, be stopped. In case of the reverse, the inert gas system must be in operation
to prevent air from being sucked into the tanks.

The capacity of the inert gas system should always be adjusted to give positive outflow of inert gas through
the ventilation mast. This is done to prevent air from being sucked into the tanks. After the vessel has left the
discharge port, the inert gas system should be in operation for purging of all cargo tanks to reduce the
concentration of hydrocarbon gas. When the tanks have been purged and the concentration of hydrocarbon
gas has been checked to be below about 2.5% by volume, the tanks should be pressurized and the inert gas
system closed down. The tank pressure and oxygen concentration should be monitored during the voyage
and new purging or 'topping up' should be done when necessary.

Loading Operations
Loading
Before commencement of loading, the IG inlet valves to each tank should be re-checked to verify they are in
the desired position. These valves should be locked in that position and the Chief Officer alone shall have
control of the keys.

When all preparations are ready as per the loading plan to the satisfaction of the Chief Officer, he waits for
confirmation from the shore facility representative that the terminal is ready to start. When the shore facility
representative confirms readiness to pump cargo, Chief Officer will have the designated manifold valves
open. A final check on the line up of valves and the terminal is told to start pumping cargo.

Loading is commenced at a slow rate first filling the lines and not allowing static generation. The back
pressure at the manifold is closely monitored.
Confirm that the cargo is flowing only into the desired tanks as per the plan, before increasing the rate. This
is confirmed by monitoring the ullage of the tanks.

The Chief Officer will wait for confirmation from ship’s crew that all deck, pump room and manifold lines
are without leaks and safety checks carried out. Then the Chief Officer will ask the terminal for a greater
rate as and when he opens up more tanks.

He continues to increase the rate this way, carrying out safety checks at each stage until reaching the
maximum agreed loading rate. Communication with the terminal is to be maintained throughout the
operation.

The IG is either vented or returned to the shore via vapor manifold from the cargo tanks, to maintain a
slightly positive pressure at all times.

The deck crew are assigned to continuously carry out safety checks and confirm that no oil leaks are
detected and oil is not flowing into tanks other than the ones intended.

The ullage of the tanks being loaded is monitored and the inflow is changed to other tanks when reaching
various stages of the loading plan.

More hands are required during the initial stages of the operation, but once the loading has settled at a
constant rate, the off-duty crew are dismissed and the normal watch schedule is followed, as per the loading
plan.

The manifold back pressure should be closely monitored particularly when changing over tanks and valves.

Any leak in the system has to be taken seriously and dealt with immediately irrespective of whether it is
small or big.

The initial, maximum and topping off rates should be carefully decided based on many factors, including the
following:
 The nature of cargo being handled
 Conductivity of the grade of oil
 Condition of ship lines
 IG venting capacity
 Design pressure of lines
 Ability and competence of crew
 Overall condition of ship and cargo equipment.

Deballasting operations should commence and continue as per the loading plan. A cleverly made plan will
have the deballasting commence after the ramping up of the cargo rate has completed. A good aft trim
especially towards the completion of deballasting will help in efficient stripping.

The Duty Officer must keep a log of events during the operation. The cargo log book can be an important
piece of evidence in case of an unfortunate accident.

If the vessel is moored to a SBM or FSO, the crew should be briefed on the safety checks specific to it.

The Chief Officer’s standing orders are posted in the cargo control room for Duty Officer to follow and he
also leaves day and night orders whenever he is absent from the control room.

The loadicator must be updated frequently and the stress parameters compared with those in the loading
plan. Print outs of these results are to be filed by the duty officer at regular intervals during the operation.
The calculated draft and trim should be verified with visual results frequently, to avoid larger differences by
surprise at a later stage.

When approaching the final stages of loading, the Chief Officer will arrange for adequate crew members
ready for the topping off operation.

The method and sequence intended to be followed for topping off should be clearly mentioned, including the
rates in the loading plan.

The terminal should be advised well in time about the commencement of topping off.

All ullage measuring devices and fixed gauging equipment should be in operation and ready. Accuracy must
be verified in the case of remote ullage readouts in the CCR.

Topping off is one of the critical stages of the loading operation and the Chief Officer must not hesitate to
stop the operation if he notices any abnormalities.

The terminal is asked to reduce the loading rate suitable for topping off also considering the number of tanks
open.

It is important to keep enough numbers of tanks open for the prevailing rate to avoid back pressure at the
manifold.

The deck crew must be strategically placed at the tanks to follow the planned sequence. When one tank is
topped off, one should monitor the ullage to make sure no more cargo is flowing into it, then move on to the
next tank.

The tank valve should not be closed when topping off the last tank. Instead, the terminal should be asked to
stop pumping.

The final ullages are verified with the plan and monitored for any changes. The controls of the closed valves
are suitably secured to prevent accidental opening.

Loaded voyage
Tanker management: operations during laden voyage
As per the Charterer’s instructions, the Chief Officer must record the water content in the cargo during the
voyage in calm waters if required.

During the loaded passage, the ullage of each tank is recorded at regular intervals. Additionally, the
temperature too is recorded in the case of heated cargoes. This will help to detect any inflow or outflow due
to valve leakage.

Volatile cargoes can increase the pressure within closed tanks and suitable means to be adopted to keep this
pressure within limits.

When the ship is fully loaded, there is very little space above the liquid in the tank and this relatively smaller
volume can cause large fluctuations in the pressure due to varying atmospheric temperature.

The cargo tank pressures are to be closely monitored and the IG plant should be ready well in time, if a
negative pressure is anticipated. Topping up IG should be done with great care so that a high pressure is not
experienced subsequently.

Cargo heating should be done as per charterer’s instructions if required. The Chief Officer monitors the
temperature of the cargo and liaises with the Chief Engineer for the maintenance of the cargo heating
system.
The Chief Engineer and Chief Officer follow a cargo heating plan which prepared and followed based on
many factors including the grade, viscosity, pour point, and atmospheric temperature.

Discharging Operations
Discharging
Good planning is the key to a safe and efficient discharging operation.

An exchange of information is done between the ship and terminal before arrival in the port. After the ship is
safely moored alongside, the terminal representatives meet the chief officer and discuss the vital details of
the operation.

A ship-shore safety checklist is discussed and signed by both sides. In general, almost all the safety
precautions are the same as that of load port. One difference being that the ship’s cargo pumps will be
running during the discharge operation.

Special attention to be paid to the safety arrangements in the pump room. The pump room ventilation should
be running continuously throughout the operation. A valid entry permit should be available so that the crew
can undertake frequent safety rounds. All the crew involved in the cargo operation should be familiar with
the fire fighting arrangements in the pump room.

Even the smallest of leak or drip should be addressed immediately. Personnel assigned for regular pump
room inspection during discharging operation should be familiar on what to look for. Liquids collecting in
the bilge will easily reveal if any leaks that are happening out of view.

The Chief Officer will carry out initial survey of the cargo tanks for quantification before discharging, along
with the cargo surveyor. When the gauging, sampling and calculations are complete, the Chief Officer will
check. When the terminal is also ready to receive cargo, the Chief Officer will position his crew in strategic
locations and start pumping ashore. The discharge is usually started using a single pump from a single tank.

The cargo pumps are usually driven by steam turbine and it is important to warm up the steam lines and the
pump before starting. The Chief Officer gives prior notice to the engineers for warming up and will have the
pumps already running at minimum RPM when about to start discharging. The RPM is slowly increased by
the Chief Officer when needed.

As the liquid levels in the tanks go down, the space has to be replaced with inert gas so that the required
positive pressure can be maintained in the tank. The engineers will have to maintain the inert gas plant in
good running condition because the rate of discharge partly depends on the supply of inert gas from the
engine room.

The content of oxygen in the inert gas generated in the plant should be less than 5% and the content of
oxygen in the cargo tanks should be maintained below 8%. The IG pressure in the cargo tanks should be
closely monitored especially in the initial stages of discharging and when the rate of pumping is increased or
decreased. In the beginning stages of discharge, the space above the liquid in the cargo tanks is small and
hence the pressure can fluctuate more.

When the discharge with one pump from one cargo tank is found to be working as planned and safe, the
Chief Officer will increase the RPM to increase the rate, simultaneously opening up more tanks. More
pumps are started and put online to further increase the rate.

The discharge pressure at the manifold should be monitored carefully because it gives the Chief Officer a
good idea of the effective rate of discharge from ship to the shore tanks and will also quickly indicate any
abnormalities in the system.
Towards the end of the discharge operation, another important stage is reached when the cargo tanks reach
close to empty levels. The RPM of the pumps should be gradually reduced as the levels in the tanks fall. The
discharge valve of the pumps should be throttled to avoid cavitation. A vacuum strip system can be made
use of at this stage for effective discharge using main cargo pumps. These will depend largely on the skill
and experience of the Chief Officer.

The ballasting operation should be carried out as per the plan in line with the progress of cargo discharge.
The contents of the cargo and ballast tanks should be updated frequently in the loadicator and stresses
checked even though they are pre calculated in the plan.

COW operation will be carried out along with discharge or in between depending on Chief Officer’s plan
and the terminal regulations.

Stripping
The charterer’s and the terminal’s impression on the ship’s performance will largely depend on the ship’s
strategy in proper completion of discharge. If the stripping operation is carefully planned and executed, it
can help to reduce the total discharge time considerably which in turn translates to maximum cargo output
for the owner. A full knowledge of the cargo pumping system on board and the particular characteristics of
the cargo are essential for the officers and crew on board.

The stripping system of an oil tanker may have an independent piping for stripping suction or may branch
out from the main cargo line.

The independent stripping line system is the most user-friendly and results in easier operation. In the second
type, the main cargo pumps will have to be stopped when some tanks are being stripped out because both
make use of the same lines.

In both the systems, two stripping pumps are normally found in the pump room making it possible to do
stripping from two sets of tanks simultaneously.

The aim is to empty all the cargo tanks as quickly as possible and as efficiently as possible.

Stripping pumps are almost always the positive displacement type. In this type, the liquid is sucked into a
chamber on the suction side and the entire contents transferred to a chamber in the discharge side. It is ideal
for the purpose because it is capable of creating suction in the stripping lines, even capable of lifting the
cargo from a height.

The most common type of positive displacement pump used for this purpose is the duplex reciprocating
pump. It has two sets of chambers, double acting. The important part for efficient functioning of the pump
are the cargo valves. They have to be inspected and maintained regularly.

Duplex reciprocating pumps are steam driven. The heat from the steam lines can become a hazard especially
if cargo vapors are present. The steam lines should be fully insulated since there is a hazard of the cargo
leaking and falling on it.

The other type of stripping pump is the rotary or gear pump. It contains two gears which mesh together. The
cargo moves between the casing and the gear tooth when the gears are made to rotate. Normally powered by
an electric motor, they are very efficient, especially in pumping highly viscous oils like molasses or lube
oils.

The eductor is another device that can be used in place of a stripping pump. The advantage over the
stripping pumps is that it can be run dry without liquid on the suction side and it cannot lose suction. The
reason it is not used for stripping cargo in a discharge operation is because no drive liquid is available when
all tanks are close to empty.
Temperature corrections
The equipment and procedure used for measuring temperature should conform as closely as possible to the
recommendations of American Petroleum Institute (API) and the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM). The calculated volume error can be up to 0.1% for an error of 1°C in the tank
temperature.

Measuring temperature from the center point of the cargo tank using a single thermometer must be avoided.
The difference in temperature of cargo between top and bottom of the tank can be as much as 5°C.
Temperature readings must be obtained from at least three levels when the tank is full or nearly full.
Normally temperature is read from top, middle and bottom.

The usual method of measuring temperature is by using the UTI device. It uses a digital probe with a
display. Some devices even alert the user when the temperature reading has stabilized at different heights
and the reading can be stored in the memory by the push of a button. The user must allow at least 20 seconds
for it to stabilize before reading at each level.

The ASTM guidelines recommend that in cargo tanks with more than 4.5 meters or more height of liquid,
temperature must be recorded at three levels. The first at one meter from the top, second in the middle and
the third is at one meter from the bottom.

Volume using Calibration tables

When the cargo density at standard temperature, ullage, average cargo temperatures and water innages have
been recorded, one can proceed to determine the total volume of cargo in each tank. The tank calibration
tables are used for this purpose and are calculated by the ship’s officer as well as by the independent
surveyor.

Every tanker carries a set of calibration tables for the cargo tanks to determine the volume of liquid. The
tables give the volume for the tanks for 10 mm interval of ullage for each tank and the volume for ullages in
between can be found by linear interpolation. Volumes of pipelines or duct keel should be taken into account
if they are not allowed in the tables.

Different parts of the world use different units of measurement. The most common being the metric system
and the other imperial system. A cubic meter is used for indicating volume in the metric system, whereas,
the same is indicated in barrels under the imperial system.

Total observed volume

TOV normally refers to the total volume of liquid present in the cargo tanks including free water, sediments,
etc., determined for the prevalent temperature and pressure. It is obtained by entering the calibration tables
using the ullage applying the necessary corrections for list and trim. The report clearly states whether the
TOV includes the slop tank or not.

Gross observed volume

GOV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks including S&W but excluding free water determined for the
prevalent temperature and pressure.

Net observed volume

NOV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks excluding both S&W and free water determined for the
prevalent temperature and pressure.

Gross standard volume

GSV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks including S&W but excluding free water and corrected for the
standard temperature of 15°C using a correction factor from API tables. The atmospheric pressure correction
factor is included if applicable.
Net standard volume
NSV is the total volume of cargo in the tanks excluding both S&W and free water corrected for the standard
temperature of 15°C using correction factor from API tables. The atmospheric pressure correction factor is
included if applicable. The cost of oil cargo in a contract is based upon the NSV and hence it is of
commercial importance.

Total calculated volume

TCV is nothing but the GSV including any free water at the observed pressure and temperature. The TCV is
important for the ship’s officer because differences in transit will be measured at the discharge port with
reference to TCV. The officer cannot control the amount of water present in the cargo which will settle
down to the bottom during the voyage. The free water is again added to the GSV at the discharge port to
compare the TCV after loading and before discharging. This is done as a separate step because the free
water is not corrected for standard temperature.

Density and API tables

The following gives an overview of the contents of API tables and largely applies for oil tankers.
Series I - TABLE 5 to 6 - FOR API, °F, 60°F
Volume I: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 5A & 6A)
Volume II: Generalized Products (Tables 5B and 6B)
Volume III: Individual and Special Applications (Table 6C)

Series II - TABLE 23 & 24 - FOR RELATIVE DENSITY, °F, 60°F

Volume IV: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 23A & 24A)
Volume V: Generalized Products (Tables 23B and 24B)
Volume VI: Individual and Special Applications (Table 24C)

Series III - TABLE 53 & 54 - FOR KG/cm3 DENSITY, °C, 15°C

Volume VII: Generalized Crude Oils (Tables 53A & 54A)
Volume VIII: Generalized Products (Tables 53B and 54B)
Volume IX: Individual and Special Applications (Table 54C)
Volume X: Background, Documentation, Program Listings
Volume XI / XII - ASTM D 1250-80 - API standard 2540 and IP Designation 200 apply
Volume XI - ENTRY WITH API GRAVITY
Table 1: Interrelation of Units of Measurement
Table 2: Temperature Conversions
Table 3: API Gravity at 60oF to Relative Density 60/60oF and to Density at 15°C
Table 4: U.S. Gallons at 60F and Barrels at 60F to Litres at 15C against API Gravity at 60F
Table 8: Pounds per US Gallon at 60F and US Gallons at 60F per pound against API Gravity at 60F
Table 9: Short Tons per 1000 US Gallons at 60F and Barrel at 60F against API Gravity at 60F
Table 10: US Gallons at 60F and Barrels at 60F per Short Ton against API Gravity at 60F
Table 11: Long Tons per 1000 US Gallons at 60F and per Barrel at 60F against API Gravity

Procedure of Calculation

When using density at 15°C in air:

1. Apply corrections to the observed ullage and obtain the corrected ullage.
2. Apply corrections to the observed interface and obtain the corrected interface.
3. Calculate the total observed volume (TOV) from the corrected ullage.
4. Calculate the volume of water from the corrected interface.
5. Obtain the gross observed volume (GOV) by removing the water from TOV.
6. Find volume correction factor (VCF) from table 54.
7. Calculate the gross standard volume (GSV) from GOV and VCF. GSV = GOV x VCF.
8. Use weight correction factor (WCF). WCF = density in vacuum at 15°C – 0.0011(or the density at
15°C in air)
9. Obtain weight in air = GSV x WCF.
 10. Or obtain weight in vacuum = GSV x density at 15C in vacuum.

When using API gravity at 60°F:

1. Apply corrections to observed ullage and obtain corrected ullage.
2. Apply corrections to interface and obtain corrected interface.
3. Obtain the gross observed volume (GOV) in US barrels using the corrected ullage.
4. Obtain the volume of water in US barrels from the corrected interface.
5. Calculate the observed volume of cargo using GOV and volume of water. Observed vol = GOV –
water.
6. Find the volume correction factor (VCF) from table 6 using obs temperature and API gravity at 60°F.
7. Calculate the gross standard volume (GSV) using obs cargo volume and VCF. GSV = Obs cargo vol
x VCF.
8. Refer the weight correction factor (WCF) from table 13.
9. Calculate weight in air = GCV x WCF.

Simple Calculations on Liquid Cargoes

Following steps are used to calculate the liquid cargoes.
1. The height of oil in the tank is accurately measured and recorded, or the Ullage is measured from the
sounding pipe.
2. The total height of the tank and the sounding pipe height minus the ullage reading gives the height of
the oil in the tank.
3. The temperature of the oil at different levels is taken using dipping thermometer. The average
temperature of the tank is recorded.
4. The reading is corrected for Trim and List, using ship’s Tank Capacity Tables.
5. The total observed volume corresponding to the ullage or the sounding of the tank is calculated from
the tank capacity tables.
6. The true density of the oil at 15 degree centigrade is taken from the Product Data Sheet and the
reading is corrected for the observed temperature for the density at the tank temperature or if API
(American Petroleum Institute) gravity is given at 60 degree Fahrenheit, it is calculated for the
observed temperature from the ASTM Table No.6.
7. The mass of the oil is calculated using the formula m = corrected density X corrected volume (see
model tabulations below). API gravity system may also be used.

 Tank Number
 Ullage Metres
 Trim corrected Ullage
 Total Observed Volume in Cubic Metres
 Temp. Degree Centigrade
 True Density at 15oC
 Density at Tank Temp.
 Kg/L at Tank Temp.
 Metric Tonnes

Use of ASTM Tables Density 15c

Calculates cargo quantity using ASTM tables, given density at 15 degrees centigrade in vacuum, dimensions
of the cargo space and ullage at observed temperature (given angle of list, trim of the vessel and position of
the ullage port)
Before doing cargo calculations for oil cargoes one must know common terminology used in calculating the
cargo quantity and these are as below:

Total Observed Volume (TOV)

This is the total volume of material measured in the tank including cargo (oil), free water (FW), entrained
sediment and water (S&W) and sediment and scale as measured at ambient (observed) temperature and
pressure.
Free Water (FW)
This is the water layer existing as a separate phase normally detected by water paste or an interface detector,
usually settles at the bottom of the tank (depending on relative density of cargo).

Gross Observed Volume (GOV)

TOV less FW and bottom sediment, is the measured volume of oil and S&W at the observed temperature
and pressure. In practice, the bottom sediment is difficult to quantify and is ignored.

ASTM - American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials, is an international
standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range
of materials, products, systems, and services.

Gross Standard Volume (GSV)

Measured volume of oil and S&W at standard conditions of and atmospheric pressure. To obtain the GSV,
in practice the GOV is multiplied by a volume correction factor (VCF). This is obtained from the standard
tables e.g. ASTM Table 54. (see table 54 for an observed temperature of below to obtain VCF for

Diagram 5 – ASTM Table extract

Net Standard Volume (NSV)

Normally applicable to crude oil, NSV is the GSV minus sediment and water (S&W). For products, S&W is
not normally deducted and is included in the cargo figures.

Total Calculated Volume (TCV)

Total amount of oil, FW and S&W reported at standard temperature. In practice, TCV is the GSV plus
measured FW.
Tank Calibration Tables
A tank with a known capacity is used to check the volumetric measurements, and other stability information
at any given ullage or sounding. Tank calibration tables are normally calibrated and certified by external
organizations such as Classification Societies and are provided for all cargo tanks on a vessel.

The procedure for calculating cargo quantity using ASTM tables is as below:
Working with Density at 15°C in air:
1. Observed Ullage - apply corrections (list, trim and position of the ullage port from the vessels
calibration tables) - get corrected ullage
2. Observed Interface (separation between oil and water) - apply corrections (list, trim and position of
the ullage port from the vessels calibration tables) - get corrected interface
3. From Corrected Ullage, find Total Observed Volume TOV (in cubic metres, use calibration tables of
the vessel)
4. From Corrected Interface, find Volume of Water (in cubic metres, use calibration tables of the
vessel)
5. TOV - Water = Gross Observed Volume (GOV) of Cargo (in cubic metres)
6. Use Density at 15°C Observed Temperature (OC) and find Volume Correction Factor (VCF) from
say ASTM Table 54 (see diagram 5)
7. Gross Standard Volume (GSV) = GOV VCF (cubic metres)
8. Weight Correction Factor (WCF) or Weight Reduction Factor (WRF) = Density at 15°C in vacuum -
0.0011 or the Density at in air, Note: density of the liquid being loaded will be provided by the port
of loading in either in vacuum or air at 15°C
9. Weight in Air (Metric Ton) = GSV WCF or the density at 15°C in air
10. Weight in Vacuum (Metric Ton) = GSV Density at in 15°C vacuum

Use Wedge Formula Only

Calculates using WRF (WCF), weight of cargo in tank, quantity of cargo/water using the wedge
formula
The wedge formula is used to calculate the Remain On Board (ROB) or On Board Quantity (OBQ) of cargo
in an almost empty tank. The formula is used as trim tables cannot be used to find the ullage volume of left
over cargo. The wedge formula must not be used if the un-pumpable cargo is sludge or if the liquid layer
extends from bulkhead to bulkhead.

A wedge of un-pumpable cargo is formed when the vessel is trimmed by the stern and all cargo moves to the
aft of the tank forming a wedge as shown in diagram 6. The apex of the wedge is at the aft tank bulkhead
(vessel trimmed by the stern). The wedge must not extend from bulkhead to bulkhead.
Diagram 6 - The ROB cargo wedge

The derivation of the wedge formula is as below:

 F = distance of ullage pipe from aft bulkhead (metres).
 B = breadth of tank (metres)
  L = LBP of ship (metres)
 T = trim (metres)
 S = sounding of liquid (metres)
 V = volume of liquid (cum)
 C = corrected sounding (metres)
 ? = trim in degrees
 D = depth of tank (metres)

The volume of liquid in the wedge is calculated as below:

(the ROB volume)

To find the ROB weight, follow steps 6 to 10 of 10.2. (procedure for calculating cargo quantity, sub-
heading)

When using the formula, the following are known:

 LBP, trim, tank dimensions (length, breadth, distance of ullage port from aft bulkhead) and the
sounding of liquid in the tank

The wedge formula uses the following assumptions:

 The sine of the angle is equal to the tan of the angle as the trim is small
 The tank is box shaped and has no fittings (heating coils etc.)

Tank Cleaning
Cleaning, Purging and Gas Freeing

The tank cleaning process mentioning the purging and gas freeing procedures associated with it
There are three tank cleaning methods on tankers and these are as below:
 Bottom flushing with water; petroleum product or chemical solvents
 Water washing (hot or cold) employing tank-washing machinery
 Crude oil washing

Bottom washing is usually carried out to rid tank bottoms of previous cargo prior to loading different but a
compatible, grade of cargo. It can be effective when carrying refined products in small quantities. Bottom
washing with acceptable solvents is sometimes conducted where a tanker is to take, say, paraffin (kerosene)
products after carrying leaded gasoline.

Bottom washing is done to remove traces of the previous cargo and will not remove heavy wax sediments
at the tank bottom.

Water washing is done using portable or fixed washing machines that clean tanks using sea water (heated if
required). The sea water is supplied to these machines by a high pressure pump through a tank cleaning deck
line.

The full tank structure is washed thoroughly by the tank washing machines. Portable machines are
lowered/raised as required to ensure a thorough wash.
The oil-water mixture after washing is transferred by a stripping pump into a slop tank for decanting.

Cow
Many hazards are involved in the crude oil washing operation and hence safe planning for safe execution is
important.

The Chief Officer is in-charge of the crude oil washing operations. If the Chief Officer is less experienced,
the Master assists him in supervising the crude oil washing operation. Whoever is involved in carrying out
the operation must be familiar with the contents of the operation and equipment manual.

A detailed COW plan is prepared by the Chief Officer along with the discharging plan prior arrival at the
discharge port. The latest IMO publication “Crude Oil Washing Systems” and ICS/OCIMFs publication
“ISGOTT” should be consulted in planning.

Any of the officers involved in the crude oil operation should familiarize themselves fully with the crude oil
washing system on board.

The sequence of discharge is planned in such a way that a good trim is achieved for effective stripping
during COW operation.

The plan should be well designed to minimize the time cargo pumps are needed to be removed from the
discharge operation.

The vessel must carry Operations and Equipment Manual (COW Manual) which is approved by the Flag
state or the Classification society on behalf of the Flag state. Every COW operation must be carried out
strictly as per the COW Manual.

The terminal must be notified well in advance of the vessel’s intention to carry out COW operations. The
same should be discussed by the Chief Officer with the terminal representative as part of the ship-shore
safety meeting prior commencing cargo operations.

The Master must get approval from the Charterer, cargo consignee, terminal, harbor master among others in
order to carry out crude oil washing in Japanese ports.

Some terminals even require the ship to complete their format of permit, checklists and questionnaire before
granting approval for the operation.

The following must be ensured before COW operation begins:

1. Blank off the tank cleaning heaters
2. Isolate the overboard discharge valves
3. Hydrants for portable washing machines to be blocked
4. Sea Chests connected to cargo lines to be blanked off.

The cow lines must be pressure tested prior arrival in a discharge port. Any leaks detected should be
rectified and the pressure test repeated. The pressure to which the lines are tested and the last date of testing
should be marked on the lines by regulation.

The atmosphere in the tank must be checked for oxygen content less than 8% before commencing COW
operations. During the operation, the IG pressure must be closely monitored and special safety precautions
are necessary in the case of sour crude because they are likely to generate large amounts of H2S.

Electrically charged mist will be produced if the crude is mixed with water. The ISGOTT publication
contains an elaborate section on precautions for preventing static electricity generation and its hazards.
To avoid the risk of washing with oil-water mixture, about one meter of cargo should be de-bottomed during
discharge before using it for washing.

If load-on-top method was adopted during last loading in the slop tank and if oil from there is to be used for
COW, the contents of the slop tank should be discharged ashore and again filled with fresh crude oil from
the other tanks.

Continuous communication link between the CCR and the deck watch keepers is very important and
normally electronic portable radios are used for this purpose. Any electronic equipment used on deck must
be intrinsically safe type and with a certificate.

Hazard in COW
Crude oil washing is a tank washing process where the vessels tanks are washed with crude oil instead of
water in an inert atmosphere (oxygen content must be less than 8%, taking a safety factor into account to
prevent ignition of hydrocarbon vapor), using high capacity fixed washing machines, at the end of the
discharging cycle. It can also be done at sea between discharge ports.

When doing COW, crude containing water droplets from the bottom of the tank must not be introduced as
these water droplets may get electrostatically charged (a fire hazard). To prevent water being present in the
crude oil when crude oil washing, the tank being Crude Oil Washed should be de-bottomed into the slop
tank or bled ashore with the discharge pump.

One of the cargo pumps will be used for crude oil washing. This pump will supply the COW line with
pressurized crude for washing. The COW line will have branch lines that supply the pressurized crude to the
fixed COW machines. A typical VLCC tank will have up to 6 of these machines.

Before doing COW, the tank must be inerted and the heater in the washing system must be isolated by
blanks. The COW line must be pressurized and tested for leaks.

There are 4 stages in the COW cycle and are as below:

Stage 1 – Washes of the top (deckhead) of the tank – Nozzle of the COW machine to point upwards.

Stage 2 – Wash starts when one-third of the tank is discharged. The washing jet washes the tank bulkhead(s)
up to a level just above the oil level in the tank when one-third full. (the top one third of the tank structure is
washed).

Stage 3 – Wash when the tank is two thirds full, washes the top one-thirds to two thirds of the tank structure.

Stage 4 – The bottom of the tank is washed in this stage, the COW machine nozzle points downwards,
washing is done when the tank is almost empty.

How effective is COW in comparison to Water washing?

Crude oil washing systems (COW) are required to be fitted on every crude oil tanker of 20,000 dwt and
above. Crude oil washing is more efficient than water washing. It is able to remove internal tank deposits
that cannot be removed with water washing. This is because crude oil has a solvent effect on tar/waxy
deposits that settle out during a loaded voyage.

The effectiveness of the COW must be determined and this is done by an effectiveness survey (to ensure the
full tank is washed and no voids remain). This survey is based on a vessel complying with certain
requirements as per the MARPOL Convention.
COW cycles

COW Checklist
Checks to be done before and during COW are as below:
 When carrying out crude oil washing during cargo discharge, the Master should inform the terminal
competent authority 24 hrs before commencement (or other ship when ship-to-ship transfer is
involved)
 The Oxygen analyzer should be tested to be working satisfactorily
 All hydrant valves on the tank washing line to be shut
  Inert gas in tank to be checked – (Oxygen to be less than 8%), IG pressure to be satisfactory (positive
pressure)
 Discharge procedures to be followed and the ship to shore check list must be completed
 The tank washing system should be pressure tested to normal working pressure to check for leaks
before commencement of crude oil washing; after testing the system should be drained down; any
leaks found rectified and system must be tested again to ensure it is leak free
 All tank ullage floats to be lifted, and valves of tanks to be washed, opened
 IG must be in operation
 Tanks must be closed to the outside atmosphere
 When doing crude oil washing constant monitoring is of utmost importance, so that any leak detected
is dealt with immediately
 When changing over tanks during COW, the pressure in the COW line is to be reduced to a
minimum, before any valves in the system are opened or closed, there by minimizing the potential
for damage due to surge pressure
 Tanks that are to be used as a source of crude oil for COW must be partly discharged to remove any
water that may have settled (note, water settles below the oil layer). For this purpose a layer of at
least one meter must be discharged ashore. The reason for this is that oil/water mixtures can produce
an electrically charged mist and therefore there must be no water present in the crude oil used for
COW, if slop tanks are to be used as a source of crude oil for COW, they must be completely
discharged and filled with dry crude oil
 If a tank washing water heater is fitted outside the engine room, it must be blanked off during COW
to prevent oil from flowing through it
 Vapor emissions must be controlled (in port), especially if ballasting is to be carried out in crude oil
washed tanks
 COW must be carried out under the strict supervision of a competent person

Purging and gas freeing

In the gas freeing operation air is delivered into the tank where it mixes with the existing tank atmosphere,
the resultant mixture is then expelled to the outside atmosphere.

The process ensures the continuous dilution of tank atmospheres with air, and continues, till all toxic and
flammable gases have been removed and the Oxygen content is above 21%. Gas freeing ensures that the
compartment atmosphere is favorable for man entry.

On oil tankers before gas freeing, it is desirable to reduce the hydrocarbon content to 2% or less by volume,
this is done by purging (replacing tank atmosphere) with inert gas. Purging is done so that during gas
freeing, the atmosphere in the tank is never in the flammable range, i.e. the amount of hydrocarbon content
is always below 5% by volume (critical level for ignition of hydrocarbon vapour, provided volume of
Oxygen is greater than 11% by volume).

Purging and inerting is done using two distinct processes, these are the dilution and displacement methods.

In the dilution method the incoming inert gas mixes with the original tank atmosphere to form a
homogeneous mixture throughout the tank so that, as the process continues, the concentration of the original
gas decreases progressively and continues until the hydrocarbon content is below 2% (checked with a
tankscope). In this method normally one tank is inerted at a time.

In the displacement method the inert gas enters from the top of the tank, the heavier hydrocarbon gas exiting
through the tank bottom through suitable piping. When using this method it is important that the inert gas
has a very low entry velocity so that the interface between the hydrocarbon gas and the inert gas is stable (to
prevent mixing). In this method several tanks can be inerted and purged at the same time.
When doing inerting and purging the Oxygen and gas concentrations must be checked regularly at different
tank levels to check operation efficiency.

One must also take normal safety precautions when venting the mixture of inert gas and petroleum gas to the
atmosphere during the purging process as this mixture can become flammable when mixed with air.
Gas freeing is normally done by using portable fans or fixed gas freeing equipment (fans).

When using fixed gas freeing equipment (permanently installed blowers) one must note the following:
 All connections between the cargo tank system and the blowers must be blanked
 The cargo piping system, including crossovers and discharge lines should be flushed through with
sea water and the tanks stripped
 Valves on the cargo piping system, other than those required for ventilation should be closed and
secured

When using portable fans for gas freeing one must note the following:
 Portable fans should be either water, steam, hydraulic or pneumatically driven
 When using steam driven fans care must be taken to ensure that the exhaust does not vent into the
tank, to prevent build-up of static electricity
 Extension tubes can be used with these fans, especially in deep cargo tanks and those with deep
structural members at the tank bottom, if these tubes incorporate synthetic material they must be
bonded
 Portable fans should be placed in a manner that ensures that all parts of the tank being ventilated are
effectively gas freed
 Ventilation outlets must be as remote as possible from the fans
 An effective electrical bond must exist between the fan and the ship’s deck

FLAMMABILITY COMPOSITION DIAGRAM FOR A HYDROCARBON GAS/AIR/IG MIXTURE

The following media explains about the Flammability Diagram:

The line PQ represents the concentration of a mixture that includes air and hydrocarbon gases only. All the
points to the left of the line PQ include the inert gas in the mixture. Those to the right of the line PQ and on
the line PQ do not include inert gas.

When inert gas is added to the tank atmosphere, the concentration inside the tank changes drastically. So
does the upper and lower flammable limit of the mixture. It can be seen from the diagram that the UFL and
LFL narrows down to converge at point T when inert gas is added.

It can be inferred that the flammability range of a mixture decreases with addition of inert gas.

Now let's assume a mixture of HC gas, air, inert gas such that it is at point U in the diagram.

If this mixture is diluted with air (Oxygen concentration 21%), then the new concentration of the mixture
will follow a straight line drawn from U to the 21% mark on oxygen percentage (X- axis). i.e. Line UP.

It can be seen from the diagram that on diluting U with air, it passes through the flammable range and hence
it poses a fire hazard.

To tackle this, we need to first purge the tank with inert gas. Since inert gas has O2 concentration of around
5%, the concentration of mixture during purging process moves along the line UX. X is the point of 2%
oxygen concentration in inert gas.

The purging is continued till the mixture reaches point W. From W if the mixture is diluted with air of 21%
oxygen, it will follow the line WP, which doesn't fall in the flammable range. Hence a safe condition is
maintained throughout the process.

While looking at the diagram we come across the term critical dilution limit (Line VP). Let's try to
understand this term. The line VP passes by just touching the flammable range portion of the diagram. Thus
critical dilution limit is the minimum amount of purging required to ensure that the mixture doesn't fall in
the flammable range while diluting with air.

From above, It is well understood that the use of inert gas itself doesn't guarantee the safe environment of
tank during tank operations, until inert gas present is above the critical limit of the environment.

To be on the safer side, it is a common practise to continue purging the mixture even beyond the critical
dilution limit, to prevent any fire hazard due to the purged mixture passing through the flammable range
during dilution with air.

The flammability diagram is important to be considered while chalking out strategies of tank operations. An
understanding of the flammability diagram is hence necessary to prevent any risk of fire on board.

Gas freeing
The gas freeing operation on oil tankers is considered to be one of the most hazardous. Every stage of the
gas freeing operation poses a unique hazard.

The toxic effect of petroleum gas poses additional risk to the personnel involved. A careful planning is
required for the operation.

The ISGOTT publication should be referred to identify and control the hazards involved.

The Chief Officer is in charge of the gas freeing operations and he shall ensure that all crew involved are
well briefed in detail about every step.
Some tank openings may have to be left open during the gas freeing and such openings should be well
guarded to prevent accidents. Only the personnel directly involved in the operation should be allowed to be
on the deck.

Proper PPE must be worn by all crew involved. All electronic equipment used must be of an intrinsically
safe type.

The crew on any small craft which is alongside during the operation should be notified. The atmosphere
surrounding the area where the operation is done should be monitored for hydrocarbon vapours, as it can
form a combustible mixture with air.

The composition of the atmosphere in the tank, pipe or any other space, should not be allowed to enter the
flammable range during the gas freeing operation.

Hydrocarbon gas is heavier than air. Any hydrocarbon vented can hover on the deck if the venting velocity
is less. The crew working in these areas must be in constant vigil for presence of toxic vapours. Large
amounts of hydrocarbon gas are likely to be released especially in the initial stages of the operation.

Approved methods must be adopted when venting flammable gas into the atmosphere. If the gas is to be
vented close to deck level, the openings must be limited to achieve a good venting velocity.

The IG inlet to the tank should be isolated using a flange once the desired oxygen and LEL levels are
achieved. Throughout the operation, precautions must be taken so that any vented gas or inert gas does not
reach the accommodation. It may be necessary to change course depending on the wind direction.

A positive pressure is to be maintained within the accommodation and air-condition intakes should be
operated in recirculation mode.

For Chemical Tankers

The subsequent topics cover the following:
Cargo information
 Loading
 Discharging
 Tank cleaning
 Gas-freeing

Cargo information
Physical properties and type of cargo
Chemical Tanker Cargoes

The chemical cargo reaction are considered before loading and fire fighting
 Self-Reaction
 Reaction with air
 Reaction as a result of mixing with water
 Reaction with other cargoes
 Reaction with other materials

Use of IBC and BCH Code

The purpose of the IBC Code and BCH codes is to provide an international standard for the safe carriage,
in bulk by sea, of dangerous chemicals and noxious liquid substances as listed in the codes.
The Codes prescribe the design and construction standards of ships, regardless of tonnage, involved in such
carriage and the equipment they shall carry to minimize risk to the ship, its crew and the environment,
having regard to the nature of products involved.

The BCH Code applies to vessels constructed before 1 July 1986, while the IBC Code applies to vessels
constructed after 1 July 1986.

International Code for Safe Carriage of Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)

The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for the safe carriage by sea in bulk of
dangerous and noxious liquid chemicals as listed in the Code by prescribing the design and construction
standards of ships, regardless of tonnage, involved in such carriage and the equipment they should carry so
as to minimize the risk to the ship, to its crew and to the environment, having regard to the nature of the
products involved.

The basic philosophy is to assign to each chemical tanker one of the ship types according to the degree of
the hazards of the products carried by such ship. Each of the products may have one or more hazardous
properties, which include flammability, toxicity, corrosion and reactivity, as well as the hazards they may
present to the environment if accidentally released.

The Code primarily deals with ship design and equipment. In order to ensure the safe transport of the
products, the total system must, however, be appraised. Other important facets of the safe transportation of
the products, such as training, operation, traffic control and handling in port, are being or will be examined
further by the Organization.

The below image shows international bulk chemical code book front cover

P and A Manual
The purpose and objective of the Procedures and Arrangements (P&A) manual
Purpose of the manual is to identify for the ship’s officers the physical arrangements and all the operational
procedures with respect to cargo handling, tank cleaning, slops handling and cargo tank ballasting and de-
ballasting which must be followed in order to comply with the requirements of Annex II of the MARPOL
Convention.

The manual has 4 chapters and must be approved by the flag state and serves to mitigate environmental
pollution that could be caused by the carriage dangerous chemicals carried in bulk at sea.

Information Available in Cargo Data Sheet

Cargo data sheets provide the following information:
 Name of chemical
 It appearance (e.g. Colorless liquid)
 Odor
 UN No
 MFAG Table
 The main hazards of the chemical cargo
 Procedures to be taken to mitigate its hazards in an emergency
 Health data
 Fire and explosion data
 Other data as applicable (Chemical, physical, conditions of carriage etc.)

Pre-Arrival Check List

The check list is as below:
 On tanks in which cargo is to be transferred, in-tank instrumentation such as level gauges, level
alarms and thermometers should be tested for operation and accuracy, and remote system controls
 tested where appropriate. High level alarms and tank overflow control alarms are safety critical
components of the cargo transfer system, and loading should not commence if pre-transfer checks
find them at fault.
 Hatches, lids and openings to cargo tanks that are not required to be open for a specific reason should
be firmly closed.
 Cargo pipelines and crossover valves should be checked, and all drains closed and secured.
 All ship's cargo and bunker pipelines not in use should be securely blanked and fully bolted at the
manifold. Unless it is to be used, the stern cargo pipeline should be isolated from the tanker's main
pipeline system at a point forward of the aft accommodation, by blanking or the removal of a spool
piece.
 Where loading or discharging is to be via a cargo pump-room, the pump-room ventilation system
should be checked to ensure readiness for operation throughout the cargo operations.
 Cargo area deck lighting should be checked and confirmed as being in full working order, with
special attention given to the area of the ship to shore cargo connection and hose handling
equipment.

Ballast voyage
A chemical tanker carries hazards during the ballast voyage as much as in the loaded voyage. The crew need
to observe almost every precaution they did during the loaded voyage. The cargo may be absent in the cargo
tanks but the cargo vapors are still likely to be present, unless gas freeing was done after discharge.

Some cargoes carried may have been flammable and the inert atmosphere in those tanks have to be
maintained as long as cargo vapors are present. The oxygen content needs to be monitored and maintained.

Closed tanks must be monitored for changes in pressure. A positive pressure not exceeding the tank design
capabilities has to be maintained at all times. The diurnal variation in atmospheric temperature will cause the
pressure in the tank to fluctuate.

The ballast voyage is an opportunity for the crew to gas free the required cargo tanks for man entry and
carry out maintenance, repair works on valves and pipelines or a regular inspection. Such operation should
be carefully planned based on the length of voyage, so that the cargo tanks can be prepared ready for loading
upon arrival at load port.

Some of the inspection, testing and maintenance works on cargo equipment according to the planned
maintenance system (PMS) cannot be carried out during the loaded voyage. These works are carried out
during the ballast voyage and documented accordingly.

Ship checks after arrival but prior to cargo operations

Before any cargo transfer starts, the responsible officer should be satisfied that the applicable precautions are
being observed. The use of safety checklists, appropriately adapted for the specific ship, is strongly
recommended. The following important checks should be made by the ship at this stage:

 Information should be sought on any forecast of adverse weather conditions which may require
operations to be stopped or transfer rates reduced.
 Certain cargoes require the vapor that is displaced by incoming cargo to be returned to the shore
facility. The responsible officer should ensure that the ship and the shore vapor system are
compatible, and that the system will operate in compliance with local and terminal regulations
 The characteristics of the product must be known, usually in the form of a cargo information form or
data sheet indicating, among other things, health hazards, specific gravity, temperature, vapor
pressure, reactivity with other materials or cargoes, heat sensitivity, risk of exothermic self-reaction,
toxicity and general safe handling practices. It is desirable that initial response to emergencies is
clearly shown.
 If a cargo liable to self-reaction is to be loaded, correct arrangements should be made for conditions
and limitations in the inhibitor certificate to be met for the duration of the voyage.
  Normally tanks to be loaded are pre-inspected for cleanliness by an independent surveyor. This can
vary from a superficial visual inspection from the deck, to a very detailed inspection inside the cargo
tank in which bulkheads are wall-washed and thoroughly checked. The responsible officer should
satisfy himself that the tanks to be so inspected are well ventilated and safe to enter, and are marked
as being safe to enter. Tank entry procedures should be complied with. When a tank is entered for
inspection the surveyor should be accompanied by the responsible officer or a person delegated by
him.
 Tanks passed for loading should be tightly secured with all cargo openings closed.
 All sighting ports and ullage plugs should be closed and secured, unless expected to be used during
handling of the cargo about to be loaded. If openings are required to be open for venting purposes,
each opening should be protected by a flame screen designed for that opening and kept clean.
 When not in use, sea suction and overboard discharge valves connected to cargo and ballast systems
must be securely closed and lashed, and may be sealed by shore authorities. In-line blanks should be
inserted where these are provided. When lashing is not practicable, valves should be suitably marked
to indicate clearly that they are to remain closed.
 Before cargo handling is started, all deck scuppers and any open drains onto the jetty must be
effectively plugged to prevent spilled cargo escaping into the water around the tanker or onto the
terminal. Accumulations of rainwater should be drained periodically and scupper plugs replaced
immediately afterwards. Contaminated water should be transferred to a slop tank or other suitable
receptacle.
 Cargo manifolds should be ready for connection to shore hoses, but with blank flanges removed only
on those lines to be used, and only on the connecting side of the ship.
 Where loading is via a cargo pump-room, the pump-room ventilation system should be working
throughout the operation, and all drains and non-essential valves in the pump-room must be closed
and secured.
 Accommodation doors and portholes overlooking the cargo area should be shut. If stern loading is to
be undertaken, it may be necessary to provide special advice to the crew.
 The cargo venting system should be appropriate for the cargo operation.
 Intakes for central air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems should be checked for correct
setting.
 Means should be provided for the prompt removal of any spillage on deck.
 Fire-fighting equipment should be inspected, and ready for immediate use.
 Correct personal protective clothing and breathing apparatus, appropriate to the cargo, should be
immediately available, and should be worn as necessary.

Just prior to commencing cargo transfer, the responsible officer should check that the cargo pipeline system
is set correctly, that correct valves are open and that pipeline valves not being used (including drop valves)
are closed.

Cargo operation - Chemical tanker

A wide range of chemicals are shipped in bulk by sea and specialized carriers are built to carry them. The
chemical tanker is a special class of ship capable of loading, carrying and discharging chemicals in bulk
safely.

Chemical tankers are very different from oil tankers in many aspects. Unlike oil tankers, they can carry
many different chemicals of differing chemical and physical properties simultaneously. The cargo carrying
space is divided into more number of smaller tanks for this purpose. A chemical tanker of simple design is
still more complex than an oil tanker.

Not only the ships are specially built to carry chemical cargo, but the crew also require special training to
run such sophisticated ships. They must be sound in both theoretical and practical knowledge.
One other important aspect in safety is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). It is supplied for every
harmful substance handled on ships including cargo. The crew must have a good understanding of the
hazards and precautions relating to the chemical cargo carried.

Hundreds of hazardous chemical cargoes covered by the IMO Bulk Chemical Code can be carried by the
modern chemical carrier.

The chemical tankers can be classified broadly as:

 Sophisticated parcel chemical tankers
 Product/chemical tankers
 Specialized chemical carriers

Preparation before loading

The following checks are to be made before arriving in a load port:
1. Equipment such as level gauge, level alarm, thermometer, etc should be tested for operating
accuracy. These are critical to the safe loading of the tank. Any faults detected should be
immediately attended to and loading should not commence in tanks with defective equipment.
2. Keep all hatches, lids, openings to cargo tanks closed. Only the one required to be open for a
particular reason should be left open.
3. Close and secure all cargo related pipelines, valves and drains.
4. Except the manifold connections that are to be used, all others like bunker manifold should be fully
bolted.
5. If pumps are expected to be used during loading, the ventilation system of the pump room must be
checked to ensure it is available throughout the operation.
6. The lighting for the deck area should be tested, particularly checking for proper illumination of the
manifold area.

Additional to the above checks carried out before arrival port, the following must be ensured after arrival but
before loading begins:
1. The responsible Officer must ensure all preparations are in place as per the checklist before cargo
operation commences.
2. Adverse weather conditions may be experienced during the loading operation requiring suspension
of the operation or reducing rates. All available information should be obtained about forecast.
3. The vapor from the cargo tank may be required to be sent ashore via vapor manifold connection for
certain cargoes. It should be ensured that the ship and shore vapor system are compatible. The local
and terminal regulations must be complied with.
4. The product data sheet for the cargo to be loaded must be available, clearly showing its properties
like specific gravity, temperature, vapor pressure, reactivity toxicity and other hazards.
5. If an inhibitor is to be used to prevent self reaction in certain cargoes, an inhibitor certificate is
necessary and arrangements as per the certificate must be in place.
6. An independent surveyor will normally inspect the tank before loading. The inspection can be a
rough visual inspection from the deck or a detailed inspection after entering the tank. Tank entry
procedures must be followed and the inspector must be accompanied by a responsible officer.
7. Once the tank is passed for loading, all openings must be tightly secured.
8. Any vent openings should be fitted with a flame screen and it should be inspected and maintained
clean.
9. All sea chests connected to cargo and ballast lines should be securely closed when not in use.
10. The shore authorities may inspect and seal the sea suction and overboard discharge valves.
11. Scupper plugs must be kept ready to plug before cargo operation begins. Water on deck accumulated
due to rain should be frequently drained by the crew. Contaminated water should not be drained but
transferred to the slop tank.
12. Cargo manifolds should be fitted with reducers appropriate to the shore connection size. Only those
manifolds that will be used should be opened and the others must remain blanked off using blind
flanges.
 13. All non-essential valves in the cargo system, including the pump room, should be closed and
secured.
14. Portholes and accommodation doors directly opening to the cargo area should be kept shut.
15. The venting system should be checked for correct operation.
16. The re-circulation mode setting for the central air conditioning system should be checked.
17. Arrangements should be made with the equipment readily available for removal of spillage on deck.
18. Firefighting arrangements should be ready
19. The proper PPE for crew working in the cargo area must be readily available.
20. The responsible officer must check the position of every valve in the cargo pipeline system and line
up as per the plan before commencement of loading. All valves not involved in the present operation
must remain closed.

The ship-shore safety checklist should be jointly completed by the Chief Officer and the terminal
representative.

Loading
Loading noxious liquid chemicals involves many hazards. Safety is most important at each stage of the
loading operation. The cargo operation should be suspended immediately if any non-conformance with the
set procedures is discovered during the operation.

The line up of the cargo system to receive cargo from the shore is to be finally checked once before
commencement of loading. The responsible officer must check that the vessel is ready in all respects to
receive cargo considering the following:
 The grade and quantity of cargo to be loaded has been agreed upon
 The initial and maximum loading rate has been agreed with the shore terminal
 The ship crew have been briefed and are ready
 Ship-shore safety checklist has been completed
 Level alarms for cargo tanks including High and High-High alarms are switched on
 A leak test has been done at the manifold connection and found satisfactory.

The Chief Officer informs the shore that the ship is ready to receive cargo. A close watch is kept at the
manifold to detect cargo flowing through it. When it is confirmed that the cargo is flowing into the planned
tanks and no leaks detected anywhere in the cargo system, the rate of pumping is increased upon request by
ship. The loading rate is increased in steps checking for leaks continuously. The maximum rate is reached
when both the ship and terminal have confirmed to it.

 During loading, one crew member should be continuously available at the manifold area and one
deck officer should be on duty.
 The officer on duty has to carry out the loading operation strictly according to the loading plan and
fully complying with the company and terminal regulations.
 Certain cargoes are chilled before loading in hot climate and it causes sweating in the bulkheads. The
sequence of loading should be carefully planned and carried out; e.g. Styrene Monomers.
 A log of events has to be maintained throughout the loading operation.
 Ullage space in the tanks should be calculated and maintained after completion of loading to allow
for expansion in transit.
 The final stages of loading should be closely monitored since there is an increased risk of
overflowing. Tanks that are topped off should be isolated from the one that is still being loaded.
 The loading rate should be reduced in time to handle the topping off operation smoothly in a planned
sequence.

The use of the vapor return line during loading with a simple sketch
Chemical tankers may carry toxic products and vapors of these products must not be vented to the
atmosphere. Toxic products are loaded using closed loading conditions on chemical tankers. Closed loading
would mean that cargo vapors are sent back ashore using a vapor return line and not vented to the
atmosphere.

The vapor return line runs from the cargo tank vent line (Note: the atmospheric vent discharge valve must be
closed when using the return vapor line) to the ships manifold onto which the shore return vapor line is
connected. The ship’s vapor return lines have their own manifold which is specially marked. This to ensure
that there is no mistake when connecting the shore loading arm return vapor line to the ship’s vapor return
line.

The cargo line cannot be connected to the vapor return line as this line has a stud and is only compatible to
the shore vapor line connection that takes the vapor back to the terminal. The stud is at the 12’O Clock
position on the ship’s vapor line manifold.

Loaded voyage
There is a wide range of chemical cargoes and each is unique in its characteristics and mode of handling.
Careful attention should be paid to the special needs of each type of cargo.
There should be sufficient supply of inert gas for the full length of voyage. If stored nitrogen gas is used for
inerting purposes, sufficient quantity should be available for topping up if necessary during the voyage.

Cargo tanks should be sounded regularly to detect any changes in the level. In the case of cargo that require
heating or cooling, the parameters must be monitored and recorded on a daily basis.

The shipper’s requirements for temperature logs should be maintained in the proper format. Cargoes which
are liable to self reaction should be monitored closely for any abnormal behavior and action taken before the
problem escalates.

Sudden and unexpected changes in the temperature almost always indicate that something is not right, e.g.
cargoes crystallize which are carried with the addition of inhibitor.

The inhibitor does not crystallize with the cargo and hence after the cargo re-melts there will be pockets of
uninhibited cargo. Uninhibited cargo poses risk of polymerisation.

When inhibited cargoes are carried, the chief officer must be fully aware of the precautions and limitations
mentioned in the inhibitor certificate. The ullage space should be monitored for pressure if tank atmosphere
control is in use.

Record sheets have to be maintained additional to paying attention in the following cases:
1. Cargo heating
2. Cargo cooling
3. Tank atmosphere control
4. Temperature control
5. Nitrogen cover
6. Oxygen content monitor
7. Agitation/circulation.

Sometimes, cargo can be partly or fully lost during the voyage and the owner will face claims. Shipboard
cargo losses can occur in many ways.

Two main reasons for shipboard cargo losses are:

1. Evaporation through the PV vents
2. High pour point of cargo resulting in pumping problems and excessive ROB.

Usually the quantity of cargo delivered is based on the discharge port out turn, but some still compare the
figures on the bill of lading.

Often a virtual loss of cargo is experienced where there was no actual loss of cargo, but the figures on the
paper say so because of minor discrepancies in the quantification at load port and discharge port.

Volatile cargoes can be lost due to evaporation especially when loaded next to heated cargoes. The
charterers must inform the ship of the maximum permissible temperature of the adjacent compartments so
that it can be taken into account when planning stowage.

Discharging
The responsible officer must check the line up of the cargo system as per the discharging plan before
commencing discharge. The correct position all valves and the venting system must be checked. All cargo
operation equipment related to the discharge like pumps and pump room ventilation should be checked with
particular care.
The pressure in the tanks must be closely monitored during discharge to avoid under pressure. Vapor return
from the shore is often used to maintain the pressure in the tanks during discharge operation. Frequent
checks should be carried out for leaks on deck and in the pump room.

When discharging cargoes that require nitrogen in the tanks, it is necessary to make sure that no air is drawn
into the tank. Hence, a positive pressure is maintained in the tank using a supply of nitrogen gas. The
nitrogen is supplied from the ship’s nitrogen gas generator if available, or is supplied from compressed
nitrogen gas cylinders. Another option is to receive nitrogen from the shore terminal.

The shore terminal is capable of supplying nitrogen at high rates and hence the ship should be careful
especially during the initial stages of loading when the rate is low. If the nitrogen supply pressure exceeds
the ship’s requirement, it can quickly cause an over pressure in the tanks. Ideally, a pressure reducing device
should be used and continuous communication link maintained between ship’s cargo control room and the
terminal.

Some cargoes leave semi-liquid residues in the tank. When discharging cargoes like animal oils, vegetable
oils or fats, these residues will require to be manually swept towards the pump suction to completely
discharge the contents of the tank. This sweeping is very important especially before a tank cleaning. This
method of sweeping the residues is called squeegeeing or puddling. Enclosed space entry procedures must
be strictly followed to enter the tank for such work irrespective of the origin or nature of the cargo.

To be able to enter the tank without breathing apparatus for puddling, mechanical ventilation has to be
started well in advance simultaneously with discharging. The space should be checked for oxygen content
and enclosed space entry permit issued before crew enter the tank. The ventilation should be on during the
entire period of entry.

The goal is to remove all residues from the tank as much as possible and this can be achieved by an effective
stripping operation. Stripping should be carried out in accordance with the ship’s P&A manual.

The manifold valves on the ship as well as on shore should be closed as soon as the discharging is complete.
This will ensure the ship and shore side of the system are isolated from each other. The cargo hoses or arms
should be drained and disconnected from the manifold. They should never be disconnected before releasing
pressure and draining. As soon as disconnected, the hoses should be cleared to the shore and the manifold
blanked off using a blind flange.

Stripping
Stripping is part of the final stages of discharging to minimize the ROB quantity as much as possible. There
are set limits for different categories of chemical cargo as per regulation 12 of Marpol Annex II.

Following tolerance limits apply for ships built before 1st January 2007 but built after 1st July 1986:
 100+50 liters for cargoes in category X and Y
 300+50 liters for cargoes in category Z

Following tolerance limits apply for ships built before 1st July 1986:
 300+50 liters for cargoes in category X and Y
 900+50 liters for cargoes in category Z

Tanks are to be emptied to the maximum extent for other ships carrying cargoes belonging to Z category.

As per the details specified in Appendix 5 of Marpol annex II, a performance test is to be carried out.
Tank Cleaning
Pre-wash
Pre-washing is otherwise called pre-cleaning. It is done prior loading chemical cargo. It involves numerous
hazards.

Washing starts with water practically in all tank cleaning operations.

This aids in removing the cargo residues mechanically. The water forms an emulsion with the non soluble
cargo in the tank. Emulsion is formed when a liquid which is insoluble in water is churned with water
resulting in minute droplets suspended in water.

Washing can be effective only if simultaneous stripping is carried out. Only then will the residues at the
bottom of the tank flow towards the suction. If stripping is not effective, the residues will be found settled all
over the bottom of the tank.

Some products are soluble in water and the pre-wash can be carried out using normal cold water. It works
well for cargoes like:
 Mineral acids (Sulfuric acid, Phosphoric acid)
 Alkalis (Caustic soda, ammonia/potash solutions)
 Alcohols (Methanol, ethanol, butanol)
 Acetone.

Some products are soluble in water but viscous and require hot water as the medium for pre-wash. It works
for cargoes like:
 Glycols
 Glycerin
 Molasses.

For sulfuric acid, large amounts of water to be used to ensure faster dilution and to reduce the risk of
corrosion.

Some products are volatile and they will completely vaporize from the tank. Tank washing may not be
required in this case. Ventilation of the tank will be sufficient and sometimes steaming. It works well for
cargoes like:
 Acetone
 Methyl ethyl keytone
 Hexane
 Methanol
 Butanol
 Propanol
 Toluol
 Trichlor ethylene

All cargo lines and pumps must be drained along with the tanks.

Some products undergo oxidation and dry up when coming in contact with air and heat. For cargoes like
these, cold water is used for pre-washing. Final washing can be done using hot water. The residues will
become dry and harden making it difficult to remove later.

Examples of this type are:

 Castor seed oil
 Cotton seed oil
 Groundnut oil
 Linseed oil
  Sperm oil
 Tail oil.

Some vegetable and animal oils that are non-drying type can be directly washed using hot water. Examples
are:
Coconut oil
Palm kernel oil
Palm oil
Tallow
Whale oil.

Products which polymerize should be washed with cold water or the tank is flooded with water. Polymerized
material deposits will make it very difficult to remove and clean if hot water is used. Examples are:
 Vinyl acetate
 Styrene monomer
 Acrylonitrile
 Vinyl chloride.

Hot sea water at 80 deg Celsius is normally used for washing tanks that carried heavy oils, lube oils, lube oil
additives, and gas oil. Cold water too can be used but hot is more effective.

In the case of crude oils with relatively high percentage of light fractions are to be washed with cold water
first and then followed by hot water. If hot water is directly used first, then the light fractions will be
liberated leaving a tough residue difficult to remove. This is often seen with Arabian crude however, Boscan
crude with light fractions can be washed with hot water directly.

Gas-Freeing
A tank cleaning or gas freeing operation carries numerous hazards and proper safety precautions have to be
in place before it can begin. The officer in-charge should ensure that all equipment are ready and in working
order. All crew on the ship should be notified about the gas freeing operation and only those crew who are
directly involved in the operation should be present in the cargo area.

Any craft alongside should also be notified before the operation begins and the ship’s officer must confirm
that safety precautions are in place on the craft as well.

If the gas freeing operation is to be done alongside at a terminal, the terminal regulations must be complied
with. Permission should be sought from the port authorities and terminal operator and confirm from the
shore personnel that nothing on the jetty presents a hazard to the operation.

The checks carried out before commencing gas freeing operation should include:
1. Necessary personal protective equipment is available and being used.
2. The emergency freshwater shower and eyewash are ready for use in case of contamination of crew;
3. Any work in the cargo tank area which is not essential as part of the gas freeing operation should be
suspended;
4. The cargo pipelines serving the tanks which are being gas freed should be isolated.
5. If the tanks are designed to have a common vent system, the inlet to the gas freeing tanks should be
isolated.
6. Other tanks which are waiting to be cleaned or gas freed should have all openings like tank lids,
washing holes, ullage ports closed until the operation reaches a stage to commence cleaning those
tanks.
7. The overboard discharge valves connected to the cargo or ballast piping should be closed and
secured when not required.
 8. During the entire tank cleaning and gas freeing operation, all precautions relating to pump room
should not be compromised in any way.
9. Fire extinguishers of appropriate media should be readily available at strategic locations.
10. Oxygen analyzers & Hydrocarbon detectors should be used for gas measurements during the period
of gas-freeing and before man entry.
11. Relevant checklists shall be used as appropriate for the entire operation.
Every precaution and procedure must be followed for enclosed space entry even if entering for a short time.
Great care must be taken to ensure safe working conditions. Most of the accidents that have taken place in
enclosed spaces resulted from non-compliance with set procedures and precautions. Sadly, many enclosed
space entry accidents were avoidable but still were allowed to take place.

When entering into a contaminated cargo tank:

Personnel should not enter into the tank without the support of breathing apparatus if any of the procedures
or precautions not met. Protection is needed against exposure to cargo vapors which may be flammable,
toxic or corrosive. Preferably a lifeline should be used. Sometimes entry into cargo tanks of chemical
tankers may be required before the space is certified gas free. A system of documentation should be
available for such operations like entering a contaminated tank or one that is suspected to be contaminated.

Together with gas freeing, tank entry is probably the most hazardous operation carried out on a chemical
tanker. One must keep in mind the additional risks rising from cargo vapors released from the tanks. Always
suspect the presence of flammable, toxic or corrosive vapors around the cargo area depending on the recent
cargoes carried in the tanks.

The crew who are engaged in gas freeing operation must be fully aware of the hazards and understand the
procedures because a small human error can have very serious consequences.

Entries in Cargo Record Book

The Cargo Record Book is required to be carried on board Chemical Tankers as mandated by Annex II of
the MARPOL Convention. The entries in a Cargo Record Book are as below:
 Loading of cargo
 Internal transfer of cargo
 Unloading of cargo
 Mandatory pre-wash in accordance with ship’s P&A Manual
 Cleaning of cargo tanks except mandatory pre-wash (other pre-wash operations, final wash,
ventilation etc.)
 Discharge into the sea of tank washings
 Ballasting of cargo tanks
 Discharge of ballast water from cargo tanks
 Accidental or other exceptional discharge
 Control by authorized surveyors
 Additional operational procedures and remarks
Emergencies for Oil and Chemical Tankers

Introduction
A knowledge of the basic emergency actions that needs to be taken in case of Standard Ship emergencies as
documented as part of the vessel's ISM procedures. These include:-procedures for Fire, collision, grounding,
cargo hose burst, accident involving personnel.

All tankers & terminals procedures are to be ready for immediate implementation in the event an
emergency. Procedures must anticipate & cover all types of emergency which might be encountered in
particular activities of tanker or terminal.

The main procedures will address Fire, while other procedures would address incidents such as hose or
pipeline burst, cargo overflow, pump room flooding, men overcome by gas, breakouts of vessels, weather or
blackouts.

The procedures should also cover deployment of fire-fighting equipment, resuscitator & stretchers, together
with details of means of escape or exit.

Terminal Emergency Plan

The plan would include:

 Specific initial action to be taken by those at location of the emergency to report, contain &
overcome the incident.
 Procedures to be followed in mobilizing the resources of the terminal as required by the incident.
 Alerting responsibility & procedures.
Each terminal should have an Emergency Team whose duties would involve planning, implementing &
revising emergency procedures as well as executing them.

Main points of initial response to an emergency should be conspicuously displayed on notices at strategic
locations within the terminal.

Organizational Structure for Emergency

A typical organizational structure would be as follows:

Command Center
There should be one group in control of all the responses to the emergency with the Master or the senior
deck officer on board in charge. The command center should have means of internal and external
communication.

Communication is of the utmost importance and the possibility of communication failing should always be
taken into account as such back up for communication means should always be provisioned for — such as
spare batteries for W/T sets, spare W/T sets, loudhailers, PA system and messengers.

Emergency Party
This group should be under the command of a senior officer and should assess the emergency and report to
the command center on the situation, advising what action should be taken and what assistance should be
provided, either from on board or, if the ship is in port, from ashore.

Back up Emergency Party

The backup emergency party under the command of an officer should stand by to assist the emergency party
as instructed by the command center and to provide backup services, e.g. equipment, stores, medical
services including cardio-pulmonary resuscitation etc.
Technical Party
This group should be under the command of the chief engineer or the senior engineering officer on board
and should provide emergency assistance as instructed by the command center. The prime responsibility for
dealing with any emergency in the main machinery spaces will probably rest with this group. It may be
called on to provide additional manpower elsewhere.

The plan should ensure that all arrangements apply equally well in port and at sea.

Duties should be assigned for the operation of remote controls such as:
 Main engine stop
 Ventilation stops
 Lubricating and fuel oil transfer pump stops
 Operation of dump valves
 CO2 discharge
 Operation of watertight doors and
 Emergency generator and emergency switchboard
 Emergency fire and bilge pumps

Alarms
As far as cargo compartments are concerned, high level alarms and overfill alarms are provided.

General alarm or fire alarm is sounded in the case of fire, collision, grounding, cargo hose burst, cargo
spillage, escape of vapor or any other emergency situation.

Other alarms signals are given on tankers in case of:

 High concentration of toxic or flammable vapors
 A discharge in engine-room or pump room
 When level of oxygen in inert gas entering tanks exceeds 5%
 High level of oil residues in overboard discharge - this is an operational alarm and not an emergency.

First Responder
The primary role of the first responder is to evaluate the situation and notify the command center for
emergency response, e.g., Navigation Bridge location. Once the alarm is sounded, the responder assesses the
situation and he/she should attempt to make the situation safe. The First Responder should assume that
he/she is, in-charge of the situation, until help arrives (as directed by the command center). If the situation
occurs in the machinery space, the Chief Engineer, or Senior Engineer will be the in-charge of fighting the
emergency.

The main alarms that are installed in the ship to give audio-visual warnings are as follows:
The General alarm will be sounded in the event of:
 Fire
 Collision
 Grounding
 Cargo hose burst (only in case of a major leakage or spillage)
 Major leakage or spillage of oil cargo
 Any other event which calls for emergency action

Other alarms could include:

 Engineer alarm for unmanned machinery spaces
 Carbon dioxide alarm
 Fire detector alarms
  Cargo tank level alarms
 Cargo or Gas leakage/temperature and pressure alarms
 Refrigerated store alarm

Alarm Description
1. General Alarm: The general alarm on the ship is recognized by 7 short ringing of bell followed by a
long ring or 7 short blasts on the ship’s horn followed by one long blast. The general alarm is
sounded to make aware the crew on board that an emergency has occurred.
2. Fire Alarm: A fire alarm is sounded as continuous ringing of ship’s electrical bell or continuous
sounding of ship’s horn.
3. Man-Overboard Alarm: When a man falls overboard, the ship internal alarm bell sounds 3 long rings
and ship whistle will blow 3 long blasts to notify the crew on board and the other ships in nearby
vicinity.
4. Abandon Ship Alarm: When the emergency on board ship goes out of hands and ship is no longer
safe for crew on board ship, the master of the ship can give a verbal Abandon ship order, but this
alarm is never given in ship’s bell or whistle. The general alarm is sounded and everybody comes to
the emergency muster station where the master or his substitute (chief Officer) gives a verbal order
to abandon ship.

Different Alarm signals of the vessel are clearly described in the muster list along with the action to be
carried out so that all the crew member can perform their duties without any delay in actual emergency.

If your ship's alarms are ringing, it does not necessarily mean that the situation is out of control. Alarms are
warnings, which are sounded so that people on board take the emergency measures like wearing their life
jackets, or mustering/gathering at a common point, depending upon the type of emergency and instructions
given to them.

Emergency Procedures
A knowledge of the basic emergency actions that needs to be taken in case of Standard Ship emergencies as
documented as part of the vessel's ISM procedures. These include:-procedures for Fire, collision, grounding,
cargo hose burst, accident involving personnel.

All tankers & terminals procedures are to be ready for immediate implementation in the event an
emergency. Procedures must anticipate & cover all types of emergency which might be encountered in
particular activities of tanker or terminal.

The main procedures will address Fire, while other procedures would address incidents such as hose or
pipeline burst, cargo overflow, pump room flooding, men overcome by gas, breakouts of vessels, weather or
blackouts.

The procedures should also cover deployment of fire-fighting equipment, resuscitator & stretchers, together
with details of means of escape or exit.

Recommended emergency procedures

Following are the actions that should be taken for various types of emergencies on a tanker. Practical
demonstrations and drills following the contingency plans developed should be regularly conducted to
familiarize all on board with emergency response.

Pump room or enclosed space rescue

 Sound emergency alarm, cease cargo operation, if along side, notify dock and call for medical
assistance.
 Emergency team responds with following equipment: SCBA, Communication, Atmosphere
analyzing equipment, First aid/resuscitator/stretcher, EEBD, fire fighting gear.
  Check pump room or enclosed space ventilation
 Prepare harness and life line
 Test atmosphere
 If atmosphere is unsafe:
1. Rescue personnel with SCBA, descend to area with harness rigged for possible casualty evacuation
2. Place casualty in harness and assist him with EEBD
3. Hoist casualty up, safe from any obstructions
4. Administer first aid till handed over to medical team
5. Determine cause and take corrective actions
 If atmosphere is safe,
1. Rescuers proceed to the victim with necessary First aid, EEBD and harness
2. Lift casualty out of pump room using harness
3. Administer first aid till handed over to medical team.

Oil Spill
 Raise emergency alarm
 Stop any cargo or tank cleaning operation
 Secure all valves
 If tank over spill, shift excess cargo to suitable tank. If pipe failure, isolate the affected section. For
hull failure, empty the tank to other intact tank and reduce inert gas pressure in the affected tank.
 Notify shore facility.
 Restrict access to affected area and deploy personnel for clean up or containment of spill.
 Rig & use all SOPEP gears & items expeditiously.
 Eliminate ignition sources and keep fire fighting equipment ready.
 Vessel personnel with appropriate protective equipment and respirator start clean up
 Shore team deploys resources for containing spill around the vessel, if any.
 Inform company representative regarding co-ordination between various external parties.

Grounding
 Assess the condition of the vessel, carefully inspect the water around the vessel to determine if any
compartment is damaged, allowing cargo to leak or water to flood
 Check and monitor cargo tank ullages
 Take soundings of all compartments including engine room tanks
 Monitor vessel for any change in trim or list.
 Maintain positive stability of the vessel
 Consult vessel response plan or ship board contingency plan and make necessary notification to
appropriate authorities
 Display appropriate day signal and inform any vessel traffic of the situation
 If vessel leaking any cargo, be aware of danger of vacuum developing in tanks and distortion in deck
plating
 Eliminate any source of ignition
 Reduce inert gas pressure to minimize oil outflow
 Isolate the affected tanks by closing all valves
 Transfer to a suitable tank to prevent outflow
 Take soundings around the vessel to determine where the hull is touching bottom
 Close the sea chest valves & lock rudder temporarily
 Prepare for carrying out de-ballasting operations, if necessary and if feasible.
 Take weather report.
 Check type of sea bottom
 Check tide timings and keep engines ready for re floating.
 Consult with company/salvage experts to take appropriate action to minimize further damage
 Action to be based on minimizing environmental damage
 Assist the spill response personnel and salvage personnel by providing necessary information
Collision
In the case of collision, where one or more cargo tanks are breached,
 Sound emergency alarm, muster all hands and account for the entire crew; If any crew missing,
search and rescue to be carried out
 Fire fighting gear should be readied due to heightened risk of fire
 Assess damage and check cargo tank ullages and sound all the compartments in the ship
 Exercise obligation to provide assistance to the other vessels crew members, if feasible, o
 Notify appropriate authorities, consult contingency plans for appropriate actions to minimize damage
 Do not attempt to separate the vessels until condition of stability for each vessel has been assessed.
 Consult company/salvage experts for most prudent action
 Monitor vessel's trim and list conditions
 Assist fire fighting and spill response teams as required
 Obtain weather forecast, tides and tidal information.
 Send message holding the other vessel responsible for the collision.

Fire - General Guidelines

1. Sound the alarm and muster crew;If any crew missing, search and rescue to be carried out
2. Evaluate the fire
3. Establish the method of attack (Direct or indirect)
4. Get the fire under control
5. Extinguish the fire
6. Keep life boats ready to abandon ship, if required
7. Guard against re-ignition
8. Assist causalities as required
9. Investigate the cause and take corrective action

Fire - Cargo Pump room

Sound the alarm, notify shore authorities if alongside, cease all cargo operations
1. Isolate and secure all the cargo and ballast compartments.
2. Request assistance of shore side fire department
3. Muster and account for all hands;If any crew missing, search and rescue to be carried out
4. Fire fighting teams cool the entrance to pump room and secure ventilation to pump room
5. In an indirect method of extinguishing fire, continue to cool the exposure, seal all doors and vent
covers, monitor adjacent spaces. Activate fixed fire fighting system and monitor temperature.
6. In direct attack for small fire, most probably in bilge area, tackle using water spray or portable fire
extinguisher
7. Continue cooling till fire is out
8. Maintain a fire watch.

Dangerous chemicals could also give rise to emergencies and the correct emergency procedures for
accidents involving dangerous chemicals are given in the ICS and/or Cargo Data Sheets including the IMDG
Code.

Pollution Prevention for Oil and Chemical Tankers

Introduction
Note that pollution is usually related to human activity. Phenomena, such as radiation due to natural
radioactivity in the earth, volcano eruptions and the like, are not usually considered as pollution. They exist,
however, in areas where the environment is burdened. This is nature’s own way to balance and renew itself.
Pollution Prevention during Loading or Discharging Oil, Chemicals and Hazardous Cargoes: Annex I deals
with the prevention of pollution by oil. It came into effect on the 2nd of October, 1983. It regulates the
methods and means of controlling discharge of oil into sea.

Prevention of oil spills has as much to do with operational procedures as it does with technology and
equipment. Following appropriate protocols, as well as maintenance procedures, ensures the safe operation
of equipment, aiding in the goal to prevent spills from ever occurring.

Effects of Pollution on Human and Marine Life

Introduction
Any pollution has a main source and a receiver. The main receivers are air, sea, and soil. The most effective
way of spreading pollution is through air. But eventually the pollution always falls to the ground and into the
sea. The earth is most resistant to pollution as a receiver, but the problems appear because this pollution
almost without restrictions has free flow to pollute sea and waters. Compare the human body with its own
immune system to the environmental system (Eco-system), and you will find that all basic “building blocks”
are linked together in some way or another with the same influence and with the same purpose. Every part is
equally important in obtaining the ability to function as a whole unit.

Source of Pollution:
Many factors contribute to pollution, such as the chemical, physiological or biological characteristics. Life
on earth is dependent on solar energy. Plants turn solar energy, water and carbon into plant tissues. This is
called the first tropic level. The herbivores (vegetable-only eating animals) cannot exploit solar light directly
in their growth or tissue change. Herbivores use the plants to produce tissue. This is called the second tropic
level. The energy loss caused by transmission from the first level to the second level is calculated to be at
approximately 90%. An even greater loss appears at the next level, which is the third tropic level.

This level includes the humans and the animals, which survive by eating animal meat. The demolishing link
in this process is the carrion eaters and small organisms, which demolish dead plants and animal materials
into simple organic and inorganic compounds, which the plants need to grow. An Ecology System appears
as a result of developing and adapting to each other as a species in nature throughout millions of years.
Accurate balance and stability is obtained and smoothly functioning.

This system is an everlasting process and is continuous throughout time and space. An Ecology System can
endure huge changes and variations in nature, but faced with artificial factors and synthetic substances
spread by human actions, important parts (areas) in this process can be demolished. The reason is simply
that no natural mechanism exists to keep the process active and in balance. In numerous cases, these
unwanted non-natural substances are spread throughout the nature process creating disharmony and
malfunctions both geographically and ecologically.

Cause and Effect of Marine Pollution from ships

Chemical Pollution
Materials like batteries, chemicals past their expiry also leads to marine pollution. The materials mentioned
are hazardous and possess a huge threat to the lives of the marine creatures and life-forms. Incidentally, such
materials enter into the oceanic waters through either the grey water or the black water channels

Solid Waste Pollution

Materials like paper, cardboard and aluminum can also turn out to be a cause of cruise ship pollution in the
marine areas. Categorized as being solid waste, such materials end up forming an unwanted debris on the
oceanic surface leading to large scale threats for the oceanic plants and creatures.
Animals can become snagged on the plastic or mistake it for food, slowly killing them over a long period of
time. Animals who are most often the victims of plastic debris include turtles, dolphins, fish, sharks, crabs,
sea birds, and crocodiles.

Oil Pollution/ Bilge Oil Pollution

Oil pollution is the main reason for the increased level of marine pollution. Bilge oil mixing with oceanic
water causes serious of marine pollution. Faulty engine system and improper repair work are two areas
through which oil could leak and mix with the oceanic water. Collisions, cargo spillage and accidents are
also a reason or oil pollution. Since oil is lighter than water, it does not degrade quickly leading to problems
to marine creatures and plants that are forced to ingest such polluted water.

Pollution from Antifouling Hull paints

Antifouling paint particles (APP) are generated during the maintenance of ships and from abandoned
structures and grounded ships. Analyses of paint fragment composites show concentrations of Cu and Zn to
35% and 15%, respectively and concentrations of other trace metals, like Ba, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and Sn, also
occur. These metals leach more rapidly from APP than a painted surface due to the greater surface area of
pigments and additives exposed to the aqueous medium.

Through diffusion and abrasion, high concentrations of contaminants may be accumulated directly by
benthic invertebrates. Benthic invertebrates are organisms that live on the bottom of a water body (or in the
sediment) and have no backbone. Animals that feed non-selectively and that are exposed to or ingest paint-
contaminated sediment are able to accelerate the leaching, deposition and burial of biocides and other
substances, and represent an alternative vehicle for contaminant entry into the marine food chain.

Effects of Ocean Pollution on marine animals and humans

Effect of Toxic Wastes due to pollution on Marine Animals

Oil spill is dangerous to marine life in several ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could get on to the gills of
marine animals and feathers of sea birds, which makes it difficult for them to move or fly properly or feed
their children. The long term effect on marine life can include cancer, failure in the reproductive system,
behavioral changes, and even death.

Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs

Oil spill floats on the surface of water and prevents sunlight from reaching to marine plants and affects in
the process of photosynthesis harming marine life.

Depletion of Oxygen Content in Water

Most of the debris in the ocean does not decompose and remain in the ocean for years. It uses oxygen as it
degrades. As a result of this, oxygen levels go down. When oxygen levels go down, the chances of survival
of marine animals like whales, turtles, sharks, dolphins, penguins for long time also goes down.

Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals

Various poisonous chemicals that are considered hazardous for marine life. Chemicals from onboard
emissions and hull paint leaching can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure in their
reproductive system.

The temperature of the ocean is highly affected by carbon dioxide and climate changes, which impacts
primarily the ecosystems and fish communities that live in the ocean.

Affecting Human Health

Animals from impacted food chain are then eaten by humans which affects their health as toxins from these
contaminated animals gets deposited in the tissues of people and can lead to cancer, birth defects or long
term health problems. It is the responsibility of the master or those in charge of transfer operations involving
cargo or bunkers to know the applicable pollution prevention regulations and to ensure that they are not
violated. Exercises should be held to train personnel in accordance with the Shipboard Oil Pollution
Emergency Response Plan, and recorded.

There is a danger of violating pollution prevention regulations if ballast taken on in polluted waters is
discharged in another port. If ballast has to be taken on in polluted areas, it may be necessary to exchange it
for clean ballast when in deep water on passage. Some terminals have specific requirements in this respect,
and the master should ensure that they are observed.

Pollution from HNS Cargoes

Hazardous and Noxious Substances (HNS)
Chemical spills occur at a much lower frequency than spills of oil. However, the consequence of a chemical
spill can be more wide reaching than that of oil and there is growing international awareness of the need for
safe and effective contingency arrangements for chemical spills. The wide variety of chemicals transported,
their varying physical and chemical properties, the different ways in which they behave in the environment
and the potential for effects on human health mean that response to chemical spills is not as straightforward
as for oil.

What is HNS?
Not all chemicals transported by sea are considered hazardous. The 2000 OPRC-HNS Protocol, designed for
preparedness and response, defines HNS as a substance other than oil which if introduced into the marine
environment is likely to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage
amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. However, the 2010 HNS Convention, designed
for compensation, describes HNS as a substance identified in one or more lists in the International Maritime
Organization's Conventions and Codes. MARPOL Annex II and Annex III will deal with all spills of
chemical cargoes.

Environmental hazards
Marine pollution is a major hazard of Chemical cargoes and is a cause of growing international concern. The
various causes of marine pollution are discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing material,
garbage, sewage and emission of engine exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. The MARPOL Convention is
the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships.

HNS cargo pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious offence
around the world. Nowadays, the shipowners are heavily penalized and punitive action is taken against the
Master, crew member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every individual on board should ensure
that the ship complies with the pollution regulations at all times. It is the responsibility of every watch
keeper to ensure that adequate precautions are taken to avoid pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of
pollution, maintain pollution prevention equipment, report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain
proper records, as required by the regulations.

The environmental damage could be by,

 Damage to marine environment and living resources
 Sea water pollution
 Damage to other ships

Examples of IMO Conventions and Codes Providing HNS Lists

 Bulk liquids: Chapter 17 of International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships
Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code)
 Gases: Chapter 19 of International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code)
  Solids in bulk: Appendix 9 of Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes (BC Code) if also
covered by IMDG Code in packaged form
 Packaged goods: International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code)

A general guide is that if the chemical concerned has

i) a low biodegradation rate or high persistence,

ii) a high bioaccumulation rate or
iii) is classed as toxic / flammable / explosive / corrosive or reactive, it is likely to be considered as HNS
(radioactive and infectious substances are outside the scope of the HNS regime).

Bioaccumulation is a term for processes that lead to an increase in the concentration of a substance in a
living organism; Bioaccumulation can be reversible or irreversible. In case of reversible accumulation the
substance can be secreted again. In case of irreversible accumulation, the substance is permanently bound to
the tissue of the organism.

Persistence or low biodegradation is the ability of a material to stay in the marine environment without
degradation. This can occur by two different mechanisms:
 The material released with not or very slowly evaporate or dissolve. Such substances will form slicks
on the sea surface, which could contaminate birds or finally reach the coast.
 The substance in the water or on the sea floor will not or very slowly biodegrade.

Aquatic toxicity is the ability of a substance spilled into the water to cause damage to marine organisms.
Chemicals carried by ships may be released and dissolve or disperse into the water, after which they present
a hazard to marine organisms. The GESAMP hazard profile lists two types of aquatic toxicity: Acute
Toxicity in category B1 and Chronic Toxicity in category B2.

HNS labeling for an aquatic hazard, a toxic substance and flammable material
According to IMO regulations, any packaged cargo transported at sea which poses a threat to people, other
living organisms, property or the environment should be listed on the manifest as “Dangerous Goods” and
should display the appropriate hazard labels, for example as per the UN Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) or the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) code. Any packaged cargo that represent a
threat to the marine environment should also display an “Aquatic Hazard” label.

Chemical Cargoes: General Hazards

The marine pollution hazard will be dependent on several factors that include bio-accumulation and the
attendant risk to aquatic life or human health or causing tainting of seafood. In addition, release into the
marine environment may cause damage to living resources, and create hazard to human health. The air
pollution hazard posed by release into the atmosphere may be categorized by the emergency exposure limit
(EEL) of the substance.

Flammability hazard:
Vapor given off by a flammable liquid will burn when ignited provided it is mixed with certain proportions
of air. If the vapor mixture is too lean or too rich it will not burn. The range in which it will burn is called
the flammable range, and the limits are called the lower flammable limits (LFL) and the upper flammable
limits (UFL).

A flammable vapor also needs Oxygen in order to burn, typically in excess of 11 percent for hydrocarbon
vapors. In addition, a flammable liquid must be at a temperature high enough to give off enough vapor in
order to ignite (the Flash Point). For the purpose of safe handling procedures, the flammability
characteristics of various products are divided into three broad categories:
 Flammable cargoes------------ flash point not exceeding 60°C
 Combustible cargoes-----------flash point exceeding 60°C
 Non-combustible cargoes------cargo which have no flash point
Reactivity hazard:
Chemicals may react in a number of ways; with water, with itself, with air, with other chemicals or with
other materials.

When addressing the hazards of chemical spills at sea, a distinction is made between hazards to human
beings and their property and hazards to the marine environment , because the processes that lead to adverse
effects are different. With respect to the hazards of a chemical spills the term “toxicity” is often used.

Hazards to human beings

 Toxicity by inhalation: Inhalation of toxic materials in the air can cause severe illness or death
 Explosiveness: Explosions can cause severe trauma because of the shock wave or resulting fire
 Flammability: A fire can cause skin burns to human beings and may even result in death
 Radioactivity: Contamination by a radioactive substance causes a person to be exposed to radiation,
which in turn can cause several different adverse health effects
 Corrosiveness: Corrosive substances cause damage to living tissues. A corrosive gas can cause eye
and skin irritation.
 Long term health effects: (such as carcinogenicity) This is a grouping of hazards that will result in
adverse effects (long) after the exposure.

Hazards to the marine environment :

 Aquatic toxicity: A substance with a high aquatic toxicity has a large potential to kill marine
organism
 Bioaccumulation: Bio accumulation is the tendency of a substance to be stored in the fat of
organisms
 Persistence: A persistent substance will not (or very slowly) be degraded by natural processes
 Radioactivity: Contamination by a radioactive substance causes a person to be exposed to radiation,
which in turn can cause several different adverse health effects
 Corrosiveness: Corrosive substances cause damage to living tissues. A corrosive gas can cause eye
and skin irritation
 Long term health effects: (such as carcinogenicity) This is a grouping of hazards that will result in
adverse effects (long) after the exposure.

General precautions for carrying chemical cargoes - accidental spillage & other precautions
Chemical tankers are required to transport a wide range of different cargoes, and many tankers are designed
to carry a large number of segregated products simultaneously. To cover all aspect of safety handling such
noxious liquid chemicals following general precautions should be observed irrespective of cargoes carried.
Additional precautions for specific cargoes are necessary and should also be incorporated in the ship’s cargo
handling procedures. These general precautions should be observed at all times, both in port and at sea as
applicable. Ports and terminals may have additional and different precautions and it is the Master’s
responsibility to ensure that local regulations are understood and observed

Cargo Information - The IMO chemical codes as well as Marpol Annex II require that certain information
must available on board prior to loading, reference is made to the IBC code and the BCH code. It is the
Master’s responsibility to ensure that the necessary information, including shipping document and Material
Safety Data Sheets are on board for each cargo, and available to all personnel onboard and involved in cargo
handling. Loading should not commence before the Master is satisfied that the necessary information for
safe handling of the cargo is available.

Chemical tanker precautions at berth - Preventing accidental spillage

Ships personnel must maintain a close watch throughout cargo operations to ensure that any escape of cargo
does not go unnoticed. In this respect, it is essential that all valves are closed if not in use. Personnel
operating inert gas plants must be aware that, with some inert gas generators, there is a risk of oil pollution
via the cooling water discharge when the burner does not ignite first time in its start cycle. Where such a risk
exists it is better to start the generator and check before the vessel arrives at the berth and ensure no leakage
of fuel. Cargo or bunker tanks which have been “topped-off” must be checked frequently during the
remaining loading operations to avoid an overflow. If an accidental spillage or leakage of cargo occurs
during any operation, the relevant operation must be stopped immediately. The operation must not be
restarted until the cause has been established and the defect corrected.

Modern vessels are supplied with an approved outfit of clean-up materials in compliance with MARPOL
and OPA90 requirements. Clean up materials must be available at the bunker or cargo manifold, for the
prompt removal of any spillage on deck. Portable salvage pumps (air operated and constructed of suitable
chemical resistant materials) suitably grounded and preferably hard-piped or connected to suitable
containment tank(s), shall be deployed at the after-end of each side of the main deck.

Chemicals used for clean up on deck must not be allowed to enter the water unless permission has been
obtained from the harbor authorities.

Should a cargo spill accident take place then the appropriate authorities, as detailed in the vessel’s Oil Spill
Response Plan (US waters), or SOPEP (other waters) must immediately be informed. The contact sheet
required by the Plan must be completed prior to arrival in port.

Openings in deckhouses and superstructures - Regulations require that portholes in the superstructure
within a certain distance of the cargo deck must be fixed shut. These design features must not be modified in
any way. All doors, portholes and other openings should be kept closed during cargo operations. Doors that
need to be closed (except when in use) in port must be marked accordingly. Mechanical ventilation should
be stopped and air conditioning units operated on closed cycle or stopped in situations where toxic or
flammable vapors may enter the accommodation. Low pressure in accommodation must be avoided which
will occur if air conditioning is on full re-circulation and some extraction fans e.g. for toilets are still in use.

Engine Room Equipment - Boiler tubes, uptakes, exhaust manifolds and combustion equipment must be
maintained in good condition as a precaution against funnel fires and sparks. In case of a funnel fire, or if
sparks are emitted from the funnel, cargo operations involving flammable products should be stopped, and at
sea, the course may be altered to prevent sparks falling onto the tank deck.

Excluding vapor from machinery spaces - Care should be taken to ensure that flammable or toxic cargo
vapor does not enter the engine room spaces. Special attention should be paid to engine room equipment
connected to the cargo deck area. In case of an accident or an emergency that could give rise to a situation
where toxic or flammable vapors are likely to enter the engine room spaces, consideration should be given to
its possible effect on personnel and/or equipment and necessary preventive actions should be taken.

Procedures to Prevent Pollution

Specific Learning Objectives

Introduction
With oil being carried as cargo aboard ships and used as fuel for marine diesel engines, waste oil is
generated as unpumpable residue in cargo tanks and as sludge from purification of fuel and lubricating oils,
drainage from fuel tanks, leak offs from machinery operation and exhausted lube oils collected in fuel and
lube oil sludge tanks. Marine pollution is caused when these waste oils are discharged into the sea during
tank cleaning operations or during the discharge of ballast taken into cargo tanks or as direct discharges
from machinery space without using the oily water separator.

1. Additional preparation taken for chemicals and hazardous cargoes:

2. Prior to loading or discharging operation complete the check list
3. Appropriate personal protective equipment for the cargo being handled to be kept ready for use
4. Emergency preparedness as per emergency schedule are to be kept ready
 5. Flanges that will not be used for the operation should be blanked off and clearly marked
6. Tanks that are topped up to be monitored for any change in sounding
7. Accommodation air-conditioning to be on closed circuit mode
8. Ensure pressure inside the accommodation is always more than that of outside
9. Temperature of temperature sensitive cargo to be continuously monitored
10. Officer on duty must take all precautions to ensure that the continuous monitoring for early detection
of any cargo spill
11. Appropriate entries are to be made in the cargo record book

MARPOL
Pollution at sea and in coastal waters is a growing problem. The MARPOL convention was incorporated to
address this problem and find solutions to reduce incidents of pollution. The objective of this convention is
to primarily deal with oil pollution, besides other forms of pollution including pollution from chemicals,
harmful substances, sewage, garbage, engine emissions etc.

Anti-pollution procedures
When compared with land-based industry, ships are minor contributors to marine pollution. Atmospheric
inputs and land-based discharges account for 77% of the marine pollution, whereas ships are responsible for
around 12%.

The sources of pollution from ships, are:

 Oil
 Dangerous goods in bulk and packaged form
 Chemicals and liquefied gases in bulk
 Ballast water
 Sewage
 Garbage
 Anti-fouling paints
 Exhaust emissions
 Ozone depleting substances
 Cargo vapor emissions
 Noise

Precautions to Prevent Pollution by Oil

Tanker operations involve risks due to pollution, fire and explosion. Oil carried in tanks have risks
associated with it and one risk could lead to another. These hazards can be avoided by the application of
simple but effective rules. Oil cargo is highly flammable and toxic. It is not the liquid which is susceptible to
ignite but the vapor given off by the liquid. For this vapor to ignite and burn as a visible flame, it needs to
mix with the right proportions of air.

The vapor cannot ignite if there is too little or too much petroleum gas concentration. This limitation is
expressed as a percentage by volume of petroleum gas in air, also known as upper and lower flammable
limits. When the temperature of a liquid reaches the lower flammable limit, it is known as the flash point of
the liquid.

Certain types of petroleum cargo are susceptible to spontaneous combustion and auto ignition. Spontaneous
combustion is the phenomenon where materials soaked with oil ignite without any external application of
heat. Auto ignition is caused when petroleum liquids, ignite when heated, without the application of a naked
flame.
Tankers should follow certain safe procedures, which minimize the chances of an accident. Such procedures
include a restriction on smoking, the use of a naked flame, restrictions for conducting hot work, the
operation of fixed and portable lamps, the use of hand tools for carrying out maintenance, the use of anodes
in cargo tanks, entry into enclosed spaces and pump rooms etc.

Oil tankers calling ports for either loading or discharging operations should exchange information with the
terminal. This information exchange benefits both parties and removes doubts and ambiguity. The tanker
should be aware of berthing and mooring details. Similarly, the terminal should know the condition of the
ship's tanks, the ship’s draft and trim before and after the operations, the ship's manifold details, the location
of fire wires (emergency towing off wires) etc.

General Precautions
All tankers while alongside a petroleum berth should comply with procedures and precautions that enhance
tanker safety. Both the tanker and the terminal should complete all documentation and the ship-shore safety
checklist. Tanker and terminal personnel contact should be clearly identified before the operations begin.

Other precautions include:

 Adequate man power and fire fighting equipment on board
 Means of communication between the ship and shore
 Safe access to the ship
 Access control
 Display of warning posters

"General Precautions" (PDF, 195kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.
Specific Precautions
Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal has to be clear and concise. Information
regarding loading, discharging or even bunkering should be clearly understood by all concerned parties.
Some of the points discussed between the tanker and terminal are as follows:
 Approved loading / discharging plan and maximum loading or discharging rates, number and size of
loading arms, manifold connections available for different grades etc.
 Quantity of cargo to be loaded or discharged and the location of tanks
 Characteristics of cargo including the toxicity, flash point and estimated loading / discharging
temperatures
 Type of venting procedure and method of handling ballast during cargo operations

Continuous lines of communication between the tanker and the terminal is of paramount importance for safe
and smooth cargo operations. All concerned parties should be fully aware of the various signals used to
indicate the starting and stopping of loading and discharging, slowing down and emergency stops. Remote
shut off arrangements, also known as quick closing valves, are provided to shut off the fuel oil supply to the
main engine in the event of a fire in the engine room. The remote shut off valves are located either at the
entrance to the engine room or in remote fire control stations.

"Specific precautions" (PDF, 370kb) are to be observed for cargo and ballast operations.

Precautions while carrying out any oil operations

With respect to heavy fuel oil system on board a ship the following arrangements should be in place to
prevent an accident
 Weighted cock: It acts as a self closing device for all the sounding pipes servicing bunker tanks
 Flame trap: Wire mesh or wire gauze which is fitted on the air pipes connecting bunker tanks. This
mesh prevents the passage of flame inside the tanks.
 Sight glass: The sight glass in the bunker overflow pipe warns the operator that a bunker overflow is
taking place.
  Overflow alarm: Bunker tanks have floats fitted on the upper part of the tank to warn personnel if the
oil has reached at a higher level than what is actually permissible inside the tank. The alarm is
triggered when the oil level rises beyond safety limits.
 Dumping valve: The dumping valve is fitted on settling tanks so that oil can be immediately
transferred from this tank to double bottom tanks, which are at a much lower level in the event of a
fire.

Preventing the fire and explosion in a tanker is paramount. Following are some of the precautions to be
taken while carrying out any oil operations:
1. External Openings in Accommodation and Engine Rooms: Since many sources of fire in the
accommodation and Engine room, the volatile cargo vapors are kept out of these spaces during
loading, unloading, gas freeing, tank cleaning and purging operations. All external doors, ports and
similar openings on the tanker should be kept closed.
2. Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems: On tankers with air conditioning units, it is essential
that the accommodation is kept under positive pressure to prevent the entry of cargo vapors. Intakes
for air conditioning units are usually positioned in a safe area and vapors will not be drawn into the
accommodation under normal conditions.
3. Cargo Tank Lids: During the handling of volatile products and the loading of non-volatile products
into tanks containing hydrocarbon or chemical vapor, all cargo tank lids should be kept closed and
secured.
4. Sighting and Ullage Ports: During loading, unloading, gas freeing, tank cleaning and purging
operations sighting and ullage ports should be kept closed, unless required to be open for measuring
and sampling and when agreed between the tanker and the terminal.
5. There are tanks to load non-volatile and they can also be used to load volatile cargo and these tanks
are connected to common venting system. To prevent flammable and/or toxic vapors entering the
tanks while loading volatile cargo, particular attention should be paid to the setting of
pressure/vacuum valves and the associated venting system, including any inert gas system.
6. Tank Washing Openings: During tank cleaning or gas freeing operations, tank washing cover plates
should be removed only from the tanks in which these operations are taking place and the cover
plates should be replaced immediately upon completion.
7. Inspection of Cargo Tanks Before Loading: Inspection of cargo tanks before loading generally
should be made without entering the tanks. It may sometimes be necessary to remove tank cleaning
opening covers to sight parts of the tank not visible from the ullage or sighting ports, but this should
only be done when the tank is gas free. The covers must be replaced and secured immediately after
the inspection. Cargo tank atmospheres which are, or which have been, inerted should be handled
with care due to the risk of low oxygen contents. Before entering a tank that has been inerted, it must
be gas freed.
8. Flange Connections: Flanges for tanker-to-shore cargo connections at the end of the terminal
pipelines and on the tanker’s manifold should be in accordance with International or National
legislation. Flange faces, gaskets and seals should be clean and in good condition. At their storage
locations, flange faces should be suitably protected from corrosion/pitting. Where bolted connections
are made, all bolt holes should be used. Care should be taken when tightening the bolts; as uneven or
over tightened bolts could result in leakage or fracture.
9. Removal of Blank Flanges: Each tanker and terminal manifold flange should have a removable
blank flange made of steel or other approved material and preferably fitted with handles. Precautions
should be taken to ensure that, prior to the removal of blanks from tanker and terminal pipelines, the
section between the last valve and blank does not contain any product under pressure. Precautions
must also be taken to prevent any spillage.
10. Reducers and Spools: Reducers and spools should be made of steel and be fitted with flanges.
Ordinary cast iron should not be used. There should be an exchange of information between the
tanker and terminal when manifold reducers or spools are made of any material other than steel.
Manifold pressure gauges should be fitted to the spool pieces on the outboard side of the manifold
valves.
 11. Lighting: During darkness, adequate lighting should be arranged to cover the area of the tanker-to
shore cargo connection and any hose handling equipment, so that the need for any adjustment can be
seen in good time and any leakage or spillage of product can be quickly detected.
12. Fire-Fighting Equipment: When a tanker is alongside a berth, fire-fighting equipment is to be kept
ready for immediate use. On board the tanker, this is normally achieved by having fire hoses with
spray/jet nozzles ready for use. Having portable dry chemical powder extinguishers available in the
cargo area provides additional protection against small flash fires.
13. Notices on the Tanker: Whenever alongside a terminal, a tanker should display notices on deck,
visible on two sides, or at the gangway(s) according to the International (Dangerous goods)
legislation.
14. Precautions should be taken against Smoking, usage of Matches and Cigarette Lighters, unsafe usage
of Galley Stoves and Cooking Appliances in the accommodation. In the Engine room funnel fires
and sparks, burners, tubes, uptakes, exhaust manifolds and spark arrester should be maintained in
good working condition.
15. Control of Vehicles and Other Equipment: The use of vehicles and equipment should be
controlled, particularly in hazardous zones. Routes to and from work places and parking areas should
be clearly indicated. Barriers or fencing should be provided, where necessary, to prevent
unauthorized access.

SOPEP and SMPEP

Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)
Introduction
Marine pollution is a cause of growing international concern. The various causes of Marine Pollution are
discharge of oil, chemical residue, prohibited packing material, garbage, sewage and emission of engine
exhaust gas beyond acceptable limits. The MARPOL Convention is the main international convention
covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships.

Objectives
On completion of this sub-topic, you will be able to:
 State the SOPEP (Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan) including the reporting procedures.
Oil pollution from ships, whether incidental and intentional, is viewed as a very serious offence around the
world. Nowadays, the shipowners are heavily penalized and punitive action is taken against the Master, crew
member(s) responsible for the incident and the ship. Every individual on board should ensure that the ship
complies with the pollution regulations at all times. It is the responsibility of every watch keeper to ensure
that adequate precautions are taken to avoid pollution, mitigate oil discharge in case of pollution, maintain
pollution prevention equipment, report all instances of pollution promptly and maintain proper records, as
required by the regulations.

SOPEP stands for Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan. Regulation 37 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78
requires oil tankers of 150 tons gross tonnage or more and all ships of 400 tons gross tonnage or more to
carry an approved SOPEP. The purpose of the SOPEP is to provide guidance to the Master and the ship's
officers on the course of action to be taken when an oil pollution incident has taken place.

The SOPEP should be in accordance with the IMO guidelines for the development of shipboard oil pollution
emergency plans and should be approved by the administration. No alteration or revision shall be made to
this plan without prior approval from the administration.

The primary objective of the plan is to stop or minimize oil outflow when there is damage to the ship, and
stop or minimize oil outflow when an operational spill occurs in excess of the quantity than the permitted
rate under the MARPOL convention. The plan also provides guidance to the Master and the ship's crew on
the procedures to be followed to report an oil spill. A designated locker called SOPEP locker, is used to
store oil spill control materials. These materials are sawdust, Oil Spill Dispersant (OSD), cloth, cotton waste,
gloves, brooms, buckets, empty oil barrels etc.

A list of coastal state contacts and port contact list is provided as an annex to the plan, which helps to
coordinate with national and local authorities in combating oil pollution. The SOPEP should be ship specific
and should include a flow chart, which will serve as a guide in reporting procedures during an oil pollution
incident.

The ship's master has to comply with reporting procedures by the fastest means of communication in
compliance with regulation 37 of MARPOL 73/78. The intention of the "Reporting Information" (PDF, 200
kb) is to ensure that all the details regarding the discharge or the probable discharge should reach the nearest
coastal state in the prescribed format. The reporting procedures should have the following information:
 When to report (actual discharge; probable discharge)
 Information required (particulars and status of the ship)
 Whom to contact (coast state; nearest port; and ship's interests)
The SOPEP provides the ship's Master with clear guidance on how to mitigate oil pollution in different
situations.
Pollution is possible in the following situations:
 Spill during an operation
 Pipeline leakage
 Tank overflow
 Hull leakage
 Spill in machinery spaces
 Spills due to grounding / stranding, fire / explosion, hull damage, collision, hull failure, and
excessive list
Mitigation techniques are given in the plan to help in dealing with pollution due to the above causes. The
ship's plans and drawings, which are part of the SOPEP include the general arrangement plan, tank plan and
the fuel oil piping diagram.

The SOPEP lays down the responsibilities of the ship's key personnel involved in the mitigation process.
This includes the Master, Chief Officer, Chief Engineer, Deck Duty Officer, Duty Engineer and Duty
Ratings.

Conclusion
As you have completed the sub-topic, you should be able to:
State the SOPEP (Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan) including the reporting procedures.

SMPEP
In Regulation 17 of Annex II of MARPOL 73/78, all ships of 150 tons GT and above, carrying noxious
liquid substances in bulk are required to carry an approved Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan
(SMPEP) for Noxious Liquid Substances on board. The plan is in line with IMO MEPC. 54(32),
MEPC.86(44) and the SMPEP guidelines in Resolution MEPC.85(44.
Since most of the content of the plan for both, oil and noxious liquid substances are the same, compliance
with a combined plan is more practical than two separate ones in case of an emergency.

The emergency response plan for ships carrying noxious liquid substances is a combined one and is referred
to as the shipboard marine pollution emergency plan (SMPEP). The SMPEP became mandatory from the 1st
of January, 2003. The ship's plans and drawings, which are part of the SMPEP include the general
arrangement plan, the tank plan and the fuel oil piping diagram.

The guidelines for the development of shipboard marine pollution emergency plans have been developed by
the IMO to help administrations and shipowners meet these requirements.
The main purpose of SMPEP is to set in motion the required actions to reduce or stop the discharge and to
minimize its effects. By means of effective planning, it can be ensured that necessary actions taken are in a
structured, safe, logical and timely manner.

The procedures to be followed while reporting a NLS pollution incident include:

1. List of authorities and personnel to be contacted
2. Detailed explanation of necessary actions to be taken to minimize or stop the discharge of NLS
3. Procedures for contacting the national and local authorities to coordinate the shipboard action
Contents in SMPEP include:
 Reporting Requirements
 Ways of controlling discharge
 Co-ordination with National and Local authorities
 Extra Information
 Flow Chart And Checklists
 Vessel Specific Information
 List Of Coastal State Contacts
 List Of Ship Interest Contacts
 IMO Resolution A.851(20) & Resolution MEPC.138(53)

Info/plan required
 Ship Specific Information (Questionnaire to be submitted)
 General Arrangement Plan
 Capacity Plan
 Midship Section
 Lines Plan
 Tank Tables
Either flag state administration or a classification society should approve this plan on behalf of this flag.

Shipboard personnel are to follow certain guidelines when faced with a pollution emergency. The "Summary
Flowchart" (PDF, 205kb) describes these procedures.

Checklist for Maintenance of Pollution Equipment

Careful attention should be paid to pollution prevention measures on board as well as maintaining accurate
records for the handling of oil and other pollutants. Penalties can be severe for an owner and any responsible
crew-members if a vessel fails to comply with the regulations. Findings noted by ABS during surveys and
audits include:
 Missing oil record keeping book or entries not up to date;
 Poorly maintained, inoperative equipment or, improperly operating equipment and systems for
separating oil from water including oil-content monitoring devices;
 Sludge tank connected directly overboard;
 Sludge tank connected directly overboard;
 Missing or not-posted pollution placards on board etc.

The practice of strictly following an ON BOARD ROUTINE CHECK LIST may help to prevent pollution
damage and reduce human error.

A typical checklist as suggested by the American Bureau of Shipping:

XVI. MARINE POLLUTION PREVENTION ITEMS

Query
OK
FIX
N/A
Comments
Is approved SOPEP/SMPEP-NLS/SMPEP up-to-date and in working language of Master and officers?
Do transfer procedures contain instructions for reporting oil discharges (or hazardous cargoes) into the
sea?
Is the Oil Record Book in the latest format and filled out properly based on actual operations and using
proper letter codes?
Is the 15 ppm alarm including auto stop operating satisfactorily?
For 15 ppm bilge alarm under MEPC.107(49), does the recording device contain records for at least 18
months?
Is there a calibration certificate for the 15 ppm bilge alarm provided at every renewal survey? Has the
accuracy of the alarm been checked by the manufacturer or persons authorized by the manufacturer
according to the manufacturers’ instructions at intervals not > 5 years?
Are bilge and sludge pump arrangements in compliance with MARPOL regulations?
Is the automatic stopping device for the oily water separator working properly?
Oily Water Separator (OWS)/Oil Filtering Equipment
There are no overboard discharge by-pass fittings installed?
Are all associated gauges, piping and valves in satisfactory condition?
Are filters changed as necessary?
Are they properly installed in accordance with approved plans?
Sludge Pump
Is operation confirmed satisfactory?
Standard Discharge Connection
Is available port and starboard sides?

VI. MARINE POLLUTION PREVENTION ITEMS (Continued)

OK
FIX
NA
Comments
Tanker
Oil Discharge Monitor (ODM)
Are manual and auto means of discharge working?
Have alarms, indicators / meters and recorders been tested? Are spare consumables provided?
Oil/Water Interface Detector
Is unit Type Approved?
Is unit operating satisfactorily?
Crude Oil Washing System
Is system arranged as outlined in Operations and Equipment Manual?
Are piping, pumps, valves and deck machines free of leaks?
Is a separate Cargo Record Book being used for Annex II (NLS) cargoes?
Sludge tank does not have a direct connection overboard.
Garbage Management
Are pollution placards displayed?

Measures to be taken in the event of Spillage

Introduction
Extensive steps are in place to ensure that operators follow safe operating procedures. Specific Spill
Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans (SPCC) outline an operator’s prevention procedures.
Maintenance procedures require regular testing and inspection of both processes and equipment.
Ensuring process safety minimizes the risk of a spill and protects the health and safety of people and the
environment. Operational and maintenance procedures are both encouraged and mandated across industry.

Tanker On Board Spill Equipment

There are two levels of compliance based on the length of the tank vessel.

Oil tankers with an overall length of 400 feet (121.92 meters) or more must carry the appropriate equipment
and supplies for the containment and removal of an on-deck oil cargo spill of at least 12 barrels.

Oil tankers with an overall length of less than 400 feet must carry the appropriate equipment and supplies
for the containment and removal of an on-deck oil cargo spill of at least 7 barrels.

The equipment and supplies must include:

 Sorbents
 Non-sparking hand scoops, shovels, and buckets
 Containers suitable for holding recovered waste
 Emulsifiers for deck cleaning
 Protective clothing
 A minimum of one (1) non-sparking portable pump with hoses
 Scupper plugs

During cargo transfer operations, the equipment and supplies must remain ready for immediate use.

Report Relevant Information

The master or other person having charge of any ship involved in an incident shall report the particulars of
such incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible in accordance with the provisions of Protocol I
of MARPOL 73/78/97.

The report shall be made when an incident involves:

 A discharge above the permitted level or probable discharge of oil or of noxious liquid substances for
whatever reason including those for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship or for saving life at
sea; or
 A discharge or probable discharge of harmful substances in packaged form, including those in freight
containers, portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and ship borne barges; or
 Damage, failure or breakdown of a ship of 15 meters in length or above which:
 Affects the safety of the ship; including but not limited to collision, grounding, fire, explosion,
structural failure, flooding and cargo shifting; or
 Results in impairment of the safety of navigation; including but not limited to, failure or breakdown
of steering gear, propulsion plant, electrical generating system, and essential ship borne navigational
aids; or
 A discharge during the operation of the ship of oil or noxious liquid substances in excess of the
quantity or instantaneous rate permitted under the present Convention.
Spill Reporting Information
All spills shall be reported as required with the following information:
 Time of spill discovery.
 Location of spill.
 Identification of spilled material.
 Behavior of material (i.e. reactions observed).
 Source of spill (i.e. piping, container, etc.).
 Personnel in vicinity of spill.
 Volume of spill.
  Anticipated movement of spill (i.e. leakage to lower deck passage from amidships toward galley).
 Labeling or placarding information.

Spill-containment Procedures
Prevention of oil spills has as much to do with operational procedures as it does with technology and
equipment. Following appropriate protocols, as well as maintenance procedures, ensures the safe operation
of equipment, aiding in the goal to prevent spills from ever occurring.

Specific Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans (SPCC) outline an operator’s prevention
procedures and are required by the EPA. Maintenance procedures require regular testing and inspection of
both processes and equipment.

In open-water marine spills, the primary response objectives are:

 To prevent the spill from reaching shore,
 To reduce the impact on marine life, and
 To speed the degradation of any un recovered oil.
Weather permitting, booms can be used to contain or divert the spilled oil, which may then be recovered
using skimmers or burned off. However, if winds or waves are too high, booms will be ineffective and will
not provide adequate containment of the spill.

Dispersants, applied to the spill via aircraft, can be effective in breaking up spills of light- or medium-
density oils. Dispersant use is also contingent upon weather, as high winds make it difficult to accurately
target the spill from the air. Sorbents may be used for small-volume spills, or as a final "polish" after other
response options have been used.

Dispersants
Dispersants are chemical agents (similar to soaps and detergents) that help break up an oil slick into very
small droplets, which dilute throughout the water. While this does not remove the spilled material, smaller
oil particles are more easily biodegraded and it provides a measure of protection for sensitive habitats
threatened by a surface slick. Dispersants are sprayed onto spills by specially equipped boats or planes.

In open-water marine spills, the primary response objectives are:

To prevent the spill from reaching shore,
To reduce the impact on marine life, and
To speed the degradation of any unrecovered oil.

In the absence of significant native plant or animal life in these environments, economic and aesthetic
factors generally drive spill response decisions. Removal is typically a top priority, as these developments
are often constructed in areas where wave activity, and therefore natural dispersion, is minimal.

Booms and skimmers are used to contain and remove spilled oil from the water, while relatively aggressive
cleanup activities are used to address oil that has reached shore. These activities may include flushing, use of
shoreline cleaning agents, and bioremediation. Sorbents also may be used for smaller-volume spills, or as a
final "polish" after other response options have been used.

Chemical /Oil cargo spills

The biggest risk of a cargo spill is during cargo handling operations, either because of equipment failure or
improper handling procedure. Cargo spills are therefore most likely to happen in port.

Following actions should be taken in the event of spill:

1. Activate the alarm
 2. Stop all cargo operations and close valves and hatches
3. If alongside a berth, notify the terminal staff of the chemicals involved and possible risk posed to the
personnel
4. Notify local port authorities, usually through the terminal staff
5. Prohibit smoking and the use of naked lights throughout the ship
6. Clear all non-essential personnel from the area
7. Close all accommodation access doors, and stop all non-closed circuit ventilation
8. Arrange for main engine and steering gear to be brought to stand-by
The main course of action is dependent upon the nature of chemicals involved and size and location of spill.
If there is possibility of vapors entering accommodation or engine room, measures should be taken to
counteract this, such as shutdown the air-con intake and set the accommodation ventilation to re-circulation
mode.

All cases to be treated as emergency and full initial response should involve emergency party wearing
appropriate protective clothing and breathing apparatus. Safety of personnel and the ship should take priority
over environmental care. If it is possible and safe to do so, spilled liquid should be pumped or washes into a
slop tank or other containment, or collected for safe disposal using absorbent material. However, if this is
not safe or if there is any doubt, the spillage should be washes overboard with very large amount of water. If
at sea, the tanker should be maneuvered so as to disperse the vapor away from ship's accommodation.

For small, localized and contained spills, it may be necessary to implement all the action points in the ship's
contingency plan. However, the Master must always keep in mind the local circumstances, the nature of the
chemicals involved, and the potential harm to personnel, ship's structure and environment. In most cases it is
better to overreact than to delay action.

The general advice for a corrosive cargo spillage on deck is to wash the spilled liquid overboard with the
large quantity of water from as far away as practicable. A fog nozzle should be used and not a direct jet of
water. The emergency team should wear appropriate protection, approach the spill from upwind and direct
the spray of water to the edge of the spill, gradually working towards the center. The use of water on a
fuming acid and other strong acids will initially cause a vigorous reaction that will cause increased fuming.
However, this will be temporary while the spillage will be dealt with rapidly. If at sea, the ship should be
turned off wind.

Personnel exposure to be dealt with immediately by referring to the MSDS and EmS.

Nine Phases of Spill Response

The following phases describe major actions that must take place immediately after a spill has occurred;
however, some of the phases may occur simultaneously.

SPILL DISCOVERY AND NOTIFICATION. All discoveries of spills or situations that may lead to spills
must be reported

The discoverer shall report the following information:

1. Time of spill discovery.
2. Location of spill.
3. Identification of spilled material.
4. Behavior of material (i.e. reactions observed).
5. Source of spill (i.e. piping, container, etc.).
6. Personnel in vicinity of spill.
7. Volume of spill.
8. Anticipated movement of spill (e.g., leakage to lower deck passage from amidships toward galley).
9. Labeling or placarding information.
INITIATION OF ACTION.

WARNING

Do not enter the contaminated area until the necessary protective clothing and equipment have been
determined and properly donned.
1. Evacuate all personnel from areas that may be exposed to the spilled material, especially vapors.
2. Cordon off the affected area.
3. Arrange first aid for any injured personnel.
4. Prevent spills from entering other compartments by any means that do no involve personnel exposure
to the spill, such as closing/covering drains, ventilation, ducts, doors and hatches.
5. Disperse gases or vapors using forced exhaust ventilation. If atmosphere is suspected to be
flammable or explosive, appropriate means shall be initiated by Damage Control to minimize and/or
eliminate this hazard during ventilation operations.
6. Eliminate any fire or explosion hazards such as electrical equipment, incompatible materials, and
open flames.

EVALUATION. Proper evaluation of a spill can prevent fires, explosions, personal injury or permit steps to
lessen the impact. This evaluation consists of the following three steps:

a. Obtain as much of the following information as possible from container labels and MSDS before
starting response actions:
1. Type and concentration of the spilled material.
2. Hazardous characteristics of the spilled material.
a) Flash Point.
b) Toxicity.
c) Corrosiveness.
d) Potentially incompatible substances.
e) Effects resulting from exposure.
f) First aid measures for exposure.

b. Determine dangerous conditions or potential consequences of the spill, including:

1. Fire or explosion.
2. Presence of oxygen-deficient atmosphere in compartment.
3. Presence of toxic or explosive gases per the Toxic Gas Bill in reference (g).
4. Possibility of dangerous vapors being drawn into ventilating system.
5. Other HM in the compartment that would play a role in a fire or explosion or is incompatible with
the spilled material.

c. From the MSDS, determine the appropriate level of PPE for responding to the spill.

CONTAINMENT AND DAMAGE CONTROL.

WARNING

All personnel entering a contaminated space shall enter with another individual, and for each pair entering a
space, a trained person with appropriate equipment, will be on standby.

Actions taken during this phase are directed toward controlling the immediate spread of the spill and
minimizing the impact to the ship and crew. Depending on the type of spill, some or all of the following
procedures may be employed:
 Don required PPE as determined from the MSDS.
 Fight fire (if any), being careful to use firefighting methods compatible with the material involved.
 Shut off or otherwise stem the spill at the source.
  Predict spill movement and take further action to prevent the spill from possibly entering other
compartments.
 Contain liquid material using barriers, such as absorbents, rags or other equipment suitable to dam
the flow.

Response action for operational incidents includes:

1. Transfer System Discharge.
2. Tank Overflow.
3. Hull Leakage/Tank Leakage
4. Mechanical Equipment Failure.

DISPERSION OF GAS/VAPOR. If a flammable gas or vapor is released as a result of the spill, the
gas/vapor shall be dispersed or diluted as soon as possible. If possible and/or feasible, the gas vapor shall not
be allowed to enter other compartments. Have the Responsible Person check the spill area for the Lower
Explosive Limit (LEL) and toxicity. The atmosphere can then be dispersed using a ventilation system
deemed appropriate based on the situation.

CLEANUP AND DECONTAMINATION. During this response phase, personnel, as directed by the
person in charge, shall employ the spill cleanup methods recommended on the MSDS and shall use the
appropriate shipboard Spill Response and Containment Kits . Surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned of the
spilled material. After the spill cleanup, the compartment shall be thoroughly ventilated. Reusable protective
clothing, such as respirators, face shields and gloves shall be thoroughly decontaminated and otherwise
maintained before it is returned to its proper storage location.

DISPOSAL OF CONTAMINATED MATERIALS. All non-reusable cleanup materials are to be placed

in impermeable containers, properly labeled, stored and disposed of as used hazardous material. These
materials include unrecoverable protective clothing, sorbents, rags, brooms and containers. If different HM
is involved, ensure the materials are segregated and labeled appropriately

CERTIFICATION FOR SAFE RE-ENTRY. The spaces affected by the spill shall be certified safe by the
MASTER/ CH.ENG before normal shipboard operations are resumed in that space. The following shall be
verified before allowing general re-entry:
 All surfaces, decks, bulkheads and overheads, have been thoroughly cleaned of the spilled material.
 All compartments have been adequately ventilated as determined from analysis.
 All contaminated cleanup materials, including protective clothing, have been packaged, marked and
handled as used HM.

SPILL DOCUMENTATION. The details of all OHS spills, including the time, POC/Agency, and format
(voice or report) for all notifications made, must be noted in the Ship’s Deck and/or Engineering Log
Management of Spills on Water
A number of steps must be followed when handling product spilled on water.

These steps are given below.

Containing spills
Spills on calm water can be contained by barriers, such as floating booms. Floating booms are tubular
floating sections that usually have a weighted skirt. They are either inflated or filled with buoyant material.
The booms can be installed around unloading tankers, or they can be kept ready and used as needed. Once
the spill is contained, one end of the boom can be pulled in to concentrate the spill and make skimming
easier. Makeshift booms can be made from inflated fire hoses or from railroad ties, telephone poles, or
empty drums linked by chains or cables.

NOTE:
 Transfers of non persistent fuels such as JP-8 and gasoline must not be boomed
 Fixed boom will not be required in areas of swift current (1.5 knots or greater) when fuel will be
deflected over the top or under the boom.
 Do not boom in situations deemed unsafe.

Removing oil from the water

Some of the product can be removed with the suction pump, piping, and other equipment on a regular
skimming boat or a barge. Some skimming boats are designed especially for removing oil. Others are barges
or boats that have been adapted to remove the product from the water and store it. Chemical dispersants
approved by the Authorities can be used as soon as the spill is contained, however, they are usually used
after some of the product has been removed by skimming.

NOTE:
 Chemical dispersants must be approved by the Authorities.

Cleaning up
After all product possible has been removed, absorbents, adsorbents, and chemical dispersants may be used
to complete the cleanup. Product is soaked up by an absorbent, but it clings to the surface of the particles of
an adsorbent. If the water is not rough and the slick is limited in size, either of these may be used to gather
product on the surface. Some adsorbents are sawdust, straw, cotton waste, talc, and powdered bark. Sawdust,
straw, and cotton waste can be buried. These materials must be disposed of according to regulations.
Chemical dispersants break up a slick into tiny droplets so that natural bacteria in the water can consume the
product. Dispersants are usually sprayed from a vessel, from a helicopter or a crop-spraying plane, or from
hand-held equipment. Dispersants are useful in rough, open seas where skimming is difficult. Chemicals
should never be used near a freshwater source or where fish or beaches are of prime concern unless fire,
safety hazards, or other emergency conditions exist.
Case Studies on Oil and NLS Ship Emergencies

Introduction
Accidents and incidents with near misses are not uncommon to tank ships, especially the tank ships that
carry many varieties of chemical cargoes in their many tanks. Each of those cargoes have different
properties. Each tank needs thorough cleaning before the new cargo is loaded. There are issues of
compatibility, toxicity, flammable mixture and cargo vapor causing death or causing explosions. Many crew
life has been sacrificed within tanks that have not been properly gas freed or vented. It is this array of
challenges that a seafarer faces on each day that he sails on board these ships. The best way to learn and
remember is through stories- a good or a bad story: both can influence our future behavior and thus makes a
powerful means for crew training.

Fire and Explosion

SHIP AAA

Name
Date
Location
AAA
16 March 2012
Saudi Arabia

Flag
Date of Built
Length
Width
Draught
Owner
Liberia
2004
150 m
25 m
10.5 m
BBB

Accident Area
All Jubail, Persian Gulf
Products transported
430 tonnes of heavy fuel oil (IFO 380)
1.300 tonnes is obutyraldehyde (IBAL)
13.000 tonnes methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
Ship type
Chemical Tanker
Classification Society
CCC

The incident
On the 16th March, the chemical tanker AAA was sailing in the Persian Gulf when it suffered an explosion
and a fire which lasted 5 days.

Of the 25 crew members, 24 were rescued by an American destroyer while one was reported missing. Once
the blaze was under control the response team noticed that 4 of the ship's tanks were severely damaged.

On the 25th March, after several unsuccessful attempts, a tug managed to establish a towline to distance the
AAA from the coastline.

The place of refuge issue

The Captain requested authorization to access the ports of four nearby countries, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain and Iran. All four refused.

The tanker finally received permission from Saudi Arabia to anchor in its waters on the 1st April. Cargo
transfer operations then began, finishing up on the 29th April.

On the 30th July 2012, once all the hazardous substances had been removed, Bahrain permitted the vessel to
be towed to one of its ports to be scrapped.

This incident illustrates the difficulty for ship owners in finding a place of refuge when a vessel is in
difficulty.

Collapsing of crew in Tanks

Crew Accident on Chemical Tanker
On 6 May 2009 the chief officer and an AB on board the chemical tanker, ZZZ were overcome by gas as
they entered an area of the main deck which contained released cargo vapors. They were rescued and taken
to hospital, where they made a full recovery.

ZZZ loaded a cargo of MARPOL Category “X” Crude Sulfate Turpentine (CST) in Savannah, USA.
Arrangements were made for a Ship to Ship (StS) transfer with a chemical tanker while alongside the Vopak
Terminal at Teesside.

Following the StS transfer, ZZZ carried out a mandatory MARPOL prewash using portable washing
equipment because the majority of the fixed washing systems were defective. The washing machine water
supply hose was passed through a cargo tank inboard Butterworth hatch, which remained open. As the cargo
tank was washed, water mist containing cargo vapors escaped through the open hatch as the tank’s
atmosphere was agitated. The vapors accumulated around the Butterworth hatch in what was an unidentified
enclosed space.

The on watch AB entered the area to isolate the cargo pump hydraulic motor valves. He was immediately
overcome by gas and lost consciousness. The chief officer and another AB attempted to rescue the
unconscious AB. Neither was wearing breathing apparatus. The chief officer was rapidly overcome by gas.
The AB also suffered the effects of vapor inhalation/oxygen depletion, but managed to escape unaided.

There were two Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) in circulation for the CST. The cargo specific MSDS
held by ZZZ identified hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a constituent part. The other MSDS passed to the terminal
staff and to the other vessel did not.

The CST cargo hazards were not recognized by the chief officer of ZZZ because proper reference was not
made to the MSDS and the crew were not informed because a Teesside pre-arrival conference was not
carried out. This contributed to inadequate risk control measures being established.

Some areas on the deck of ZZZ fell into the category of enclosed spaces as defined by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO). This was not recognized by the crew, so the appropriate safety precautions
were not taken. There was also a complacent attitude regarding the need for respiratory protection during
cargo operations. The requirement was not enforced and this put the crew at risk.

ZZZ Tankers has established a range of measures to address its organisational shortcomings. These include
instructions for management of unfamiliar cargoes, including those containing H2S, surveying the deck to
identify and label areas falling into the enclosed space category, the use of personal gas detectors and repair
of the fixed tank washing systems.

A number of recommendations have also been made to ZZZ Tankers. These include actions to ensure pre-
arrival conferences are carried out which identify the cargo risks and safety measures required, for the
diligent completion of cargo operation checklists, and for enforcing the use of respiratory protection in
accordance with the ship’s Quality Management System (QMS).
Other Case Studies
We complete this topic by discussing some cases of victimization of the seafarers and the shipping industry
as a whole, against an unfair and unilateral justice system that prevails in different parts of the world. This
reading will consolidate your understanding of what can happen, even when you, as a seafarer has been
totally professional in handling your shipboard job efficiently. A spill appears to invite an unfair legal
challenge to the seafarer, for which he has little experience.
(1) Prestige: a case of incorrect port state action
The Prestige was a conventional pre-MARPOL persistent oil tanker entered by her Owners with the Club
continuously from 1988 to her loss in the Bay of Biscay in 2002. The ship was classed from build with ABS
and had the approval of one oil major.

In November 2002 the Prestige was carrying a cargo of 77,000 mts of heavy fuel oil from St Petersburg to
the Far East. While crossing the Bay of Biscay in adverse conditions the ship developed a sudden list to
starboard as water entered the mid-ship starboard ballast tanks following an assumed side shell failure.
Pollution was minimal in the initial stages of the incident. Refuge was requested from Spain but denied.
Instead the vessel was required to be driven unsympathetically out to sea where, six days (and two storms)
later she sank together with the then remaining cargo. Pollution regrettably affected much of the northern
coast of Spain and the Southern Atlantic coast of France.

On the orders of the government, Prestige was towed around for six days, laden with fuel, to try to distance
it from the Galician coast.

Assessment of pollution claims

Spain and France are parties to the CLC and Fund Conventions. Joint claims handling offices were
established with the Fund in Spain and France. The Owners’ CLC limit of US$26.7m was lodged in cash
with the Court in Spain in June 2003. The Fund provides supplementary compensation of about US$144m.
Claims for pollution damage were presented for about US$2.3bn and assessed by the Fund experts at about
EUR350m.

The Spanish Proceedings

The Public Prosecutor commenced criminal proceedings against the senior crew members and a
representative of the state (in respect of the denial of refuge), on grounds of alleged disobedience and for
serious pollution damage. As a consequence of this, the civil claims arising attached to the criminal action.
After an exhaustive nine-month trial all of the defendants were acquitted of causing the pollution. It was
determined that whatever weakness in the ship existed could not be identified and therefore was not known.
As a consequence there was no civil liability finding.

A number of parties, including the Public Prosecutor, appealed on points of law. Following a one day
hearing the Spanish Supreme Court (Criminal Division) reversed the acquittal of the Master on grounds he
must have known it was reckless to perform the intended voyage. The Owners were found vicariously liable
for the Master’s negligence. The CLC Convention, under which the Insurer Club benefits from the CLC
limit irrespective of the alleged conduct of the Owners, was said to be applied. However, the Court also held
that under Spanish criminal law, the Club was directly liable for the Owners recklessness up to the policy
limit of US$1bn.

The case was referred back to the trial court to determine the quantum of the recoverable claims. In the
meantime, the Master is pursuing an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights on the basis that his
conviction was unfair.

Quantum proceedings
The trial court has just issued its judgment on the quantum aspects of the case. The various claims have
been assessed at around EUR1.66bn which is materially greater than the Fund experts’ assessments noted
above and is therefore disappointing. This includes about EUR1.63bn assessed in respect of the Spanish and
French States and about EUR25m for the non-State claimants.The Club’s liability limit of US$1bn is
reiterated; as a Member of the International Group, the Club benefits from the reinsurance purchased
collectively which extends to US$1bn for pollution claims.

Next steps
Judgments obtained and legal proceedings on foot in other jurisdictions will be of relevance. These include:
1. A contested judgement already obtained by the Club from the English Court of Appeal against Spain
and France. This recognizes that the Club has no direct liability to the States claims other than
permitted by the CLC Convention. This judgment is irreconcilable with the Spanish judgments and
should provide a basis to resist enforcement;
2. The Master’s action before the European Court of Human Rights. This is relevant because
enforcement of a judgement obtained unfairly would be contrary to public policy. The extremely
superficial nature of the Supreme Court hearing being an example of an unfair process.

At the same time, the Club together with its IG partners and other interested parties will continue to give
close attention to the wider implications of the judgement. We are concerned at the direction taken by the
Spanish Court including its by-passing of an established international Convention. This development
underscores the importance of initiatives including but not limited to the adoption of concerted action by
ship-owners, insurers, the IMO and IOPC Funds to encourage states not only to sign up to the International
Convention regimes, but also to respect and to apply these correctly and consistently; in a way the recent
judgments in the Prestige have failed to do.

(2) MT Hebei Spirit: a case of excellent seafarer skills and misjudgment by Korean Court

While at anchor in Daesan Harbor, South Korea early in the morning of December 7, 2007 the VLCC Hebei
Spirit under the command of Captain Jasprit Chawla was struck by a runaway crane barge. The barge was
floating free after it broke away from its tug in rough seas. The collision punctured three tanks on the Hebei
Spirit causing the largest oil spill in South Korean history. The spill occurred near one of South Korea’s
most beautiful beaches and affected wetland areas, wildlife, and aquaculture farms. Although credited with
taking actions that limited some of the damages, Captain Chawla and Chief Officer Syam Chetan were
criminally prosecuted by South Korean prosecutors. While 10,500 tonnes of oil escaped the Hebei Spirit, it
should never be forgotten that there were over 260,000 tonnes of oil aboard which could have been lost into
Korean waters, if not for the actions of the Captain and crew in keeping the ship afloat and minimizing the
oil spilled.

Once the 140 metre high floating crane had finished bouncing along the hull of the Hebei Spirit (which took
around 25 minutes) the crew commenced transferring oil from the damaged tanks. As well, collision mats
were rigged over the damaged tanks and ballast was pumped to the starboard ballast tanks so the vessel
would list to starboard, lowering the oil level in the damaged tanks. These remedial actions appeared to have
reduced a certain amount of oil spillage and have fully complied with the provisions as laid down in the
shipboard oil pollution emergency plan.

Captain Jasprit Chawla and Chief Officer Chetan Syam, were finally permitted to return home to India on
June 11th, 2009 after more than one and a half year of waiting for a ‘final’ verdict as to whether or not
Korean authorities consider them guilty of not preventing the Taean oil spill of 2007. The case has been
dismissed, so even as they return home Korean authorities are not letting them go free with complete
absolution. It is regrettable that Korean authorities could not see it in their hearts or consciences to let the
matter end with a suitably definite resolution of a ‘Not Guilty’ verdict, a pardon and an apology for wasting
18 months of the lives of two good people and their families.

(3) Cosco Busan: A case of a Pilot Error and Negligence

The 901-foot container ship Cosco Busan hit the second tower of the bridge west of Yerba Buena Island in a
heavy fog the morning of Nov. 7, 2007.
The pilot for the container ship, the Cosco Busan, was blamed for a crash into a tower of the Bay Bridge in
November 2007. The crash caused the ship to spill close to 60,000 gallons of heavy bunker fuel into the bay,
according to the University of California, making it one of the worst spills in the bay in recent history. Fuel
spilled from the ship was reported to have poured over 69 miles of coastline, causing fisheries to close and
killing more than 6,800 birds, the Mercury News reported.

The pilot, John Cota, pleaded guilty in March to two misdemeanor charges of operating the vessel
negligently, polluting the waters and killing birds. His plea agreement calls for a prison sentence of two to
10 months and a fine between $3,000 and $30,000.
The National Transportation Safety Board issued a report saying one cause of the accident was Cota's use of
prescription drugs that impaired his thinking. The board also said the ship's captain, Mao Cai Sun, had failed
to prepare a navigation plan with Cota and had supervised him inadequately as the ship went off course.

In addition, the board said, Fleet Management had barely trained its brand-new crew on safety. The
company's proposed guilty plea said Sun had acted negligently by failing to review Cota's intended route,
which would have allowed him to recognize and overrule flawed commands. Fleet Management has also
been charged with six felonies for allegedly concealing its navigation plans for the Cosco Busan and
fabricating documents after the spill to interfere with the investigation.

Capt. John Cota pleaded guilty to water-pollution violations and served 10 months in prison after
investigators concluded he was traveling too fast in heavy fog, was impaired by prescription drugs and
ignored safety precautions while working as the ship’s pilot during the Nov. 7, 2007, crash. The bunker fuel
that poured from the ship’s hull oiled 69 miles of shore, closed fisheries and killed more than 6,800 birds.

Shortly after the accident, the state Board of Pilot Commissioners began steps to revoke Cota’s pilot’s
license. Instead, he voluntarily retired as a pilot on Oct. 1, 2008, and now draws a pension of $228,864 a
year. But Cota’s other key sailing credential — his merchant marine license, issued by the Coast Guard —
remained valid until it expired in 2010. When Cota attempted to renew it, Coast Guard officials refused.
In order to use it we have to break the two ends of the tube and insert it into the pump according to the
directions mentioned on the tube. Now start pumping 3-4 times (or as specified by the manufacturer) to suck
in the particular gas from the atmosphere that is to be tested.

If the atmosphere contains that particular gas or vapor, then the color of the tube will change. The length of
the color change can be read from the tube and compared to obtain the concentration level of that particular
gas or vapor in parts per million can be ascertained.

Gases that the Draeger instrument can be used detect include carbon monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide,
organic arsenic compounds, arsine, and phosphoric acid esters, hydrocarbons, among others.

An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapor present at various places in a
compartment that may not be accessible. When using the tubes with the hose, insert one end of the hose into
the pump, the tube is inserted at the other end, the hose is then laid out to the place in the compartment
where the gas is to be detected. The pump is then used to suck the gas.