Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)

Module 1 - An Introduction to Human What are the 2 Broad Types of Anatomy?

Anatomy and Physiology
1) Macroscopic or Gross Anatomy
Lesson 1: Definition of Anatomy and
Physiology - is the study of anatomical features seen by the
 The meaning of anatomy and physiology is naked eye. It includes, for example, external
features or internal organs.
provided to help students understand the general
scope in the study of the course.
- Subdivided into surface anatomy (the external
Sub-topics: body), regional anatomy (specific regions of the
body), and systemic anatomy (specific organ
What is Anatomy? systems).
 Discussing the structure or inner
 Surface or superficial anatomy is
workings of something or the branch of
concerned with the external anatomical
science examining the body structures of features observable without dissection.
humans, animals, or other living  Regional anatomy studies specific
organisms, based on dissections and the internal or external body regions and
separation of body parts. how different parts interact and
 The term "anatomy" derives from the cooperate in that region.
Greek word "anatomē," meaning  Systemic anatomy is the study of
dissection. various organ systems and their
structures—for example, the
What is human anatomy? gastrointestinal or respiratory system.
 is a branch of science concerned with
2) Microscopic Anatomy
the human body's structural makeup and
the position, relations, and functions of
- is concerned with the microscopic constituents
its parts. (tissues and cells) forming the larger structures.
And so, microscopic anatomy relies on the usage
of microscopes to study these structures.
Branches of Anatomy:
- Studies the microscopic constituents forming
1. Gross Anatomy larger structures - in the level of tissues or cells.
2. Living Anatomy And so, microscopic anatomy relies on the usage
3. Embryology of microscopes.
4. Histology
5. Surface Anatomy - Subdivided into histology (tissue) and cytology
6. Clinical Anatomy (cells). Every organ is made up of tissues, and
these tissues, in turn, are made up of cells.
Branches of Physiology:
 Histology is a branch of science
1. Human Physiology studying the microscopic anatomy of
2. Microscopic Physiology biological tissues. It observes the
3. Developmental Physiology correlations between structure and
4. Comparative Physiology function. It helps in understanding
5. Cellular Physiology certain diseases and their causes and
6. Environmental Physiology grasp if any treatments have helped.
7. Evolutionary Physiology
- “nano knife”
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
-One standard staining method, for
example, is hematoxylin and eosin.
 Cytology is concerned with examining
specific cell types, often from fluid
specimens. It is mostly used for cancer
screening and diagnosis, especially
cervical cancer (pap smear), detection of
fetal abnormalities, and diagnosis of
specific infectious agents.
- There are two methods for obtaining
samples for cytological analysis. The first,
exfoliative cytology, uses cells either
spontaneously shed by the body or actively
scraped or brushed off from the body. It
includes a pap smear, where cervical canal
cells are harvested with a brush and
examined for abnormalities.
- The other method, intervention cytology,
obtains the material by intervening in the
patient's body with, for example, a needle. It
includes fine-needle aspiration cytology
(FNAC), where tiny amounts of the cell
sample are gathered from suspicious lesions
in order to rule out cancer.
5 Subdivisions are the branches of
anatomy:
1) Surface or superficial anatomy is concerned
with the external anatomical features observable
without dissection.
2) Regional anatomy studies specific internal or
external body regions and how different parts
interact and cooperate in that region.
3) Systemic anatomy is the study of various
organ systems and their structures—for
example, the gastrointestinal or respiratory
system.  how specific parts relate to others. On
4) Histology is a branch of science studying the
microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. It
observes the correlations between structure and
function. It helps in understanding certain
diseases and their causes and grasp if any
treatments have helped.
5) Cytology is concerned with examining
specific cell types, often from fluid specimens. It
is mostly used for cancer screening and
diagnosis, especially cervical cancer (pap
smear), detection of fetal abnormalities, and
diagnosis of specific infectious agents.
4 or 5 Branches of Anatomy:
1) Embryology 
-studies the structures emerging in the
period between the fertilized egg and
until the 8th week in utero. It also
studies gametes' (the sex cells)
production and fertilization and
congenital disorders occurring before
birth (teratology). 
2) Developmental anatomy 
- studies a larger time frame because it is
concerned with the development of
structures starting from the fertilized egg
up until the adult form. 
3) Radiographic anatomy 
- studies body structures that can be
evaluated using x-rays (radiographs or
CT scans). 
4) Pathological anatomy 
- studies macroscopic and microscopic
changes associated with diseases. It
helps to observe damage caused by a
specific illness and pinpoint certain
causes of illness. 
Why anatomy and physiology are related?
- Anatomy teaches us how a body is
structured, how it's held together, and
the other hand, physiology lets us
understand what makes these parts
function in the first place. 
What are the main functions of the human
body?
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
- The human body is made up of many
different “parts,” which we call organs.
All these organs and their systems work
together non-stop to sustain life. There
is no single specific function of the
human body because every part of the
body contributes to this effect.  form the cardiovascular system. It
What are the 11 organ systems of the body?
1) Skeletal system;
2) Muscular system;
3) Nervous system;
4) Cardiovascular system;
5) Digestive system;
6) Respiratory system;
7) Endocrine system;
8) Renal and urinary system;
9) Male and female reproductive system;
10) Integumentary system;
11) Immune and lymphatic system.
 The skeletal system consists of bones,
tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. It
forms the framework of the body,
making it possible to move and stand
upright. It is also involved in the storage
and regulation of minerals in the blood
like calcium and red blood cell
production.
 Three muscle types make up the
muscular system - skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac muscles. In general, the
muscular system permits the body's
movement, maintains proper posture,
and provides blood circulation
throughout the body.
 The nervous system consists of the
central and peripheral nervous systems.
The brain and spinal cord form the
central part, but all the peripheral nerves
- the peripheral portion. It regulates
voluntary and involuntary reactions of
the human body and registers and
processes sensory inputs from the
environment.
 The heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries
provides blood circulation and transport
of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
and other molecules of biological
significance. It also takes part in the
regulation of body temperature.
 The digestive system consists of the
main digestive organs - mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum, and the accessory
organs - salivary glands, pancreas, liver,
and gallbladder. Its primary function is
the digestion and absorption of
nutrients.
 Formed by the nasal cavity, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and the
diaphragm, the respiratory system's
primary function is gas exchange
between blood and the air in the alveolar
sacs.
 The endocrine system consists of glands
that produce specific biologically active
hormones. These hormones have
particular tissues of action that result in
different biological adaptations.
 The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
urethra make up the urinary system.
This system's primary function is the
filtration and excretion of excess water
and biological waste products like urea.
The kidneys also produce hormones that
play essential roles in blood pressure
regulation, the formation of red blood
cells, and calcium and phosphorus
concentration.
 The male and female reproductive
systems are very different, depending on
the biological sex of the individual. Still,
their main functions are the production
of sex cells, fertilization, and in the case
of females - nourishing and housing the
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
fertilized egg until the fetus is ready for
delivery.
 The integumentary system consists of
skin, hair, and nails. Its primary function
is protection and regulation of body
temperature, excretion of specific waste
products, and sensory signals' detection
through sensory receptors nested in the
skin.
 The lymphatic system is a part of the
immune system. The lymphatic
system's primary function is collecting
excess fluid - or lymph, from the
extracellular spaces and transporting this
fluid back to the bloodstream. It also
consists of lymph nodes and the spleen,
which are essential members of the
immune system responsible for
detecting and neutralizing foreign
pathogens. The primary function of the
immune system is the detection and
destruction of pathogens.
What are the 79 organs in the human
body?
These organs are:
 Musculoskeletal system - human
skeleton, joints, ligaments, skeletal
muscles, and tendons.
 Digestive system - teeth, tongue,
parotid, submandibular and sublingual
glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine
(duodenum, jejunum, ilium - seen as
one), large intestine, rectum, liver,
gallbladder, mesentery, pancreas. 
 Respiratory system - nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs,
diaphragm.  functions; kinds of organ systems and body
 Urinary system - kidneys, ureters,
bladder, urethra.
 Female reproductive system - ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva,
clitoris, placenta. 
 Male reproductive system - testes,
epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands,
penis, scrotum. 
 Endocrine system - pituitary gland,
pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
gland, adrenal glands, pancreas.
 Circulatory system - heart, arteries,
veins, capillaries.
 Lymphatic system - lymphatic vessel,
lymph node, bone marrow, thymus,
spleen, tonsils. 
 Nervous system - brain, medulla
oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum,
nerves (spinal and cranial nerves - seen
as one), spinal cord, ventricular system.
 Sensory organs - eyes, ears, olfactory
epithelium, taste buds. 
 Integumentary system - mammary
glands, skin, subcutaneous tissue. 
Lesson 2 – Structural Organization of the
Human Body
It discusses how the human body is
organized into different units: cell, tissue,
organ, organ system, and body cavities.
Subtopics:
It orients the students to the basic structure
and function of the cell, different types of cells
and tissues; composition of organs and their
cavities.
1. Cell: Its Structure and Function
2. Types of Cells and Tissues
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
3. Kinds of Organs, their Composition
and Functions
4. Kinds of Organ Systems, their
Composite Organs and Functions
5. Different Body Cavities and Organs
Present
What is a Cell?
 A cell is the smallest living thing in the
human organism, and all living
structures in the human body are made
of cells.
 A cell is the structural and
fundamental unit of life. The study
of cells from its basic structure to the
functions of every cell organelle is
called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was
the first Biologist who discovered cells.
 All organisms are made up of cells.
They may be made up of a single cell
(unicellular), or many cells
(multicellular).  Mycoplasmas are the
smallest known cells. Cells are the
building blocks of all living beings.
They provide structure to the body and
convert the nutrients taken from the
food into energy.
 Cells are complex and their components
perform various functions in an
organism. They are of different shapes
and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the
buildings. Our body is made up of cells
of different shapes and sizes.
 Cells are the lowest level of organisation
in every life form. From organism to
organism, the count of cells may vary.
Humans have the number of cells
compared to that of bacteria.
 Cells comprise several cell organelles
that perform specialized functions to
carry out life processes. Every organelle
has a specific structure. The hereditary
material of the organisms is also present
in the cells.
Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential
characteristics of cells:
 Cells provide structure and support to
the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into
different individual organelles
surrounded by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds
genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
A nucleus is defined as a double-
membraned eukaryotic cell
organelle that contains the genetic
material.
 Every cell has one nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-
bound organelle is mainly responsible
for the energy transactions vital for the
survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in
the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a
significant role in the internal
organisation of the cell by synthesising
selective molecules and processing,
directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different
labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells
perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:
 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Cells
 Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus.
Instead, some prokaryotes such as
bacteria have a region within the cell
where the genetic material is freely
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
suspended. This region is called the
nucleoid.
 They all are single-celled
microorganisms. Examples include
archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
 The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm
in diameter.
 The hereditary material can either be
DNA or RNA.
 Prokaryotes generally reproduce by
binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to
use conjugation – which is often seen as
the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual
reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual
reproduction).
Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a
true nucleus.
 The size of the cells ranges between 10–
100 µm in diameter.
 This broad category involves plants,
fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 The plasma membrane is responsible for
monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is
also responsible for cell to cell
communication.
 They reproduce sexually as well as
asexually.
 There are some contrasting features
between plant and animal cells. For eg.,
the plant cell contains chloroplast,
central vacuoles, and other plastids,
whereas the animal cells do not.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual
components with specific functions essential to
carry out life’s processes. These components
include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore
more insights on cell structure and function.
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and
protects the cell. It controls the
movement of substances in and out
of the cells. It separates the cell from
the external environment. The cell
membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer
covering of a cell within which all
other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed.
It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous
membrane (with pores) which permit
the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell.
Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from
damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure
between two cells as well as between
the cell and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell
structures are well-adapted to protect
them from external factors. The cell
wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent
part of the plant’s cell structure. It is
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively
in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular
components. The cell wall is also the
outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure
surrounding the cell membrane.
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
 It provides shape and support to the
cells and protects them from
mechanical shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-
like substance present inside the cell
membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions
within a cell take place in this
cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as
endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary
material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow,
mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the
nuclear envelope that separates the
DNA from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is
an integral component of a plant’s
cell structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell
organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes. The
different cell organelles, along with its
principal functions, are as follows:
Cell Organelle and its Functions
Nucleolus - The nucleolus is the site of
ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in
controlling cellular activities and cellular
reproduction.
Nuclear membrane - The nuclear
membrane protects the nucleus by forming a
boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.
Chromosomes - Chromosomes play a
crucial role in determining the sex of an
individual. Each human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum -The endoplasmic
reticulum is involved in the transportation of
substances throughout the cell. It plays a
primary role in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids
and proteins.
Golgi Bodies - Golgi bodies are called the
cell’s post office as it is involved in the
transportation of materials within the cell.
Ribosome - Ribosomes are the protein
synthesizers of the cell.
Mitochondria - The mitochondrion is called
“the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so
because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy
currency.
Lysosomes - Lysosomes protect the cell by
engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell
and helps in cell renewal. Therefore, it is
known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast - Chloroplasts are the primary
organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the
pigment chlorophyll.
Vacuoles - Vacuoles stores food, water, and
other waste materials in the cell.
Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German
scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)
Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory
states that:
 All living species on Earth
composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was
eventually formulated, and it contains the
following postulates:
 Energy flows within the cells.
 Genetic information is passed on from
one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the
cells is the same.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs these major functions essential
for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:
 Provides Support and Structure
All the organisms are made up of cells. They
form the structural basis of all the
organisms. The cell wall and the cell
membrane are the main components that
function to provide support and structure to
the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of
a large number of cells. Xylem present in
the vascular plants is made of cells that
provide structural support to the plants.
 Facilitate Growth Mitosis
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell
divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the
cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an
organism.
 Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells
to carry out various chemical processes
going on inside the cells. The waste
are produced by the chemical processes is
eliminated from the cells by active and
passive transport. Small molecules such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse
across the cell membrane along the
concentration gradient. This is known as
passive transport. The larger molecules
diffuse across the cell membrane through
active transport where the cells require a lot
of energy to transport the substances.
 Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various
chemical processes. This energy is produced
by the cells through a process called
photosynthesis in plants and respiration in
animals.
 Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the
processes called mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is termed as the asexual
reproduction where the parent cell divides to
form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different
from the parent cells. Thus, we can
understand why cells are known as the
structural and functional unit of life. This is
because they are responsible for providing
structure to the organisms and performs
several functions necessary for carrying out
life’s processes.
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)

 Cell wall

 Cell organelles

o Nucleolus

o Nuclear membrane

o Endoplasmic reticulum

o Golgi Bodies
Frequently Asked Questions
o Ribosome
1. What is a Cell?
o Mitochondria
A cell is defined as the fundamental,
structural and functional unit of all life.
o Lysosomes
2. State the characteristics of cells.
o Chloroplast
 Cells provide the necessary structural
support for an organism. o Vacuoles

 The genetic information necessary 4. State the types of cells.

for reproduction is present within the
nucleus.
 Structurally, the cell has cell
organelles which are suspended in
the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria is the organelle
responsible for fulfilling the cell’s
energy requirements.
 Lysosomes digest metabolic wastes
and foreign particles in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum synthesises
selective molecules and processes
them, eventually directing them to
their appropriate locations.
3. Highlight the cell structure and its
components.
 Cell membrane
Cells are primarily classified into two
types, namely
 Prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic cells
5. Elaborate Cell Theory.
Cell Theory was proposed by Matthias
Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and
Rudolf Virchow, who were German
scientists. The cell theory states that:
 All living species on Earth are
composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
 Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology (Lec)

6. What is the function of 10. Name the cell organelle that

mitochondria in the cells?
Mitochondria are known as the
powerhouse of the cells. Their primary
function is to produce the energy
currency of the cells, ATP. It also
regulates cellular metabolism.
7. What are the functions of the cell?
The essential functions of the cell
include:
contains hydrolytic enzymes capable
of breaking down organic matter.
Lysosomes
11. Which cellular structure regulates
the entry and exit of molecules to and
from the cell?
Cell membrane. It is a selectively
permeable structure that controls the exit
and entry of molecules into the cell.

 The cell provides support and

structure to the body.

 Facilitates growth by mitosis

 Helps in reproduction

 Provides energy and allows the

transport of substances.

8. What is the function of Golgi

bodies?

Golgi bodies package, and sort the

proteins for secretion. It creates
lysosomes and transports lipids around
the cells.

9. Who discovered cell and how?

Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665.

He observed a piece of cork under a
compound microscope and noticed
minute structures reminiscent of small
rooms. Consequently, he named his
discovery “cells.”