Grinding Technology GMO 0252

GMI German-Malaysian Institute
D I P L O M A P R O G R A M M E H A N D O U T
GMO 0252
GRINDING TECHNOLOGY 1
SYNOPSIS
Introduce the basic concept and operation of metal machining

processes in carrying out the workshop practice by selecting and
applying the surface grinding operations and procedures, that
include safety rules and regulations, grinding construction and
design, grinding processes, wheel balancing, mounting devices,
grinding defects and wheel constructing in producing various shapes
of products according to the drawing, specifications and safety
regulations
REFERENCES
1. Materials and Processes In Manufacturing.
2. Metal Trade Table Book (GTZ)
3. Factories and Machinery Act Book

4. A. Hans, F. Kurt, R. Alfred, S. Paul, Technology of the Metal Trade (GTZ), Wiley
Easten Limited, 1982.
5. Technology of Machine Tools

HANDOUT GMO 0252
SUMMARY OF COURSE OBJECTIVES :
- Explain the basic feature and principle of a conventional grinding machine processes
and operations
- Perform basic surface grinding processes and operations according to the given
dimensions, specifications and tolerances
- Practice and observe safety rules and precaution with respect to using grinding machine
COURSE CONTENTS :
A. SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS
1. Introduction
2. Testing the Grinding tool before Mounting
3. Fixing with flanges
4. Protective hoods
5. Circumferential speed
6. Safe working while running the machine
B. GRINDING MACHINE
1. Introduction to grinding machine

2. Surface grinding machine with rotate table
3. Precision surface and profile grinding machine with long tables
4. Precision surface and profile grinding machine
5. CNC and profile grinding machine
6. Universal tool grinding machine
7. External cylindrical grinding machine
8. Universal cylindrical grinding machine
9. Centreless cylindrical grinding machine
10. Jig grinding
C. GRINDING PROCESS
1. Introduction to grinding process

2. Surface grinding
3. Cylindrical grinding
4. Centreless grinding, form grinding, roller grinding and etc
5. External cylindrical longitudinal grinding
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Production Technology
Copyright of German Malaysian Institute. All rights reserved.
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D. GRINDING WHEEL BALANCING SCALE
1. Instruction manual for grinding wheel balancing scale

1.1 Set up of balancing scale
1.2 Adjustment of sensitivity
1.3 Balancing
E. WHEEL DRESSING TECHNIQUE
1. Reasons for dressing a wheel

2. Grinding wheel faults
2.1 Loading
2.2 Glazing
3. Different type of dressers; diamond, dressing sticks, diamond dresser
4. Dressing the wheel with a diamond
F. MOUNTING OF WORKPIECE
1. Mounting of workpiece
2. Precision vices
3. Electromagnetic table
4. Magnetic transferring block
5. Two dimensions (angular vice)
6. Sine late / sine magnetic chucks
7. Sine vice
G. GRINDING WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
1. Introduction to grinding wheel construction

2. Construction of the grinding
3. Wheel grade
4. Wheel structure
5. Types of shapes
6. Factors to be considered in the selection of the proper grinding wheel
H. GRINDING DEFECTS
1. The affects of hardening

2. Faults and errors in grinding process
3. Remedies in the grinding process
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I. MATERIAL SCIENCE
1. Types of abrasive
2. Abrasive grain, bond and structure
3. Standard grinding shapes
4. Grinding wheel specification
5. Select a proper grinding wheel
J. PERFORM PRACTICAL WORK
1. Perform safety rules and regulation in workshop

2. Draw, read and interpret technical drawing
3. Prepare a process plan
4. Perform surface grinding operations according to the drawing and
specification
5. Perform measuring technique
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Chapter 1
Safety Rules & Regulations
Learning Objectives
At the end of this course the student will be able to:
- Explain the safety rules and regulations in operating the grinding machine
- Demonstrate and practice safety while running the machine
Duration
(T) 1 hr
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Chapter 1: Safety Rules and Regulation

1. Introduction
The grinding tool which rotate at great circumferential speed is a potential source of
accidents. Anyone breaking the prevention regulations may incur a severe accident.
Grinding tools must be set up only by reliable and experienced persons.
Any person who commits an offence against the regulations for which no corresponding
penalty is provided by the Act shall be liable to a fine net exceeding RM1,OOO.OO.
2. Testing the Grinding tool before Mounting

Before the grinding tool is set up, the grinding body
must always be sounded while suspended freely.
Damaged grinding tools should not be used. The
wheel is suspended through the spindle hole and
lightly tapped with a mallet. The one must be clear
and ringing, without clatter or other sounds.
3. Fixing with flanges

(Refer to page 154 of the' Factories & Machinery Act)
The wheel must be fixed with clamping flanges of grey

cast iron, steel or similar material, unless the nature of
the job or the grinding wheel demands otherwise. The
flanges must be of equal diameter so that the wheel is
not subject to bending stress. Only one washer can be
placed against the grinding wheel.
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The minimum diameter of the flange should be:
a. 1/3D when using protective hoods.
b. 2/3 0 when no protective hood is used and the wheel is fixed with new rubber
spacers.
c. 1/20 for taper wheels.
Spacer discs of elastic material (rubber, soft cardboard, felt leather, etc.) should be placed
between the wheel and the clamping flanges. These discs will compensate for unevenness
on the surface of the wheel, and ensure that the wheel rests between the flanges in such a
way that the machining forces are distributed evenly.
Every time the grinding wheel is mounted, it must be allowed to run at full speed for at least
five minutes. During this period, no one should be permitted within the danger area.
4. Protective hoods
(Refer to page 153 of the Factories & Machinery Act)
Grinding machines must be equipped with adjustable protective hoods of tough

materials. These may be made of steel, cast steel or malleable cast iron.
The protective hood must be readjusted to match the wear of the wheel.
If a protective hood is not used, then taper grinding wheels or straight wheels must be
fixed with the recommended rubber discs.
5. Circumferential speed
Grinding wheels should not be driven at speeds higher than the maximum
circumferential speed specified on the grinding wheel.
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6. Safe working while running the machine
- Stand clear when starting the wheel
- Do not rapid traverse when:
i. The wheel is close to the work.
ii. The table is close to the wheel.
- The table must be absolutely clean before the diamond dresser or the work or
anything else is mounted on it. Inspect the work surfaces. Make sure they are
clean and free of any sharp projections or ragged edges.
- Before applying a cut, make sure the wheel clears the length of the job at each
end.
- When touching the wheel down on the work surface for the first time traverse
the wheel head the complete length of the job (the job may be considerably
tapered). Also check across the width of the job.
- Feed the wheel down between 0.010 to 0.015 mm per cut in the roughing
process and 0.003 to 0.005 mm in the finishing process.
- Keep your hands away from the running wheel and moving workpiece.
- Do not run your finger across the work surface or wipe away swart while the
machine is in motion.
- Listen to the sound of the wheel cutting and learn to recognise when the wheel
is cutting efficiently.
- If the wheel starts to "bounce", you will hear it and be able to see the poor
finish produced. To rectify the problem, dress the wheel.
- Ask the instructor to help you if you are in any kind of difficulty. That is why he
is there.
- In the event of an accident, switch off the machine using the "EMERGENCY
BUTTON"
- Report any injury, cut or scratch, no matter how trivial to your instructor
immediately.
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7. Question sheet for Safety Rules And Regulations
1. List at least three important requirements for a ring test:
2. List at least four things that an operator should or should not do to operate a
grinder safely:
3. Draw a flange diagram and name the main parts:
4. What is the maximum circumferential speed for a grinding wheel?
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Chapter 2
Grinding Machine
Learning Objectives
- Identify several types of grinding.
- Explain and exemplify the usage of the different.
- Name the main parts of the surface grinding machine universal tool and cutter
grinder.
Duration
(T) 2 hrs
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Chapter 2: Grinding Machine

Introduction
Grinding machines are highly accurate machine tools. Work pieces produced by them must
be accurate in size and shape, with high-quality surfaces. These objectives are attained by
the special construction of these machines.
1. Box-shape machine frames. They are rigid and prevent vibrations.
2. Precise location of the grinding spindle. Pre-stressed roller bearings or slide

bearings with adjustable play are used.
3. Grinding wheels driven by flat belts, or V-belts for heavy machines (gears lead to
uneven running of the wheel).
4. Hydraulic table feed. The advantages are even running and step less speed
control.
5. Fine in-feed of the grinding slide. This is provided by measuring screws with error
compensation and reading values down to 1µm.
6. Dust-proof covering of the building ways to protect against swart.
7. Wheel truing attachment with slide guides for exact dressing of the wheels.
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Surface Grinding Machine with Rotate Table
Several work pieces of the same height are mounted together on the rotary table and ground
with the face of the segment grinding wheel, while maintaining a continuous feed. This
machine is particularly suitable for mass production.
Surface Grinding Machine with Rotary Table for Face, Side and Rotary Grinding
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Precision Surface and Profile Grinding Machine with Long Tables
This machine is used for surface grinding even surfaces with the wheel circumference or
grinding the lateral faces of grooves with the side of the wheel. The long table rests on the
box-type frame on guiding ways. It is moved hydraulically. The table is used to set the length
and to position the table travel. The grinding head can be adjusted vertically in the slide
guides on the column. The column itself can move traverse to the direction of the table travel.
In both types of machines, there is an electric motor whose shaft is carrying the grinding
wheel (grinding spindle). The motor and the shaft bearings are specially constructed for this
purpose.
Precision Surface and Profile Grinding Machine
(Set-up for longitudinal surface grinding with wheel circumference)
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5. CNC Profile Grinding Machine

CNC Surface Grinding Machine with Creep Feed Grinding
The Z & B design principle using J linear, pre-loaded roller packs for vertical and cross axes
ensure accuracy to within millionths while the heavy duty column supports high HP grinding
capacity.
The machine is fully CNC controlled with the latest state of the art Siemens CNC control with
customized Z & B software.
Flat Dressing. Wheel head mounted dresser with automatic diamond in-feed and pre-
selectable dressing speeds.
Profile Dressing. CNC controlled articulating dressing arm with single point diamond or
rotating diamond disc.
Wheel/head Mounted Dresser. With vertical swilling axis:

• Manual or automatic operation.
• Dressing parallel to axes with compensation.
• Interference control of diamond tool path.
• Programming via CAD/CAM software and IBM PC compatible system through RS232
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6. Universal Tool & Cutter Grinding Machine
The Universal Tool Grinding Machine is used for sharpening small and medium-sized tools.
The machine is especially well suited to sharpening cylindrical and conical work pieces with
helical flutes. It can also be used to sharpen reamers, countersinks, threading drills,
cylindrical, angled and face-milling cutters of the widest possible range of types, as well as
cutters with inserted teeth, boring bits, etc. For all these, it can be used to grind cutting faces,
flanks and back-off clearances. A helical grinding attachment is used for cylindrical mills and
other such helical cutters. This can also be employed in axial relief-grinding for drills and
countersinks. With special accessories, the Universal Tool Grinding Machine can also be
used for cylindrical, internal and face grinding for small work pieces as well as for sharpening
shaped spur gears all spiral gears.
Universal Tool & Cutter Grinding Machine
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6. External Cylindrical Grinding Machine
This is suitable for grinding cylindrical or conical outer surfaces by longitudinal or plunge
grinding. Any desired shape can be recess-ground on cylindrical surfaces by using profile
wheels.
A hydraulic system moves the lower table, which is guided on sliding rails. The table travels
length and the position of the table can be set with the table trips. When grinding cones, the
upper table must be swilled by half the taper angle.
The spindle head contains an electric motor and a stepped drive for two or four rpm's (work
piece revolution). The table is shifted and set by trial and error, using the hand wheel 11.
The grinding head with the grinding wheel and drive motor can be moved radial with respect
to the work piece (in-feed) with the hand wheel 1. The in-feed values can be read on the
scale drum of the hand wheel 1, with reading values down to 1µm.
The work piece is always mounted between two dead center. This prevents the rotary motion
of the grinding wheel from being transmitted to the work piece.
When grinding a cone, the upper table is swiveled through half angle. The grinding wheel
head is not shown
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8. Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine
This machine differs from the ordinary external cylindrical grinding machine only in
that an internal grinding attachment, for grinding out holes, is mounted on the grinding head.
This consists of a swiveling arm in which internal grinding spindles of various lengths can be
mounted. A small electric motor drives the internal grinding spindle by means of a belt. The
workpiece must be mounted in such a way that the clamping force does not distort it. This is
why special chucks are used, or else the jaws of the chuck are ground to match the external
diameter of workpiece to ensure that it rests uniformly.
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Internal Cylindrical Grinding Attachment of a Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine
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9. Centreless Cylindrical Grinding Machine
The workpiece is introduced on a work rest blade between the grinding wheel and the
regulating wheel. The slowly rotating, soft-bonded regulating wheel imparts the longitudinal
and rotary feed motion to the workpiece. The regulating wheel must be tilted up to 3 ° to
generate the longitudinal feed: larger angle of tilt = higher feed rate. The regulating wheel is
in-fed after every passage until the final size is reached. In plunge grinding, the regulating is
not tilted and the workpiece is introduced with a special device. The regulating wheel is
pressed radially against the workpiece by using the star handle, until the finished size is
reached, when a stop dog cuts off the in-feed.
Centreless Cylindrical Grinding Machine
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10. Jig Grinding
The jig grinder is similar to a jog borer, both having precision-ground lead screws capable of
positioning the table within 0.0001accuracy over its entire length. Both are vertical spindle
machines and employ the same basic cutting principle encountered in single-point boring.
The main difference between the two machines is in the spindles.
The jig grinder is equipped with a high speed pneumatic turbine grinding spindle for holding
and driving the grinding wheel. The spindle construction permits outfeed grinding and also
the grinding of tapered holes.
10.1 The advantages of jig grinding
- Holes distorted during the hardening process can be accurately brought to

correct size and position.
- Holes and contours requiring taper or draft may be ground. Mating parts, -
such as punches and dies, can be finished to size, eliminating the tedious job
of hand fitting.
- Because more accurate fits and better surface finishes are possible, the
service life of the part is greatly prolonged.
- Many parts requiring contours can be made in a solid form, rather than in
sections as was formerly necessary.
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Jig Grinding
The grinding spindle may be offset fro
the main spindle, Lower view shows the
planetary path of rotation.
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Question sheet For Grinding Machines
1. List several grinding machines and the related processes:
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2. Name the major parts of the surface grinding machine:
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3. What type of grinding machine would you propose to grind the external
cylinder/shaft?
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4. I have a reamer, face milling and threading drill to resharpen. Which type of grinding
would you propose to use?
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5. Name five main parts of the universal tool and cutter grinder:
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Chapter 3
Grinding Process
Learning Objectives
- Understand and explain the purpose of surface grinding and describe the
principles of the surface grinding process.
- Understand and explain other types of grinding processes such as cylindrical

grinding.
Duration
(T) 2 hrs
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CHAPTER 3: GRINDING PROCESS

Introduction
Grinding processes are distinguished by the widest possible range of different feed and in-
feed movements, whereas the cutting motion is always carried out by the tool.
Surface Grinding
Surface grinding produces flat, accurate surfaces. In circumferential grinding (Figure 2b), the
circumferential surface of the rotating grinding wheel is used for chip removal, and in side
grinding (Figure 2 (c)), the side surface. In longitudinal grinding (Figures 2 (b) and Figure 2
(c)), the main feed direction is parallel to the surface being machined. Rotary grinding (Figure
2 (d)) is grinding with a circular main feed movement.
Down feed movement
Reciprocating movement Transverse movement
Figure 2 (a) : Principle of the type 1 surface grinder with alternative method of cross
feeding motion
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Figure 2 (b) : Circumferential surface Figure 2 (c) : Side grinding

(longitudinal) (longitudinal)
Figure 2 (d) : Principle of the vertical spindle rotary table
Wheel
Coolant supply
Workpiece Grinding wheel
Grinding face
Worktable
Side grinding (rotary)
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Coolant supply
Wheel spindle
Worktable
Grinding wheel
Workpiece
Grinding face
Figure 2 (e) : Principle of type III surface grinder, which has a vertical spindle and a
reciprocating table
GRINDING WHEEL
WORKPIECE
WHEEL
SPINDLE
GRINDING FACE
WORK TABLE
B
Figure 2 (f) : Principle of type II surface grinder. Sometimes circular parts are centred on this
grinder; the resulting concentric scratch pattern is excellent for metal-to-metal
seals of mating parts.
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Figure 2 (g) : Circumferential surface grinding (rotary)
Cylindrical Grinding
Cylindrical grinding is used to machine circular and cylindrical surface.

In external cylindrical longitudinal grinding (Figure 3b), the workpiece is rotated and fed
axially. The longitudinal feed per revolution of the workpiece can be up to 2/3 the breath of
the grinding wheel, so that the grinding tracks overlap.
External cylindrical plunge grinding (Figure 3c) produces a smooth and accurate surface
inside a cylindrical hole. The usual methods are internal cylindrical longitudinal grinding
and internal cylindrical plunge grinding. Grinding is circumferential in both cases. The
wheel diameter should be at the most 2/3 of the holes diameter, so that the contact surface
between grinding wheel and workpiece is not too large -which would lead to overheating and
poor chip flow.
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Figure 3 (a) : Principle of the cylindrical grinding machine showing the workpiece and
wheel motions.
(b) External cylindrical longitudinal (c) External cylindrical plunge

grinding (circumferential) grinding
(d) : Principle of internal cylindrical grinding
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(e) Internal cylindrical longitudinal (f) Internal cylindrical plunge grinding.

(circumferential)
Centreless Grinding, Form Grinding, Roller Grinding and etc.
Other processes such as centreless cylindrical grinding, helical form and roller grinding
are shown in the illustrations below. In addition to these, many combinations are possible
with circumferential or side grinding and longitudinal, transverse, rotary or oblique feeds
where the machined surfaces may be external or internal.
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External cylindrical longitudinal grinding
(centreless circumferential)
Figure 4a: Principle of the centreless grinder. The grinding wheel travels at normal
speed and the regulating wheel travels at a slower speed to control the
rate of spin the workpiece.
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Figure 4b: Roller grinding, continuous. Fig. 4c: Form Grinding:

The above figure shows a External longitudinal grinding
formed wheel being used
to grind an external gear
Figure 4d: External screw Figure. 4e: External profile plunge

longitudinal grinding grinding
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Question sheet for Grinding
1. List at least 10 processes of grinding:
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2. What is the purpose of surface grinding and cylindrical grinding?
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3. Describe briefly the difference between circumferential surface grinding and side
grinding:
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Chapter 4
Grinding Wheel Balancing

Scale
Learning Objectives
- Explain the reasons for balancing grinding wheels.
- Demonstrate and practice wheel balancing.
Duration
(T) 1 Hour / (P) 4 Hours
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CHAPTER 4 GRINDING WHEEL BALANCING
Instruction Manual For Grinding Wheel Balancing Scale
1. Sliding weight
2. Scale frame
3. Knurled knobs
4. Lock pin
5. Horizontal
6. Sprit level
7. Leveling screws
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Set up of Balancing Scale
Set the base on a rigid flat surface. Insert the scale frame (take care of edges and
bearings) and lock the scale frame with the lock pin. Adjust the balancing scale with
leveling screws (7) until the spirit level (6) shows zero.
Check Out
Pull out the lock pin. The spirit level must show zero. If not, adjust the knurled knobs
(3) until the spirit level shows zero. Tighten the knurled knobs.
Adjustment of Sensitivity
On delivery, the balancing scale is adjusted to a normal sensitivity. By moving the

sliding weight upwards, the sensitivity is increased. Moving it downwards reduces the
sensitivity. Adjusting the scale frame by high sensitivity takes longer time. If the
sliding weight is moved up too far, the scale gets too sensitive and zero reading
cannot be obtained. Check again according to point 2.
Balancing
Mount the grinding wheel the flange and the three space balancing. True grinding
wheel cylindrically on the machine.
Mount the grinding wheel on the flange on the balancing arbor and place it on the
frame. Pull the lock pin. Turn the grinding wheel in direction of deflection of spirit until
the spirit level shows zero. The centre of gravity is at the bottom now.
Place on balancing weight on the opposite of the heavy side (centre of gravity).
Space the second and third balancing weight equally on the grinding wheel. Turn the
grinding wheel 900 in clockwise direction. If the right-hand side of the grinding wheel
is too light, move balancing weights apart. If the right-hand side is too heavy, move
balancing weights towards each other until the spirit level shows zero. Check the
grinding wheel in different positions. The spirit level must always show O. Lock the
frame with the lock pin after balancing is finished.
Attention: Good surface quality can only be achieved with carefully balanced
grinding wheels.
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Question sheet for Grinding Wheel Balancing Scale
1. Discuss why proper balancing of grinding wheel is essential:
2. Describe briefly the procedure for balancing a grinding wheel:
3. What is illustrated in the figure below?
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Chapter 5
Wheel Dressing Technique
Learning Objectives
- Explain the reasons for dressing a grinding wheel.
- Describe and explain two major grinding faults.
- Name the different types of dressers the their uses.
- Select an appropriate grinding wheel dresser and perform wheel dressing.
Duration
(T) 2 hrs / (P) 4 hrs
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CHAPTER 5 WHEEL DRESSING TECHNIQUE
1. Reasons for Dressing a Wheel
Wheels are dressed in order to ensure that the face of the wheel is:
• concentric with wheel spindle,

• free of dulled grains,
• true and that it has
• the desired wheel form.
2. Grinding Wheel Faults
2.1 Loading
When soft materials are ground on unsuitable wheels, spaces between grains become
clogged with material. This increases friction because the grit tends to rub rather than cut,
causing the wheel to overheat, thus spoiling surface finish. Loading can also lead to the
weakening of bond posts which hold grains together and may even cause the wheel to burst.
Inefficient cutting always results and the machine consumes more power
Dressing removes the loaded grains and exposes new ones
2.2 Glazing
Grinding wheels should maintain sharp cutting edges by a self-sharpening action. As grains
become dull or blunt, cutting forces increase and the grits fracture along cleavage planes
revealing new cutting edges. If the cutting forces become greater than the holding force on
the bond material, the whole grain breaks away exposing new grains. After a while, the
wheel face becomes uneven and the wheel will need dressing to true up the face.
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Dressing = Profiling + Sharpening
Profiling Sharpening
The diagrams above show the profiling and sharpening process.
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3. Different Types of Dressers
Square abrasive stick Round abrasive stick
Magazine mounted abrasive Bonded diamond dresser
Multi-point diamond tool Range of diamond dressers
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3.1 Diamond
Industrial diamonds are mined mostly in South Africa. Although unsuitable for jewellery, they
are ideal for dressing grinding wheels.
For accurate work, a diamond dresser is used to-dress wheels
3.2 Dressing Sticks
Dressing sticks are generally rectangular and are made of coarse abrasive crystals bonded
together.
They are used for:
• roughing out shapes prior to diamond dressing,

• opening up faces of glazed air loaded wheels,
• forming chamfers and radii on wheels,
• relieving sides on wheels and for
• dressing mounted wheels.
3.3 Diamond Dressers
The diamond is bonded or brazed into a circular metal holder and should be well supported.
The holder is clamped into a metal base which allows the diamond to be rotated in order to
maintain a sharp edge.
The holder is clamped to the magnetic table or machine table when dressing grinding
wheels.
Rapid cross-traverse across the wheel face tends to "open" the wheel structure and gives a
coarser cutting face suitable for roughing cuts.
Slow cross-traverse produces a liner cutting face suitable for finishing cuts.
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Close wheel structure Open wheel structure

produced by slow cross traverse produced by rapid cross traverse
4. Dressing the wheel with a Diamond
The diagram below shows a dresser clamped to the magnetic chuck so that the point of the
diamond is exactly in line with the vertical centre line of the wheel. The diamond is inclined at
an angle of 3° to 15° from the vertical. This prevents "digging in". Wheel rotation tends to
throw the diamond away from the wheel rather than dragging it beneath the wheel, which
could be dangerous.
The diamond holder should be rotated in the metal base occasionally in order to maintain
sharpness.
The table should be locked once the diamond is positioned and the diamond cross-feed
across the face of the wheel.
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Question sheet for wheel Dressing Technique
1. Describe how a diamond dresser is mounted for the proper dressing of a grinding
wheel:
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2. Why do we need to dress the wheel? List at least four reasons:
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3. Why does glazing happen on the grinding wheel?
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4. List four types of dressers:
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5. Why are most diamond dressers mounted at an angle of 3˚ to 15° to the base?
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Chapter 6
Mounting of Work piece
Learning Objectives
- Name and describe mounting devices.
- Demonstrate and practice the usage of mounting devices.
Duration
(T) 2 hrs (P) 2 hrs
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CHAPTER 6 MOUNTING OF WORKPIECE
Mounting of Work piece
Positional accuracy is far more important in mounting for grinding than the absorption of
cutting forces. For this reason, the clamping devices used are as simple as possible.
Precision vices or special clamping fixtures or more often magnetic chucks are used in
surface grinding. Direct current is required for electromagnets. This entails extra costs and
risk if the power -fails. For this reason, permanent magnets (independent of current) are
increasingly replacing electromagnets. Magnetically clamped work pieces retain a residual
magnetism which must be removed by a demagnetising device.
Precision Vices
• Vices are precision ground, hardened to HRC60 and normalized by a sub-zero treatment.
• Normally, a precision vice is used for squaring workpieces.
• The parallelism accuracy is within 0.002mm per 100mm.
• Used only on grinding machines.
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Electromagnetic Table
• The purpose is to mount the workpiece on the table (e.g tool steel or alloy steel).
• The table is operated with the help of electric supply (direct current)
Electromagnetic Table Permanent Magnetic Table
Magnetic Transferring Block
• There are different sizes and also shapes, e.g. V-Block, parallel and angle.
• The purpose is to transfer the magnet from the magnetic table to the workpiece
while holding the workpiece at the same time.
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Two dimensions (angular vice)
• Two dimensions on vice.

• With this we can solve the tool room problem of grinding various shapes and angles
• The parallelism is within O.OO2mm per 100mm.
• The squareness is within O.OO5mm per 100mm.
Sine Plate / Sine Magnetic Chucks
• These are precision ground, hardened to HRC60 and normalised by a sub-zero

treatment.
• Rolls are hardened and ground to within 0.001 mm.
• A positive locking device is mounted on the base. This device provides positive
locking at any angle without distortion.
• Precision angle setting is obtained with gauge blocks.
• Constructed of hardened alloy tool steel.
• The magnetic chuck is manually operated with the handle
• The roller centre to centre distance is 127mm (5 inches).
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Sine Vice
• The materials, accuracy, roller centre to centre and setting of the angle are the same as
Sine Plate or Sine Magnetic Chucks. The only difference is the way the workpiece is
mounted. The Sine Vice is mounted with the vice.
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Question sheet for Mounting Of Workpiece
1. What is the purpose of using the transferring block in grinding?
2. Please recommend a suitable vice for various shapes and angles:
3. What type of material is used to make a precision vice?
4. List down at least four types of mounting devices:
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Chapter 7
Grinding Wheel Construction
Learning Objectives
- Name the describe five major features which have to be considered in order to
suit the grinding wheel to the material of the workpiece.
- Explain and apply information provided by the grinding wheel standard

marking system chart.
- Name and describe different types of grinding wheels and shapes as well as
their purposes.
- Select proper grinding wheels.
Duration
(T) 3 Hours / (P) 1 hr
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CHAPTER 7 GRINDING WHEEL CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
Grinding wheels are solid bodies made of abrasive grains and bonding materials. Between
the grains and bonding materials are empty spaces called "voids". The amount of bond
between the grains and the closeness of the grains control the amount of void and together
make up the "structure" of the wheel. These abrasive grains are used to remove chips from
the workpiece by means of rapid rotary motion.
Blunt grains break off from the bond and expose new sharp grains for cutting.
GRAIN VOIDS
BOND
Void used as chips chamber
Figure 1.1 Grinding Structure
Positive rake angle Negative rake angle
Figure1.2: Cutting condition of a grinding wheel
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Wheel Grade
Grade indicates the relative strength (holding power) of the bond that holds the abrasive
grains in place. With any given bond, it is usually the amount of bond that determines the
hardness. Letters of the alphabet are used to grade the wheels. “A” being the softest and “C”
is the hardest. The light areas as is shown in the diagram below are the openings or pores
required for chip clearance or temporary storage of chips, dissipation of heat, and application
of coolant.
A. Soft bond B. Medium bond C. Hard bond
Wheel Structure
Wheel structure refers to the relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel as shown in
the diagrams below. Although structure numbers are not always shown in the standard
marking system, the scale used is 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12, with zero being the denser
structure and twelve being the more open structure.
A. Dense structure B. Medium structure C. Open structure
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Types of Shapes
The diagrams below and overleaf show some of the type numbers which identify the various
shapes of abrasive wheels.
a. Straight wheel types for cylindrical grinding, internal and tool grinding, off-hand
grinding and snagging.
Type No 1
Straight
Type No 3
Recessed Both Sides
b. Wheel types used for surface grinding

Type No 4
Tapered
51
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Type No 6
Straight cup
c. Types 6 and 7 are used for tool room grinding. Types 8 and 9 are used sharpening
saws.
Type No 7 Type No 8
Flaring Cup Dish
Type No 9
Saucer
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FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF THE PROPER

GRINDING WHEEL
1. The material to be ground and its hardness affect the selection of the abrasive, the
grit size, and the grade of the wheel. The abrasive should be aluminum oxide for steel
and steel alloys, and silicon carbide for cast iron, non-ferrous materials, and non-
metallic materials.
Fine grit should be selected for hard, brittle materials, and a coarse grit size for soft,
ductile materials.
A hard grade of wheel should be used for soft materials, and a soft grade for hard
materials.
2. The amount of stock to be removed and the finish required determine the selection of
grit size and type of bond. A coarse grit size should be selected for rapid stock
removal and for rough grinding. A high finish would require a fine grit size. Choose a
vitrified bond for fast cutting and commercial finish. Choose a resinoid, rubber, or
shellac bond for the highest finish.
3. Whether the operation is welt or dry will affect the selection of grade or hardness of a
wheel. Wet grinding usually permits the use of wheels one grade harder than for dry
grinding, without the danger of burning the work.
4. The speed of the wheel determines the bond you will choose. Standard vitrified
wheels can be used with speeds up to (but not over) 6,500 surface feet per minute
1,950 to 4,800 m/min). Never exceed the speed marked on a wheel.
5. Grit size and grade are determined by the area of grinding contact, which is the actual
area of the wheel in contact with the work. A coarse grit is best for a large area of
contact and a fine grit is best for a small area of contact. The smaller the area of
contact, the harder the grade of wheel that should be used.
6. The severity of the grinding operation affects the selection of the abrasive. A tough
abrasive like 76A or ZS should be chosen for grinding steel and steel alloys under
severe conditions. A mild abrasive like 32A or 38A is particularly suitable for grinding
all kinds of tool steels including tough vanadium alloy steels. An intermediate abrasive
like 23A or 57 A is good for work of average severity.
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7. The horsepower of the machine is a factor in selecting the grade of the wheel. The
harder grades of wheels are used for machines using higher horsepower.
Question sheet for Grinding Wheel Construction
1. Describe briefly what you understand by grinding wheel construction:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What does wheel grade mean and which symbols indicate the grade of the wheel?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What types of grain and grade should be chosen to grind hard material?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What is the factor to be considered when you are operating a grinding machine with
coolant and without coolant?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Briefly explain in your own words what you understand by wheel structure?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Chapter 8
Grinding Defects
Learning Objectives
- Explain the effects of hardening
- Explain and describe faults and errors in the grinding process
- Describe and explain remedies in the grinding process
Duration
(T) 2 hrs (P) 3 hrs
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The effects of hardening (faces not flat)
Hardening high carbon steels and other harden able materials produces high internal
stresses in the components. This is due to the heating and quenching cycle involved.
Tempering the hardened steel relieves some of the stresses but some remain locked inside
the material. Quenching the component from high temperature causes very rapid cooling and
this can result in distortion and bowing, especially in long thin components.
To reduce the risk of "bowing”, the work should be quenched vertically and agitated to
prevent steam bubbles forming around the component. If the component is quenched
horizontally, bowing is almost certain to occur.
The quenching medium is less important than the quenching technique.
Grinding only one face of a hardened component
Fault (bowing):
If only one side is ground, surface stresses on that side are released and the work will tend to
bow. The same fault can result from holding thin components by means of a magnetic chuck,
where strong holding forces pull the work down onto the chuck face.
After taking a cut, the work bows when the magnet is switched "off'.
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Prevention
• Grind lightly on one side to provide a datum. It is not necessary to clean up the entire
face.
• Turn over and lightly grind the opposite face.
• Repeat for each face to be ground.
• If necessary, repeat the procedure several times. This should overcome bowing.
• Thin components may be held on the magnetic chuck by means of double-sided tape
(an adhesive on each side). This method bf holding avoids the strong downward force
exerted by the magnetic chuck or clamps. Only very light cuts should be taken and great
care must be exercised at all times when the grinding work is held by tape.
• If, after grinding all over several times, the bowing persists peen the component on a
heavy flat object using a light hammer. That is, keep tapping lightly on either side of
the component until the bow disappears. Do not use heavy blows which are likely to
crack or break the brittle component.
• Now, continue to take light cuts, turning over the component repeatedly after each
cut.
The effects of incorrect clamping
Fault (distortion):
Clamps exert strong localized forces on the component and although an operator often
cannot see the effect, these forces tend to compress the metal. Also, if the clamps are
applied to the ends of bars which are of uneven section, the work-piece becomes distorted
and often lifts off the table in places. If the component is ground after being incorrectly
supported and clamped, it will distort when the clamps are removed.
Distortion can also be caused by overheating the area being ground either by taking heavy
cuts, grinding with a glazed wheel or using insufficient coolant.
Prevention:
• Support the component correctly using packing where required and especially close
to the clamps.
• Use several clamps located in convenient positions.
• After clamping, check for gaps between the components and table using feeler
gauges.
• Avoid using excessive clamping force.
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• Use plenty of coolant if taking heavy cuts.
• Keep a sharp lookout for burning marks on the work-piece surface.
• Redress the wheel frequently.
Remedy:
• If, after dismounting, the work is found to be distorted, carry out an inspection check
to determine whether the component will clean up within the tolerance allowed.
• If there is enough metal to clean up the work within drawing limits, reload to machine
using supports and correct clamping methods. Regrind to size.
Faces not square
Rectangular shapes have six faces and while opposite faces may be parallel, they may not
be square to other faces.
Grinding operations are usually the final machining operation in the sequence of
manufacturing a component.
Grinding allowances are provided to allow for:
• Cleaning-up the metal after heat treatment
• Obtaining the necessary surface finish
• Correcting errors in form and squareness resulting from previous machining

operations
• Finishing work to close tolerances
Even during grinding operations, errors in squareness can occur.
Errors in squareness resulting from previous machining
Fault:
If a component is received for grinding with faces which are not square and the grinding
operator does not test for squareness before grinding on a magnetic chuck, the errors will be
repeated.
Prevention:
• Check the work-piece for squareness using a precision square.
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Remedy:
• If errors in squareness are found, correct by grinding the component mounted on an

angle plate or cube.
Errors resulting from incorrect machine alignments
Fault:
Magnetic chuck or back-plate is not set parallel to machine table longitudinal motion.
Prevention:
• Check back-plate for parallelism with table motion using a dial test indicator before
using the machine.
• Mount the dial test indicator on the wheel head and bring the stylus into contact with
the datum face of the back-plate.
• Traverse the machine table with the dial test indicator set to zero. Apply remedy if
indicator reveals an error.
Remedy:
• Regrind back-plate to restore parallelism.
• Loosen clamp bolts securing magnetic chuck to table and reset parallel using dial test
indicator.
• Machine table misalignment.
Fault:
Machine table misaligned due to errors in guide ways.
Remedy:
• Check table alignment and report problem the instructor.
Errors in Engineer’s square
Fault:
Work appears to be out of square. Work is checked by instructor who uses his own square
but cannot detect any out-of-squareness errors.
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Prevention:
• Check accuracy of square daily against standard.
• Handle square carefully and do not drop or misuse.
Remedy:
• Exchange defective square for accurate square.
Faces tapered
Any component with faces which are not parallel is tapered. If the worktable or magnetic
chuck has a surface which is flat and parallel work ground while mounted on the surface
should have parallel faces when grinding operation is completed.
Fault:
• Work-piece faces are not parallel.
Prevention:
• Deburr and clean worktable and datum faces of component before mounting on
machine.
• Check for correct location by trying to rock work-piece or accessories when mounting
on machine.
Remedy:
• Clean and deburr all equipment and the component before regrinding the tapered
component.
• Check base of vice (if used) for flatness where parallel bars or the component are
located.
• Check that component is located correctly on parallel bars (if used).
Chatter
Chatter marks on work surfaces may result from:
• Vibration
• Errors in machine geometry
• Play in machine bearing
• Faulty work holding
• Grinding wheel faults
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• Incorrect wheel cross-feed
Chatter can be recognized by listening to the sound of the wheel as it is cutting and by
observing the wheel bouncing and giving off intermittent streams of sparks.
Faults:
• Poor quality works finish (rough and irregular) with chequerboard or chessboard
pattern.
Prevention:
• Install machine on correctly prepared foundations.
• Regularly check holding down bolts and the conditions of the pads upon which the
machine rests.
• Maintain wheel head bearings in good condition.

• Check work holding devices and component for rigidity.
• Balance wheel correctly and dress wheel correctly.
• Use correct cross-feed and infeed for type of wheel being used.
Remedy:
• Report machine faults to the instructor.
• Mount work securely.
• Rebalance and redress the wheel.
• Adjust feeds to manufacturer's recommendations or increase cross-feed to one-half

to two-thirds wheel width per pass.
• If chatter still persists, try a softer grade wheel.
Unsatisfactory surface finish
The finish produced depends upon:
• The-grade and condition of the grinding wheel
• Depth of cut and feed rates
• Machine geometry and condition
If these three factors are satisfactory, a good surface finish will be obtained.
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Roughness
Reasons for rough surface finishes are:
• Coarse cross-feed rates
• Infeed too deep
• Incorrect grit size
• Incorrectly dressed wheel
Remedy:
• Select correct wheel grade:
• Adjust feed rates
• Check condition of diamond dresser
• Redress grinding wheel
Scratches on work-piece surface
Reasons for scratches:
• Using dirty unfiltered coolant
• Wheel too hard
• Grit size too large
• Ridges on wheel face
• Wheel loaded - foreign matter clogging wheel face
Remedy:
• Drain off dirty coolant, clean tank and refill with clean coolant.
• Mount correct grade wheel.
• Check condition of diamond dresser and check diamond mounting.
• Dress wheel.
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Small cracks on work-piece surface
Fault:
• Shallow hairline cracks sometimes appear on the surface of hardened and ground
steels. The cracks are caused by overheating during- dry grinding.
Remedy:
• Adjust feed and depth of cut to eliminate overheating.
• Use plenty of coolant if surface cracking is likely to occur.
NOTE:
If a hardened steel work piece becomes overheated, a tempering effect will result together
with some loss of hardness.
Burning of surface
The work surface becomes burnished or polished by the grinding wheel which rubs the
surface of the work rather than cutting it. .
This rubbing generates .frictional heat which is concentrated near the work surface.
Faults:
• The surface discolors, taking on a brownish color. The cause is a glazed wheel.
• A glazed wheel has a shiny appearance which indicates that grit has become dull but
refuses to be torn away from its bond to reveal new cutting edges.
• Another cause of burning is that the wheel speed is too high for the material being
cut.
Remedy:
• Redress the grinding wheel.
• Use a softer grade wheel.
• Increase speed of table traverse.
• Reduce wheel speed, reduce depth of cut and increase coolant supply.
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Question sheet for Grinding Defects
1. Quenching is one of the processes in hardening. What is important during the

quenching process and why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. List down at least five types of grinding faults or defects:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. All materials or work-pieces that need grinding finish should be given an allowance of
approximately between 0.300 - 0.500 mm. Why is this allowance necessary?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Chatter is one of the machine errors or defects. List down why this chatter occurs?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Burning of work surfaces can be avoided if we follow the correct procedure. List down
the steps that you know:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Chapter 9
Material Science
Learning Objectives
- Name and describe the types of abrasive and it application
- Explain the properties of grinding wheel and wheel specification
- Name and describe the shape of grinding wheel
- Explain how to select a proper grinding base on type of material to grind
Duration
2 hrrs
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Material Science Grinding
Early humans used abrasive stones to sharpen tools and to produce a smooth surface. Over
the years, the manufacture of abrasives and grinding tools has developed gradually to
produce stronger and better abrasives. The use of abrasives in modern industry has
contributed much to our mass production methods. Because of abrasives and modern
grinding machines, it has been possible to produce parts and products to close tolerances
and high surface finish required by industry and the machine tool trade.
In order to function properly, an abrasive must have certain characteristics:
1. It must be harder than the material being ground.

2. It must be strong enough to withstand -grinding pressures.
3. It must be heat-resistant so that it does not become dull at high grinding
temperatures.
4. It must be friable (capable of fracturing) so that when the cutting edges become dull,
They will break off and present new sharp surfaces to the material being ground.
Types of Abrasives
Abrasives may be divided into two classes: natural and artificial.
Natural abrasives such as sandstone, garnet, flint, emery, quartz and corundum were used
extensively prior to the early part of the 20th century. However, they have been almost totally
replaced by manufactured, abrasives with their inherent advantages. One of the best natural
abrasives in diamond but, because of the high cost of industrial diamonds (bort), its use in
the past was limited mainly to grinding cemented carbides and glass, and sawing concrete,
marble, limestone, and granite. However, due to the introduction of synthetic or
manufactured diamonds, industrial natural diamonds will become cheaper in cost and will be
used in many more grinding applications.
Manufactured abrasives are used extensively because their grain size, shape and purity
can be closely controlled. This uniformity of grain size and shape, which ensures that each
grain does its share of work, is not possible with natural abrasives.
There are several types of manufactured abrasives: aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, boron
carbide, cubic boron nitride, and manufactured diamonds.
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum oxide is probably the most important abrasive since about 75% of the grinding
wheels manufactured are made of this material. It is generally used for high-tensile-strength
materials, including all ferrous metals except cast iron.
Aluminum oxide is manufactured with various degrees of purity for different applications, the
hardness and brittleness augmenting with increasing purity. Regular aluminum oxide (A12 03)
is about 94.5% pure and is a tough abrasive capable 'of withstanding abuse. It has a grayish
color and is used for grinding strong, tough materials such as steel, malleable and wrought
iron and tough bronzes.
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Aluminum oxide of about 97.5% purity is more brittle than and not as tough as the regular
aluminum oxide. This gray abrasive is used in the manufacture of grinding wheels for
centreless, cylindrical and internal grinding of steel and cast iron.
The purest form of aluminum oxide for grinding wheels is a white materi_1 which produces a
sharp cutting edge when fractured. It is used for grinding the hardest steels.
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide is suited for grinding materials which have a low tensile strength (aluminum,
brass, bronze) and high density, such as cemented carbides, stone, and ceramics. It is also
used for cast iron and most non-ferrous and non-metal materials. It is harder and tougher
than aluminum oxide. Silicon carbide may vary and color from green to black. Green silicon
carbide is used mainly for grinding cemented carbides and other hard materials. Black silicon
carbide is used for grinding cast iron and soft non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, brass
and cooper. It is also suitable for grinding ceramics.
Zurconia-Aluminum Oxide
One of the more recent additions to the abrasive family has been the development of
zirconia-aluminum oxide. This material, containing about 40% zirconia, is made by fusing
zirconium oxide and aluminum oxide at extremely high temperatures [3450°F (1900°C)]. This
is the first alloy abrasive ever produced. It is used for heavy-duty rough and finish grinding in
steel mills, snagging in foundries, and in metal fabrication plants for the rapid rough and
finish grinding of welds. The performance of zirconia-aluminum abrasive is superior to that of
standard aluminum oxide for rough grinding and snagging operations because the actions of
the two grain types are quite different.
During any grinding process, much frictional heat is generated which breaks down the
organic bond (rubber, shellac, or phenalic) on the wheel or Coated disk and lets the wheel
"self-dress”. Standard aluminum oxide abrasive wheels will, at first, penetrate the surface of
the work-piece and remove the metal effectively. Once the abrasive grains are becoming
dull, the wheel will lose its penetrating power and ride on the surface of the work. Frictional
heat builds up which softens the organic bond and the entire grain is expelled after about
only 25 to 30% of its life. With the newer zirconia-alumina abrasive, the grain action is quite
different the cutting actions start in the same manner, but when the abrasive grains start to
dull, micro-fracturing takes place just below the abrasive grain surface. As the small particles
break off, sharp new cutting points are generated while the grain still stays secured in the
bond.
As the small broken off particles of abrasive are ejected, they take with them much of the
heat generated by the grinding action. Due to the cooler cutting action of this abrasive, sharp
new cutting edges are produced many times before the grain is finally expelled from the bond
and only after about 75 to 80% of the abrasive grain has been used. Wheels and disks made
with zirconia-alumina base will last two to five times longer than standard aluminum oxide
wheels, depending on the application.
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Zirconia-alumina applications offer several advantages over standard abrasives for heavy
duty grinding:
• Higher grain strength.

• Higher impact strength
• Longer grain life.
• Maintains its shape and cutting ability under high pressure and temperature.
• Higher production per wheel or disk.
• Less operator time spent on changing wheels or disks.
Boron Carbide
Another of the new-abrasives is boron carbide. It is harder than silicon carbide and, next to
the diamond, it is the hardest material manufactured. Boron carbide is not suitable for use in
grinding wheel and is use only as a loose abrasive and a relatively cheap substitute for
diamond dust. Because of its extreme hardness, it is used in the manufacture of precision
gages and sand blast nozzles. Crush dressing tools made of boron carbide have proved
superior to tungsten carbide rolls for the dressing of grinding wheels on multiform grinders.
Boron carbide is also widely accepted as an abrasive used in ultrasonic machining
applications.
Cubic Boron Nitride
One of the most recent developments in the abrasive field has been the introduction of cubic
boron nitride. This synthetic abrasive has hardness properties between silicon carbide and
diamond. The crystal known as Borazon T CBN (cubic boron nitride) was developed by the
General Electric Company in 1969. This material is capable of grinding high-speed steel with
ease and accuracy and is superior to diamond in many applications.
Cubic boron nitride is about twice as hard as aluminum oxide and is capable of withstanding
high grinding temperatures of up to 2500°F (1371°C) before breaking down. CBN is cool-
cutting and chemically resistant to all inorganic salts and organic compounds. Because of the
extreme hardness of this material, grinding wheels made of CBN are capable of removing a
constant amount of material across the face of a large work surface without having to
compensate for wheel wear. Because of the cool-cutting action of CBN wheels, there is little
or no surface damage to the work surface.
There are two types of CBN
Borazon CBN is an uncoated abrasive which can be used on plated mandrels and in metal-
bonded grinding wheels. This type of wheel is used for general-purpose grinding and for
internal grinding of hardened steel.
Borazon Type lI CBN is a nickel-plated grain of cubic boron nitride used in resin bonds for
general-purpose dry and wet grinding of hardened steel. Uses of these wheels range from
resurfacing blanking dies to the sharpening of high-speed steel end mills.
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Manufactured Diamonds
Diamond, the hardest substance known, was primarily used in machine shop work for truing
and dressing grinding wheels. Because of the high cost of natural diamonds, industry began
to look for cheaper, more reliable sources. Many forms of carbon were used in experiments
to manufacture diamonds. After much experimentation with various materials, the first
success came when carbon and iron sulfide in a granite tube closed with tantalum disks were
subjected to a pressure of 66,536,750 psi and temperatures between 2550 and 4260°F
(1400 and 2350°C). Various diamond configurations are produced by using other metal
catalysts such as chromium, manganese, tantalum, cobalt, nickel, or platinum in place of
iron. The temperatures used must be high enough to melt the metal saturated with carbon
and start the diamond growth.
Diamond Types
Because the temperature, pressure, and catalyst-solvent can be varied, it is possible to

produce diamonds of various sizes, shapes, and crystal structure best suited to a particular
need.
Type RVG Diamond:

This type is a manufactured diamond, i.e. an elongated, friable crystal with rough edges. The
letters RVG indicate that this type may be used with a resinoid or vitrified bond. It is used for
grinding ultra hard materials such as tungsten carbide, silicon carbide, and space-age alloys.
The RVG diamond may be used for wet and dry grinding.
Type MBG-II Diamond:

This tough, blocky-shaped crystal is not as friable as the RVG type and is used in metal-
bonded grinding (MBG) wheels. It is used for grinding cemented carbides, sapphires and
ceramics as well as in electrolytic grinding.
Type MBS Diamond:

This is a blocky, extremely tough crystal with a smooth, regular surface which is not very
friable. It is used in metal-bonded saws (MBS) to cut concrete, marble, tile, granite, stone and
masonry materials.
Diamonds may be coated with nickel or copper to provide a better holding surface in the
bond and to prolong the life of the wheel.
(a) Type RVG diamond is used to grind ultra-hard materials.

(b) Type MBG-II is a tough diamond crystal used in metal-bonded grinding wheels.
(c) Type MBS is a very tough, large crystal used in metal-bonded saws.
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Abrasive Products
After the abrasive has been produced, it is formed into products such as grinding wheels,
coated abrasives, polishing and lapping powders, and abrasive sticks, all of which are used
extensively in machine shops.
Grinding Wheels
Grinding wheels, the most important products made from abrasives, are composed of
abrasive material held together with a suitable bond. The basic functions of grinding wheels
in a machine shop are:
1. Generation of cylindrical, flat, and curved surfaces.

2. Removal of stock.
3. Production of highly finished. Surfaces.
4. Cutting-off operations.
5. Production of sharp edges and points.
For grinding wheels to function properly, they must be hard and tough, and the wheel surface
must be capable of gradually breaking down to expose new sharp cutting edges to the
material being ground.
The material components of a grinding wheel are the abrasive grain and the bond: however,
there are physical characteristics such as grade and structure that must be considered in
grinding wheel manufacture and selection.
Abrasive Grain
The abrasive used in most grinding wheels is either aluminum oxide or silicon carbide.
The function of the abrasive is to remove material from the surface of the work being ground.
Each abrasive grain on the working surface of a grinding wheel acts as a separate cutting
tool and removes a small metal chip as it passes over the surface of the work. As the grain
become dull, it fractures and presents a new sharp cutting edge to the material. The
fracturing action reduces the heat of friction which would be caused if the grain became dull,
producing a relatively cool cutting action. As a result of hundreds of thousands of individual
grains all working on the surface of a grinding wheel, a smooth surface can be produced on
the work-piece. .
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One important factor to consider in grinding wheel manufacture and selection is the grain
size. After the abrasive ingot, or pig, is removed from the electric furnace, it is crushed and
the abrasive grains are cleaned and sized by passing them through screens which contain a
certain number of meshes or openings per inch. A # 8 grain size would pass through a
screen having eight meshes per linear inch and would be approximately 1/8 in across. The
sizing of the abrasive grain is an important operation since undersize grains in a wheel will
fail to do their share of the work while oversize grains will scratch the surface of the work.
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The factors affecting the selection of grain sizes are:
1. The type of finish desired. Coarse grains are best suited for rapid removal of metal.
Fine grains are used for producing smooth and accurate finishes. .
2. The type of material being ground. Generally coarse grains are used on soft
material while fine grains are used for hard materials.
3. The amount of material to be removed. Where a large amount of material is to be

removed and surface finish is not important, a coarse-grain wheel should be used.
For finish grinding, a fine-grain wheel is recommended.
4. The area of contact between the wheel and the work-piece. If the area of contact
is wide, a coarse-grain wheel is generally used. Fine-grain wheels are used when the
area of contact between the wheel and the work is small.
Bond Types
The function of the bond is to hold the abrasive grains together in the form of a wheel. There
are six common bond types used in grinding wheel manufacture. They are: vitrified, resinoid,
rubber, shellac, silicate and metal:
Vitrified:
Vitrified bond is used on -most grinding wheels. It is made of clay or feldspar which fuses at a
high temperature and when cooled forms a glassy bond around each grain. Vitrified bonds
are strong but break down readily on the wheel surface to expose new grains during the
grinding operation. This bond is particularly suited to wheels used for the rapid removal of
metal. Vitrified wheels are not affected by water, oil, or acid and may be used in all types of
grinding operations. Vitrified wheels should be operated between 6300 and 6500 surface feet
per minute (sf/min) (1920 and 1981 m/min).
Resinoid Bond:
Synthetic resins are used as bonding agents in resinoid wheels. The majority of resinoid
wheels generally operate at 9500 sf/min (2895 m/min); however, the modern trend is towards
greater power and faster speeds for faster stock removal. Special resinoid wheels are
manufactured to operate at speeds of 12,500 to 22,500 sf/min (2810 to 6858 m/min) for
certain applications. These wheels are used for cool-cutting and remove stock rapidly. They
are used for cutting-off operations, snagging and rough grinding as well as for roll grinding.
Rubber Bond:
Shellac-bonded wheels are used for producing high finishes on parts such as cutlery, earn
shafts, and paper mill rolls. They are not suitable for rough or heavy grinding.
Silicate Bond:
Silicate-bonded wheels are not used extensively in industry. Silicate bond is used principally
for large wheels and for small wheels where it is necessary to keep heat generation to a
minimum. The bond (silicate of soda) releases the abrasive grains more rapidly than does
the vitrified bond.
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Metal bond:
Metal bonds (generally non-ferrous) are used on diamond wheels and for electrolytic grinding
operations where the current must pass through the wheel.
Grade
The grade of a grinding wheel may be defined as the degree of strength with which the bond
holds the abrasive particles in the bond setting. If the bond posts are very strong, that is, if
they retain the abrasive grains in the wheel during the grinding- operation, the wheel is said
to be of a hard grade. If the grains are released rapidly during the grinding operation, the
wheel is classified as a soft grade. If the grains are released rapidly during the grinding
operation, the wheel is classified as a soft grade.
The selection of the proper grade of wheel is important. Wheels which are too hard do not
release the grains readily; the grains become dull and do not cut effectively. This is known as
glazing. Wheels which are too soft release the grain too quickly and the wheel will wear
rapidly.
It is important to remember that all abrasive grains are hard, and the hardness of a wheel
refers to grade (the strength of the bond) and not to the hardness of the grain. Wheel grade
symbols are indicated alphabetically ranging from A (softest) to Z (hardest). The grade
selected for a particular job depends on the following factors:
1. Hardness of the material. A hard wheel is generally used on soft material and soft
grades on hard materials.
2. Area of contact. Soft wheels are used where the area of contact between the wheel
and the work-piece is large. Small areas of contact require harder wheels.
3. Condition of the machine. If the machine is rigid, a softer grade of wheel is

recommended. Light-duty machines or machines with loose spindle bearings require
harder wheels.
4. The speed of the grinding wheel and the work-piece. The higher the wheel speed
in relation to the work-piece, the softer the wheel should be. Wheels which revolve
slowly wear faster; therefore, a harder wheel should be used at slow speeds.
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5. Rate of feed. Higher rates of feed require the use of harder wheels since the
pressure on the grinding wheel is greater than with slower feeds.
6. Operator characteristics. An operator who removes the material quickly requires a

harder wheel than one who removes the material more slowly. This is particularly
evident in offhand grinding and where piece-work programmers are involved.
Structure
The structure of a grinding wheel is the space relationship of the grain and bonding material
to the voids that separate them. In brief, it is the density of the wheel.
If the spacing of the grains is close, the structure is dense. If the spacing of the grains is
relatively wide, the structure is open.
Selection of the wheel structure depends on the type of work required. Wheels with open
structures provide greater chip clearance than those with dense structures and remove
material faster than dense wheels.
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The structure of grinding wheels is indicated by numbers ranging from 1 (dense) to 15

(open). Selection of the proper wheel structure is affected by the following factors.
1. The type of material being ground. Soft materials will require greater chip
clearance; therefore an open wheel should be used.
2. Area of contact. The greater the area of contact, the more open should be the
structure to provide better chip clearance.
3. Finish required. Dense wheels will give a better, more accurate finish.
4. Method of cooling. Open structure wheels provide a better supply of coolant for
machines using "through the wheel" coolant systems.
In summary, the table below will serve as a guide to the factors that must be considered in
selecting a grinding wheel.
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Grinding Wheel Manufacture

Most grinding wheels used for machine shop operations are manufactured with vitrified
bonds. Therefore, the manufacture of only this type of wheel will be discussed. The main
operations in the manufacture of vitrified grinding wheels are as follows:
Mixing:
The correct proportions of abrasive grain and bond are carefully weighed and thoroughly
mixed in a rotary power mixing machine.
Moulding:
The proper amount of this mixture is placed in a steel mould of the desired wheel shape and
compressed in a hydraulic press to form a wheel slightly larger than the finished size. The
amount of pressure used varies with the size of the wheel and structure required.
Shaving:
Although the majority of wheels are moulded to shape and size, some machines require
special wheel shapes and recesses. These are shaped or shaved to size in the green or
unburned state on a shaving machine which resembles a potter's wheel.
Firing (Burning):
The "green" wheels are carefully stacked on cars and are moved slowly through a long kiln
250 to 300 ft (76 to 91 m) long. The temperature of the kiln is held at approximately 2300°F
(1260°C). This operation, which takes about five days, causes the bond to melt and form a
glassy case around each grain; the product is a hard wheel
Truing: The cured wheels are mounted in a special lathe and turned .to the required size
and shape by hardened-steel conical cutters, diamond tools, or special grinding wheels.
Bushing:
The arbor hole in a grinding wheel is fitted with a lead or plastic-type busing to fit a specific
spindle size. The edges of the bushing are then trimmed to the thickness of the wheel.
Balancing:
To remove vibration which may occur while a wheel is revolving, each wheel is balanced.
Generally, small shallow holes are drilled in the "light" side of the wheel and filled with lead to
assure proper balance.
Speed Testing:
Wheels are rotated in a special, heavy enclosed case and revolved at speeds at least 50%
above normal operating speeds and conditions.
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Standard Grinding Wheel Shapes
Nine standard grinding wheel shapes have been established by the United States
Department of Commerce, the grinding Wheel Manufacturers, and the Grinding Machines
Manufacturers. Dimensional sizes for each of the shape have also been standardized. Each
of these nine shapes is identified by a number as shown in the following table.
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Mounted Grinding Wheels
Mounted grinding wheels are driven by a steel shank mounted in the wheel. They are
produced in a variety of shapes for use with jig grinders, internal grinders, portable grinders,
tool post grinders, and flexible shafts. They are manufactured in both aluminum oxide and
silicon carbide types.
Grinding Wheel Markings
The standard marking system chart is used by the manufacturers to identify grinding wheels.
This information is found on the blotter of all small- and medium-sized grinding wheels. It is
stenciled on the side of larger wheels.
The six positions shown in the standard sequence are followed by all manufacturers of
grinding wheels. The prefix shown is a manufacturer’s symbol and is not always used by all
grinding wheel producers.
NOTE: This marking system is used only for aluminium oxide and silicon carbide wheels; it is
not used for diamond wheels.
Selecting a grinding wheel for a specific job
From the foregoing information the machinist should be able to select the proper wheel.
Coolant is to be used.
Type of abrasive. Because steel is to be ground, aluminium oxide should be used.
Size of grain. Since the surface is not precision-finished, a medium grain can be
used about 46 grit.
Grade. A medium-grade wheel which will break down reasonably well should
be selected. Use grade J.
Structure. Since this steel is of medium hardness, the wheel should be of

medium density-about 7.
Bond type. Since the operation is standard surface grinding and since coolant is to
be used, a vitrified bond should be selected.
After the various factors have been considered, an A46-J7 -V Grinding wheel should be
selected to rough-grind SAE 1045 steel.
NOTE: These specifications do not include the manufacturers prefix or the

manufacturer's records.
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Example:
It is required to finish-grind a high-speed steel milling cutter on the cutter and tool grinder.
Type of abrasive. Since the cutter is steel, an aluminum oxide wheel should be used.
Size of grain. Since the milling cutter must have a smooth finish, a medium to fine
grain should be used. About 60 grit is recommended for this type of
operation.
Grade. It is important that a cool-cutting wheel be used to prevent burning the

cutting edge of the cutter. A wheel which breaks down reasonably well
will permit cool grinding. Use a medium-soft grade such as J.
Structure. In order to produce a smooth cut a medium-dense wheel should be

used. For this application, use # 6.
Bond type. Because most cutter and tool grinders are designed for standard
speeds, a vitrified bond should be used. When the speed is excessive
for the wheel size, a resinoid bond should be used.
The wheel selected for this job (disregarding the manufacturer's prefix and records) should
be A60-J6-V.
Note: If the cutter is chipped or if considerable metal must be removed to resharpen it is

advisable to first rough-grind using a 46-grit wheel.
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Handling and Storage of Grinding Wheels
Since all grinding wheels are breakable, proper handling and storage is important. Damaged
wheels can be dangerous if used. Therefore, the following rules should be observed.
1. Do not drop or bump grinding wheels.
2. Always store wheels properly on shelves or in bins provided. Flat and tapered wheels
can be stored on edge, while large cup wheels- and cylindrical wheels should be
stored on the flat sides with a suitable layer of packing between each wheel.
3. Thin organic (resinoid and rubber) bonded wheels should be laid flat on a horizontal.
4. Surface, away from excessive heat, to prevent warping.
5. Small cup and small internal grinding wheels may be stored separately in boxes, bins
or drawers.
Inspection of Wheels
After wheels have been received, they should be inspected to see that they have not been
damaged in transit.
For further assurance that wheels have not been damaged, they should be suspended and
tapped lightly with a screwdriver handle for small wheels or with a wooden mallet for larger
wheels. If vitrified or silicate wheels are sound, they give a clear, metallic ring. Organic
bonded wheels give a duller ring, and cracked wheels do not produce a ring. Wheels must be
dry and free of sawdust before testing; otherwise the sound will be deadened.
Testing a grinding wheel for cracks
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Diamond Wheels
Diamond wheels are used for grinding cemented carbides and hard vitreous materials such
as glass and ceramics.
Diamond wheels are manufactured in a variety of shapes such as straight cup dish and thin
cutoff wheels.
Wheels of 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter or less have diamond particles throughout. Wheels
larger than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) are made with a diamond surface on the grinding face only. The
diamonds for this purpose are made in grain sizes ranging from 100 to 400. The proportions
of the diamond and bond mixture vary with the application. This diamond concentration is
identified by the letters A, B, or C. C concentration will contain four time the number of
diamonds of a grinding wheel with an A concentration. This mixture is coated on the grinding
face of the wheel in thicknesses ranging from 1/32 to 1/4 in. (0.78 t 6.35 mm).
Bonds
There are three types of bonds available for diamond wheels: resinoid, metal and vitrified.
Resinoid-bonded wheels give a maximum cutting rate and require very little dressing. These
wheels remain sharp for a long time and are well suited to grinding carbides.
A recent development in the manufacture of resinoid-bonded diamond wheels has been the
coating of the diamond particles with nickel plating by means of an electroplating process.
This process is carried out before the diamonds are mixed with the resin to reduce the
tendency of the diamonds to chip and results in cooler-grinding, longer-lasting wheels.
Metal bonds, generally non-ferrous, are particularly suited for offhand grinding and cutting off
operations. This type of wheel holds its form extremely well.
Vitrified-bonded wheels remove stock rapidly but require frequent cleaning with a boron
carbide abrasive stick to prevent the wheel from loading. These wheels are particular suited
for offhand and surface of cemented carbides.
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Diamond Wheel Identification
The method used to identify diamond differs from that used for other grinding wheels.
Coated Abrasives
Coated abrasives consist of a flexible backing (cloth or paper) to which abrasive grains have
been bonded. Garnet, flint, and emery (natural abrasives) are being replaced by aluminum
oxide and silicon carbide in the manufacture of coated abrasives. This is due to the greater
toughness and the more uniform grain size and shape of manufactured abrasives. .
Coated abrasives serve two purposes in the machine shop: metal grinding and polishing.
Metal grinding may be done on a belt or disk grinder and up until the last few years was a
rapid, non-precision method of removing metal. Coarse-grit coated abrasives are used for
rapid removal of metal, whereas fine grits are used for polishing.
Emery, a natural abrasive which is black in appearance, is used to manufacture coated
abrasives, such as emery cloth and emery paper. Since the grains are not as sharp as
artificial abrasives, emery is generally used for polishing metal by hand.
Selection of Coated Abrasives
Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum oxide, grey in appearance, is used for high-tensile-strength materials, such as

steels, alloy steels, high-carbon steels, and tough bronzes. Aluminum oxide is characterized
by the long life of its cutting edges.
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For hand operations, 60 to 80 grit is used for fast cutting (roughing) while 120 to 180 grit is
recommended for finishing operations.
For machine operations, such as on belt and disk grinders, 36 to 60 grit is used for roughing,
while 80 to 120 grit is recommended for finishing operations.
Silicon Carbide
Silicon carbide, bluish-black in appearance, is used for low-tensile-strength materials, such

as cast iron, aluminum, brass, copper, glass, and plastics. The selection of grit size for hand
and machine operations is the same as for aluminum oxide-coated abrasives.
Coated Abrasive Machining
Over the past few years, coated abrasive machining has become widely used in industry.
With improved abrasives and bonding materials, better grain structure, more uniform belt
splicing, and new polyester belt backing, abrasive belt machining is being used to a much
greater extent. Some types of work which had formerly been performed by milling, turning,
and abrasive wheel grinding in machine shops, steel mills, steel fabrication plants, and
foundries, are now being done more efficiently by belt or disk grinding operations. Coated
abrasive operations are now capable of grinding to less than 0.001 in. (0.03 mm) tolerance
and with a surface finish of 10 to 20 micro-inches (0.3 to 0.5 micrometers).
As a result of greatly improved coated abrasive products, heavier and better machines
requiring much higher horse-power are being produced in this field. The basic machines
have become more automated and now include automatic loaders, feeders, and unloaders.
Belt machining has been applied very successfully to the centreless grinding concept where
it is used extensively for bar and tube grinding in steel and metalworking plants. In many
lumber mills, belt abrasive machining is now used to finish the number to size, an operation
that previously was done by planning.
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Question sheet for Material Science Grinding
1. What characteristics should an abrasive have in order to function properly?

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2. How many types of abrasives are there? Give an example for each type:
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3. Manufactured diamonds are now widely used in grinding and have replaced
natural diamonds. How are 'manufactured diamonds' produced?
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4. What are the factors which affect the selection of grain sizes?
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Grinding Technology GMO 0252

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GMI German-Malaysian Institute

Introduce the basic concept and operation of metal machining

3. Factories and Machinery Act Book

5. Technology of Machine Tools

SUMMARY OF COURSE OBJECTIVES :

A. SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

1. Introduction to grinding machine

1. Introduction to grinding process

D. GRINDING WHEEL BALANCING SCALE

1. Instruction manual for grinding wheel balancing scale

E. WHEEL DRESSING TECHNIQUE

1. Reasons for dressing a wheel

G. GRINDING WHEEL CONSTRUCTION

1. Introduction to grinding wheel construction

1. The affects of hardening

J. PERFORM PRACTICAL WORK

1. Perform safety rules and regulation in workshop

Safety Rules & Regulations

At the end of this course the student will be able to:

- Demonstrate and practice safety while running the machine

Chapter 1: Safety Rules and Regulation

Grinding tools must be set up only by reliable and experienced persons.

2. Testing the Grinding tool before Mounting

3. Fixing with flanges

The wheel must be fixed with clamping flanges of grey

The minimum diameter of the flange should be:

a. 1/3D when using protective hoods.

c. 1/20 for taper wheels.

Grinding machines must be equipped with adjustable protective hoods of tough

6. Safe working while running the machine

- Stand clear when starting the wheel

- Do not rapid traverse when:

i. The wheel is close to the work.

ii. The table is close to the wheel.

7. Question sheet for Safety Rules And Regulations

1. List at least three important requirements for a ring test:

3. Draw a flange diagram and name the main parts:

4. What is the maximum circumferential speed for a grinding wheel?

At the end of this course the student will be able to:

- Identify several types of grinding.

- Explain and exemplify the usage of the different.

Chapter 2: Grinding Machine

1. Box-shape machine frames. They are rigid and prevent vibrations.

2. Precise location of the grinding spindle. Pre-stressed roller bearings or slide

6. Dust-proof covering of the building ways to protect against swart.

Surface Grinding Machine with Rotate Table

Precision Surface and Profile Grinding Machine with Long Tables

Precision Surface and Profile Grinding Machine

(Set-up for longitudinal surface grinding with wheel circumference)

5. CNC Profile Grinding Machine

Wheel/head Mounted Dresser. With vertical swilling axis:

6. Universal Tool & Cutter Grinding Machine

Universal Tool & Cutter Grinding Machine

6. External Cylindrical Grinding Machine

8. Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine

Internal Cylindrical Grinding Attachment of a Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine

9. Centreless Cylindrical Grinding Machine

Centreless Cylindrical Grinding Machine

10. Jig Grinding

10.1 The advantages of jig grinding

- Holes distorted during the hardening process can be accurately brought to

The grinding spindle may be offset fro

the main spindle, Lower view shows the

planetary path of rotation.