LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION:

LIFE PROCESSES IN PLANTS & ANIMALS

I.1 Physiological Systems

Physiology and Anatomy

Physiology

- Normal functioning of the living organism and its structure including both chemical and
physical processes
- Aristotle (384-322 BCE): “knowledge of nature” – functioning of ALL living organism not just
human body
- Hippocrates (460-377 BCE): “healing power of nature”

Anatomy

- Study of structure with less emphasis on function

- Cannot be separated with physiology as the function of an organ is related to its structure

Physiological Systems

Levels of Organization

- Ranges from atoms to groups of the same species (populations) to populations of different
species living together in ecosystems and in the biosphere
- Atoms: link together to form molecules
- Cells: smallest unit life; collection of molecules separated from external environment by a
barrier called the cell membrane
- Tissues: [texere, to weave]; collection of cells that carry out related functions
- Organs: [organon, tool]; structural and functional units formed by tissues which form organ
systems or group of organs to integrate their functions.

Organ Systems of the Body

Protects Internal from External

1) Integumentary System – [Integumentum, covering];

Skin – forms a protective boundary that separates the
body’s internal organs from the external environment
2) Musculoskeletal System – Provides support and body
movement

Exchange Material Between Internal and External

1) Respiratory System – exchange gases

2) Digestive System – takes up nutrients and water and
eliminates wastes
 3) Urinary System – removes excess water and waste material
4) Reproductive System – produces eggs or sperm

Extend Throughout the Body

1) Circulatory System – distributes materials by pumping blood through vessels

2) Nervous and Endocrine Systems – coordinate body functions
3) Immune Systems – immune cells are positioned to stop materials that may enter through
the exchange surfaces or may break in the skin; protects internal environment from
foreign invaders; immune tissues – closely related circulatory system

Organs or Tissues and Functions

I.2 Concept of Homeostasis and Physiologic Mechanism

Homeostasis

 [homeo-, similar + -stasis, condition]

 Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
 Temperature, pH, ion concentrations, and water

Extracellular Fluid

- [extra-, outside of], a sea within the body that

surrounds the cells
- Watery internal environment found in multicellular
animals
- Buffer zone between the external environment and
most cells of the body; elaborates physiological
processes to help the organism’s composition stable
 Compensatory Mechanisms

- Activated when the extracellular fluid composition is outside the normal range of values
- Ex. Drinking large vol. of water – a mechanism tells the kidney to remove excess water and
protect cells from dilution

History of “Homeostasis”

- Claude Bernard (mid-1800s)

 French physician
 Developed the concept of relatively stable internal environment
 Chair of physiology at the University of Paris, he wrote of “la xité du milieu intérieur (the
constancy of the internal environment)”
 Noted stability of various physiological functions such as body temp., heart rate, and blood
pressure.
- Walter B. Cannon (1929)
 American psychologist
 Created the word “homeostasis” and described the regulation of internal environment
 Homeo (like or similar) instead of homo (same) = internal environment is maintained within
the range of normal values rather than a fixed value.
 -stasis (condition) not a state that is static and unchanging
 “a similar condition”, also described as a “relatively constant internal environment”
- Homeodynamics
 To reflect the small changes constantly occurring in the internal environment [ dynamikos,
force or power]

Variables Under Homeostatic Control (acc. To Cannon)

- Environmental factors
 Osmolarity
 Temperature
 pH
- “Materials for cell needs”

 Nutrients
 Water
 Sodium
 Calcium
 Oxygen
 Other inorganic ions
 internal secretions having general and
continuous effects

Failure to Maintain Homeostasis

 - Pathological condition: [pathos, suffering]; happens if
body fails to maintain homeostasis
- Diseases can be divided into 2 general groups
 Internal causes – internal failure of some normal
physiological processes
1) Abnormal growth of cells – cause cancer or
benign tumors
2) Production of antibodies by the body against
own tissues – autoimmune diseases
3) Premature death of cells or the failure of cell
processes
 External causes – originate from outside source
1) Toxic chemicals
2) Physical trauma
3) Foreign invaders (Ex. Viruses and Bacteria)
- Pathophysiology: study of body functions in a disease state
 Ex. Diabetes mellitus – metabolic disorder characterized by abnormally high blood glucose
concentration
I.3 Biological Control Systems/Regulatory Mechanism

Feedback-Control Systems

Negative Feedback

Positive Feedback

Conformity and Regulation

LECTURE 2: TRANSLOCATION OF MATERIAL ACROSS MEMBRANE

2.1 Structure of Membrane System
2.2 Transport Across Biological Membranes and Driving Forces
2.3 Water Uptake and Circulation in Vascular Plants

LECTURE 3: CONTROL AND COORDINATION

3.1 Nerve Physiology (Nerve Impulses, Resting membrane potential; Depolarization, propagation, and
transmission of nerve impulses)
3.2 Control Systems in Plants (Phytohormones, Size Control, Senescence signalling, Tropism, Control of
Flowering, Seed Germination and Dormancy)
3.3 Endocrine Control (Hormones and Chemical regulation in Animals)
 LECTURE 4: METABOLISM AND THERMO-REGULATION
4.1 Energy Metabolism in Animals
4.2 Major Metabolic Pathway (Organic Molecules)
4.3 Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
4.4 Photosynthesis in Plants (Light Reaction, Carbon Metabolism, Regulating Factors)

LECTURE 5: CIRCULATION
5.1 Energy Metabolism in Animals
5.2 Major Metabolic Pathway (Organic Molecules)
5.3 Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
5.4 Photosynthesis in Plants (Light Reaction, Carbon Metabolism, Regulating Factors)

LECTURE 6: MOVEMENT
6.1 Energy Metabolism in Animals
6.2 Major Metabolic Pathway (Organic Molecules)
6.3 Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
6.4 Photosynthesis in Plants (Light Reaction, Carbon Metabolism, Regulating Factors)

LECTURE 7: RESPIRATION
7.1 Energy Metabolism in Animals
7.2 Major Metabolic Pathway (Organic Molecules)
7.3 Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
7.4 Photosynthesis in Plants (Light Reaction, Carbon Metabolism, Regulating Factors)

LECTURE 8: DIGESTION, OSMOREGULATION, AND EXCRETION IN ANIMALS

8.1 Energy Metabolism in Animals
8.2 Major Metabolic Pathway (Organic Molecules)
8.3 Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
8.4 Photosynthesis in Plants (Light Reaction, Carbon Metabolism, Regulating Factors)

LECTURE 9: REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES

9.1 Reproductive Cycles (Fertilization and Gamete formation, Estrous Cycle, Pregnancy, Parturition,
Fertility, Contraception)
9.2 Reproductive Endocrinology of Placental Mammals