E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1.

Modulation of laser beams

1. Modulation of Laser Beams

1.1 Introduction

Using laser in optical communication system to carry the information,

the laser beam need to be modulated, either amplitude or phase. The
wider the modulation bandwidth, the more information the laser beam
can carry.
In general, the higher the carrier’s frequency, the larger the
transmission bandwidth will be. For light wave, the frequency is 1012
~ 1014 Hz. For example, a system using a 1.55 µm wavelength laser as
the carrier wave, if the channel bandwidth is 1% of the laser frequency
which will be 1,910 GHz, it will be enough to carry nearly half
million television channels simultaneously!
In order to making use of this large bandwidth of the light wave, high
frequency optical modulators (analogical or digital) are required. They
are one type of the basic devices in an optical communication system.

1.2 Types and Performance Requirements of Optical Modulators

1.2.1 Types of the modulators
An optical modulator is a device that changes the continuity of the
light wave propagating through it. Figure 1.2.1 shows the basic
configuration of a light wave modulating system.

Modulation (Add in the information)

Laser source Modulator Modulated light signal

Figure 1.2.1

1
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Example:
Laser

chopper Out laser beam

Laser

Chopper

Figure 1.2.2

A more efficient way to modulate the light wave is to use an optical

media to replace the chopper. If the optical properties (absorption,
refractive index, etc,) of the media (optical crystal) will changed when
apply an external field on it, the light wave passing through it will be
modulated following the applied field. Figure 1.2.3 shows an example
of the light wave modulation in an optical communication system.

Figure 1.2.3

2
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Figure 1.2.3b Modulation of a laser beam in the above

communication system

Figure 1.2.4 A laser beam lightwave

Laser light wave normally is a linearly polarized light as shown in

v v
Figure 1.2.4. It can be expressed as : E ( x) = E0 cos(ωt − k x x ). To
modulate this wave means to change any of its parameters.

Modulation schemes:
1). Amplitude modulation: Absorption coefficient, refractive
index
2). Phase modulation:
3). Polarization modulation:
Refractive index
4). Frequency modulation:
5). Transport direction modulation:

3
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

1.2.2 Performance Requirements

In the applications of optical communications, the optical modulators

should meet certain performance requirements:

• On/off ratio: >20 dB

• Required voltage for On/Off ratio: ~2 Vpp
• 3-dB bandwidth: >10 GHz
• Insertion loss <5 dB
• Wavelength sensitivity: >30 nm
• Polarization sensitivity: < 1dB
• Wavelength chirping: small

On/Off ratio: is the ratio of incident light power Pin to the transmitted
power through the modulator Pout. It is defined as:

[On Off ] = −10 log(Pout Pin ) (dB) (1.2.1)

Required Operating Voltage: For a given voltage, the electric field

strength decreases as the thickness of active region of the media
increases. Thus thinner the thickness lower the operation voltage. For
high speed operation, operating voltages of less than 2V are required
for an optical modulator.

Modulation Bandwidth: The modulation bandwidth of the optical

modulator is defined by its 3 dB points, the frequency at which the
device response is reduced to half its original value. In most cases,

4
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

frequency response is limited by the device structure. These are the

CR time constant and transit time.

CR time constant: arises due to the load resistance of the bias circuit
(RL) and the modulator capacitance ( Cm ).

[ f 3dB ]RC = 1 πRL C m (1.2.2)

Capacitance is related to the modulator length (Lm), the width W and

the thickness d of the intrinsic layer:
C m ∝ LmW d (1.2.3)
In long devices, the transit time becomes significant:
[ f 3dB ]tr = 1.39 πτ = 1.39c πnr Lm (1.2.4)
where nr and c are refractive index of waveguide and speed of light in
free space, τ is the transit time.

Insertion loss: Optical losses through coupling, reflection, and

propagation impose a minimum loss onto the light signal because of
introducing in the device.

Coupling loss – due to mode spot size mismatching and misalignment

at input and output of the device.

Reflection loss – Occurs at the facets (Fresnel reflection) of the device

and can be eliminated by anti-reflection (AR) coating.

5
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Propagation loss – as the light travels along the waveguide , losses

due to inherent absorption, free carrier absorption and scattering
occur.
α prop = Γα a + (1 − Γ )α fc + α s (1.2.5)

where Γ is the optical confinement factor.

Wavelength sensitivity: In a communication system (e.g. WDM) there

will be a number of channels, each operating at a characteristic
wavelength. Ideally, the modulator will affect each channel in
precisely the same way.

Polarization sensitivity: The waveguide properties may result in

different coupling and different propagation characteristics for input
signals of different polarization states.

Chirping: This is related to the modulation mechanism. In a

semiconductor Electro-absorption Modulator under bias, a change in
the absorption coefficient is coupled to a change in the refractive
index. The wavelength of the modulated light will change
accordingly. The degree of “chirp” is expressed by the line-width
enhancement factor (α1wef)- the ratio of the change of refractive index
to the change of the extinction coefficient. The resultant spectral
broadening can degrade system performance (pulse broadening when
propagating along an optical fiber).

1.3 Electro-opticl Modulators

1.3.1 Crystal optics basic

6
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

As one type of electromagnetic wave, light wave is a traveling wave

which has time varying electrical and magnetic fields. These fields are
perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation as shown
in Figure 1.3.1.

Figure 1.3.1

The electric field can be written as:

Ex=E0 cos(ωt-kz+ϕ0) . (1.3.1)
If the light wave travels in an arbitrary direction k, its electrical field
E( r, t) at point r on a plane perpendicular to k is

E ( r,t)=E0 cos(ωt-k⋅r +ϕ0) (1.3.2)

Where k =2π/λ is called the wave vector of the light wave. In this
expression E0 is the amplitude of the electric field,

ϕ =ωt-k⋅r+ϕ0 (1.3.3)

is the phase of the electric field. The phase velocity or normally light
wave velocity in case of (1.3.1) is
dz ω 1
c= = = υλ = (1.3.4)
dt k µε

7
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

in the vacuum, it is

1
c0 = (1.3.5)
µ 0ε 0
So, in material media, the phase velocity has the value
c0 c0
c= = (1.3.6)
µ rε r n
Different material the refractive index n is different, so the light
travels at different speed in different materials.

Isotropic medium: in which the refractive index is constant and

uniform. Light will propagate with the same speed in any direction
and the propagation is independent of the polarization state (the
direction of electric field E of the light wave).

Anisotropic medium: in which the refractive index depends on the

direction of the electric field of the propagating light beam. Thus the
velocity of light in the crystal depends on the direction of propagation
and on the state of its polarization, i.e. the direction of the electric
field of the light wave.

Index ellipsoid: To describe a light wave propagating along some

arbitrary direction in the crystal, it will be most conveniently using the
so-called index ellipsoid

x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 + 2 =1 (1.3.7)
nx n y nz
if x, y, z are the principle axes, along which electric vector D and
electric field E are parallel.

8
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

• If the crystal has n x ≠ n y ≠ n z , it’s called a Biaxial crystal. In

this crystal the refractive index is always different in different
direction.
• If the crystal has n x = n y ≠ n z , it’s called an uniaxial crystal.
Any light wave entering an uniaxial crystal it splits into two
orthogonal linearly polarized waves which travel with different
phase velocities, that is they experience different refractive
indices. These two orthogonally polarized waves in uniaxial
crystals are called ordinary (o) and extraordinary (e) waves.
• The o-wave has the same phase velocity in all directions (see
the same refractive index) and behaves like an ordinary wave in
which the field is perpendicular to the phase propagation
direction.
• The e-wave has a phase velocity that depends on its direction of
propagation and its stage of polarization.
These two waves propagate with the same velocity only along a special
x
s

θ ne
no o z

no ne(θ )
y

y
y,x

y ne(θ )
no
θ
o
o z ne x
z
no

Figure 1.3.2

9
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

special direction called the optic axis. The o-wave is always

perpendicular polarized to the optic axis.
For an uniaxial crystal the index ellipsoid becomes

x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 + 2 =1 (1.3.8)
no no n e
In x-y plane it is circular symmetry.

A light propagates along s direction which is at an angle θ to z axis

(optic axis), the intersection of the plane normal to s with the ellipsoid
gives refractive indices “seen” by the light. Because of the circular
symmetry about z, we can choose, without any loss of generality, the
y axis to coincide with the projection of s on the x-y plane. The
intersection ellipse of the plane normal to s with the ellipsoid is
shaded in the figure. From the figure:

ne2 = z 2 + y 2 ;
z
= sin θ
ne (θ ) (1.3.9)
y
= cosθ
ne (θ )
And the equation of the ellipse is:

y2 z2
+ =1 (1.3.10)
no2 ne2
It can be obtained:

1 cos 2 (θ ) sin 2 (θ )
= + (1.3.11)
ne2 (θ ) no2 ne2

10
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

example: Birefringence

e-wave

o-wave
Incident wave
Optic axis
Figure 1.3.3

1.3.2 Electro-optic Effects

When electric field applied to an optical material, it will distort the

electron distribution. This causes the polarizability and hence
refractive index of the material to change anisotropically.
The refractive index as a function of the applied electric field E may
be expressed by

n( E ) = n0 + a1 E + a 2 E 2 + …. (1.3.12)

where the coefficients a1 and a2 are called the linear electro-optic

effect, second order electro-optic effect coefficients, and so on. The
higher order terms are generally very small, their effects are
negligible.

Pockels effect: If the change in n is dominated by the first order E

term, or linearly proportional to the applied field it is called Pockels
effect. This effect exists only in crystal that do not possess inversion
symmetry. The index is given by

11
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

1 3
n( E ) = n0 − Rn0 E (1.3.13)
2

R is the Pockels coefficient, or linear electro-optic coefficient. Typical

values are 1~100pm/V. For a field of 106V/m, the index change of the
order 10-6 to 10-4. It’s very small.

Kerr effect: If the change in refractive index under applied field is

dominated by the term of the second order E2 term, it’s called the Kerr
effect. This effect exists only on centro-symmetric crystals. The
refractive index can be written as

1
n( E ) = n0 − Sn03 E 2 (1.3.14)
2
S is the Kerr coefficient.

Under the applied electric field, the index ellipsoid will be distorted.
The index ellipsoid in the presence of an electric field can generally be
written as:

 1  2  1  2  1  2  1   1   1 
 2  x +  2  y +  2  z + 2 2  yz + 2 2  xz + 2 2  xy = 1
 n 1  n 2  n 3  n 4  n 5  n 6

(1.3.15)

If x,y,z are parallel to the principle axes of the optic material, with zero
applied field, this equation reduces to equation (1.3.7); therefore,

12
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

 1  1  1  1  1  1
 2 = ,  n2  =  2 =
 n 1 E =0
n x2  2 E =0
n y2 ,  n 3 E =0
n z2 ,

 1   1   1 
 2 = 2  = 2  =0 (1.3.16)
 n 4 E =0  n 5 E =0  n 6 E =0

With an arbitrary electric field, the change in the coefficients (consider

 1 
only the linear change, Pockels effect)  2 
(i = 1,...6) is
 n i
defined as
1 3
∆ 2  = ∑ γ ij E j (1.3.17)
 n i j

where in the summation over j we use the convention 1 = x, 2 = y, 3=z.

Equation (1.3.17) can be expressed in a matrix form as
  1  
 ∆ n 2  
  1 
∆ 1  
  n 2  2  γ 11 γ 12 γ 13 
  γ γ 22 γ 23 
 1 
 ∆    21  E1 
  n 2  3  γ 31 γ 32 γ 33  E 
  1   = γ γ 42 γ 43 
  2
∆ 2    41  E3  (1.3.18)
  n  4  γ 51 γ 52 γ 53 
  1    
 ∆ 2   γ 61 γ 62 γ 63 
  n 5 
  1  
∆ n 2  
 6

The 6×3 matrix with elements γij is called the electro-optic tensor.

13
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

The form of the tensor γij derived from the symmetry of the crystals,
but not the magnitude. The symmetry of the crystal can dictate which
of the 18 γij coefficients are zero and the relationships that exist
between the remaining coefficients, γij. For centro-symmetric crystals
all the 18 γij are zero.

Table 1.1 The Form of the Electro-optic Tensor for all Crystal
Symmetry Classes

14
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

15
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Table 1.2 Electro-optic Coefficients

Material Point group γij (pm/V)
GaAs 4 3m γ41=-1.5
InP 43m γ41=-1.4
KH2PO4(KDP) 4 2m γ41 =8 γ63 =11

LiNbO3 3m γ33 =30.8 γ51 =28

γ13 =8.6 γ22 =3.4
MNA m γ11 =67

16
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Example
i). An electric field is applied on a LiNbO3 crystal along the z
axis. What are the changes in the refractive indices of the crystal?
Solution: LiNbO3 is trigonal crystal, has point group 3m. The
electro-optic tensor matrix is
 0 − γ 22 γ 13 
 0 γ 22 γ 13 

 0 γ 33 
[γ ] ij =
0
γ 51

0  ; E=Ez, Ex=Ey=0 (1.3.19)
 0
 γ 51 0 0
 
− γ 22 0 0 

From equation (1.3.18),

 1   1   1 
∆ 2  = ∆ 2  = γ 13 E z , ∆ 2  = γ 33 E z (1.3.20)
 n 1  n 2  n 3

 1   1   1 
∆  2  = ∆  2  = ∆ 2  = 0
 n 4  n 5  n 6
In this case only the length of the principle axes has been changed.
The index ellipsoid is now:

 1    1    1  
  2  + γ 13 E z  x 2 +   2  + γ 13 E z  y 2 +   2  + γ 33 E z  z 2 = 1
  n 1   n 2    n 3 

(1.3.21)
Using the differential relation
ni3  1 
∆ni = − ∆ 2  (1.3.22)
2  n i
The refractive indices change along the principle axes are

17
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

n x3
∆n x = − γ 13 E z
2
n 3y
∆n y = − γ 13 E z
2 (1.3.22a)
n3
∆n z = − z γ 33 E z
2
To have a large change of the refractive indices, one need:
Large γij – choice of proper material
High E - structure considerations

ii). Assume that the field is applied along x axis, what are the
changes of the refractive indices?
Solution: In this case E=Ex; Ey=Ez=0. The index ellipsoid will be
as:
 1  2  1  2  1  2
 2  x +  2  y +  2  z + 2γ 51 E x xz − 2γ 22 E x xy = 1
 n 1  n 2  n 3
(1.3.23)
The direction and scale of the ellipsoid has been changed.

Example The electro-optic effect in potassium dihydrogen

phosphate, KH2PO4 , (KDP) crystal.

The symmetry group of KDP is 4 2m . The electro-optic tensor is

0 0 0
0 0 0 

0 0 0
[γ ]
ij =
0 0

(1.3.24)
 41 
 0 γ 41 0 
 
 0 0 γ 63 

18
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

From equations (1.3.15) and (1.3.18), the equation of the index

ellipsoid of KDP in the presence of a field E is

 1  2  1  2  1  2
 2  x +  2  y +  2  z + 2γ 41 E x yz + 2γ 41 Eyxz + 2γ 63 E z xy = 1
 no   no   ne 
(1.3.25)
We take nx = ny= no, nz = ne since KDP is uniaxial crystal. Under
applied electric field “mixed” terms appear in the index ellipsoid
equation. This means that the major axes of the ellipsoid are no longer
parallel to the x, y and z axis. If the field is applied along the z-
direction only, the ellipsoid equation becomes
x2 + y2 z 2
+ 2 + 2γ 63 E z xy = 1 (1.3.26)
no2 ne
The problem is finding a new coordinate system x’, y’, z, in which the
equation of the index ellipsoid does not have mixed terms

x' 2 y ' 2 z ' 2

+ + =1 (1.3.27)
n x2' n y2' n z2'
As the changes of the refractive indices are only on xy plane, the field
does not change the properties in z direction, nz’=nz=ne. The new
coordinate x’ and y’ are related to x and y by rotating 45o as shown in
the diagram
x z
x’
y’

45o 45o

0 y

Figure 1.3.4

19
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

We have
x = x' cos 45o + y' sin 45o
(1.3.28)
y = − x' sin 45o + y ' cos 45o
substitute them in equation (1.3.26), yield
x' 2 + y ' 2 z 2 1
2
+ 2
+ 2γ 63 E z ( − x' 2 + y ' 2 ) = 1
no ne 2
 1  2  1  2 z2 (1.3.29)
  
⇒  2 − γ 63 E z  x ' + 2 + γ 63 E z  y ' + 2 = 1
 no   no  ne

Using equation (1.3.22) the new refractive indices along the new
principal axes are

no3 no3
n x ' = no + γ 63 E z ; n y ' = no − γ 63 E z ; nz’=ne, (1.3.30)
2 2

No Field With applied field

z z

x x
nx’

y y

x
x
no x’ nx
n
y y

Figure 1.3.5

20
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

1.3.3 Phase modulation

x x
45o
l
Input beam z
x’ KDP crystal
Output beam
y y’
y
Polarizer V

Figure 1.3.6

The diagram of Figure 1.3.6 shows the structure of a KDP

longitudinal phase modulator. Light beam pass through the polarizer
polarizing at 45o about the x-axis which is along the x’-axis. Since
with the applied electric field the x’-direction corresponds to a
principal axis, thus the linearly polarized incident light wave will
propagate without any change in state of its polarization. The light
wave out from the modulator will be given by

E x ' ( z = l ) = E x ' (0) cos(ωt − n x ' k 0 l )

[
= E x ' (0) cos ωt − no (ωl / c) + (ω / 2c)no3γ 63 E z l ] (1.3.31)

where k0=ω/c is the free space propagation constant. If V is the

voltage applied across the crystal then V=Ezl.
If the applied voltage is oscillatory with a frequency ωm then

V = V0 sin ωt
So that the output light wave will be expressed as

21
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

[
E x ' (l ) = E x ' (0) cos ωt − no k 0 l + (ω / 2c) no2γ 63V0 sin ω m t ]
(1.3.32)
= E x ' (0) cos[ωt − no k o l + ζ sin ω m t ]
Thus, a sinusoidal applied electric field leads to a sinusoidal phase
variation of the output light wave from the modulator with a peak
value ζ. This shows how the electro-optic effect leads to phase
modulation of the incident light wave.

1.3.4 Amplitude modulation

Phase modulation may be turned into amplitude modulation if the
crystal is placed between a pair of crossed polarizers as shown in the
diagram.

// to x x
l
Input light x’ y’ Output light beam
KDP

z // to y
y
polarizer polarizer
V

Figure 1.3.7

In this case light wave enter the KDP crystal has the x-direction linear
polarization which will be divided into two components parallel to the
new coordinates x’ and y’, respectively, when propagating in the
crystal. The output light wave from the KDP will be given by

E x ' (l ) =
E0
(
cos ωt − no (ω / c)l + (ω / 2c)no3γ 63 E z l )
2
(1.3.33)
E y ' (l ) =
E0
(
cos ωt − no (ω / c)l − (ω / 2c)n γ 63 E z l
3
o )
2

22
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

The phase difference between the two components at the output of the
KDP is
∆ϕ = (ω / 2c) no3γ 63 E z l = (ω / 2c) no3γ 63V (1.3.34)
The output light wave passing through the second polarizer will be
E yout = − E x ' cos 45 o + E y ' cos 45 o
E0  ∆ϕ   ∆ϕ  
=−  cos ωt − ϕ 0 +  + cos ωt − ϕ 0 −   (1.3.35)
2   2   2 
 ∆ϕ 
= E0 sin   sin (ωt − ϕ 0 )
 2 
The optical intensity of the light output from the modulator (the
second polarizer) is given by

1T
2 π
I out
=
1
∫
2  ∆ϕ 
E yout dt = I 0 sin 2   = I 0 sin  (
no3γ 63V ) (1.3.36)
T 0  2   λ0 
The transmission of the modulator Iout/I0 is a function of the applied
voltage

Iout/I0
I /I0
out

0.5

A pplied voltage (V /V π )
1 2 3 4

Applied 1.4.2 (V/Vπ)

Figure voltage

23
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

The transmission of the system is modulated by the applied voltage.

The output light can be modulated by a sinusoidally varying voltage,
centered on a dc bias voltage of Vπ/2. Vπ is the applied voltage by
which cause the phase difference ∆ϕ between the output waves from
the KDP crystal Ex’ and Ey’ equals π .

Figure 1.3.8

// to x x
Slow axis
l Fast axis
Input light x’ y’ Output light beam
KDP

z // to y
y 1
polarizer λ plate polarizer
4
V

Figure 1.3.9

24
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

1
By properly inserting a quarter wave plate ( λ plate) between the
4
KDP and polarizer inside the system as shown in Figure 1.3.9, the dc
bias can be removed.
With this arrangement, the phase difference between Ex’ and Ey’ when
reach to the second polarizer is
π π
∆ϕ = (ω / 2c)no3γ 63 E z l + = (ω / 2c)no3γ 63V +
2 2
π πV (1.3.37)
= +
2 Vπ
λ0
where Vπ = .
2γ 63 n03

From equation (1.3.36) the output optical intensity from the second
polarizer (the output of the modulator) is
1T
1 out 2  ∆ϕ  I 0 I 0  V 
= ∫E dt = I 0 sin 2   = + sin  π 
out
I y (1.3.38)
T 0  2  2 2  πV

If the modulation voltage is

V (t ) = Vm sin ω m t (1.3.39)
and π(Vm /Vπ) <<1, we obtain:
I out 1  1 Vm  1
= 1 + π sin ω 
m  =
t (1 + Γm sin ω m t ) (1.3.40)
Io 2  2 Vπ  2

1.3.5 Transverse modulation

In the modulators shown above the modulation voltage is applied
along the light wave propagation direction. They are called
longitudinal modulation. In these modulators the contact electrodes
may interfere with the optical beam and the phase difference is
proportional to the applied voltage.

25
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

Another configuration of the modulators, so called the transverse

modulator is shown as below. The field is applied normal to the
propagation direction.

z
l
Input light Output light beam
KDP d

y’ V ⊥ to
x’ i
polarizer polarizer

Figure 1.3.10
With this configuration, the light propagates along y’ and its
polarization is in the x’-z plane at 45o from the z axis. The phase
difference of the two polarization light waves at the end of the KDP is

2π 2πl  no3 V 
∆ϕ = ϕ x ' − ϕ z = l (n x ' − n z ) =  (no − ne ) + γ 63  (1.3.41)
λ0 λ0  2 d 
i). Phase retardation between the x’ component and z component of
the light weave is proportional to the length, l, of the crystal at certain
applied field. For a suitably chosen modulator length, a desired fixed
phase change may be introduced.
V
ii). Making the modulator thinner (↑applied field E = ), or longer, l,
d

will therefore reduce the voltage required to induce an additional

(fixed) phase shift in the device.
iii). If the incoming light is polarized along the z-direction, the
applied field will have no effect on its.
iv). If the incoming light is polarized along the x’ direction, the
phase change due to the applied field is

26
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

2πl  no3 V
∆ϕ =  γ 63 
λ0  2 d  (1.3.42)

Example: For KDP, if λ = 633nm, γ63 = -11 pm/V, no=1.5, assume l/d
~ 103. With transverse modulator we have
d
Vπ = λ 0 = 8 .4 (V)
lγ 63 no3
If it is with longitudinal modulation configuration, then
λ0 633 × 10 −9
Vπ = = ≈ 8500 V!!
2γ 63 no3 2 × 11 × 10 −12 × 1.5 3

v). The transverse modulation is therefore well suited for amplitude

modulation, allowing the fixed retardation necessary, together with a
field-dependent retardation
vi). Smaller operation voltage than for a longitudinal modulator means
that devices based on its geometry are more realistic.

1.3.6 High speed modulation

In optical communication, in order to utilize the wide frequency
spectrum available with laser beams, suitably large bandwidth of the
modulators are required. An equivalent circuit of an electrooptic
modulation crystal in a parallel-plate configuration is as below

Figure 1.3.11

27
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

At low frequencies the crystal can be represented as a capacitance in

series with the internal source resistance. At high frequencies the
crystal is connected in parallel with an inductance L and resistance RL.
If Rs>(ω0C)-1, most of the voltage drop across Rs and is thus
effectively wasted. This can be overcome by
i). Resonating the crystal capacitance with an inductance L, where
ω 0 1 ( LC )
ii). Using an additional shunt resistance RL so that at ω=ω0 the
impendence of the parallel LCR circuit is RL.
iii). Chose the RL to be greater than Rs, so that most of the voltage
appears across the crystal.
This resonant circuit has high impedance only over a frequency
interval (centered on ω0):

∆ω 1
∆ν = ≅ (1.3.43)
2π 2πR L C
Therefore the maximum modulation bandwidth (the frequency
spectrum occupied by the modulation signal) of the modulator must be
less than the ∆ν.

Transit time limitation: In a transverse modulator, the electro-optic

retardation is

2πl  no3 V
∆ϕ =  γ 63  = aEl (1.3.44)
λ0  2 d

where a = ωno γ 63 c and E=V/d. If the applied field E changes

3

appreciably during the transit time the light trough the crystal

( τ d = nl c ), the retardation as shown in equation (1.3.44) now must

be given as

28
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

l t
c
∆ϕ = a ∫ E ( y ' )dy ' = a ∫ E (t ' )dt ' (1.3.45)
0
n t −τ d
where E(t’) is the instantaneous electric field in the crystal. It’s
assumed that at any given moment the field is uniform throughout the
crystal.
Assume the applied is as a sinusoid

E (t ' ) = E m e iω mt ' (1.3.46)

the retardation will be
t t
c c
∆ϕ = a ∫ E (t ' ) dt ' = a E m ∫ e iω m t ' dt '
n t −τ d n t −τ d

 1 − e −iω mτ d  iω mt (1.3.47)
= Γ0  e
 i ω mτ d 
where Γ0 = a (c / n)τ d E m = alE m .
When ωmτd <<1, the retardation ∆ϕ=Γ0 reaches to the maximum. So
the transit time must be small compared to the shortest modulation
period. Take the highest useful modulation frequency as that for
∆ϕ(t)= 0.9Γ0, then ωmτd = π/2, using τd = nl/c, we get the highest
modulation frequency to be
c
ν max = (1.3.48)
4nl
Example: For KDP, if n=1.5, l=1 cm, the maximum modulation
frequency is νmax=5×109 Hz=5.0 GHz.

The Traveling-wave Modulator: Equation 1.3.48 tells us that the

highest modulation frequency will be limited by the transit time of the
light wave pass through the crystal. To overcome this limitation, the

29
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

modulation field is applied in the form of a traveling wave as show

below:

Figure 1.3.12
With this arrangement, the phase retardation experienced by an
element of the optical wavefront can be expressed as
t +τ d
c
∆ϕ (t ) = a
n ∫ E (t ' , z(t ' ))dt '
t
(1.3.49)

The applied traveling modulation field is

E (t ' , z (t ' )) = E m e i (ω mt '− km z (t '))

(1.3.50)
= E m e i (ω mt '− km ( c n )(t '−t ))
where km=ωm/cm, cm is the phase velocity of the traveling modulation
field. Thus, from equation (1.3.49) we have
t +τ d
c  e iω mτ d (1−c ncm ) − 1 
∫ E (t ' , z(t ' ))dt ' = Γ e
iω m t
∆ϕ (t ) = a 0  
n t  iω mτ d (1 − c ncm ) 

(1.3.51)

where Γ0 = alE m = a (c / n)τ d E m .

i). If the phase velocities of the light wave and traveling
modulation field are equal, c/n=cm, the maximum phase
retardation is achieved and is independent of the crystal length.

30
E6607 Optical Electronics Part II 1. Modulation of laser beams

ii). The maximum useful modulation frequency is taken as that for

which ω mτ d (1 − c nc m ) = π 2 , yielding
c
(ν m ) max = (1.3.52)
4nl (1 − c nc m )
Comparing to equation 1.3.48, the frequency limit has been increased
by (1-c/ncm)-1!!!.

31