General Biology Module 1

Grade 11
Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM)
Module in
General Biology 1
Module 1:
Cell Biology
Academic Year 2021 – 2022
First Semester
First Grading Period
Name:
General Biology 1 Module 1 (Cell Biology)
MESSAGE TO THE LEARNER
Greetings and welcome to our General Biology 1 Class. This module demonstrates your
understanding of the cell theory, cell structure and functions, prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells,
and cell types and modifications which are the major topics of cellular biology. You will be
looking into the processes that are important to sustain life.
This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics and immersed you in
various activities and hands-on tasks that will help you answer the questions pertaining to the
cell theory, structure and functions, cell types and modifications, cell cycle and transport
mechanisms. Just a reminder, please make sure that when you will start to browse this
module, you should have your textbook with you. It is also imperative that you read your
module before attending our class. Again, welcome and best wishes in General Biology!
MODULE INTRODUCTION
Biology is the study of life. We study Biology to understand our own body and to know how it
functions. We interact with the living and non-living components around us. Biology helps us to understand
all this so that we respect our environment and ourselves. We can also make maximum use of all our
resources most efficiently. Look at all the living organisms around you. All of them have certain common
characteristics. There is such a wide variety of living organisms on earth that they have been grouped
according to the common features they possess. Biology is a science and we therefore need to know how
to use biological apparatuses safely, record observations and interpret them properly. In this module, you
will be introduced to the following:
a. Foundations and Theories on the Origin of Life- In this section, you will learn what defines life in
the context of Biology and a theory as to how life originated on Earth.
b. Cell Structure and Function- In this section, you will learn about cells, how you study them, what
they look like, and what goes on inside them.
c. Cell Types and Cell Modifications- In this section, you will learn about the different tissues that
comprises an animal.
(CONFIDENTIALITY NOTICE:
This module and any of its attachments are meant for the use of the learners who are enrolled in this subject. This module is for academic/school purposes only
and is not meant for sharing, publishing, copying, and disseminating. Hence, the distribution of this module and any of its content/s is strictly prohibited.) |2
LESSON 1: FOUNDATIONS AND

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
Let’s Set our Goals:
After accomplishing this module, you should be able to:
• describe the characteristics of living things;

• understand the origins of life through the panspermia and primordial soup theory;
• explain the theory of spontaneous generation and how certain individuals (van Helmont, Redi,
Needham, Spallanzani, and Pasteur) tried to prove or disprove spontaneous generation;
• explain the postulates of the cell theory;
• describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles;
• distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to their distinguishing features;
• relate the structure of cells to their functions;
• identify the parts of a microscope and explain the functions of each; and
• manipulate a virtual microscope properly.
Let’s Concretize our Objectives:
Biology is the study of life. Look around you. Can you distinguish between the living and
non-living things? I’m sure you can. This is because the living organisms have certain characteristics
which non-living things don’t possess. In this lesson, we will learn about their characteristics and the way
in which we study them. Specifically, you will be asked to accomplish and submit the following:
These tasks will be done online through the guided asynchronous sessions:
Let’s Navigate Activity 1-Performance Task

Connections to Real Life Activity 2-Mini-task
Remember that these activities are to be accomplished, and submitted. Discussion forums will be recorded
as your recitation while the connections to real-life and enriching our lives through science activity will be
recorded in the written works or performance task whichever is applicable.
Let’s Investigate:
What is Biology?
The term biology came from the Greek word “bios” meaning life; and “logos” meaning study.
Biology, therefore, means the study of living things or organisms.
1 2
3 4
Take a moment to think about the question posted above. We can now proceed with the following
investigation. It will assist you in deciding whether something is living or not. In this activity, you will need
a pen.
Investigating Living things
Take a walk outside (just around your backyard or peep through your window) and make a list of 5 objects
you consider as living things. Record your answers in the table provided below and give the reason/s as to why
you considered the identified objects as living things. We will also do this during your scheduled online classes.
Name of Object Reason

Example: Dog It runs. It feeds. It barks.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Well done! You may now move to the readings for this module.
I’m sure you have given many similar reasons for each of the living things you noticed i.e., that is, they
move about, they rely on ready-made food, they sing, chirp, grow bigger in size, etc. Living things have certain
features that are common to all of them. These are called the characteristics of life. After accomplishing the
activity above, let’s dig deeper as to what life means in the context of Biology. Let’s now turn to them.
Let’s Explore:
A. Characteristics of Life
Please READ Chapter 1 of your General Biology textbook (pages 5 – 8).
Class Notebook In your class notebook located in our team in MS Teams, make an outline of the
characteristics of life located on page 5 – 8 of your textbook. You may follow the format below.
Write this under the Class Notes section of your Class Notebook.
Characteristics of Life
A. _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
B. _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
C. _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
D. _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
E. _________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
B. Panspermia and Primordial Soup Theory
As you have read in Chapter 1 of your textbook, there are certain criteria to consider in order for an object
to be categorized as ‘living’. Life has evolved many times and you might have known that the variety of life we
see right now is not the same as before. Now, the big question is, how did life begin? Read the article below
from a newsletter from New Scientist by Michael Marshall (n.d.).
How did life begin?
The question of how life began is one of the most profound in science, and although many
theories exist, scientists still cannot agree on an answer. It continues to be a topic for debate, as
understanding life’s origin would help us grasp our place in the universe, as well as guiding our search
for extraterrestrial life.
The first idea to capture scientists’ attention was the “primordial soup”: the notion that when
Earth was young, the oceans were filled with simple chemicals important for life. These would
eventually self-assemble into simple living cells. This idea was proposed in the 1920s by two
researchers working independently: Alexander Oparin in the USSR and British geneticist J. B. S.
Haldane.
The primordial soup hypothesis received dramatic support in 1953 when a young American
graduate student named Stanley Miller, supervised by Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey, conducted a
famous experiment. Miller mixed four simple chemicals in glass tubes, which were heated and shocked
with electrical sparks to mimic lightning. The experiment made several amino acids, the building blocks
of proteins. The Miller-Urey experiment showed that the chemicals of life could form naturally.
However, making life from scratch has proved to be a lot more complicated than what
Miller’s experiment suggested. Several competing hypotheses have been proposed over the
decades and today the field is highly polarized. Scientists disagree about which chemical
components of life came first, which of life’s processes came first, and where on Earth life first
arose.
Even the timing of life’s origin is in question. All we know for sure is that it happened after
Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago, and before 3.4 billion years ago – the time of the oldest
confirmed fossils. Many paleontologists have tried to narrow the window by identifying older traces
of life but these findings are disputed.
As to the location, many still favor the sea but not necessarily the open sea: a vocal minority
of researchers think life began in alkaline vents on the sea floor. Others think life began in ponds
on land, perhaps geothermal pools like those in Yellowstone. Many other locations have been
proposed, such as ice. A minority of scientists argue that life must have begun elsewhere in the
universe and been carried to Earth, an idea known as “panspermia”. However, most researchers
think this falls foul of Occam’s razor, especially as no extraterrestrial life has been found.
The process that created life
The thorniest question is the mechanism by which life began. Which of the many processes
that take place in living organisms emerged first?
One of the first ideas, popularized by biochemist Sidney Fox in the wake of the Miller-Urey
experiment, was that amino acids assembled into simple proteins. In modern organisms, proteins
perform a huge range of functions, including acting as enzymes that speed up essential chemical
reactions. However, this proteins-first hypothesis has largely fallen out of favor.
A much more popular notion is that life began with RNA, a close cousin of DNA, in an “RNA
World”. RNA can carry genes and copy itself just like DNA, but it can also fold up and act as an
enzyme, just like a protein. The idea was that organisms based solely on RNA arose first, and
only later developed DNA and protein.
The RNA World has amassed a lot of supporting evidence, but it is not clear that RNA
alone was enough. In recent years, some researchers have suggested that RNA only really
reaches its potential when it is paired with proteins – and that both must have existed for life to
get started.
A third school of thought is that the first organisms were simple blobs or bubbles. These
“protocells” would have resembled modern cells in one key attribute: they acted as containers for
all the other components of life. More advanced protocells developed by the Nobel prize winning
biologist Jack Szostak also contain self-replicating RNA.
The final hypothesis is that life began with a series of chemical reactions that extracted
energy from the environment and used that energy to build the molecules of life. This “metabolism-
first” idea was championed in the late 1980s by Günter Wächtershäuser, a German chemist turned
patent lawyer. Wächtershäuser envisioned a series of chemical reactions taking place on crystals
of iron pyrite (“fool’s gold”), a scheme he dubbed the “Iron-Sulphur World”. However, nowadays
this idea has been supplanted by Michael Russell’s suggestion that the first life was powered by
currents of electrically-charged protons within alkaline vents on the sea bed.
C. Spontaneous Generation Theory
Humans have been asking for millennia: Where does new life come from? Religion, philosophy, and
science have all wrestled with this question. One of the oldest explanations was the theory of spontaneous
generation, which can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and was widely accepted through the Middle Ages.
The Theory of Spontaneous Generation
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the earliest recorded scholars to articulate the theory
of spontaneous generation, the notion that life can arise from nonliving matter. Aristotle proposed that life
arose from nonliving material if the material contained pneuma (“vital heat”). As evidence, he noted several
instances of the appearance of animals from environments previously devoid of such animals, such as the
seemingly sudden appearance of fish in a new puddle of water.
This theory persisted into the seventeenth century, when scientists undertook additional experimentation
to support or disprove it. By this time, the proponents of the theory cited how frogs simply seem to appear along
the muddy banks of the Nile River in Egypt during the annual flooding. Others observed that mice simply
appeared among grain stored in barns with thatched roofs. When the roof leaked and the grain molded, mice
appeared. Jan Baptista van Helmont, a seventeenth century Flemish scientist, proposed that mice could arise
from rags and wheat kernels left in an open container for 3 weeks. In reality, such habitats provided ideal food
sources and shelter for mouse populations to flourish.
However, one of van Helmont’s contemporaries, Italian physician Francesco Redi, performed an
experiment in 1668 that was one of the first to refute the idea that maggots (the larvae of flies) spontaneously
generate on meat left out in the open air. He predicted that preventing flies from having direct contact with the
meat would also prevent the appearance of maggots. Redi left meat in each of six containers (Figure 1). Two
were open to the air, two were covered with gauze, and two were tightly sealed. His hypothesis was supported
when maggots developed in the uncovered jars, but no maggots appeared in either the gauze-covered or the
tightly sealed jars. He concluded that maggots could only form when flies were allowed to lay eggs in the meat,
and that the maggots were the offspring of flies, not the product of spontaneous generation.
Figure 1. Francesco Redi’s experimental setup consisted of an open container, a container sealed with a cork top, and a
container covered in mesh that let in air but not flies. Maggots only appeared on the meat in the open container. However,
maggots were also found on the gauze of the gauze-covered container.
In 1745, John Needham published a report of his own experiments, in which he briefly boiled broth
infused with plant or animal matter, hoping to kill all preexisting microbes. He then sealed the flasks. After a few
days, Needham observed that the broth had become cloudy and a single drop contained numerous microscopic
creatures. He argued that the new microbes must have arisen spontaneously. In reality, however, he likely did
not boil the broth enough to kill all preexisting microbes.
Lazzaro Spallanzani did not agree with Needham’s conclusions, however, and performed hundreds of
carefully executed experiments using heated broth. As in Needham’s experiment, broth in sealed jars and
unsealed jars was infused with plant and animal matter. Spallanzani’s results contradicted the findings of
Needham: Heated but sealed flasks remained clear, without any signs of spontaneous growth, unless the flasks
were subsequently opened to the air. This suggested that microbes were introduced into these flasks from the
air. In response to Spallanzani’s findings, Needham argued that life originates from a “life force” that was
destroyed during Spallanzani’s extended boiling. Any subsequent sealing of the flasks then prevented new life
force from entering and causing spontaneous generation.
Disproving Spontaneous Generation
The debate over spontaneous generation continued well into the nineteenth century, with scientists
serving as proponents of both sides. To settle the debate, the Paris Academy of Sciences offered a prize for
resolution of the problem. Louis Pasteur, a prominent French chemist who had been studying microbial
fermentation and the causes of wine spoilage, accepted the challenge. In 1858, Pasteur filtered air through a
gun-cotton filter and, upon microscopic examination of the cotton, found it full of microorganisms, suggesting
that the exposure of a broth to air was not introducing a “life force” to the broth but rather airborne
microorganisms.
Later, Pasteur made a series of flasks with long, twisted necks (“swan-neck” flasks), in which he boiled
broth to sterilize it (Figure 2). His design allowed air inside the flasks to be exchanged with air from the outside,
but prevented the introduction of any airborne microorganisms, which would get caught in the twists and bends
of the flasks’ necks. If a life force besides the airborne microorganisms were responsible for microbial growth
within the sterilized flasks, it would have access to the broth, whereas the microorganisms would not. He correctly
predicted that sterilized broth in his swan-neck flasks would remain sterile as long as the swan necks remained
intact. However, should the necks be broken, microorganisms would be introduced, contaminating the flasks and
allowing microbial growth within the broth.
Pasteur’s set of experiments irrefutably disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and earned him
the prestigious Alhumbert Prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1862. In a subsequent lecture in 1864,
Pasteur articulated “Omne vivum ex vivo” (“Life only comes from life” also termed as biogenesis). In this lecture,
Pasteur recounted his famous swan-neck flask experiment, stating that “life is a germ and a germ is life. Never
will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment.” To Pasteur’s
credit, it never has.
Figure 2: Pasteur’s experiment consisted of two parts. In the first part, the broth in the flask was boiled to sterilize it. When this broth
was cooled, it remained free of contamination. In the second part of the experiment, the flask was boiled and then the neck was broken
off. The broth in this
flask became
contaminated.
In your class notebook located in our team in MS Teams, answer the following questions
Class Notebook based on your understanding on the readings above. Write this under the Class Notes section
of your Class Notebook.
1. What are the theories of Panspermia and Primordial soup all about? What are they
trying to explain?
2. How did Pasteur’s experimental design allow air, but not microbes, to enter, and why
was this important?
3. Explain why the experiments of Needham and Spallanzani yielded in different results
even though they used similar methodologies.
LESSON 2: CELL STRUCTURE &

FUNCTION AND MICROSCOPY
A house is made of bricks. The bigger the house, the bigger the number of bricks required to build it. In
the same way, animals and plants are made of cells. The same reasoning applies to animals and plants. The
bigger the animal or plant, the more cells it has. Whereas we can see the bricks of a house, we cannot see the
cells of an organism with the naked eyes. Your skin, your bones, your muscles, your blood, and your brain are
all made of cells. This module is about cells, how you study them, what they look like, and what goes on inside
them.
All living things are made up of cells and the cell is the basic unit of life. In other words, living things are
built from them. They contain important structures with the cell to perform the various activities to keep them
alive and for the wellbeing of the living organisms.
Cells are very tiny structures. They are so small that you will not see them with naked eyes or with a
magnifying glass; therefore, you must use a light microscope. In this lesson, you will learn about cells and the
microscope.
The Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of Biology. Credit for the formulation of this theory is given
to German scientists Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow.
The Cell Theory states that:
• All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be unicellular or multicellular.
• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells. (They are not derived from spontaneous generation.)
The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas that:
• Energy flow occurs within cells.

• Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
• All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
In addition to the cell theory, the gene theory, evolution, homeostasis, and the laws of thermodynamics form
the basic principles that are the foundation for the study of life. (Bailey, 2020)
Please READ Chapter 3.1A-3.1B of your General Biology textbook (page 49-50).
For additional reference about this topic, you may refer to this YouTube video: Cell Theory-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OpBylwH9DU
Cells vary greatly in size and shape. You can express their size in units called micrometers. One
micrometer (m) is 1/1000 mm. A typical cell is about 20 m (micrometers) in diameter. Large organisms
contain millions of cells. The largest cell is an ostrich egg which is about 170 x 135 mm. The smallest cell is a
bacterium which is about 0.25 m in size. A human red blood cell is about 7.5 m in diameter.
Our knowledge of cells is increasing with the development of better microscopes and improved
techniques. The electron microscope has contributed much to our present-day knowledge of the cell. With these,
we can say that:
• All living things are made of cells.

• New cells are formed when old cells divide.
• All cells are similar in structure and the way they work; however, they are not identical.
• The structure of an organism depends on the way cells are organized in it.
• The way an organism works depends on the functions of its cells.
Despite sharing certain characteristics, cells may vary significantly. The two main types of cells are
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. How come that there are two different types of cells?
Endosymbiotic theory proposes that the mitochondrion and the chloroplast were once prokaryotic cells,
living inside larger host cells. The prokaryotes may initially have been parasites or even an intended meal for the
larger cell, somehow escaping digestion.
Multiple lines of evidence support the endosymbiotic theory. Endosymbiosis is observed elsewhere in
biology. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have intriguing similarities in structure, reproduction, biochemistry, and
genetic makeup to certain prokaryotes. The plain fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts have any genetic
information of their own argues in favor of the theory.
Please READ Chapter 3.2A-3.2B of your General Biology textbook (page 52-53).
Class Notebook In your class notebook located in our team in MS Teams, make a table comparing and
contrasting the features of a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell. Also, give at least 3
examples for each type of cell. Do this under the Class Notes section of your Class Notebook.
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
- -
- -
Examples: Examples:
You have learned that cells of all organisms have many features in common. However, there are also
differences in animal cells, plant cells and bacterial cells. We will now turn to the structure of a cell and the
functions of its various parts.
Please READ Chapter 3.3-3.5 of your General Biology textbook (page 54 – 63).
Class Notebook In your class notebook located in our team in MS Teams, make a table outlining the parts and
functions of a cell. Follow the format given below. Do this under the Class Notes section of
your Class Notebook.
Organelles Function/s
For additional reference about Cell structure and function, you may refer to this YouTube video: Cell Structure
and Function- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
LESSON 3: CELL TYPES AND CELL

MODIFICATIONS
There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit, the characteristics of life. Living things are
made up of cells. They metabolize, grow and develop, respond to stimulus, adapt to their environment and
reproduce. Life on Earth exhibits organization. The atom is smallest unit of matter, followed by molecules, which
are combinations of atoms. When these molecules are grouped together, they ultimately form a cell. The cell is
the basic unit of life. In multicellular, organisms like plants and animals, cells are grouped as tissues to perform
a specific function. Different tissues can be grouped further and form organs. The organs form organ systems
that makes the function of the body more complex and efficient. Organ systems will then form the whole
organisms. All living things exhibit organization, whether they are unicellular or multicellular organisms.
There are hundreds of types of cells, but the four main types are epithelial cells, connective tissue cells,
muscle cells and nerve cells.
A. Epithelial Tissue—This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as linings of
organs and cavities. Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells with tight junctions. Being tightly
packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid loss.
Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:

• cuboidal—for secretion
• simple columnar—brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active absorption
• simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material through diffusion
• stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly; for protection
• pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look stacked because of varying height; for
lining of respiratory tract; usually lined with cilia.
Cuboidal Epithelium:
Kidney Tubules Duct and small glands
Surface of the ovary
Simple Columnar Epithelium:

-line the digestive tract, gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands
Microvillus (plural- microvilli) Gallbladder
Digestive Tract Surface with Microvilli Salivary Gland Duct
Simple Squamous Epithelium:
- found in air sacs of respiratory system and lining of the blood vessels, heart and lymphatic tubes
Stratified Squamous Epithelium:

-linings of the skin, vagina, esophagus, and mouth
Lining of the Esophagus
Vaginal lining Skin lining
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium:
-Lines the bronchi, trachea, uterine tubes and some of the uterus. Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary
action.
Fallopian Tube Lining Lining of the Trachea
B. Connective Tissue- This type of tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues.
Connective tissue has three main components: cells, fibers, and ground substance. Together the ground
substance and fibers make up the extracellular matrix. Major functions of connective tissue include: binding and
supporting, protecting, insulating, storing reserve fuel, and transporting substances within the body.
Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue:

-Gel like ground with both elastic and non-elastic fibers running though the ground in many directions. It wraps
and cushions organs and is found under the skin.
Dense Regular Connective Tissue:
-This consists of closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction. These collagen fibers
are slightly wavy and can stretch a little bit. The nuclei and fibers arranged in parallel rows and fibers are mostly
non-elastic. An example of this would be tendons and ligaments.
Ligament A- tendon B- Ligament
Adipose (Fat) Connective Tissue:

-This connective tissue is composed of adipocytes (fat cells). It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat.
Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. The structure
of which is that the cell nucleus and cytoplasm are pushed out to edge of cell membrane.
Cartilage:
-This is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including
the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes,
and the intervertebral discs. Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called chondroblasts which are found in
a lacuna (plural: lacunae) and, unlike other connective tissues, cartilage does not contain blood vessels.
Cartilage is classified in three types: elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage, and fibrocartilage, which differ in the
relative amounts of these three main components.
Elastic Cartilage
This is similar to hyaline cartilage but is more elastic in nature. Its function is to maintain the shape
of the structure while allowing flexibility. It is found in the external ear (known as an auricle) and in the
epiglottis.
Elastic Cartilage (EC) of the ear

CH- Chondrocytes; L- Lacunae; E- Elastic fibers
Hyaline Cartilage
This is the most abundant of all cartilage in the body. Its matrix appears transparent or glassy
when viewed under a microscope. It provides strong support while providing pads for shock absorption.
It is a major part of the embryonic skeleton, the costal cartilages of the ribs, and the cartilage of the nose,
trachea, and larynx.
Fibrocartilage
This is a blend of hyaline cartilage and dense regular connective tissue. Because it is
compressible and resists tension well, fibrocartilage is found where strong support and the ability to
withstand heavy pressure are required. It is found in the intervertebral discs of the bony vertebrae and
knee meniscus.
Hyaline Cartilage of the nose Fibrocartilage
Bone Tissue:
-Bone, or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that has a large amount of two different types of matrix material.
The organic matrix is similar to the matrix material found in other connective tissues, including some amount of
collagen and elastic fibers. This gives strength and flexibility to the tissue. The inorganic matrix consists of
mineral salts—mostly calcium salts—that give the tissue hardness. Without adequate organic material in the
matrix, the tissue breaks; without adequate inorganic material in the matrix, the tissue bends. There are three
types of cells in bone: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are active in making bone for growth
and remodeling. Osteoblasts deposit bone material into the matrix and, after the matrix surrounds them, they
continue to live, but in a reduced metabolic state as osteocytes. Osteocytes are found in lacunae of the bone.
Osteoclasts are active in breaking down bone for bone remodeling, and they provide access to calcium stored
in tissues. Osteoclasts are usually found on the surface of the tissue. The wavy lines seen between the lacunae
are microchannels called canaliculi; they connect the lacunae to aid diffusion between the cells.
Bone Tissue
Vascular (Blood) Tissue:

- This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue. Blood is a bodily fluid in animals that delivers
necessary substances, such as nutrients and oxygen, to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away
from those same cells. It is an atypical connective tissue since it does not bind, connect, or network with any
body cells. It is made up of blood cells and is surrounded by a nonliving fluid called plasma. Its liquid matrix
termed as plasma is composed of 90% water and 10% plasma proteins, electrolytes, hormones, oxygen,
glucose, etc. The solid components are the red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes), and the
platelets (thrombocytes).
C. Muscle Tissue
- These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that allow the body to move voluntary or
involuntary. The movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from nerve cells. In vertebrates, these
muscles can be categorized as follows:
Skeletal Muscle:
-striated; voluntary movements.
- parallel elongated cells (fibers).
-multinucleated and each cell is the length of the muscle.
Smooth Muscle:
-not striated; involuntary.
-cells are long and elongated.
-organized into sheets of muscle.
Cardiac (heart) Muscle:

-striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction; involuntary
-The myogenic heart is the characteristics of vertebrates where continuous rhythmic contraction occurs. The
myogenic heart is the intrinsic property of the cardiac muscles. Each contraction of the heart muscle regulates
the flow of blood in the form of a pulse or heart rate.
D. Nervous Tissue
-Nervous tissue is the main component of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Glia, also called glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) and the peripheral nervous system that do not produce electrical impulses. They maintain homeostasis,
form myelin in the peripheral nervous system, and provide support and protection for neurons.
Nervous Tissue
Please READ Chapter 23.2 of your General Biology textbook (page 462 – 465).
Class Notebook In your class notebook located in our team in MS Teams Make a table summarizing the four
types of animal tissues. Follow the format given below. Do this under the Class Notes section
of your Class Notebook.
Tissue Type Description Function/s Location/s
Epithelial
Additional reference link: Types of human body tissue: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O0ZvbPak4ck
References:
Module Content
Books
• Capco, C. M. & Yang, G.C. (1996). You and the natural world series-Science and technology-Biology. (2nd Ed). Phoenix
Publishing House.
• Hoefnagels, M. (2016). General biology (Books I and II). Abiva Publishing House.
Website
• Bailey, R. (2020, January 24). Cell theory: A core principle of biology. https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-theory-373300
• Biologydictionary.net Editors. (2017, May 30). Spontaneous generation. https://biologydictionary.net/spontaneous-
generation/
• Marshall, M. (n.d.). How did life begin?. NewScientist. https://www.newscientist.com/question/how-did-life-begin/
• Miller, A. (2015, April 26). Cell theory and structure ppt [PowerPoint Slides]. SlideShare.
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General Biology Module 1

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General Biology Module 1

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Grade 11

MESSAGE TO THE LEARNER

LESSON 1: FOUNDATIONS AND

After accomplishing this module, you should be able to:

• describe the characteristics of living things;

Let’s Navigate Activity 1-Performance Task

Name of Object Reason

Please READ Chapter 1 of your General Biology textbook (pages 5 – 8).

B. Panspermia and Primordial Soup Theory

How did life begin?

The process that created life

C. Spontaneous Generation Theory

The Theory of Spontaneous Generation

Disproving Spontaneous Generation

LESSON 2: CELL STRUCTURE &

The Cell Theory states that:

• Energy flow occurs within cells.

• All living things are made of cells.

LESSON 3: CELL TYPES AND CELL

Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:

Kidney Tubules Duct and small glands

Surface of the ovary

Simple Columnar Epithelium:

Microvillus (plural- microvilli) Gallbladder

Digestive Tract Surface with Microvilli Salivary Gland Duct

Stratified Squamous Epithelium:

Lining of the Esophagus

Vaginal lining Skin lining

Fallopian Tube Lining Lining of the Trachea

Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue:

Ligament A- tendon B- Ligament

Adipose (Fat) Connective Tissue:

Elastic Cartilage (EC) of the ear

Hyaline Cartilage of the nose Fibrocartilage

Vascular (Blood) Tissue:

Cardiac (heart) Muscle:

Additional reference link: Types of human body tissue: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O0ZvbPak4ck

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