CHAPTER 1 & 2 : SOIL FORMATION

and SOIL COMPOSITION (PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF SOIL)

OBJECTIVES:
Engr. JOHN MICHAEL B. CASIBANG, CE, MST
When you finish reading this
chapters, you should be able
to:
■ Appreciate the importance
of soil mechanics in
geotechnical engineering.
■ Determine the proportions of
the main constituents in a soil.
■ Understand the formation of
soils and its soil composition
■ Derive formulas applying the
phases system of soils

In engineering, we disassemble complex systems into parts and then study each part and
its relationship to the whole. We will do the same for soils. Soils will be dismantled into three
constituents, and we will examine how the proportions of each constituent characterize
soils.

INTRODUCTION

Why do we need to study Geotechnical Engineering?

The design of foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams
generally requires a knowledge of such factors as:

(a) the load that will be transmitted by the superstructure to the foundation
system,

(b) the requirements of the local building code,

(c) the behaviour and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the
foundation system, and

(d) the geological conditions of the soil under consideration.

To a foundation engineer, the last two factors are extremely important because
they concern soil mechanics.

The geotechnical properties of a soil—such as its grain-size distribution, plasticity,

compressibility, and shear strength—can be assessed by proper laboratory
testing. In addition, recently emphasis has been placed on the in situ
determination of strength and deformation properties of soil, because this process
avoids disturbing samples during field exploration. However, under certain
circumstances, not all of the needed parameters can be or are determined,
because of economic or other reasons. In such cases, the engineer must make
certain assumptions regarding the properties of the soil. To assess the accuracy of
soil parameters—whether they were determined in the laboratory and the field or
whether they were assumed—the engineer must have a good grasp of the basic
principles of soil mechanics. At the same time, he or she must realize that the
natural soil deposits on which foundations are constructed are not homogeneous
in most cases. Thus, the engineer must have a thorough understanding of the
geology of the area—that is, the origin and nature of soil stratification and also
the groundwater conditions.

Foundation engineering is a clever combination of soil mechanics, engineering

geology, and proper judgment derived from past experience. To a certain extent,
it may be called an art.

When determining which foundation is the most economical, the engineer must
consider the superstructure load, the subsoil conditions, and the desired tolerable
settlement. In general, foundations of buildings and bridges may be divided into
two major categories:
(1) shallow foundations and

(2) deep foundations.

Spread footings, wall footings, and mat foundations are all shallow foundations.
In most shallow foundations, the depth of embedment can be equal to or less
than three to four times the width of the foundation. Pile and drilled shaft
foundations are deep foundations. They are used when top layers have poor
load-bearing capacity and when the use of shallow foundations will cause
considerable structural damage or instability.

Definition of SOIL
The term soil according to engineering point of view is defined as the material, by
means of which and upon which engineers build their structures. The term soil
includes entire thickness of the earth’s crust (from ground surface to bed rock),
which is accessible and feasible for practical utilization as foundation support or
construction material. It is composed of loosely bound mineral particles of various
sizes and shapes formed due to weathering of rocks.

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study properties of

soil, behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces, and its
application as an engineering material.

According to Karl Von Terzhagi (Father of Geotechnical Engineering - Soil

Mechanics)

Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to

engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an
admixture of organic constituents.

Why do we need to learn about soils?

Almost all structures are either constructed of soil, supported on soil, or both.

Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:

1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
2. Construction Material

3. Slopes and Landslides

4. Earth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems

Who must be concerned with soils?

Civil Engineers (structural, environmental and geotechnical) must have basic
understanding of the soil properties in order to use them effectively in
construction.
GEOTECHNICAL LESSONS FROM FAILURE
All structures that are founded on earth rely on our ability to design safe and
economic foundations. Because of the natural vagaries of soils, failures do occur.
Some failures have been catastrophic and have caused severe damage to lives
and property; others have been insidious. Failures occur because of inadequate
site and soil investigations; unforeseen soil and water conditions; natural hazards;
poor engineering analysis, design, construction, and quality control; damaging
post construction activities; and usage outside the design conditions. When
failures are investigated thoroughly, we obtain lessons and information that will
guide us to prevent similar types of failure in the future. Some types of failure
caused by natural hazards (earthquakes, hurricanes, etc.) are difficult to prevent,
and our efforts must be directed toward solutions that mitigate damages to lives
and properties.
One of the earliest failures that was investigated and contributed to our
knowledge of soil behavior is the failure of the Transcona Grain Elevator in 1913.
Within 24 hours after loading the grain elevator at a rate of about 1 m of grain
height per day, the bin house began to tilt and settle. Fortunately, the structural
damage was minimal and the bin house was later restored. No borings were done
to identify the soils and to obtain information on their strength. Rather, an open
pit about 4 m deep was made for the foundations and a plate was loaded to
determine the bearing strength of the soil. The information gathered from the
Transcona Grain Elevator failure and the subsequent detailed soil investigation
was used (Peck and Bryant, 1953; Skempton, 1951) to verify the theoretical soil
bearing strength. Peck and Bryant found that the applied pressure from loads
imposed by the bin house and the grains was nearly equal to the calculated
maximum pressure that the soil could withstand, thereby lending support to the
theory for calculating the bearing strength of soft clay soils.
We also learn from this failure the importance of soil investigations, soils tests, and
the effects of rate of loading. The Transcona Grain Elevator was designed at a
time when soil mechanics was not yet born. One eyewitness (White, 1953) wrote:
“Soil Mechanics as a special science had hardly begun at that time. If as much
had been known then as is now about the shear strength and behavior of soils,
adequate borings would have been taken and tests made and these troubles
would have been avoided. We owe more to the development of this science than
is generally recognized.”

We have come a long way in understanding soil behavior since the founding of
soil mechanics by Terzaghi in 1925. We continue to learn more daily through
research on and experience from failures, and your contribution to understanding
soil behavior is needed. Join me on a journey of learning the fundamentals of soil
mechanics and its applications to practical problems so that we can avoid
failures or, at least, reduce the probability of their occurrence

SHEAR FAILURE-LOADS HAVE TO EXCEEDED SHEAR

STRENGTH CAPACITY OF SOIL
Transcosna Grain Elevator, Canada October 18,
1913

PROBLEMS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SHEAR FAILURE-LOADS HAVE TO EXCEEDED SHEAR

STRENGTH CAPACITY OF SOIL
PROBLEMS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

SETTLEMENT
LEANING TOWER, PISA

SEEPAGE PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

DAM FAILURE - SEEPAGE

TETON DAM FAILURE

SOIL SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOAD

TETON DAM FAILURE

Soil Formation

Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition (weathering) of

rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical) and chemical agents which
break them into smaller and smaller particles.

All soils originate, directly or indirectly from different rock types.

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical
weathering involves reduction of size without any change in the original
composition of the parent rock. The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. Chemical weathering
causes both reductions in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock.
The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation,
and oxidation. Often, chemical and physical weathering take place in concert.
Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils.

Physical weathering

Involves reduction of size without any change in original composition of the

parent rock. The main agents responsible for this process are exfoliation, erosion,
freezing, and thawing.

Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the earth’s surface include the
actions of water, frost, temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause
disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING

Chemical weathering causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of

the original parent rock. The main agents responsible for chemical weathering
are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation.

Rain water that comes in contact with the rock surface reacts to form hydrated
oxides, carbonates and sulphates.

The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with altered mineral
grains.
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Soil Types

Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad
categories:

1. Residual soils
2. Transported soils

Residual Soils

Residual Soils are found at the same location where they have been formed.

Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry
regions causing a faster breakdown of rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes
place as the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions, the presence of
surface vegetation reduces the possibility of soil transportation.

Residual Soils

As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there
is a corresponding decrease in the degree of chemical weathering from the
ground surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual soil
formation with depth, until unaltered rock is found.

Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.
Transported Soils

Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations
by one or more of the transportation agencies to form transported soils.
Transported soils are classified based on the mode of transportation and final
environment.

Transported Soils

Transported soils are classified based on the mode of transportation and the final
deposition environment.

 Alluvial soils are fine sediments that have been eroded from rock and
transported by water, and have settled on river and stream beds.
 Lacustrine soils are mostly silts and clays deposited in glacial lake waters
 Marine soils are sand, silts, and clays deposited in salt or brackish water.
 Glacial soils are mixed soils consisting of rock debris, sand, silt, clays, and
boulders.
 Aeolian soils are Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited
 Collovial soils (collovium) are soils found at the base of mountains that
have been eroded by the combination of water and gravity

Phases System of Soils

Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate
material. Soils, as they exist in nature, consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock
fragments) with water and air in the voids between the particles.

The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in ambient
conditions and location.

As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful
to consider a soil model which will represent these phases distinctly and properly
quantify the amount of each phase. A schematic diagram of the three-phase
system is shown in terms of weight and volume symbols respectively for soil solids,
water, and air.

The weight of air can be neglected.

The compositions of natural soils may include diverse components which may be
classified into three large groups.

 Solid phase (minerals, cementations and organic materials)

 Liquid phase (water with dissolved salts)

 Gaseous phase (air or other some gas)

The spaces between the solid (solid particles) are called voids. Water is often the
predominant liquid and air is the predominant gas. We will use the terms water
and air instead of liquid and gases.

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully
saturated ( no air content) or be perfectly dry ( no water content).

In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases
only, as shown.
PARTIALLY SATURATED SOIL

IDEALIZATION:
THREE PHASE DIAGRAM

FULLY SATURATED SOIL

IDEALIZATION:
TWO PHASES DIAGRAM
 DRY SOIL

IDEALIZATION:
TWO PHASES DIAGRAM

Phase Relations of Soil

Soil is composed of solids, liquids, and gases. The solid phase may be minerals,
organic matter, or both. As mentioned, we will not deal with organic matter in this
subject. The spaces between the solids (soil particles) are called voids. Water is
often the predominant liquid and air is the predominant gas. We will use the terms
water and air instead of liquid and gas. The soil water is called porewater and
plays a very important role in the behavior of soils under load. If all the voids are
filled by water, the soil is saturated. Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated. If all the voids
are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry.
The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

VOLUME SYMBOL WEIGHT SYMBOL

For the purpose of engineering analysis and design , it is necessary to express

relations between the weights and the volumes of the three phases.

The various relations can be grouped into:

 Weight relations

 Volume relations

 Inter-relations

Weight Relationships

The following are the basic weight relations:

 Water content or moisture content, ω

 Specific gravity (Gs)
Where,
ws = weight of soil solids
ww = weight of water
wa = weight of air = 0
w = total weight of soil sample;
 𝒘 = 𝑾 𝒕 = 𝑾𝒔 + 𝑾 𝒘

Water content or moisture content, ω: is the ratio, often expressed as a

percentage, of the weight of water to the weight of solids:

𝑾𝒘
ω= x 100%
𝑾𝒔

The water content of a soil is found by weighing a sample of the soil and then
placing it in an oven at 110 ± 5°C until the weight of the sample remains constant,
that is, all the absorbed water is driven out. For most soils, a constant weight is
achieved in about 24 hours. The soil is removed from the oven, cooled, and then
weighed. The detailed procedure to determine the water content of soils is
described in ASTM D 2216. It is a common mistake to use the total weight in the
denominator. Remember, it is the weight (or mass) of the solids.

Specific Gravity, Gs : is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the weight of
water of equal volume:

𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑠
Gs = ; where 𝛾𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑠
𝜸𝒔
Gs =
𝜸𝒘

where 𝜸𝒘 = 9.81 kN/m 3 is the unit weight of water. The specifc gravity of soils
ranges from approximately 2.6 to 2.8. For most problems, Gs can be assumed,
with little error, to be equal to 2.7. The procedure to determine the specific gravity
of soils is described in ASTM D 854.

Two types of container are used to determine the specific gravity. One is a
pycnometer, which is used for coarse grained soils. The other is a 50-mL density
bottle, which is used for fine-grained soils.
The container is weighed and a small quantity of dry soil is placed in it. The mass
of the container and the dry soil is determined. De-aired water is added to the soil
in the container. The container is then agitated to remove air bubbles. When all
air bubbles have been removed, the container is filled with de-aired water. The
mass of container, soil, and water is determined. The contents of the container
are discarded and the container is thoroughly cleaned. De-aired water is added
to fill the container, and the mass of the container and water is determined

Note: The presence of organic material reduces the value of Gs

Volume Relationships:

The following are the basic volume relations:

 Void ratio, e
 Porosity, n
 Degree of saturation, S
 Air content, a
Where,
Vs = volume of soil solids
Vw = Volume of water
Va = Volume of Air
Vv = Volume of Voids
V = = Vt = total volume of soil sample;

𝑽 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒘 + 𝑽𝒂

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒗 + 𝑽𝒘

Void ratio, (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.
Void ratio is usually expressed as a decimal quantity.
𝑽𝒗
e= 𝑽𝒔
The void ratio of real course grained soils vary between 0.3 and 1. Clay soils can
have void ratio greater than one.

Porosity, (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. Porosity is usually
expressed as a percentage.
𝑽𝒗
n= 𝑽

The range of porosity is 0% < n < 100%

Void ratio, (e) and Porosity, (n)

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:
𝒆
n = 𝟏+𝒆

Degree of Saturation, (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the

volume of water to the volume of voids:
𝑽𝒘
S= x100%
𝑽𝒗

For fully saturated soil, Vv = Vw, S = 1 or 100%

For a dry soil, S = 0

For partially saturated soil, 1< S < 100%

 Air content (a) The air content, a, is the ratio of air volume to total volume.
𝑽𝒂
a= x100%
𝑽𝒕

The air-voids, Va, is that, part of the voids space not occupied by water.

For a perfect dry soil: a = n

For a saturated soil: a = 0

General Equations in Weight-Volume Relationships:

Unit Weight (Moist Unit Weight), γ or γm

The unit weight of a soil is the ratio of the weight of soil to the total volume.

𝑾𝒕 𝑾
γ= =
𝑽𝒕 𝑽
In natural soils the magnitude of the total unit weight will depend on how
much water happens to be in the voids as will as the unit weight of the
mineral grains themselves.

𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘 (𝟏+𝝎)
γ =
𝟏+𝒆
and

(𝑮𝒔 +𝑺𝒆) 𝜸𝒘
γ =
𝟏+𝒆
Dry Unit Weight, γd
The dry unit weight of a soil is the ratio of the weight of solids to the total
volume.

𝑾𝒔 𝑾𝒔
𝜸𝒅 = =
𝑽𝒕 𝑽
The dry unit weight can also be determined as

𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒆
And
𝜸
𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝝎

Saturated Unit Weight, γsat

For saturated unit weight becomes

(𝑮𝒔 +𝒆 )𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝟏+𝒆

Submerged Unit Weight, γsub or Bouyant Unit Weight, γbouy or γ’

For submerged unit weight is given as
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 + 𝛾𝑤
𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃 = 𝜸′ = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸𝒘
(𝑮𝒔 −𝟏 )𝜸𝒘
𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃 =
𝟏+𝒆
Critical hydraulic gradient, icr is the ratio of the buoyant unit weight to the unit
weight of water.

𝜸𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒚 (𝑮𝒔 −𝟏 )𝜸𝒘

𝒊𝒄𝒓 = 𝜸 =
𝒘 𝟏+𝒆

Critical hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic gradient that brings a soil mass
(essentially, coarse grained soils) to static liquefaction (quick condition)

Relationships of Degree of saturation, void ratio, water content and Specific

gravity

𝑺𝒆 = 𝝎Gs
When saturated soil, S =1 then the formula becomes,

𝒆 = 𝝎Gs
In summary, for the easy solution of phase problem, you don’t have to memorize
lots of complicated formulas. Most of them can easily be derived from the phase
diagram. Just remember the following simple rules:
1. Remember the basic definitions of properties
2. Draw phase diagram
3. Assume either Vs =1 or Vt = 1

Sample Problems:

Situation No. 1: The sample of soil weighing 31.6 kg had a volume of 0.0187 m 3.
The sample is allowed to dry in an oven and the weight was reduced to 27.5 kg.
The specific gravity of the solids was found to be 2.65, determine the following:
 Moist unit weight of soil
 Dry unit weight of soil
 Moisture content
 Void ratio
 Porosity
 Degree of saturation

Situation No. 2: The soil sample in natural state having a volume of 0.0012 m 3
weighs .73 kg. The degree of saturation being 45.60%. After drying in an oven the
final weight of sample was 1.44kg.
 Find the specific gravity of solid
 Determine the void ratio
 Compute the critical hydraulic gradient

Situation No. 3: A soil sample having a mass of 6.40 kgs and has a total volume of
0.0052 m 3. It has moisture content of 24% and specific gravity is 2.66. Compute the
degree of saturation.

Situation No. 4: A proposed embankment fill requires 5000 cu.m of compaction

soil. The void ratio of the compacted fill is specified as 0.70. Three borrowpits are
available as described in the following table,

Borrow Pit Void Ratio, e Cost/cu.m

A 0.85 PhP 830.00
B 0.95 PhP 760.00
C 1.10 PhP 720.00

What is the total cost for acquiring soil from,

 Borrow Pit A
 Borrow Pit B
  Borrow Pit C

Situation No.5: The moist soil having a volume of 0.0154 m 3 has a unit weight of
16.5 kN/m 3 and a moisture content of 15%. If the specific gravity of solid is 2.7,
determine the following:
 Degree of Saturation
 Volume of air in the original sample
 Weight of water to be added to reach full of saturation

Situation No. 6: A saturated soil has a unit weight of 18.85 kN/m 3 and water
content of 32.50%. Determine the specific gravity of the soil.

Situation No. 7: Dry sand is placed in a container having a volume of 0.30 ft 3. The
dry weight of a sample is 31 lbs. water is carefully added to the container so as
not to disturb the condition of the sand. When the container is filed, the combined
weight of soil plus water is 38.20 lbs. From this data compute the void ratio of the
soil in the container and specific gravity of solid soils.

Situation No. 8: The specific gravity of the soil is 2.65. The void ratio is 0.50; water
content is 7.94%. The wet density in kg/m 3 is:
a. 1389 b. 1907 c. 1970 d. 1938

Situation No.9: A cubic meter of soil in its natural state weighs 17.75 Kn. After being
dried , its weight is 15.08 Kn. The specific gravity of the soil is 2.70. Determine the
water content in % of the original soil sample.
a. 17.71 b. 77.70 c. 11.70 d. 71.70
Situation No. 10: The moist unit weight and degrees of saturation of a soil are given
in the following table.
γ (kN/m 3) Degree of Sat. (S)%
16.64 kN/m 3 50
17.73 kN/m 3 75

Determine the following:

 Void ratio
 Specific gravity
 Saturated unit weight

Situation No.11: The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume:
a. Void Ratio
b. Porosity
c. Degree of Saturation
d. Bulk Density
Problem for Practice (Assignment):

1. The weight of water expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight of

a soil material.
a. Dry Densit
b. Natural Moisture content
c. Degree of Saturation
d. Void Ratio
2. Degree of Saturation is:
a. All of these
b. Volume of voids divided by the volume of the solids.
c. Volume of the voids divided by the volume of voids
d. Volume of water divided by the volume of voids.
3. Substances contain in a soil sample such as water and solid are usually
express in terms of ratios. The ratio of the mass of solids to the total volume
is:
a. Dry unit weight
b. Dry density
c. Wet unit weight/Moist unit weight
d. Mass density

4. A dry soil is mixed with 17% by mas with water and compacted. Volume of
wet soil is 0.001 m 3 and has a mass of 1.6 kg. If the specific gravity of soil is
2.70.
a. Compute the dry unit weight of soil.
b. Compute the void ratio.
c. Compute the degree of saturation.

5. The dry unit weight of soil at zero air voids is equal to 19 kN/m 3. The soil has
a water content of 12% and a degree of saturation of 58%. Compute the
following:
a. Specific gravity
b. Void ratio
c. Porosity

6. A dry sand is placed in a container having a volume of 0.30 ft 3. The dry

weight of the sample is 31 lb. A volume of 0.051 ft 3 of water is carefully
added to the container so as not to disturb the condition of the sand. If the
specific gravity of sand is 2.72, determine the following:
a. Porosity
b. Degree of saturation
c. Bulk specific gravity
7. An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.2 m in compacted
thickness is to be constructed from a sandy soil trucked from a borrow pit.
The water content of the sandy soil in the borrow pit is 15% and its void ratio
is 0.75. The specification requires the embankment be compacted to a dry
unit weight of 18.2 kN/m3 . Length of embankment is 1.5 km. Assume G= 2.7.
Determine the volume borrow material required.

8. In an experiment of determining the porosity and specific gravity of solids

of a soil, a soil is dug out from the ground, weighed, then oven dried, and
then saturated with water. The weight of soil taken from the test hole is 1346
grams. It was then oven-dried and weighed 1076 grams. After saturating it
with water, it weighed 1462 grams. The volume of the test hole was then
measured and found to be 792 cc. Determine the voids ratio of the soil.

9. A building requires a 10,000-m3 fill at a void ratio of 20%. Material for earth
fill was available from a borrow site at P320 per cubic meter. It was found
that the average void ratio from the site is 80%. Estimate the total cost of fill.

10. A dry sand is placed in a container having a volume of 0.0089 cm 3. The dry
weight of the sample is 0.014 g. Water is carefully added to the container
so as not to disturb the condition of the sand. When the container is filled,
the combined weight of soil plus water is 0.0174 g.

1. Determine the void ratio of the soil in the container

a. 0.38 b. 0.42 c. 0.62 d. 0.65
2. Determine the dry unit weight of the soil sample.
a. 15.44 kN/m 3 b. 16.78 kN/m 3
c.18.56 kN/m 3 d. 17.21 kN/m 3
3. Determine the saturated unit weight of the soil sample.
a. 15.44 kN/m 3 b. 16.78 kN/m 3
c.19.20 kN/m 3 d. 17.21 kN/m 3
11. The undisturbed soil at a borrow pit has a bulk unit weight of 19.1 kN/m 3 and
water content of 9.5%. The soil from this borrow will be used to construct a
compacted fill with finished volume of 42,000 m 3. The soil is excavated by
machinery and placed in trucks, each with a capacity of 4.50 m 3. When
loaded to the full capacity, each load of soil weighs 67.5 KN. In the
construction process, the trucks dump the soil at the site, then the soil is
spread and broken up. Water is then sprinkled to bring the water content
to 15%. Finally, the soil is compacted to a dry unit weight of 17.1 kN/m 3.

1. Assuming each load is to the full capacity, how many truckloads are
required to construct the fill?
a. 10,567.25
b. 11,650.80
 c. 12,178.95
d. 12,872.55
2. What would be the volume of the pit in the borrow area?
a. 37,602.09 m 3
b. 45,085.85 m 3
c. 34,339.81 m 3
d. 41,174.29 m 3
3. How many kilo Newton of water should be added to a truckload?
a. 3.71 b. 3.39 c. 4.05 d. 4.28

12. (State whether the following are true or false)

1. A porosity of 40% implies that 40% of the total volume consists of voids.
2. A degree of saturation of 40% implies that 40% of the total volume
consists of water.
3. Larger void ratios correspond to larger dry densities.
4. Water content cannot exceed 100%
5. The void ratio cannot exceed 1

Prepared by:

SirJM
2021-2022