Organizational Behavior

Culture and human behavior

Aradhna Malik
Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
1
Culture
Porter and Samovar (1994)

The deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,

values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion,
notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of
the universe, and material objects and possessions
acquired by a group of people in the course of
generations through individual and group striving.

2
Discussion
Can behavior management in a business
setting be anything but intercultural?

3
 Sources of Difference (Collier, 1994;
Pinderhughes, 1989; Martin & Nakayama,2001)

nRace nGender
nReligion nSexual identity
nIdeology nAge
nNationality nFamily constellation
nEthnicity nSocioeconomic status
nAppearance nEducational (qualifications and
nPersonal artifacts system)
nBody structure (Height, weight, nProfessional and personal
height-weight ratio) experiences
nBehavioral style nOccupation
4
Cultural Frameworks (Magnusson et al., 2008)
n Hofstede (1967-73)
n Schwartz (1988-92)
n Trompenaars (1980s – 1990s)
n GLOBE (1990s)
n ID (Xu et al., 2004)

5
The Many Dimensions of Culture
n Hofstede (Late 1960s): 116000 IBM
employees in 40 countries on
preferences around management style
& work envt.
¨ Power distance (Preference for equality vs.
inequality within groups)
¨ Certainty (Preference for risk vs. structure)
¨ Individualism vs. Collectivism
¨ Masculinity vs. Feminity
6
Intercultural Dimensions (Contd.)
n Trompenaars (1980s to late 1990s): 30
companies, 50 countries, 30,000 people
¨ Relationships with people
n Universalism vs. Particularism
n Individualism vs. Communitarianism

n Neutral vs. Emotional

n Specific vs. Diffuse

n Achievement vs. Ascription

¨ Understanding of time
¨ Attitudes towards environment
7
Bases of cultural frameworks
(Magnusson et al., 2008)

n Beckerman (1956): Psychic Distance (PD)

¨ According to Johanson and Vahlen, (1977)
(cited in Magnusson et al.), ‘PD is “the sum of
factors preventing the flow of information from
and to the market.” e.g. differences in
language, education, business practices,
industrial development and culture.’

8
Bases of cultural frameworks
(Magnusson et al., 2008)

n Mulder (1976): Power Distance (PD): “The

extent and acceptance of unequal
distribution of power”
n Kostova (1996): Institutional Distance (ID):
“The sum of differences on the three pillars
(regulative, normative and cognitive
environments)”

9
Studies on Institutional Distance
(Magnusson et al., 2008)

n Xu et al. (2004) – 45 countries

n Gaur et al. (2006) – 53 countries

10
Studies on Institutional Distance
(Magnusson et al., 2008)

n Concepts:
¨ Regulative environment: The laws and rules in a
country
¨ Normative environment: The general norms and
values held by a country’s people
¨ Cognitive environment: The inferential sets or ways
individuals notice and interpret environmental
stimuli

11
 High and Low Context Cultures
n Edward T. Hall (1976, quoted in Samovar and Porter, 1994)
¨ Man-Environment (M-E) Transactions
¨ “ A High Context (HC) Communication or message
is one in which most of the information is either in
the physical context or internalized in the person
while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted
part of the message.”
¨ “ A Low Context (LC) communication or message
[is one in which] the mass of information is vested
in the explicit code.”
12
Characteristics of HC communication
(Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994)

n Restricted code of intimacy – words and

sentences collapse and are shortened.
n The code that one uses signals and is
consistent with the situation.
n A shifting of code signals a shift in
everything else that is to follow.

13
Characteristics of LC communication
(Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994)

n Explicit vocabulary
n Highly articulated
n Highly specific code

14
 High Context Cultures

Goal Context

Low context cultures

I
C

15
Summary of cultural frameworks (Magnusson et al., 2008)
Hofstede (1967-93): 1. Individualism-Collectivism
IBM employees – 2. Power distance
started with 40 3. Uncertainty avoidance
countries, now 80+ 4. Masculinity-Femininity
5. Long term orientation

Schwartz (1988-92): 1. Conservationism: Emphasis of status-quo

Students & teachers 2. Intellectual autonomy
from 31 countries 3. Affective autonomy
4. Hierarchy
5. Mastery: Society’s desire to control own environment
6. Egalitarian commitment
7. Harmony (With nature)

Trompenaars 1. Universalism-particularism
(1980s-1990s): 2. Individualism-communitarianism
Managers from 54 3. Neutral-emotional/ affective
countries 4. Specific-diffuse boundaries
5. Achievement-ascription OR Does vs. Is
16
6. Attitude towards time
Summary of cultural frameworks (Contd.)
(Magnusson et al., 2008)

House et al.: 1. Uncertainty avoidance

GLOBE (Global 2. Power distance
Leadership & 3. Institutional collectivism
Organizational 4. In group collectivism
Behavior 5. Gender egalitarianism
Effectiveness) 6. Assertiveness
(1990s): 7. Future orientation
Managers from 8. Performance orientation
58 countries 9. Humane orientation

17
Summary of cultural frameworks (Contd.)
(Magnusson et al., 2008)
Institutional 1. Regulative environment:
Distance (ID) – Xu Anti-trust laws, legal system, impartiality of arbitration,
et al., 2004 – 45 dispute settlement, institutional stability, police
countries; Gaur et effectiveness
al., 2006 – 53 2. Normative environment:
countries Product design, customer orientation, staff training,
willingness to delegate, performance-related pay,
professional managers, effectiveness of corporate
boards
3. Cognitive environment:
Political transparency, anti-trust regulation, intellectual
property protection, judicial system efficiency, fiscal
policy, inflation, market dominance in key industries,
responsiveness of the political system, bureaucratic
corruption, attitude toward economic realities,
transparency toward citizens, political risk,
bureaucratic hindrance to economic development,
18
independence of local authorities
 Why is all this
important for you?

19
Application to Corporate Interactions
n Functional areas of management
¨ Sales
¨ Marketing
¨ Advertising
¨ Human Resources
¨ Organizational Behavior
¨ Finance – esp. M & A
¨ Operations
¨ Information Technology
¨ Strategy 20
Application to Different Industries
n Product-Service Continuum
n Service Industries:
¨ Hospitality
¨ Health
¨ Tourism
¨ Education
¨ After-sales
service
¨ Combinations of the above e.g. Medical value
travel
21
 Bottomline
Cultural identities, affiliations and differences are
dynamic and are influenced by a large number of
predictable and unpredictable factors.

A good starting point is to recognize the reasons

that make us different from each other and be
sensitive to the stimuli provided by our
environments.

(Communication Jokes: It is hot, it is cold)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ylwa1oKV3Mc 22
Difficulties with diversity (Johnson, 2002)

n Categorizing on the basis of inherited or

acquired traits
n Prejudice
n Ethnocentrism
n Cultural conditioning
n Stereotypes
n Illusionary correlation and false consensus bias
n Discrimination
23
Attribution Theories:
Identifying attribution biases (Trenholm and Jensen, 2002)

n Personality bias towards others – explaining

other people’s behavior in terms of their
personality dispositions.
difference from our expectations personality bias

n Situational bias toward self – attribution of our

own behavior to situational factors

24
Identifying attribution biases (contd.)
(Trenholm and Jensen, 2002)

n Bias towards groups: We explain the behavior of

members of highly stereotyped out-groups (croups
we do not belong to) differently than the behavior
of in-group members (such as our own friends,
associates, or ethnic group)

We attribute the positive behavior by in-group members to their

personal dispositions, while negative behavior is explained in
terms of situational factors

In the case of out-group members, positive behavior is

explained away as situationally produced while negative
behavior is seen as the product of personality or group culture.
25
Identifying attribution biases (contd.)
(Trenholm and Jensen, 2002)

n Bias towards cultures:

In individualistic cultures, behavior is usually attributed to

individual personality characteristics.

In collectivistic cultures, even individual behavior is usually

attributed to situational factors.

26
 Culture and Communication

Culture Behavior

27
What is identity (Johnson, 2002)
n Your identity is a consistent set of attitudes that
defines who you are.
n Your self-schema is a generalization about the self,
derived from past experience, that organizes and
guides your understanding of the information you
learn about yourself from interacting with others.
n Your gender identity is your fundamental sense of
your maleness or femaleness.
n Your ethnic identity is your sense of belonging to
one particular ethnic group.
n Self acceptance is a high regard for yourself, or
conversely, a lack of cynicism about yourself.
28
Cultural Identity (Collier, 1994)
The particular character of the group communication
system that emerges in the particular situation.

Social psychological perspective views identity as a

characteristic of the person and personality, and the
self as centered in social roles and social practices.

Communication perspective views identity as something

that emerges when messages are exchanged
between persons.
29
Identity is defined as an enactment
of cultural communication
(Hecht, Collier, & Beau, 1993, in Collier, 1994)

30
Properties of cultural identity (Collier, 1994)
1. Self-perception:
1. Avowal: “This is who I am”
2. Ascription: “This is who others think I am”

2. Modes of expression:
1. Core symbols: central ideas and concepts and the
everyday behaviors that characterize membership
in that cultural group.
2. Labels: terms groups use to classify and interpret
these core symbols
3. Norms: standards for interpreting core symbols
31
Properties of cultural identity (contd.) (Collier, 1994)

3. Individual, relational and communal forms of

identity
4. Enduring and changing property of identity
5. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral components
of identity
6. Content and relationship
7. Salience and intensity differences

32
Identity as a determinant of culture
If I am not for myself, who will be for me? But if
I am only for myself, what am I? (Talmud)

Basic Human Needs:

n Join with others in a cooperative effort to
achieve something great.
n Be a unique and separate individual who is
valued and respected in one’s own right.
33
Cultural identity and communication
competence (Collier, 1994)
Cultural competence is the demonstrated ability
to enact a cultural identity in a mutually
appropriate and effective manner.

Intercultural competence is the reinforcement of

culturally different identities that are salient in
the particular situation.

34
Intercultural Interaction: is what happens
when we begin interacting with cultures
that we are not so familiar with.

35
Ethnocognitivism, problem solving,
and hemisphericity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Everyone has the same cognitive
components but learns to use them
differently through life (Luria, 1966 in Lieberman, 1994)
n Research on cultural difference …
indivates that members of industrialized
societies and members of nonindustrial
societies respond to visual illusions quite
differently (Reid, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994)
36
Cognitive styles (Lieberman, 1994)
n Field-dependence/ Field-independence
n Reflectivity/ Impulsivity
n Tolerance/ intolerance of ambiguity
n Left hemisphere/ right hemisphere

37
Cognitive styles and cultural
behaviors rest on continua
rather than on extremes.
How do cognitive styles
influence behaviors in
different cultures?
Field-dependent cognitive style
(Lieberman, 1994)

n Holistic perception of event

n Sensitivity to feelings and opinions of
others in the group (Scarcella, 1990 in Lieberman, 1994)
n In essence, perceiving that one is an
integral unit of and dependent upon one’s
‘context’ or ‘field’

40
Field-independent cognitive
style (Lieberman, 1994)
n Isolation of the details of the ‘field’ or
context – compartmentalization or
sequencing of various elements of the
field in order to attribute their happening to
logic or cause and effect
n Lack of emphasis on feelings or emotions

41
Field-dependent vs. Field-
independent Cognitive Style
n Brown (1980):
Field dependent – High context
Field independent – Low context

42
Reflectivity vs Impulsivity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Reflectivity:
¨ “Thinking about a problem”
¨ Taking the time to be completely right than to
be partially wrong
¨ Mistakes are treated rather harshly
¨ Grey areas are not acceptable: The solution is
either right or wrong

43
Impulsivity
n Solve and move on
n Being partially correct and moving on is
more important than taking the time to be
absolutely correct (and missing out on
opportunities for growth while doing so)
n Grey areas in problem solving acceptable

(Damen, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994)

44
Tolerance of Ambiguity
Bipolarity of language (Right or wrong, good
or bad) – also dependent on context.
¨ Encourages cause-effect thinking, and
linearity (Korzybsky, 1921 in Lieberman, 1994)
¨ Less tolerance of ambiguity where there is
greater bipolarity in the structure and meaning
of the language itself (Lieberman, 1994)
Tolerance of Ambiguity: Accepting the grey
areas in language, thought and behavior
45
Caution
n These systems are not mutually exclusive.
They may exist along with each other and
influence each other.

e.g. a High Context culture may be bi-polar,

and field-dependent at the same time
Reason for the example on the
previous slide
A culture may be field dependent and
highly contextual, but it may have the
vocabulary to define shades of grey in the
environment.
Cognitive styles and cultural behaviors
rest on continua rather than on extremes.
Ethnocognitivism and
Hemisphericity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Ethnocognitivism: Thought patterns dominant
within a culture
n Hemisphericity: Hemisphere dominance in the
brain

Both of the above influence behaviors in

different cultures and the manner in which these
behaviors are perceived and interpreted by other
cultures
Cultural differences in problem
solving (Kaplan, 1970 in Lieberman, 1994)
n Linear and direct: e.g. English
n Tangential and semidirect: e.g. Semitic
n Circular: e.g. Asians
n Circuitous: e.g. Romance cultures
n Combination of direct and circuitous: e.g.
Russians
Cultural differences in problem
solving (Contd.) (Kaplan, 1970)
Cultural and situational variations in
patterns of thought (Condon and Yousef, 1975; Felder
and Silverman, 1988; Gregorc, 1979; and Pribram, 1949, in Lieberman, 1994)

n Universalistic: Universal application of concepts

n Nominalistic: Abstract terms exist, but abstract
objects (e.g. morality, politeness etc.) do not exist
universally
n Hypothetical: Assumption based
n Intuitional: Gut feeling
n Organismic: Every concept is related to the other
concept and is a constitutent part of the whole.
n Dialectical: Using reasoned arguments to establish
truth
n Temporal: Reasoning using time as the basis
 Cultural variations (Contd.)…
n Axiomatic: Start with definitions, postulates, and common
notions and establish the truth according to those
n Affective: Feeling that one is true regardless of the
evidence
n Inductive/ Deductive
n Analytic
n Global
n Sequential
n Concrete sequential: Reasoning based on reality and real
tangible objects
n Abstract random: Creative, and reason by making
connections that may not seem evident, between real
objects
Styles of learning and problem solving
and their hemispheric preference
(McCarthy, 1990, in Lieberman, 1994)

n Imaginative (Primarily Right Hemisphere): Perceives

information concretely and processes it reflectively
n Analytic (Emphasizes right and left hemisphere
processing): Perceives information abstractly and
processes it reflectively
n Commonsense (Emphasizes left and right hemisphere
processing): Integrates theory and practice, by perceiving
information abstractly and immediately applying it to
concrete situations
n Dynamic (Primarily right): Perceives information concretely
and applies it immediately to concrete situations
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1929)
What we think about is strongly influenced
by the language we think in

Because

Our vocabulary limits what we can think

about and express
Discuss
n How each of these styles would influence
your work as a manager
n How knowledge of each of these styles
would help you help your subordinates
and understand your superiors.
Translation as problematic discourse
in organizations (Banks and Banks, 1991)

57
The issue
n Multicultural organizations
n Multilingual employees
n Multiple ideologies, beliefs, interests at
stake

58
What happens?
n Coincident meanings: Interpretations
drawn in a similar manner by people who
have similar reasons for drawing the same
interpretations from the same concept.
n Who decides ???

59
The organization as a symbolic activity
People with
¨ Different socio-cultural backgrounds
¨ Different goals
¨ Different reasons for pursuing those goals
come together and
¨ Try to create a sense of a common goal
¨ Try to work together to achieve this mutually
decided upon common goal
Usually without compromising on any of the
differences listed above
60
In order to create and pursue a
common goal
n People try to understand each other
n Convince each other
n Coordinate with each other

Without losing sense of what each of them wants

and how and when and where

Essentially, in any organization, people try and

align their comfort zones with each other without
expanding their comfort zones too much 61
But who
decides?
What affects this coordination of
comfort zones in an organization?
n Power and authority hierarchies
n Reference group allegiances
n Cultural training
n The polysemic (multiple meanings) nature of
language
n The evanescence of meaning: Contextual
significance of meaning/ meaning changes (or
‘disappears’) with a change (or ‘disappearance’
of context) 63
 Degradation of coincident
meaning
The loss of importance or intensity of meaning
during translation or interpretation e.g. Snow is
snow is snow vs. Tlapa (powder snow), and
Kayi (drifting snow), and Tlapat (Still snow), and
Blotla (Blowing snow), etc… (Ref:
http://www.mendosa.com/snow.html)

And why would the Inuit have different terms?

Because they need to deal with the effects of
these variations of snow!
64
Situations for the degradation of
coincident meanings
n Changes of organizational contexts
n Abuses of legitimate authority
n Increased environmental turbulence
n Organizational resistance movements by
members with contradictory views

Examples of organizational concepts

evolving constantly: Vision and Mission
statements 65
How does translation factor into
all this?
n We think in a language different from the
one we speak in or conduct our business
in
n Our language, and the response to the
language we use in our work
environments determines how we frame
our future inputs to the organization

66
Translation and degradation of
meaning
n In an attempt to explain our thoughts and
ideas to our peers, we tend to over-
simplify what we are saying
n Meaning is essentially embedded in
context: Lack of familiarity with the context
results in inhibition of the accurate
interpretation of meaning

67
Major problems posed by translation
in organizations
(Gray et al., 1985, in Banks & Banks, 1991)

n Issues involving inaccuracies in carrying

over referential meanings from one
language to another
n Issues involving the loss of common socio-
cultural contexts
n Issues involving the change or
sedimentation of power relationships
 Implications
Translation has the potential to degrade coincident meanings
Vulnerability to erosion of worker task accomplishment, productivity,
commitment to programs and institution, and compliance

Remedies:
n Avoid the ready-to-hand translator (Sanders, 1989, in Banks & Banks, 1991)
n Employ specialists (Klein, 1982, in Banks & Banks, 1991)
n Facilitate the familiarity of expert translators with the socio-
cultural context of the organization
n Communicate policy interpretations, procedure and product
changes, key job information etc. in writing as well as through
face to face discussions
In-class exercise
1. Map:
1. The language/dialect that you think in
2. Languages/dialects the other students in your class think
in
3. Languages/dialects that your teachers think in
2. Make a list of words from your language/dialect and
from the languages/dialects of your classmates/
teachers that would be hard to describe in the
language spoken in your class.
3. Discuss how this inability to explain these words to
someone not familiar with the language you use,
could affect your performance as a team. You may
use an activity as an example.
Discussion
1. Identify your own biases and identify how you
attribute your experiences with your in-group
and out group members.
2. Identify what makes you tick as a
communicator. Introspect and list the
intrapersonal factors that motivate you to keep
going in your interactions in different
situations.

71
 Culture Clash (Johnson, 2002)
n A culture clash is a conflict over basic values
that occurs among individuals from different
cultures.
n Culture clashes occur because the parties
involved are feeling:
¨ Threatened
¨ Confused
¨ Enhanced – could go either way – ‘museum piece’
situation 72
Issues in International Management
n Expatriates:
¨ Moving to a new place with the same people in the
same company
¨ Moving to a new place with new people in the
same company
¨ Moving to a new place with new people in a new
company
¨ Moving to a new place with new people in a new
company where the language is alien – job in
Sweden or73 Japan.
Issues in International Management
(contd.)
n Impatriates:
¨ New people from the same company, same
nationality coming in from another country with
‘better’ know-how.
¨ Familiar people from the same company, same
nationality, returning from a foreign country with
‘better’ know-how.
¨ New people from the same company, new
nationality coming in from another country.
¨ New people from a new company, new nationality,
coming 74in and ‘sitting on our heads’.
Issues in International Management
(contd.)
n Repatriates:
¨ Coming back to the home country, to the same
people, to the parent company, after a stint abroad.
¨ Coming back to the home country to the same
people, in a different company, after a stint abroad.
¨ Coming back to the home country to different
people, to a different company, after a stint abroad.

75
Thank You
76
 Human Behavior in
Organizations (BM40004)
Aradhna Malik
Assistant Professor
VGSOM, IIT Kharagpur
Source for the following slides
n Robbins, S. P., Judge, T.A. & Vohra, N.
(2012). Organizational Behavior (14th Ed.).
New Delhi: Pearson.

Unless specified otherwise

 Productivity
Basic OB Model (Robbins, Judge & Vohra, 2012) Absence
Turnover
Human Deviant workplace
Output behavior
Citizenship
Satisfaction
Human resource Organization
policies & practices Systems
Organizational Organization structure
Level
culture and design
Change
& stress Group Level
Group decision making Leadership and trust
Communication Group structure Work teams
Conflict Power & politics

Biographical characteristics Individual Level

Perception
Personality & emotions
Motivation Individual
Values & attitudes decision making
Human Input Ability Individual learning
Diversity
n Surface-level diversity: Obvious, visible
forms of diversity, usually demographic
n Deep-level diversity: Psychological and
behavioral
 Discrimination
n Discriminatory policies or practices: Actions taken by reps of
org that deny equal opportunity to perform or unequal
rewards for performance
n Sexual harassment: Unwanted sexual advances and other
verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that create a
hostile or offensive work environment
n Intimidation: Overt threats or bullying directed at members of
specific groups of employees
n Mockery and insults: Jokes or negative stereotypes;
sometimes the result of jokes taken too far
n Exclusion: Exclusion of certain people from job opportunities,
social events, discussions, or informal mentoring; can occur
unintentionally
n Incivility: Disrespectful treatment, including behaving in an
aggressive manner, interrupting the person, or ignoring
his/her opinion
 Sources of Difference (Collier, 1994;
Pinderhughes, 1989; Martin & Nakayama,2001)

nRace nGender
nReligion nSexual identity
nIdeology nAge
nNationality nFamily constellation
nEthnicity nSocioeconomic status
nAppearance nEducational (qualifications and
nPersonal artifacts system)
nBody structure (Height, weight, nProfessional and personal
height-weight ratio) experiences
nBehavioral style nOccupation
6
Biographical characteristics
n Age
n Gender
n Disability
n Tenure
n Religion
n Sexual orientation and gender identity
 Ability
n Intellectual:
¨ Numerical aptitude: Ability to do speedy and accurate
arithmetic
¨ Verbal comprehension: Ability to understand what is
read or heard & the relationship of words to each other
¨ Perceptual speed: Ability to identify visual similarities &
differences quickly & accurately
¨ Inductive reasoning: Ability to identify a logical
sequence in a problem & then solve the problem
¨ Deductive reasoning: Ability to use logic & assess
implications of an argument
¨ Spatial visualization: Ability to imagine how an object
would look if its position in space were changed
¨ Memory: Ability to retain & recall past experiences
 Ability (Contd.)
n Physical:
¨ Strength factors
n Dynamic strength: Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or
continuously over time
n Trunk strength: Ability to use muscular strength using the trunk (esp.
abdominal) muscles
n Static strength: Ability to exert force against external objects
n Explosive strength: Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or
a series of explosive acts
¨ Flexibility factors
n Extent flexibility: Ability to move the trunk & back muscles as far as
possible
n Dynamic flexibility: Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements
¨ Other factors
n Body coordination: Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of
different parts of the body
n Balance: Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off
balance
n Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort
over time
Disabilities
n Definition: "A physical or mental
impairment that substantially limits one or
more of the major life activities of such
individual; a record of such impairment; or
being regarded as having such an
impairment." (ADA, 1990, in Nelson &
Kleiner, 2001)
Implementing diversity management
strategies
n Attracting, selecting, developing, and retaining diverse
employees:
¨ Target under-represented demographic groups while
advertising
¨ Highlight commitment to diversity during recruitment
n Ensure diversity in groups wherever possible
n Implement effective diversity programs
¨ Training managers on legal framework for equal employment
opportunity & encouragement of fair treatment of all
employees regardless of demographic characteristics
¨ Training managers on the effective use of a diverse
workforce towards targeting & serving a diverse customer
base
¨ Fostering personal development practices especially
keeping the perspectives of diverse peers in view
Discuss
n What kinds of diversity might you see in
your workplace?
n How might this diversity impact your
interaction with your peers, superiors and
subordinates?
n Role of biases
Thank You
 Organizational Behavior
Session 1

Aradhna Malik
Assistant Professor
VGSOM, IIT Kharagpur
1
 Contact
n Email: amalik@vgsom.iitkgp.ac.in;
ob.vgsom@gmail.com
n Phone:
¨ On campus: 81762
¨ Off campus: +91-3222-281762
¨ Mobile: +91.96471 82743
n Office Hours: By appointment.

2
Management

3
What do managers do? (Squires, 2001)
Functions
n Motivate
n Direct
n Allocate
n Co-ordinate
n Monitor
n Evaluate
n Plan
n React
n Develop
4
How do managers do what they do?(Squires, 2001)

Processes
n Instructional
n Technical
n Personal
n Interpersonal
n Entrepreneurial
n Political
n Administrative
n Financial
n Legal
5
What affects what managers do? (Squires, 2001)

Contingencies

Mission Organization Environment

Nature Size Regulatory
Unity Structure Economic
Stability Culture Social

6
A Manager’s Job
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS

MANAGER •Money
•People
Contingencies •Society
•
•
•

Processes Functions

7
 The Nature of Managerial Work
n Remarkable similarity in management jobs
n Jobs in today’s workplace cluster around
core management roles:
¨ Interpersonal
¨ Informational
¨ Decisional
Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work

Source: O’Rourke, J. & Singh, A. (2006). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.

8
Major Characteristics of a Manager’s
Work
n Time is fragmented.
n Values compete; the various roles are in
tension.
n The job is overloaded.
n Efficiency is a core skill.

Source: O’Rourke, J. & Singh, A. (2006). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.

9
 What Varies? The Emphasis
n The entrepreneur role is gaining importance.
n So is the leader role. Managers must be
more sophisticated as strategists and mentors.
n Managers must create a local vision as they
help people grow.

Source: O’Rourke, J. & Singh, A. (2006). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.

10
 Management Skills Required
n Technical Skills: Most valuable at the entry
level; less valuable at more senior levels.
n Relating Skills: Valuable across the
managerial career span.
n Conceptual Skills: Least valuable at the
entry level; more valuable at more senior
levels.
Source: O’Rourke, J. & Singh, A. (2006). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.

11
The Bottom-line
“The key to good management is knowing
what is fundamental to success and what is
not” (Scott Adams, 1997)

A good manager just goes out and gets the

job done with as optimal use of resources as
possible.

12
 Effective management (Wood et al, 2001)

n Effective manager: “A manager whose work unit

achieves high levels of task accomplishment and
maintains itself as a capable workforce over time.”
n Productivity: “… is a summary measure of the
quantity and quality of work performance which
also accounts for resource use.”
n Performance effectiveness: “… measures whether
important task goals are being attained.”
n Performance efficiency: “… measures how well
resources are being used.”
n High productivity = Performance effectiveness +
performance efficiency
13
 A manager’s challenge
n Ref: It is cool, it is hot
n “The manager’s challenge is about being
accountable both to higher level superiors for
work unit results and dependent on the efforts
of subordinates and other team members to
make these results possible.” (Wood et al., 2001)

14
Your Task as a Professional
n Recognize and understand your strengths
and weaknesses as a communicator.
n Improve existing skills.
n Develop new skills.
n Acquire a knowledge base that will work for
the 21st century.
n Develop the confidence you’ll need to
succeed as a manager or executive.
Source: O’Rourke, J. & Singh, A. (2006). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.

15
Organizational Behavior

16
 Organizational behavior
n Organization
¨ “The act or process of organizing”
¨ “a body of persons organized for some end or work,”
¨ “the administrative personnel or apparatus of a
business”
(Merriam-Webster Inc., 1989; Rousseau, 1997)
n Organizational behavior:
¨ “A field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior
within organizations, for the purpose of applying such
knowledge toward improving an organization's
effectiveness.(Robbins, Judge & Vohra, 2012)

¨ Primarily what people do in an organization and how

their behavior affects the organization
Principles exhibited by formal
organizations (Ross & Anderson, 2000)

n Continuity principle: They are embedded in a

history, and presumably anticipate a future
n Task specialization principle: They depend
upon certain task specializations
n The control principle: They create internal
control systems in the form of bureaucracies
(chains of command, hierarchies, leadership)
and reward structures
n The multiple audience principle: They address
multiple audiences internally and externally
 Basic Concepts (Wood et al, 2001)
n Division of labor: “… is the process of breaking
the work to be done into specialized tasks that
individuals or groups can perform.”
n Task performance: “… is the quality and
quantity of work produced.”
n Work teams or units: “… are the task oriented
groups that include a manager and their direct
reports.”

19
 Disciplines that contribute to OB Output
(Robbins, Judge & Vohra, 2012) Contribution Unit of

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Behavioral
Learning, Motivation, Personality, Analysis
Science
Emotions, Perception, Training,
Leadership effectiveness, Job
Psychology satisfaction, Individual decision making,
Performance appraisal, Attitude
measurement, Employee selection, Work
Individual
design, Work stress

Social Behavioral change, Attitude change,

Communication, Group processes,
Psychology Group decision making
Group

STUDY OF
Communication, Power, Conflict,
Sociology Intergroup behavior

Formal organization theory, Organizational

Technology, change, and culture
Comparative values and attitudes,
Cross-cultural analysis
Organization
Anthropology Organizational culture and environment system
Power
Challenges and opportunities for OB
(Robbins, Judge & Vohra, 2012)
n Responding to economic pressures
n Responding to globalization
¨ Increased foreign assignments
¨ Working with people from different cultures
¨ Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor
n Managing workforce diversity
n Improving customer service
n Improving people skills
n Stimulating innovation and change
n Coping with 'temporariness'
n Working in networked organizations
n Helping employees balance work-life conflicts
n Creating a positive work environment
n Improving ethical behavior
 Theoretical
Underpinnings
Classical management theory
n Based on the work of F. W. Taylor and Henry Fayol
n Organizations as producers
n Based on the belief that too many decisions were
made by leaders who did not have a clue about what
their changes would produce.
n Believes that if the managers had enough detailed
information about how workers accomplish their jobs –
both in actual and potential production – they could
better compare the likely results of proposed changes
without having to expend actual resources on
experimentation.
 Classical
Management Theories
 Scientific management theory
(Taylor, 1913, 1947, in Anderson & Ross, 2002)

n Organization as machine: Organizations or factories

were big mechanisms that fitted together smaller and
basically interchangeable mechanisms known as
workers
n Instead of demanding higher output or productivity of
labor [I-It – Martin Buber], and to back those demands
with pressures or threats, by matching men, tools, and
the tasks they were required to perform, it was
possible to increase productivity without placing
increased physical burdens upon the men [possibly I-
Thou – Martin Buber???]
n Limitation to this theory: Does not take into account
the ‘rich uniqueness of the individual human person
(Ross & Anderson, 2000)
Administrative Theory
(Fayol, 1949, in Anderson and Ross, 2002)
n Application of scientific thinking to the work done by
those who administer managerial practices
n Fayol’s five part analysis of administrative science
principles (suggested by Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000)
¨ Planning: Anticipating a probable future
¨ Organizing: Creating clearly understood divisions of labor in
hierarchical, or, in Fayol’s terms, ‘scalar’ form
¨ Commanding: Setting goals realistically
¨ Coordinating: Relating diverse employees to each other’s
interests, and to those of the organization
¨ Controlling: Evaluation of work styles and subsequent
rewards
Organizations as collections of
individual needs (Anderson & Ross, 2002)
n Human relations/ resources theory:
n Organizations were capable of creating internal
communication patterns that supported their
business goals much more effectively.
Organizations increased their rationality and
self-awareness, which produced better quality
information.
Discourse Based
Theorizing

28
The communicative organization model
Anticipate Misunderstandings
Conflict in values
Lack of information
Strategic interpretation

Social Interaction
Psychological immediacy
Real-time response
Exchange assessment
Communicative Managing relationship confusion

Organization (CO) Behavioral Flexibility

Change in relationships
Change in interaction patterns
Dialectical tensions

Source: Modaff, D.P. & DeWine, S. (2002). Strategic Communication Planning

Organizational communication: Foundations, Recognize
challenges & misunderstandings. LA: Roxbury. 109. Contain
Permission to use diagram awaited. Cope
Construct
29
Communicative organization model (Contd.)
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

n Anticipate misunderstandings:
¨ Misunderstandings occur in “instances in which
people who are communicating don’t share
meaning” (Wood, 1998, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
¨ Misunderstandings can lead to new ways of
structuring tasks and roles
¨ Misunderstandings can help people to consider
alternative ways of acting
¨ Misunderstandings can lead to creative problem
solving
30
Communicative organization model (Contd.)
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
n Anticipate misunderstandings (Contd.):
¨ Conflict in values:
n Disparity between individual and organizational values regarding
organizational mission
n Suppression of a minority member’s contributions or lesser valuing of
‘voices’ of particular groups of people
Most likely involve frame-talk and mythopoetic talk
¨ Lack of information:
n Intentional and unintentional suppression of information to
newcomers
n Interruption of the chain of communication owing to geographic
separation
n Information gaps resulting from hierarchical/ functional differences,
and
n Removal of information cues with the use of information technology
Most likely correlated with tool talk
¨ Strategic misinterpretations: Purposive misunderstanding because
it benefits the receiver of the message in some way 31
Communicative organization model (Contd.)
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
n Social interaction:
¨ Psychological immediacy:
n Psychological involvement with another person's message
n Active listening
¨ Real time response: Timely feedback
¨ Exchange assessment: Conscious analysis of any
impending message exchange and the conscious
choice of the media to be used
¨ Management of relationship confusion: Identification of
appropriate behaviors when interacting with friends, co-
workers, and romantic relationships at work
32
Communicative organization model (Contd.)
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)
n Behavioral flexibility:
¨ With superiors/ subordinates/ peers, when they move
from formal to semi-formal contexts e.g. office to office
party
¨ Change in relationship e.g. professional to professional
plus friendship/ romance
n Change in interaction patterns because of the above
n Dialectical tensions (Baxter, 1988, 1990; Baxter & Montgomery, 1996; Cissna
Cox & Bochner, 1990; Rawlins, 1992, in Anderson& Ross, 2002):

¨ Connection vs. autonomy

¨ Predictability vs. novelty
¨ Openness vs. privacy
33
Communicative organization model (Contd.)
(Modaff & DeWine, 2002)

n Strategic communication planning

¨ Recognize: that organizational life is inherently
problematic and characterized by
misunderstandings
¨ Contain: the problem or misunderstanding so its
impact is minimal
¨ Cope: with communication problems or
misunderstandings
¨ Construct: a new interpretation of the
misunderstanding so learning can occur
(particularly, new attitudes, values, behaviors, or
practices) 34
Thank You
35
 Understanding
&
Managing Individual Behavior
Aradhna Malik (PhD)
Assistant Professor
VGSoM, IIT Kharagpur
1
Source for the following slides
n Robbins, S. P., Judge, T.A. & Vohra, N.
(2012). Organizational Behavior (14th Ed.).
New Delhi: Pearson.

Unless specified otherwise

 Individual
performance factors

3
 Individual attributes (Wood et al., 2004)
n Capacity to perform
Which is dependent upon
n Demographic or biographic characteristics (age,
gender, ethnic background, etc.)
n Competency characteristics (aptitude, ability, etc.)
n Personality characteristics (traits & patterns of
manifestation and expression of those traits)
n Values
n Attitudes & perceptions
Match between individual attributes & task
requirements is essential to facilitating job
performance. 4
What are emotions and moods?
n Affect: Generic term that covers a broad
range of feelings people experience
n Emotions: Intense feelings directed at
someone or something
n Moods: Less intense feelings than
emotions and often lack a contextual
stimulus
 Affect
Broad range of feelings experienced by people
Can be experienced in the form of moods and emotions

Emotions
•Caused by a specific
event
•Brief
•Specific and numerous
•Usually accompanied by
distinct facial expressions
•Action oriented
Moods
•Cause is often general & unclear
•Last longer than emotions
•More general: positive and negative
•Constitute multiple specific emotions
•Generally not indicated by distinct
expressions
•Cognitive
Types of Affect
n Positive Affect: Mood dimension consisting
of positive emotions
n Negative affect: Mood dimension
consisting of negative emotions
 High
High Negative Tense Alert
Positive
Affect Excited
Nervous Affect
Elated
Stressed

Upset Happy

Sad Content
Depressed Serene
Bored Relaxed
Low Low
Negative Fatigued Calm Positive
Affect Affect
Functions of emotions
n Do emotions make us irrational?
 Sources of emotions and moods
n Personality
n Day of the week and time of day
n Weather: Illusory correlation: tendency to think that
nice weather improves mood
n Stress
n Social activities
n Sleep
n Exercise
n Age
n Gender
 Emotional Labor
n Emotional labor: An employee’s expression of
organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions at work
n Emotional dissonance: Projection of one emotion
when feeling another
n Felt emotions: Actual emotions
n Displayed emotions: Emotions that the
organization requires employees to show and
considers appropriate in a given job
n Surface acting: Hiding inner feelings and foregoing
emotional expressions in response to display rules
n Deep acting: Trying to modify our true inner
feelings based on display rules
Affective events theory (AET)
n Demonstrates that employees react
emotionally to things that happen to them
at work, and this reaction influences their
job performance and satisfaction.
 Affective Events Theory (AET)
Work Environment
•Characteristics of the job
•Job demands
•Requirements for emotional labor Job satisfaction

Work events Emotional reactions

•Daily hassles •Positive
•Daily uplifts •Negative

Job performance
Personal dispositions
•Personality
•Mood
Tests of AET suggest the following
n An emotional episode is usually a series of emotional
experiences, precipitated by a single event and
containing elements of both emotions and mood cycles.
n Current emotions influence job satisfaction at any given
time, along with the history of emotions surrounding the
event.
n Because moods and emotions fluctuate over time, their
effect on performance also fluctuates.
n Emotion driven behaviors are typically short in duration
and of higher variability.
n Because emotions, even positive ones, tend to be
incompatible with behaviors required to do a job, they
typically have a negative influence on job performance.
 Emotional Intelligence (EI)
n A person's ability to be:
¨ Self-aware (to recognize his/her emotions when
s/he experiences them)
¨ Detect emotions in others
¨ Manage emotional cues and information.
 Significance of EI
n Intuitive appeal: Intuition suggests people who can
detect emotions in others, control their own
emotions, and handle social interactions well, have
a significant advantage in the business world.
n EI predicts criteria that matter: The ability to
recognize emotions in others' facial expressions
and to pick up subtle signals about people's
emotions, predicted peer ratings of how valuable
people were to their organizations.
n EI is biologically based: Emotions and the
structure of the brain.
Limitations of EI
n Too vague
n Cannot be measured
n Validity may be suspect
Implications of moods and emotions
for organizational behavior
n Selection
n Decision making
n Creativity
n Motivation
n Leadership
n Negotiation
n Customer service
n Job attitudes
n Safety at work
n Influence of managers and management styles on
moods and eventually performance of employees - Role
of defensive and supportive communication climates
Motivation
What?
n The processes that account for an
individual's intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal.
 Theoretical
Underpinnings
 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Self
Actualization
(Growth, achieving
potential, self-fulfillment)
Higher Order Higher Order
Needs Esteem
Needs
(Self-respect, autonomy,
achievement, status, recognition & attention)
Social
(Affection, belongingness, acceptance, & friendship)
Safety
rd r

Lo r de
O we

(Protection from physical & emotional harm)

O
we r
er
Lo

r
Physiological
(Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, other bodily needs)
McGregor's Theory X & Theory Y
n Theory X: Managers believe that employees
inherently dislike work and must therefore be
directed or even coerced into performing it
n Theory Y: Managers assume that employees
can view work as being as natural as rest or
play, and therefore the average person can
learn to accept, and even seek responsibility
 Herzberg's Two-factor Theory
n Motivation-hygiene theory:
¨ Successes (and things that people feel good about
e.g. advancement, recognition, responsibility, &
achievement) are attributable to intrinsic factors
¨ Failures (and things that people feel bad about e.g.
supervision, pay, company policies, & working
conditions) are attributable to extrinsic factors or
hygiene factors
¨ The opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction
¨ The opposite of dissatisfaction is no satisfaction
 McClelland's theory of needs
n Need for achievement (nAch): is the drive to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed
n Need for power (nPow): is the need to make
others behave in a way in which they would not
have behaved otherwise
n Need for affiliation (nAff): is the desire for
friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 Self-determination theory
n Selfdeterminationtheory.org
n Meta theory
n Initially developed by Edward L Deci and
Richard M Ryan
n 'Begins with the assumption that people are
active organisms, with evolved tendencies
toward growing, mastering ambient challenges,
and integrating new experiences into a
coherent sense of self.'
(selfdeterminationtheory.org)
Self-determination theory (Contd.)
n Five mini-theories:
¨ Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Intrinsic motivation:
Motivation based on the satisfaction of behaving for
its own sake. (selfdeterminationtheory.org).
Extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a
task. When people are paid for work, it feels less
like something they want to do and more like
something they have to do.
Mini Theories (Contd.) (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
n Organismic integration theory (OIT): Extrinsic motivation
is behavior that is instrumental - that aims toward
outcomes extrinsic to the behavior itself.
¨ Distinct forms of instrumentality along a continuum of
internalization:
n External regulation
n Introjection
n Identification
n Integration
¨ The more internalized the extrinsic motivation is, the more
autonomous the person will be when enacting the behaviors
¨ Highlights contextual supports for autonomy and relatedness
as critical to internalization
Mini Theories (Contd.) (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
n Causality Orientations Theory (COT):
¨ Describes individual differences in people's
tendencies to orient toward environments and
regulate behavior in various ways.
¨ Describes and assesses the following causality
orientations:
n Autonomy orientation in which persons act out of interest
in and valuing of what is occurring
n Control orientation in which the focus is on rewards,
gains, and approval
n Impersonal or amotivated orientation characterized by
anxiety concerning competence
Mini Theories (Contd.) (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
n Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT):
¨ Elaborates the concept of evolved psychological
needs and their relations to psychological health
and well being
¨ Argues that psychological well being and optimal
functioning is predicated on autonomy, competence,
and relatedness. So, the level of support from
contexts has a direct bearing on wellness &
functional costs.
¨ Depends upon cross developmental and corss
cultural settings for validation and refinements.
Mini Theories (Contd.) (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
n Goal Contents Theory (GCT):
¨ Grows out of distinction between extrinsic and
intrinsic goals and their impact on motivation and
wellness
¨ Goals are seen as differentially affording basic need
satisfactions and are thus differentially associated
with well being
 Goal setting theory
n Edwin Locke – late 1960s: Intentions to work toward a
goal are a major source of work motivation
n Assumes that an individual is committed to the goal and
is determined not to lower or abandon it.
¨ Believess/he can achieve it
¨ Wants to achieve it.
n Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are
made public, when the individual has an internal locus of
control, and when the goals are self-set rather than
assigned.
n Implementation: Management by Objectives (MBO):
Emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible,
verifiable, and measurable
 Self-efficacy theory
n Developed by Albert Bandura
n Forms the basis of social cognitive theory and social learning
theory
n Refers to an individual’s belief that s/he is capable of
performing a task
n The higher your self efficacy, the more confidence you have
in your ability to succeed
n Self efficacy can be increased through:
¨ Enactive mastery: gaining relative experience with job
¨ Vicarious modelling: becoming more confident because you see
someone else doing the task
¨ Verbal persuasion: becoming more confident because someone
tells you that you have the skills necessary to be successful e.g.
Pygmalion Effect
¨ Arousal: Arousal leads to an energized state that drives a person
to complete a task
 Social learning theory
n Albert Bandura (1977)
n Role of observational learning in the development of
human personality
n Processes that influence what an individual learns by
observing:
¨ Attentional processes: People learn only when they
recognize and pay attention to critical features of processes
¨ Retention processes: Influence depends on how well the
individual remembers the model’s action after the model is
no longer readily available
¨ Motor reproduction processes: Individual demonstrates what
s/he has seen by doing it after seeing it
¨ Reinforcement processes: Positive reinforcement plays a
significant role in re-exhibiting and re-modelling observed
and learned behaviors
Equity theory/ Organizational Justice
n J. Stacy Adams (1965)
n When we see ourselves as under-rewarded, it creates
anger, when we see ourselves as over-rewarded it
creates guilt. This negative state of tension provides the
motivation to do something to correct it.
n Referent comparisons: Who do employees see
themselves in comparison to
¨ Self-inside:Employee’s experiences in a different position
inside the employee’s current organization
¨ Self-outside: Employee’s experiences in a situation or
position outside the employee’s current organization
¨ Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside
the employee’s organization
¨ Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals
outside the employee’s current organization
 Equity Theory (Contd.)
n Based on this theory, employees who perceive
inequity will make one of the following choices:
1. Change their inputs (exert less effort if underpaid,
more if overpaid
2. Change their outcomes
3. Distort perceptions of self
4. Distort perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent
6. Leave the field/ quit the job
 Model of Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Definition: Perceived fairness
of outcome

Procedural Justice Organizational Justice

Definition: Perceived fairness Definition: Overall perception
of process used to determine of what is fair
outcome in the workplace

Interactional Justice
Definition: Perceived degree to which
one is treated with dignity and respect
 Expectancy Theory
n Victor Vroom (1964)
n Focuses on the following relationships:
1. Effort-performance relationship: Probability perceived
by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort
will lead to performance
2. Performance-reward relationship: Degree to which the
individual believes performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship: Degree to which
organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal
goals or needs and the attractiveness of those
potential rewards for the individual
 Expectancy Theory (Contd.)

Individual 1 Individual 2 Organizational 3 Personal

Effort performance rewards goals

1. Effort-performance relationship

2. Performance-reward relationship

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

Personality
Definition
n A complex phenomenon built on a wide
range of the physical, mental, ethical, and
social qualities specific for each individual
(McKenna, 2006, in Grba, 2009)
Theoretical approaches
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Informal theories: Implicit theories: Stem from

personal constructs and incorporate attitudes,
beliefs, and values of the culture we grow up in.
These are the theories that really explain how
we view people . Include judgments and
stereotypes and biases.
n Scientific theories: Involve measurement and
assessment methods that use the concepts
arising from informal theories as a base.
Theoretical approaches based on approach
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Humanistic approach:
¨ Each of us is largely responsible for what happens to
us, and we are not merely driven and controlled by dark
forces within our personalities
¨ Focus of personality development is on the present and
traumatic experiences from our childhood do not have
to have an overwhelming effect on our personalities
¨ Stress on the importance of 'personal growth' stating
that people are not content with simply meeting their
current needs but wish to progress forward bigger goals
such as becoming the best they can be: or achieving
self-actualization (Rogers, 1980 & Maslow, 1970, in Grba, 2009)
Theoretical approaches (Contd.)
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Behaviorist approach: Personality is a result of

our experiences with our environments
¨ Classicalconditioning: Pavlov
¨ Operant conditioning: Skinner: Feedback:
Reinforcement and punishment
n Cognitive-behaviorist approach: People are
active learners who acquire knowledge and
understanding by being exposed to different
situations and by solving problems.
Theoretical approaches (Contd.)
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n The type approach: A person is either an

extrovert or an introvert or on a continuum with
extraversion on one side and introversion on
the other.
¨ Extraversion-introversion typology: Carl Gustav
Jung (1933)
¨ BIG4 personality functions: Myers and Briggs
(1962)
n Extraversion or Introversion
n Intuition or Sensing

n Thinking or Feeling

n Judgment or Perception
Type approach (Contd.)
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Type A & B personalities:

¨ Type A: Driven, impatient people, who sat on the
edge of their seats when waiting (Friedman & Ulmer, 1984, in
Grba, 2009), Workaholics, always busy, somewhat

impatient, extremely competitive, often irritable &

aggressive (Williams, 1993, in Grba, 2009)
¨ Type B: laid back, easy going, are not always
competing with the clock (Bortner, 1969, & Strube, 1989, in Grba,
2009), emotional reaction to pressure which is linked

to self esteem (Fontana, 2000, in Grba, 2009)

Trait (Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)
Any persisting characteristic, whether
emotional, cognitive, or behavioral, which
influences the way personality is manifested in
a relatively permanent and consistent way.
Trait theories (Allport, 1937; Murray, 1976; Eysenck, 1967; Cattell,
1971 & 78, in Grba, 2009)

n 5 Factor Model (Wiggins, 1996; McCrae & Costa, 1990; Deary & Matthews, 1993, in Grba,
2009):

¨ Extroversion: warmth, assertiveness, activity, seeking

excitement, enthusiasm, sociability vs. caution, reserve,
silence, sobriety
¨ Emotional stability: Anxiety, self-consciousness,
vulnerability, hostility, depression vs. emotional stability
¨ Openness to experience: Flexibility with openness to change
& new ideas vs. down-to-earth, simple, and narrow interests
¨ Agreeableness: Honest, straightforward, altruistic, modest,
tender-minded, obedient, conformist vs. irritable, suspicious,
uncooperative
¨ Conscientiousness: Competent, duty driven, self-disciplined,
thoughtful vs. disorganized, impulsive, careless, &
undependable
Big Five Traits & Organizational Behavior
Big Five Trait Relevance
•Less negative thinking &
Emotional Stability fewer negative emotions
•Less hyper-vigilant
•Better interpersonal skills
•Greater social dominance
Extraversion •More emotional expression
•Increased learning
•Creativity
Openness •Flexibility & autonomy
•Better liked
•Compliance & conformity
Agreeableness
•Greater effort &
persistence
Conscientiousness •More drive & discipline
•Organization & planning
Affects
•Higher job & life satisfaction
•Low stress levels
•Higher performance esp in
team related jobs
•Enhanced leadership
•Higher job & life satisfaction
•Training performance
•Enhanced leadership
•Adaptability to change
•Higher performance
•Lower levels of deviant
behavior
•Higher performance
•Enhanced leadership
•Greater longevity
Other personality traits relevant to OB
n Core Self-Evaluation: Perception of one’s own
abilities
n Machiavellianism: If it works, use it
n Narcissism: ‘I’
n Self-monitoring: Ability to adjust to others’
behaviors
n Risk Taking
n Type A & B Personality
n Proactive personality
Determinants of personality
n Heredity
n Environment

n Feral children
n Nature – nurture debate
Values
What are values?
n Ought vs. ought not
n Our interpretations of what is right and
what is wrong
n How might values influence:
¨ Our behaviors towards people?
¨ Our performance in our organization?
Classification of values
n Rokeach value survey:
¨ Terminal values: Desirable end states. Goals
a person would like to achieve during his/her
lifetime
¨ Instrumental values: Preferable modes of
behavior, or means of achieving the terminal
values
 Classification (Contd.)
n Generational values:
¨ Contemporary work cohorts:
In the US
n Veterans: Veterans: joined in the '50s and '60s
n Boomers: joined between 1965-85

n Xers: joined between 1985-2000

n Nexters: joined after 2000

In India:
n Socialists: joined between 1950s - late 1980s
n Liberals: joined between early 1990s to 2000

n Xers: joined between 2000-2005

n Millenials: joined after 2005

Dominant work values in today's workforce
Cohort Approximate Dominant work values
current age
Socialists 55+ Hardworking, conservative, conforming,
loyalty to the organization, emphasis on a
comfortable and secure life
Liberals Mid 40s to Success, achievement, ambition, dislike
Mid 50s of authority, loyalty to a career

Xers Late 20s to Work-life balance, dislike of rules,

early 30s confident, want financial success, self-
reliant but team oriented, loyalty to both
self and relationships
Millennials Early 20s Comfortable with technology,
entrepreneurial, want to get rich quickly,
high sense of entitlement
Linking an individual's personality and
values to the workplace
n Personality-job fit theory:
¨ e.g.
n Satisfaction and turnover are lowest when personality and
occupation are in agreement.
n A realistic person in a realistic job is in a lot more congruent job
than a realistic person in an investigative job.
n A realistic person in a social job is in the most incongruent
situation possible
¨ Key points:
n Intrinsic differences in personalities among individuals
n There are different types of jobs
n People in jobs congruent with their personalities should be
more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than people
in incongruent jobs
Holland's typology of personality
n Realistic: Prefers physical activities that require
skill, strength, and coordination
n Investigative: Prefers activities that involve
thinking, organizing, and understanding
n Social: Prefers activities that involve helping and
developing others
n Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, orderly, and
unambiguous activities
n Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities in which
there are opportunities to influence others & attain
power
n Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic
activities that allow creative expression
Holland's typology and congruent occupations
Type Personality characteristics Congruent occupations
Realistic Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill press operator,
stable, conforming, practical assembly-line worker, farmer
Investigative Analytical, original, curious, Biologist, economist,
independent mathematician, news reporter
Social Sociable, friendly, Social worker, teacher,
cooperative, understanding counselor, clinical psychologist
Conventional Conforming, efficient, Accountant, corporate
practical, unimaginative, manager, bank teller, file clerk
inflexible
Enterprising Self-confident, ambitious, Lawyer, real-estate agent,
energetic, domineering public relations specialist,
small business manager
Artistic Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,
idealistic, emotional, interior decorator
impractical
Relationships among occupational
personality typesc In v
e
st i stig
a l i a ti
Conventional
Re ve

Artistic
En
te
rp
l
ri s
in cia
So
g
Feral children
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STn3bp
TTU6c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR-
cWZ4CChI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9ENOY
bEoF8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pex4a1w
ntso
Sensation &
Perception
 Sensation
n Stimulation of sensory organs and reception of
stimuli by the brain
n Sensory organs:
¨ Eyes
¨ Ears
¨ Nose
¨ Tongue
¨ Skin
Process
n Sensation
n Transduction: Conversion of a sensory
signal into an electrical signal after which it
is interpreted in the brain .
n Perception
 What?
n “A very complex cognitive process that yields
a unique picture of the world, a picture that may
be quite different from reality.” (Luthans, 2013)
n A filter unique to each individual that “… tells
you which stimuli to notice and which to ignore;
which to love and which to hate. It creates your
innate motivations – are you competitive,
altruistic, or ego driven? … It creates in you all
of your distinct patterns of though, feeling, and
behavior … Your filter, more than your race,
sex, age, or nationality, is you.” (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999,
in Luthans, 2013)
Stages of the perceptual process
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)
Selective attention
Organization
Internal factors: Background,
values, interests, motives, past
experiences, attitudes & personality
External factors: Characteristics of
target person or object.
Relationship of target person or
object to its background

Interpretation
Perceptual sub-processes (Luthans, 2005)
Sensory Stimulation: Confrontation: Registration
•Physical environment Of specific stimulus of stimulus
•Socio-cultural environment

Interpretation
Of stimulus

Feedback
Consequence: Behavior:
for clarification
Reinforcement Overt or covert
or outcome
Factors influencing perception (Robbins, Judge & Vohra, 2012)
Perceiver:
•Attitudes
•Motives
•Interests
•Experience
Situation: •Expectations
•Time Perception
•Work setting Target:
•Social setting •Novelty
•Motion
•Sounds
•Size
•Background
•Proximity
•Similarity
Perceptual selectivity and organization
(Luthans, 2005)

n Subliminal perception: Perception of stimuli that

are not obvious or noticeable.
n Attention factors in selectivity:
¨ Intensity
¨ Size
¨ Contrast
¨ Repetition
¨ Motion
¨ Novelty and familiarity
¨ Set: People select out stimuli or situations from the
environment that appeal to, and are compatible with,
their learning, motivation, and personality
n Role of learning and experience in perception
Perceptual organization (Luthans, 2005)
n Figure-ground: Perceived objects stand out as
separable from their general background
n Perceptual grouping: There is a tendency to group
several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern
¨ Closure: Based on Gestalt school of thought: A person
will perceive a whole when one does not actually exist
¨ Continuity: We tend to perceive continuous lines or
patterns
¨ Proximity: A group of stimuli that are close together will
be perceived as a whole pattern of parts belonging
together
¨ Similarity: The greater the similarity of the stimuli, the
greater the tendency to perceive them as a common
group.
Perceptual organization (Contd.)
(Luthans, 2005)

n Perceptual constancy: Our perception of

signals received from our environments
remains constant, e.g. a red bowl will look like a
red bowl whether there is bright or low light in
the room
n Perceptual context: Stimuli acquire meaning
only within a context
Links
n http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/pe
rception/lecturenotes/recognition/recogniti
on.html
n http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/fcs_thomps
on-thatcher/index.html
Perceptual distortions
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Stereotypes: Heuristics or shortcuts to fill in information

people lack, to arrive at quick inferences and judgments
and to save effort (Lippman, 1922, in Balu, 2009)
¨ Serve to minimize information processing, perception,
judgment and action. Energy saving devices. (Allport, 1954, &
Macrae et al., 1994, in Balu, 2009)
¨ Social identity theory suggests that stereotyping ‘reflects,
and functions in the context of changing inter-group
relations’ (Haslan et al., 1992, in Balu, 2009)
¨ Likely to occur when people experience a threat to their self-
esteem as it serves to bolster their own self-image (Fein &
Spencer, 1997, in Balu, 2009)
¨ Stereotyping subordinates could fulfil motivational pressures that
accompany power holders’ position of control and unique ability to
judge. People in power are less motivated to go beyond their
stereotypes (Fiske, 1993, in Balu, 2009)
Perceptual distortions (Contd.)
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Self-fulfilling prophecy: Pygmalion effect (Term coined

by Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968): When people hold

expectations that lead them to alter their

behavior, which in turn causes the expected
behavior to be exhibited by people who are
targets of the expectations

Discuss the positive and negative effects of

self-fulfilling prophecies
Perceptual distortions (Contd.)
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Implicit Personality Theory: General

assumption we build up about a person's
personality after we know something about their
central traits.

n Horns and Halo Effect:

¨ Halo Effect: Perception of a halo of desirable traits
around the head of a person we inherently like
¨ Horns Effect: Perception of 'horns' or a set of
deficiencies around the 'head' of a person we
Attribution Theory
Observation Interpretation Attribution of cause

i g h Internal
H
Distinctiveness
Low External

H i gh Internal
Individual
behavior Consensus
Low External

H i gh Internal
Consistency
Low External
Specific applications of shortcuts in
organizations
n Employment interview: Good and bad
applicants
n Performance expectations: Self-fulfilling
prophecies - Pygmalion effect
n Performance evaluation (in light of performance
expectations): I will evaluate you in light of what
I expect from you, not in light of what you are
capable of doing
Impression management
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Process by which people seek control or

influence the impressions that others form
(Schlenker, 2000, in Balu, 2009)

n Assertive impression management tactics:

¨ Ingratiation tactics: behaviors designed to evoke
interpersonal attraction or liking. e.g. opinion
conformity, doing favors, flattery & compliments, &
self-enhancement (Rosenfeld et al., 2002, in Balu, 2009)
¨ Self-promotion tactics: Behaviors intended to evoke
attributions of competence or respect rather than
attractiveness. e.g. Entitlements, enhancements,
overcoming obstacles (Stevens & Kristof, 1995, in Balu, 2009)
Impression Management (Contd.)
(Balu, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Defensive tactics: Tactics that are used to

protect one's self image when it has been
damaged either by one's behavior or by
information that surfaces during the interaction.
e.g. excuses, justifications & apologies (Gardner &
Martinko, 1988, in Balu, 2009)
Improving person perception
(Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004, in Balu, 2009)

n Allowing more time & avoiding snap judgments

of others
n Collecting and consciously using more
information about others
n Self-awareness & understanding of how our
own biases & preferences affect our
perceptions
n Checking our attributions
Attitudes
Evaluative statements - either favorable or
unfavorable - about objects people or
events
 Components of attitudes
n Cognitive = evaluation or assessment of the
current state of affairs
n Affective = emotional assessment/ description
of feelings associated with a particular
event/object/person
n Behavioral = Intention to behave in a certain
way toward someone or something as a result
of the above
Does behavior always follow from
attitudes?
n Cognitive dissonance: Any incompatibility
between two or more attitudes or between
behavior and attitudes
n Moderating variables:
¨ Importance of the attitudes
¨ Correspondence of attitudes to behavior
¨ Accessibility of attitudes by our memories (which
attitude do we remember as having accessed
frequently?)
¨ Social pressures
¨ Direct experience with attitude
 Major job attitudes
n Job satisfaction: A positive feeling about one's job
resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
n Job involvement: The degree to which a person
identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and
considers performance important to self-worth
n Psychological empowerment: Employees' belief in the
degree to which they affect their work environment, their
competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and their
perceived autonomy in their work
n Perceived organizational support: Degree to which
employees believe the organization values their
contribution and cares about their well-being.
n Employee engagement: Individual's involvement with,
satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work s/he
does.
 Organizational commitment
Identification of an employee with a particular
organization and its goals and the keenness of
the employee to remain a member of his/her
organization
n Affective commitment: Emotional attachment to
the organization and a belief in its values
n Continuance commitment: Perceived economic
value of remaining with an organization
n Normative commitment: Obligation to remain
with the organization for moral or ethical
reasons
Diversity

100
Diversity
n Surface-level diversity: Obvious, visible
forms of diversity, usually demographic
n Deep-level diversity: Psychological and
behavioral
 Discrimination
n Discriminatory policies or practices: Actions taken by reps of
org that deny equal opportunity to perform or unequal
rewards for performance
n Sexual harassment: Unwanted sexual advances and other
verbal or physical conduct or a sexual nature that create a
hostile or offensive work environment
n Intimidation: Overt threats or bullying directed at members of
specific groups of employees
n Mockery and insults: Jokes or negative stereotypes;
sometimes the result of jokes taken too far
n Exclusion: Exclusion of certain people from job opportunities,
social events, discussions, or informal mentoring; can occur
unintentionally
n Incivility: Disrespectful treatment, including behaving in an
aggressive manner, interrupting the person, or ignoring
his/her opinion
 Sources of Difference (Collier, 1994;
Pinderhughes, 1989; Martin & Nakayama,2001)

nRace nGender
nReligion nSexual identity
nIdeology nAge
nNationality nFamily constellation
nEthnicity nSocioeconomic status
nAppearance nEducational (qualifications and
nPersonal artifacts system)
nBody structure (Height, weight, nProfessional and personal
height-weight ratio) experiences
nBehavioral style nOccupation
103
Biographical characteristics
n Age
n Gender
n Disability
n Tenure
n Religion
n Sexual orientation and gender identity
 Ability
n Intellectual:
¨ Numerical aptitude: Ability to do speedy and accurate
arithmetic
¨ Verbal comprehension: Ability to understand what is
read or heard & the relationship of words to each other
¨ Perceptual speed: Ability to identify visual similarities &
differences quickly & accurately
¨ Inductive reasoning: Ability to identify a logical
sequence in a problem & then solve the problem
¨ Deductive reasoning: Ability to use logic & assess
implications of an argument
¨ Spatial visualization: Ability to imagine how an object
would look if its position in space were changed
¨ Memory: Ability to retain & recall past experiences
 Ability (Contd.)
n Physical:
¨ Strength factors
n Dynamic strength: Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or
continuously over time
n Trunk strength: Ability to use muscular strength using the trunk (esp.
abdominal) muscles
n Static strength: Ability to exert force against external objects
n Explosive strength: Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or
a series of explosive acts
¨ Flexibility factors
n Extent flexibility: Ability to move the trunk & back muscles as far as
possible
n Dynamic flexibility: Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements
¨ Other factors
n Body coordination: Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of
different parts of the body
n Balance: Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off
balance
n Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort
over time
Disabilities
n Definition: "A physical or mental
impairment that substantially limits one or
more of the major life activities of such
individual; a record of such impairment; or
being regarded as having such an
impairment." (ADA, 1990, in Nelson &
Kleiner, 2001)
Implementing diversity management
strategies
n Attracting, selecting, developing, and retaining diverse
employees:
¨ Target under-represented demographic groups while
advertising
¨ Highlight commitment to diversity during recruitment
n Ensure diversity in groups wherever possible
n Implement effective diversity programs
¨ Training managers on legal framework for equal employment
opportunity & encouragement of fair treatment of all
employees regardless of demographic characteristics
¨ Training managers on the effective use of a diverse
workforce towards targeting & serving a diverse customer
base
¨ Fostering personal development practices especially
keeping the perspectives of diverse peers in view
Cognition

109
 Definition (Stewart, 1996)

n “… manipulation of symbolic representations

(they obtain semantic content by means of
correspondence relations with aspects of ‘the
state of things in the real world’) according to
the rules of a formal syntax…”
n More simply – ‘knowing’ the world around us …
Levels at which cognition has been
studied over the years (Walsh, 1995)

n Individual:
¨ Perception
¨ Behavior

n Group:
¨ Relational
¨ Decision making
n Organizational:
¨ Knowledge management
Ethnocognitivism, problem solving,
and hemisphericity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Everyone has the same cognitive
components but learns to use them
differently through life (Luria, 1966 in Lieberman, 1994)
n Research on cultural difference …
indivates that members of industrialized
societies and members of nonindustrial
societies respond to visual illusions quite
differently (Reid, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994)
112
Cognitive styles (Lieberman, 1994)
n Field-dependence/ Field-independence
n Reflectivity/ Impulsivity
n Tolerance/ intolerance of ambiguity
n Left hemisphere/ right hemisphere

113
How do cognitive styles
influence behaviors in
different cultures?
Field-dependent cognitive style
(Lieberman, 1994)

n Holistic perception of event

n Sensitivity to feelings and opinions of
others in the group (Scarcella, 1990 in Lieberman, 1994)
n In essence, perceiving that one is an
integral unit of and dependent upon one’s
‘context’ or ‘field’

115
Field-independent cognitive
style (Lieberman, 1994)
n Isolation of the details of the ‘field’ or
context – compartmentalization or
sequencing of various elements of the
field in order to attribute their happening to
logic or cause and effect
n Lack of emphasis on feelings or emotions

116
Field-dependent vs. Field-
independent Cognitive Style
n Brown (1980):
Field dependent – High context
Field independent – Low context

117
Reflectivity vs Impulsivity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Reflectivity:
¨ “Thinking about a problem”
¨ Taking the time to be completely right than to
be partially wrong
¨ Mistakes are treated rather harshly
¨ Grey areas are not acceptable: The solution is
either right or wrong

118
Impulsivity
n Solve and move on
n Being partially correct and moving on is
more important than taking the time to be
absolutely correct (and missing out on
opportunities for growth while doing so)
n Grey areas in problem solving acceptable

(Damen, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994)

119
Tolerance of Ambiguity
Bipolarity of language (Right or wrong, good
or bad) – also dependent on context.
¨ Encourages cause-effect thinking, and
linearity (Korzybsky, 1921 in Lieberman, 1994)
¨ Less tolerance of ambiguity where there is
greater bipolarity in the structure and meaning
of the language itself (Lieberman, 1994)
Tolerance of Ambiguity: Accepting the grey
areas in language, thought and behavior
120
Caution
n These systems are not mutually exclusive.
They may exist along with each other and
influence each other.

e.g. a High Context culture may be bi-polar,

and field-dependent at the same time
Reason for the example on the
previous slide
A culture may be field dependent and
highly contextual, but it may have the
vocabulary to define shades of grey in the
environment.
Ethnocognitivism and
Hemisphericity (Lieberman, 1994)
n Ethnocognitivism: Thought patterns dominant
within a culture
n Hemisphericity: Hemisphere dominance in the
brain

Both of the above influence behaviors in

different cultures and the manner in which these
behaviors are perceived and interpreted by other
cultures
Cognitive styles and cultural
behaviors rest on continua
rather than on extremes.
Cultural differences in problem
solving (Kaplan, 1970 in Lieberman, 1994)
n Linear and direct: e.g. English
n Tangential and semidirect: e.g. Semitic
n Circular: e.g. Asians
n Circuitous: e.g. Romance cultures
n Combination of direct and circuitous: e.g.
Russians
Cultural differences in problem
solving (Contd.) (Kaplan, 1970)
Cultural and situational variations in
patterns of thought (Condon and Yousef, 1975; Felder
and Silverman, 1988; Gregorc, 1979; and Pribram, 1949, in Lieberman, 1994)

n Universalistic: Universal application of concepts

n Nominalistic: Abstract terms exist, but abstract
objects (e.g. morality, politeness etc.) do not exist
universally
n Hypothetical: Assumption based
n Intuitional: Gut feeling
n Organismic: Every concept is related to the other
concept and is a constitutent part of the whole.
n Dialectical: Using reasoned arguments to establish
truth
n Temporal: Reasoning using time as the basis
 Cultural variations (Contd.)…
n Axiomatic: Start with definitions, postulates, and common
notions and establish the truth according to those
n Affective: Feeling that one is true regardless of the
evidence
n Inductive/ Deductive
n Analytic
n Global
n Sequential
n Concrete sequential: Reasoning based on reality and real
tangible objects
n Abstract random: Creative, and reason by making
connections that may not seem evident, between real
objects
Intelligence (Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)
n What?:
¨ Facilityfor solving problems
¨ Cognitive ability that involves abilities such as
reasoning, planning, abstract thinking,
understanding of complex ideas, 'making sense' of
our surroundings, and 'figuring out' what to do.
¨ Capacity for goal-directed, adaptive behavior
Approaches to intelligence
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Nature-Nurture debate
n Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence (Cattell, 1971, in Grba, 2009)
n General intelligence vs. intelligence equipping
people with the ability to excel in specific tasks
(Sternberg, 1996, in Grba, 2009)

n Emotional intelligence
Learning

131
Learning
n Classical conditioning: Pavlov
n Operant conditioning: Thorndike
Memory (Walsh & Ungson, 1991, in Luhman & Cunliffe, 2013)

n The ability to ‘preserve knowledge of past

events and bring it to bear on the present
decisions.’
n “Organizational memory is reflected in
organization structure and design, symbols,
and artifacts, as well as individuals.”
Styles of learning and problem solving
and their hemispheric preference
(McCarthy, 1990, in Lieberman, 1994)

n Imaginative (Primarily Right Hemisphere): Perceives

information concretely and processes it reflectively
n Analytic (Emphasizes right and left hemisphere
processing): Perceives information abstractly and
processes it reflectively
n Commonsense (Emphasizes left and right hemisphere
processing): Integrates theory and practice, by perceiving
information abstractly and immediately applying it to
concrete situations
n Dynamic (Primarily right): Perceives information concretely
and applies it immediately to concrete situations
Intelligence (Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)
n What?:
¨ Facilityfor solving problems
¨ Cognitive ability that involves abilities such as
reasoning, planning, abstract thinking,
understanding of complex ideas, 'making sense' of
our surroundings, and 'figuring out' what to do.
¨ Capacity for goal-directed, adaptive behavior
Approaches to intelligence
(Grba, 2009, in Matthewman, Rose & Hetherington, 2009)

n Nature-Nurture debate
n Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence (Cattell, 1971, in Grba, 2009)
n General intelligence vs. intelligence equipping
people with the ability to excel in specific tasks
(Sternberg, 1996, in Grba, 2009)

n Emotional intelligence
Thank You