THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Sxconp Eprrion Szconp Impression McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Ine. NEW YORK AND LONDON 1940Copyricnr, 1918, 1940, By THE McGraw-Hitt, Book Company, INc All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without pormission of the publishers. ‘THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, Pa.PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Since the first edition of the “Principles of Economie Geology” appeared in 1918, great progress has been made in the subject. In the preparation of this, the second edition, it was desired to bring the general treatment and the descriptions of mining districts up to date and at the same time not to increase greatly the size of the book. To do this the descriptions have been eut down where possible and the number of maps and other illustrations has been increased considerably. It is believed that this is desirable because most geologists find maps and sections easier to read and often more illuminating than long descriptions. The number of footnote references has been greatly increased. The text has been completely reset and rewritten. A few illustrations appearing in the first edition have been retained, but nearly all those appearing in the second edition are new. The number of illustrations is increased from 210 to 320. In the first edition the subjects most emphasized were genesis and enrichment. In the present edition the subject of structural control of the deposits is given equal weight. This has been made possible because of the very great increase in the number, and often in the quality, of the maps and sections of reports that have appeared in the past twenty-two years. ince the first: edition appeared, there have been many changes in terminology. The terms “hypogene,” “supergene,” “pyrometasoma- tic,” “hypothermal,” “mesothermal,” “epithermal,’’ and many others have been widely accepted and are in general use. These are used in this text, but frequent reference is made to their earlier synonyms. Undoubtedly the use of these terms improves the terminology of the science, yet in order to use the earlier literature of the subject, the student should know the older, widely used synonyms. In general the older synonyms or both terms are used in the first ten chapters of the text. In the past twenty-five years the great contributions to economic geology have been made possible by the detailed mapping of areas that contain ore deposits. As a result the relations of ore deposits to their geologic environments have become better known. Hypogene zoning, the position of deposits with respect to igneous intrusions, particularly with respect to the roofs of batholiths, have become apparent. ‘These subjects and related hypotheses have greatly interested the writer, and they have been rather fully treated in “Gold Deposits of the World,” vvi PREFACE T0 THE SECOND EDITION issued in 1937. That seemed permissible since the book mentioned is not a text. In a textbook such hypotheses, whieh perhaps are not sufficiently “aged” and which are not everywhere accepted may be stated, but not with an air of finality, and they are not given great prominence herein. Perhaps it is the duty of the writer of a text to present the subject as it is accepted by a majority of those active in the gation of the subject. At least he should not become an enthu- siastic advocate of insufficiently tried and debatable theories. Important working hypotheses, however, should be presented and discussed. ‘The treatment of the subject of supergene sulphide enrichment has been abridged somewhat. That seemed desirable in order to gain space for the descriptions of a very considerable number of the great sulphide deposits developed since 1918 that are chiefly or entirely hypogene. Most of the newer chemical data pertaining to supergene enrichment are introduced although the treatment of the details of the processes has been abridged. Other chapters of the general treatment have been shoriened to make space for maps, seetions, and short descriptions of deposits outside the United States, hundreds of which have appeared for the first time in the past twenty-two years. As in the first edition, the book is divided into two parts: (1) a general treatment of the subject and (2) a treatment separately of metals and nonmetals, except fuels, Extensive rearrangements of chapters of the first part have been made: the chief one of these is the treatment of structural control of epigenetic deposits a8 a separate unit. This chapter is the last: one of those (I to XVI) treating the general subject. Placing this chapter after the one treating the general subject of genesis (XV) may seem illogical, but it has the advantage of giving emphasis to struc- tural control, and Chapter XVI is written so that it may, with advantage, be reviewed after the last chapter (XXIV) of the text has been read. T acknowledge my indebtedness to Professors F. F. Grout, C. R. Stauffer, G. M. Schwartz, J. W. Gruner, G. A. Thiel, and to Mr. F. B. Hanley of the Department of Geology and Mineralogy of the University of Minnesota; and to Dr. D. M. Davidson, who has read critically the section of African copper deposits; to Dr. T. M. Broderick, who has read sections on Lake Superior copper and iron deposits; and to Dr. T. T. Quirke, who read the section on Sudbury. The chapters on genesis were read by Dr. M. H. Frohberg. Other contributions are acknowl- edged where they appear. Most of the drawings were made by, W. I. Gardner, L. K. Lancaster, H. 8. Norman, W. C. Lawson, Reino Ranta, K. ©. Silgen, H. J. Maiers, and Mrs, Louise Bush, all of whose services are gratefully acknowledged. W.HE Untversrry or Mnvwesora, MINNHAPoLis, February, 1940.PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION This volume is an attempt to present as briefly as practicable a perspective of the science of metalliferous and nonmetalliferous deposits to advanced students of geology. It includes a series of leetures on economic geology which for the past ten years I have offered at the University of Chieago and at the University of Minnesota. ‘These have been expanded and deseriptions of certain mining districts have been added. This work does not include a treatment of mineral fuels, an omission which perhaps is justified by the development of the geologic branches in our colleges. Coal deposits are treated at some length in text-books of general geology. Petroleum geology is treated in several texts on oil which are no more comprehensive than is desirable in a thorough course in economic geology. An equally comprehensive treatment would make this book so voluminous as to defeat some of its purposes. ‘The order of treatment is indicated in the table of contents. The first part of the book is a gencral treatment of mineral deposits. The second part is a treatment of each of the metals and of the more valuable nonmetallic minerals. Numerous mining districts and their deposits are described. There is no attempt to inelude discussions of all or even all the more valuable deposits of every metal. Examples are chosen to illustrate classes and as far as practicable they are chosen from North America. ‘The descriptions of mining districts are arranged so that some of them may be omitted in class-room work when that seems desirable. I am convinced that a few districts studied thoroughly are more helpful for instruction than many districts discussed in bri In advanced classes, as a rule, many or all of the students are familiar with one or more districts as a result of field work. Tt is advantageous in lecturing to use such districts, as far as practicable, for purposes of illustration even if that results in giving inadequate treatment to more important districts. It is difficult in one or two lectures to give a student a clear picture of a district which he will retain and when fifty or a hundred districts have been described the difficulties are increased. Maps, photographs, and sets of rocks and ores from the larger districts are helpful, especially if these are before the student during the discussion. Even with such assistance probably better results may be obtained by omitting discus- ions of some districts treated herein. vitviii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION I acknowledge my indebtedness to Professors F. F. Grout, T. T. Quirke, and T. M. Broderick of the Department of Geology and Mineral- ogy of the University of Minnesota, who have critically read certain sections of this volume, and to Dr. E. C. Harder of the United States Geological Survey, who has read several sections, among them the chapters treating deposits of iron and manganese. Many of the drawings have been made by Mr. A. I. Levorsen and Mr. G. 8. Nishihara. I have endeavored suitably to acknowledge sources of information by footnote references. W. HE. ‘University or Minnesora, Muvnnarowis, December, 1917.CONTEN’ Pace Pruvace 10 Tan Buconp BvITIoN. ee Prerace T0 THE First Eprrion 4 M6 wae vii Cuarren TL. Iyrropuction ap Crasstication or Mixnran Derosirs Sel IL. Macwattc Seorecations .. . Day are etre General Features... omen Occurrence... « ser ; - 10 Soperst eis er hanes 3 10 Gi ek es i t ae 12 Composition... 12 POEMEG 3 > oy ee css avs 3 - wy 12 Structural Relations... . . peepee cle: TH. Prcaarrres: 22 General Features . 22 Agents of Mineralization... . 24 Eutectics. . . 1. . . A 24 J Ooaurrance:, << + 2\5u- «45> > Rees 25 Shaner pater as ek ch AEM Fah ara ntihdege Me ieds OT Binet Meet cats Tiki. adic th oasis Stine Goaet nS as Composition . . . Pech ty oye jes alle. 2B Texture . . E a 28 Gradation . . ety 31 ‘Temperature and Pressure of Formation. . + 31 High Temperatures of Replacement of Pegmatites Pricaa OE Contact Metamorphism near Pegmatites. . . . . 1+ 88 Metal-bearing Pegmatites. . . are me “Sot . eee IV. Pyromerasomatic or ConTact-MeTAMoRPHIC Deposirs 35, Oceurrence . . ’ 35 Shape and Relation to Fissuring. 40 Sim CEN ote wists : 4l Composition . ce ee . 42 Texture. . . yn s >a 44 Material Added io Invaded Rocks. 45 ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Depths of Formation 47 Function of Mineralizing Agents... . . . 48 Fiscuring during Pyrometasomatism. . . 2... . 48 Endomorphie Changes... 22... 00.00 Se 48 V. Hyrornpermat Depostrs eh nee +4 #3 50 General Features 50 Oosuirenipe: Mee ses. oc, cls crops, rs0 "chine 50x CONTENTS Cuarren Paow Share {hue cavers Git as 2 Stn rchic rt gO Size AEBS egg in Uta est rah mee Composition... 2... ee BEAT ees! Texture... .. Are eS ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Depths of Formation rene Mineralizers rey Age anata ca ecoT Gradations into Pegmatite Veins : Pens Gradations into Pyrometasomatie Deposits... . ees VI. Mrsornmnwan Derosrrs 39 General Features c 59 Occurrence... . . 61 Shape et Size Peeps ara, eee Composition : ee oe aie ia toth 268 Texture... a ey ame, wes BM ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Depths of Formation . . . 66 IV Step Sos. ot tae 67 Gradations into Other Deposits 67 VIL. Eprrmerscar, Deposrrs Pe chins 68 General Features : cod eating SOS" Oceurrence. 2... -. 68 Shape ia inset vr lasers ad 69 SIRT oyna 70 Composition . . . 70 ‘Texture f Seg pL Replacement hs Teer: ‘Temperature, Pressure, and Depths of Formation siawa Te VILL. Devosrrs Former ar Moverarr axp Suantow Derras py Coup Mernoric Souutions 7 General Features B Occurrence . 79 Shape . 80 Size 80 Composition . : 80 Dextre pears 80 ‘Telethermal Deposits si IX, Sepiventany Derosirs .. 82 General Features 82 Occurrence... . 83 Shape 85 Size - 85 Composition . 85 Texture... 1. 88 X. Derorwation or Ore Durosrns 89 Faulting of Ore Deposits. . 90 Searching for Faulted Segments, 95CONTENTS xi Cuarron Pace Folding of Ore Deposits 2 98. Dynamie Metamorphism of Ore Deposits 98 Orientation of Ore Bodies ak 100 Chemical Changes during Metamorphism, 101 Mineral Composition. * a. 102 ‘Texture and Paragenesis " 102 Age Relations : 103 XI, SuPmRrrcrat AUTERATION AND ENRICHMENT OF OnE Devosrrs. . . . . 105 General Features... 105 Weathoring of Rocks 108 Supergene Enrichment of Sulphide Deposits. . : 109 General Features . . . ae 109 Water Table . é 110 Vadose Circulation ul Deeper Circulation ML Region of Nearly Stagnant Water p ut Fluctuating Movements of Underground Water 112 Physical Conditions That Influence Enrichment. 113 Glaciation... 113 Composition of Mine Waters E 14 Changes with Depths . 16 Precipitation from Mine Waters under Superficial Conditions. . . 116 Experimental Data... . 17 Mineral Syntheses. e 119 Summary of Chemistry of Sulphide Enrichment a 122 Downward Changes in Deposits... . . - Ponts als Outerops. . . fi mee tencitae ates Outerops above Sulphide Deposits. 125 Oxidized Zones... . 126 Supergene Sulphide Zones . 128 Relation of Supergene Sulphide Zone to Water Table 129 Precipitation of uh above Water Table 130 Textures: : a 130 Metasomatic Replacement ; 134 Influence of Primary Ores on Extent of Supergene Sulphide Zones. 136 Estimates of Portions of Lodes Eroded 187 Age Relations... . . . : 137 Summary... Sea 5 Red x ela® XII. OpEines ty Rocks anv Crtrary Frarunes or Erianxertc Drrostns , 14 Size of Openings. 5 eres Origin of Openings. : " 142 Primary Openings eee eee 142 Intergranular Spaces : . : : . 142 Bedding Planes... . . . - ws » 148 Vesicular Spaces. . . . Sent 143 Fragmental Tops of Lavas . e +t Openings in P = . 144 Miarolitic Cavities. : hae . 44 Submicroscopie Spaces: 145xii CONTENTS Cuarren Secondary Openings . . . Openings Formed by Solution. Openings Due to Shrinkage. Openings Due to the Force of Crystallization Openings Due to the Pressure of Solutions Compressional Fractures . ‘Tensional Fractures ‘Torsional Fractures Certain Features of Epigenetic Deposits Fissures Vein. Fault Fissure Vein Lode Reef. Ledge Ladder Vein Fractured Zone culated Vein Stringer Lead. Disseminated Deposits. Stockwork Breccia Vein Sheeted Zone Shear Zone Gash Veins Run : Flats and Pitches Lens. Pod Fahlband Reopened Vein Faults as Seats of Deposition Horsetail Structure . . Anticlinal Deposits . Ore Pipes. Fracture Systems in Mining Districts Conjugated Systems Parallel Sysiems Radial Systems Irregular Patterns XIII. Merasomaric Processes. . 158 Mechanism of Replacement. A 158 Criteria for Recognition of Replacement Deposits 161 General Features 161 Pseudomorphs. . 161 Banding and Crustification. aes A + 162 Cavities a es Crystal Boundaries 163 Boundaries of Deposits 164 Contacts 164 Fragments 164CONTENTS xiii Cnarree Paow Orientation of Fragments. . cs 165 Variations in Width Depending on Country Books egy. £165 Residual Minerals Bd 166 XIV. Minprat Assocrations anp WAti-Rock ALTERATIONS 167 Garnetiferous Veins... © alley She Ges 168 Cassiterite Veins... . 169 ‘Tourmaline, Gold and Copper Veins. 170 Sericitic Caleitic Gold Veins 170 Sideritie Lead-Silver Veins 171 Sericitic Copper-silver and Zine-silver Veins. 172 Sericitie Disseminated Copper Ores é 172 Sericitie Silver-gold Veins. . . 173 Gold-silver-adularia Veins 173 Chloritie Alteration in Granitie Rocks 174 Dolomitization . 174 Chloritic Alteration in Lavas (Propylitic Alteration) 175 Fluoritie Tellurium-adularia-gold Veins. 175 Alunitie Kaolinic Gold Veins . 176 Zeolitic Native Copper Veins 176 Chalcedonic and Caleitic Cinnabar Veins 177 Baritie Fluorite Vei 178 Deposits Formed at Orifices of Hot Springs. . . 178 Résumé . . . ‘ ‘ eee . . 180 XV. Assocrations or Merautirexous Lopes «xp Ionsous Rocks . . 183 Botholiths ;:... 0.5... A 185 Vapor Pressure es 190 Function of Gases eae Hypogene Zoning of Metals é lo Composition and State of Metal-bearing Fluids... . 197 Sources of Metals... a a = 2 180 ‘Metallogenie Provinces and Epochs ee 199 Summary. id : 201 XVI. SrrucruraL Conrrot or Epicenzric Deposrrs. 208 Geologic Settings . . ? .. 208 Changes of Attitudes of Veins : 204 Contact Veins. 4 = 206 Normal Faults... . 206 Reverse Faults. . : 207 Ore Shoots of Fault: Veins 207 Dikes . E encod Bedding-plane Deposits . . ee i 210 Conglomerates . ve rte * e 211 Sandstanoa hes Payee ok goirt Feo ers. csee 211 Limestones . . . a oe 212 Shales... 212 Schists 5 era eso, Fragmental Tops of Lavas i 212 Intersections . . . = . 212 Intersections with Veins and Crushed Zones. . Pale 213xiv Cuarree CONTENTS Intersections with Dikes.... 5.2.0... Intersections with Favorable Sedimentary Beds. . Intersections with Anticlinal Axes... . Intersections with Favorable Lava Beds . Anticlinal Deposits . Synelinal Deposits... Chambers . . Ore Pipes. . Cones Small Subsidence Areas Summary. XVII. Tnow. Ore Minerals . Origin of Sedimentary Ores. Age of Iron Ore Deposits of United States Lake Superior Region . . Mesabi Range. 3 Cuyana Range... . Gogebie Range . Marquette Range Menominee District . z Vermilion Range... . . - - Clinton Iron Ores Birmingham . . = Tennessee 6. te te Clinton, N.Y Wisconsin. . Northeast Texas Ores Iron Carbonate Ores. . Brown Ores. . . Magnetite and Hematite Ores. Cornwall, Pa. A Other Magnetite Ores Iron Mountain . . Iron Ores of Western States. Hartville. Iron Springs... . Eagle Mountains . Hanover (Foerro) Distri Dale ae Titaniferous Iron Ores = Iron Ores outside United States XVIII. Copper General Statement. Mineral Associations... . Outerops. . . . Sulphide Enrichment Minerals . Pace 214 pera 217 27 218 222 223 223 . 229 231 232 BBL . 234 « 235 +. 6 © 239 242. 245 . 29 » = Bik ~ 254 257 258. 260 260 ©. 263 . . 264 264 264 265 - 265 . 267 267 267 268 269 . 269 - . 269 + + 270 + + 270 271 272 272 +. 278 . 278 - . 280 . 280 - 282CONTENTS Coarse Disseminated Copper Deposits Copper-bearing Districts Butte... Bingham... . BS rere cen yee Bisbee... 6... Clifton-Morenei. . . Globe... Miami. . Ray Superior . ee Oe Doser e Burro Mountains Lordsburg California. : Michigan Copper Depee! Ducktown . Fontana . Alaska Copper-bearing Districts outside the United States Eastern Quebec Noranda . . Sudbury . Flin Flon. Sherritt-Gordon British Columbia Mexico Cubs... Peru. Bolivia. eGhile ape tes Finland . . Spain Belgian Congo-Northern Rhodesi XIX. Goup ann Sivek... 2... Sages . Bt Glas, sci : iar ee 344 Introduction . a ee ee Y: Bat Gold Placers . - 346 General Features . . rh 346 Scour and Fill... 347 Minerals Associated with Gold in Placers. . )... 347 Solution of Gold in Placers . . . ciaihomnete 34s, Relations of Gold Placers to Gold Lodes.... -.. . - 349 Kolian and Glacier Deposits... . 2... 350 Buried Placers . . . 850 Witwatersrand Auriferous Conglomerate... . Sask Areas with Gold Lode... 0... ee ee Ra 1a rere Gonadinn Shield’ ots ser oh own Teaxies: 3a4 eApcalachinn Bele Ferenc ta 2 ay, Pasar mae Res . 869xvi Carrer, CONTENTS Pacific Coast . . . +7 he r Alaska and Yukon. . isi British Columbia . 4 United States... aie Sierra Nevada... 0... East Oregon... 2... 1... Washington. . . . Idaho... . es io Montana... . . . Bese igen South Dakota... 2... 0. Colorado. . . Utah... 5 Se Nevada ie fon, fete cae Arizona . . New Mexico Silver Enrichment Identification of Secondary Silver Sulphides. Summary......... Cocur d’Alene. . Leadville. Aspen i San Juan Region . Silverton... . Telluride... Ouray Rico. z La Platz Mountains Lake City Aieceatee SORES E revue it teers Philipsburg . ABN ee ey ae East Tintic. . Park Pee eka Comstock Lode... 2. TonopaN A hea oi eset oe cet Tombstone... . XX. Zwe anv Lean... . Zine Zine Minerals. Uses. A ate 2 Mississippi Valley Zine-lead Province , Tristate Region. . . Upper Mississippi Valley ‘Tennessee-Virginia. Edwards Franklin Furnace Western States ‘ ae Zine Deposits outside the United States Buchans...... . Page 360 361 361 362 362 365 365 +. 366, - 366 - 366 372 - . 872 - 378 . . 83 . 874 376 . 377 378 379 381 . B82 384 385 . 385 . 386 386 386 387 387 387 » 891 +. 403 405Cuarren, CONTENTS Gaspé Peninsula Tetreault Sudbury Basin Flin Flon Sullivan . Moresnet.. . Upper Silesia Lead Uses Southeast Missouri Coeur d’Alene. Other Districts . Lead Deposits outside the United States Slocan : Linares. Arbus ‘Trepta. Bawdwin. . Broken Hill Mount Isa XXI. Nicken, Puatinum, anp Cunosmom XXII, Try anv Tox Nickel Nickel Ores. Choate Ranken Inlet Chieagof Island New Caledonia Gap... Platinum. United States. Chromium. Tin Ocourrences. Uses... United States. Malay Peninsula Burma Banka Bolivia. . : - Other Tin Districts . . ‘Tungsten. . : United States... . Outside United States XXIII. Misceutaxgous Merats Mereury Uses. . xvii Pace. . 408 409 . 409 409 409 410 - 410 410 411 . 41 414 416 416 . 416 416 AIT 418 419, 420 . 421 423 - 423 423 424 424. - 426 427 428. 428 428, 428, 429 . 430 431 434 . 434 434 434 434 435 438 442 443 444 445 446 447 449 449) 450xviii Carron CONTENTS United Siates sas Outside the United States . Antimony... 8. Aluminum and Bauxite. Aluminum Ores... Wate. Fa hat United States Outside United States . Manganese... 2... United States. 2. Outside United States Molybdenum... Arsenic Bismuth . Selenium and Tellurium . . Radium and Uranium Vanadium . ‘Titanium eh eo Tantalum snd Columbium . Zireonium . . . . . a IPeaae an A XXIV. Deposirs ov rae Nonmerars Building Stones Slate. a Lh ca Olay ee Re crema: Boe Bleaching Clays... .. (Comenta iiocte vie ots Mineral Wools Time... . Iceland Spar... 2. Bane ea eens e Sa Roofing Granules... 2... Fertilizers 2... Sulphur. 2... Pyrite and Sulphuric Acid Wale Ree tap sek ome Gypsum... 2... Potash Salis... Bromine . . . Nitrates Iodine... . Borax Minor Salis... . Geitis ete AP ea aids Feldspar . . igs Diatomite. .... Page 454 . 456 497 457 458 459 460 461 462 464 465 466 467 467 467 - 468 468 . 469 470 470 471 471 473 . 473 474 475 477 478 479 479 . 480 480 481 481 484 - 486 . 186 490 491 . 491 492 ©) ap ~ 493 494 497 497 498 - 498 499)Pigments... . | Sillimanite Group... . CONTENTSTHE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS Introduction.—Economie geology is the science that treats of the mineral deposits that are of value toman. A mineral deposit is a deposit that contains one or more useful minerals. Mineral deposits include the mineral fuels, the other nonmetalliferous deposits, and the metalliferous deposits. An ore deposit is a geologic body that may be worked com- mercially for one or more metals. Many ore deposits do not differ in genesis from other geologic bodies. They are simply igneous, sedi- mentary, or metamorphie rocks that contain valuable materials. ‘There is, however, a large group of mineral deposits (Fig. 1A, B) that are formed hy deposition from fiuids moving along channels in rocks. These are yeins and closely related deposits that are neither sedimentary nor igneous rocks. Mosi of them show close relations to igneous intrusive: The relation of such deposits to their geologic environment and their origins is of great: interest to the student of economic geology, since they receive little attention in most works on general geology. Weicnts awp Mrasvres I chain = 66 feet; 1 rod = 16. 1 meter = 39.37 inches; 1 kilometer = 0.62 mile Lgram = 15.432 grains — 0.643 pennyweight = 0.03215 troy ounce = 0.03527 avoir dupois ounce = $1,125 (pure gold U.S, currency 1941) 1 troy ounce = 480 grains = 20 pennyweights = 1.0971 4avoirdupois ounces = 31.104 grams = $35 (fine gold U.S. currency 1941) Standard value means 1 ounce gold = $20.67 A short ton = 2,000 pounds; 1 long ton = 2,240 pounds; 1 metrie ton = 2,205 pounds Sertain definitions that refer to vein formation are stated below. Other definitions introduced on following pages are noted in the inde: An ore is « mineral or association of minerals that may, under favo1 able conditions, be worked commercially for the extraction of one or more metals. Protore is low-grade metalliferous material which is not itself valuable but from which ore may be formed by superficial enrichment. An ore mineral is one that contains a valuable metal. 11 THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY: A gangue mineral is an earthy or nonmetallic mincral associated with the ore minerals of a deposit. ‘A tabular body is shaped like & tablet, short in one dimension and long in two dimensions. ee vv] Mesozo/e. Pre-Cambrian. Fic, LA,—Map of the Western Hemisphore showing the distr n of lode deposits and the probable periods of deposition of the predominant deposits. ‘A vein is a mineral mass, more or less tabular, deposited by solutions in or along a fracture or group of fractures. Country rock is the rock that encloses a metalliferous deposit. Vein walls are the rock surfaces on the borders of veins. If there is much replacement of the country rock along the fissure, the ore may grade into the wall rock and its walls may be indistinet.INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 3 The footwall is the rock below an inclined vein, a bed, or a fault The hanging wall is the rock above an inclined vein, bed, or fault. A druse or vug is an unfilled portion of a vein usually lined with Tertiary: Mesozeic. Paleozoic. i] Are- Cambrian. Fi, 1B.—Map of the Eastern Hemisphere showing the distribution of lode deposits and the probable period of deposition of the predominant deposits. Banded ore is ore composed of bands or layers (see Fig. 2A). ‘The layers may be composed of the same minerals differing in color or texture or proportions, or they may be composed of different minerals. Crustification or crustified banding (Fig. 2B) is produced when mineral layers of different character are deposited successively one upon another on the borders of openings. In comb structure, elongated prisms4 THE PRINCIPLES OP ECONOMIC GEOLOGY project approximately at right angles to a surface, like teeth of a comb ° ‘Symmetrical banding results where solutions deposit similar material on both sides of an opening, layer on layer, as shown in Fig. 3 ‘Fig, 2A.—Seetion of banded vein. Fie. 2B.—Section of yein with crustified banding and comb structure. Vein material is the matter that constitutes veins, whether ore or gangue, workable or not workable Gouge is soft claylike material that occurs at some places as a selvage between a vein and country rock or in the vein, It is usually formed by Fis. 8.—Section of vein with symmetrical crustified banding, natural size (Creede, Colo... 1, Chlorite, quartz, sphalerite and galena; 2, finely handed quartz; 3, sphalerite and a little quartz; 4, amethystine quartz; 5, union of quartz combs; 6, vug. the crushing of ore or country rock, or both. A yein that adheres closely to the wall rock is frozen to the wall. Replacement is a process in the operation of which rocks and ores are slowly dissolved and material of different composition is deposited in theINTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 5 spaces that they occupied (Figs. 4, 5). Deposition follows solution so closely that forms and textures of earlier substances often are preserved. The paragencsis of an ore expresses the relations of its minerals, especially the relations that bear upon its origin. Fic. 4—Fissure vein without replacoment Fra. 5.—Fissure vein with replacement of of the wall rock. wall rock (replacement yein). Hydrothermal alteration is & process by which rocks and ores are changed by hot waters. Classification —Three groups of processes operate in the formation of mineral deposits: (1) deposition, (2) deformation, (8) superficial altera- tion and enrichment. Ores deposited by any process may be deformed by faulting, by folding, or by dynamie metamorphism. Through processes of weathering, or superficial alteration, ores may be enriched or impover- 2 Pegnatile veins 5 Conlect-metemarahie depos 4 typotttermal deposits 5 Mesathermal dpposits 6 Laithermal dypoxts 7 Lecesits Serned by cold solitons } 0 Sedimentary cleposith i LON? ae | Gop eee ed ie ocean DEP OSTON OEFORMATION NRICHMENT Fig. 6.—Diagram illustrating mode of deposition, deformation, superficial alteration and enrichment of ore deposits and protores. Diagram shows also how deposits may be broken down mechanically or dissolved and their products may enter new deposits. It is helpful to trace out on the diagram the genesis of several typical deposits. ished (Fig. 6). Deposits that are essentially as they were originally formed are primary or hypogene deposits.’ ‘Those that have been altered 1Lixpares, W., “Mineral Deposits,” 4th ed., pp. 203-212, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1933. Lovo, G. F., and ©. H, Benne, Jn, Classification of ore deposits, “Ore Deposits of Western States,” pp. 17-55, 1933. Graton, L. C., The hydrothermal depth zones, idem, pp. 181-197, 1938.6 THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY by superficial agencies are secondary or supergene deposits. A part of a deposit may be hypogene and-another part may be supergene. When metals are transported either in solution or mechanically and are deposited where there was no ore or protore before, the deposit that is formed is primary whether it is a placer, a chemical sediment, or a vein. Syngenetic deposits are those formed contemporaneously with the enclosing rocks. ‘They include deposits formed by magmatic segregation and sedimentary deposits. Epigenctic deposits are formed later than the rocks that enclose them. They are deposited in openings in rocks or by replacement. segregation are produets of the differentiation of igneous magmas. They are in the strict sense igneous rocks. These deposits include ore bodies of considerable value, among them the great magnetite deposits of the Kiruna region, Sweden. No large sulphide deposits of this class are known in the United States, 2. Pegmatite veins are closely related to deposits formed by mag- matic segregation. They are ” of crystallization that generally have been thrust, lil i in rocks already consolidated. Pegmatites supply many yaluable nonmetallic substances and gems, but are not important sources of metals 3. Contaet-metamorphie deposits are formed in intruded rocks by fluids given off by intruding igneous magmas. ‘They may generally be distinguished from lode deposits by their irregular shape and by their apparent independence of fissuring, together with the fairly constant association of the minerals they contain. 4. Hypothermal deposits are formed at high temperatures and pres- sures in and along openings in roeks by deposition from fluids derived from consolidating igneous rocks. Such deposits are closely related to contact-metamorphie deposits. They haye formed in and along recog- nized openings, however, and they are more nearly tabular in form than the contact-metamorphic deposits. Beeause high temperature and pres- sure are essential for the genesis of these deposits they do not form at moderate and shallow depths, at least not in open fissures that extend to the surface, and for that reason they are seldom found in the more recent rocks, Hypothermsl deposits are affiliated on one hand with contact-metamorphie deposits and, on the other, with veins formed at intermediate depths, from which they cannot be sharply separated. 5. Mesothermal deposits are formed at moderate temperatures and pressures, in and along fissures or other openings in rocks, by deposition at intermediate depths, chiefly from fluids derived from consolidating intruding rocks. They differ irom ores formed in the deep veins and from those formed at shallow depths in their mineral composition and in 1. Deposits formed by magmatiINTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 7 the character of the alteration of the wall rock accompanying their formation. . 6. Epithermal deposits are formed in and along fissures or other open- ings in rocks by deposition at shallow depths from aseending hot solu- tions. They are distinguished from mesothermal and hypothermal lodes by the minerals they contain, by their textures, and by the character of the alteration of their wall rocks. 7. Deposits formed at moderate and shallow depths by deposition from cold solutions generally are considered to include a large number of important deposits of lead and zine and also many small deposits of copper and other metals. Much evidence has been cited to show that these deposits were formed by ground water that leached its metallic contents from great masses of rocks in which the metals were sparingly disseminated. 8. Sedimentary beds of mechanical, organic, or chemical origin are the sources of many economic products, such as coal, clay, gypsum, salt, potash, lime, phosphate rock, iron, manganese, and placer gold. Work- able sulphide deposits of sedimentary origin are rare. Sedimentary deposits, like sedimentary rocks, are derived mainly from the decay of older rocks and older deposits Certain classes of ore deposits that have been recognized by some investigators seem not to be included in the foregoing classification. Among these are the “segregated veins” which generally are assumed to have been concentrated during dynamic or regional metamorphism, from substances contained in the country rock. Some of the ore bodies assumed to have been so formed are the dynamically metamorphosed deposits of the primary classes mentioned above. Placers are deposits formed by mechanical processes from materials that resist weathering— such as gold, platinum, tin, and iron oxides. They are classed as sedi- mentary deposits, for they are formed in running or standing water. “Land sediments,” such as those formed in basins and in troughs that are dry part of the time and those formed on the slopes of bills, are like- wise considered sedimentary, although less water has taken part in their transportation.CHAPTER IT MAGMATIC SEGREGATIONS Oceurrence.—In parts of igneous masses, nearly all are in rocks that have orystal- lized slowly. In dunites, pyroxenites, gabbros, and norites and also, rarely, in the more acidic rocks. Certain dikes and stocks are all ore or protore, In certain intrusive bodies the ores are found at the centers aid in others at the sides of the parent masses. Commonly there is a series of rocks, the heavier ones at the bottom. If such a series forms a structural basin, the heavier member is near the outer border and the generally lighter ones within, If the series is arched and eroded, the heavier rock forms a disk surrounded by the rings of lighter material. Shape.—Irregular, tabular, disklike, ringlike, or cylindrical. Size-—Some are stall, others very large. Composition —The minerals are those of igneous rocks. ‘The gangue minerals include quartz, feldspars, pyroxene, olivine, mica, ete. In general the minerals ‘of the parent country rock and the minerals of the deposit are similar, but the pro- portions are different, ‘The chief metalliferous minerals are oxides, sulphides, and native elements. Metals won include iron, nickel, copper, titanium, chromium, platinum, and subordinately gold. Gems include diamonds, sapphires, ete. Texture.—The minerals are intergrown like the minerals of igneous rocks. Band- ing, though not uncommon, is not crustified us in many veins, Miarolitie cavities are found in deposits formed by magmatic segregation; but. these are not nearly so common as the vugs in veins, and they are not symmetrically lined as is common in veins. ‘The ore is contemporaneous with the parent country rock and may grade into it. Contacts with rocks that are not contemporaneous are not gradational. The rocks may not be strongly hydrothermally altered at the time of deposition of the ore Euhedral rock-making crystals may be enclosed in the ore minerals, Fragments of intruded rocks may be included in the ore, General Features.—Some use the term “magmatic segregation” for all ore deposits formed by fluids of magmatic origin. As used here, the term is applied only to the deposits that solidify from magmas. ‘The deposits are igneous rocks in a strict sense. Magmatic differentiation js the process by which a magma of supposed uniform composition splits up into bodies of different composition.’ Under certain conditions in a cooling magma the heavy material settles to the bottom and the lighter material rises to the top after the manner of metals separating from slag in a blast furnace. Segregation thus may take place before crystallization begins, but it takes place also by crystallization and settling of crystals. Magmas are solutions 1 Voor, J. H. 1, Bildung von Erzlagerstatten durch Differentiations-processe in basischen Eruptivmagmata, Zeitschr. prakt. Geologie, vol. 1, pp. 4-11, 125-143, 257— 284, 1898; also Loon. Geology, 21, pp. 207-233, 309-332, 469-197, 1926. 8MAGMATIC SEGREGATIONS 9 and obey the laws of solutions. Thus the minerals that solidify or separate from a cooling magma do so in order of their saturation points under the conditions that prevail. As a general rule, the more basic materials, such as iron and magnesium minerals, will crystallize first. mer poems Mien Dioriric - oe se ta eee |e | Base pit heyroxer FE; 3 3 FE Denne (wh EE eH] = NN aT Era Pei, pryaesk = ae pets a pene ears aoe x 5 ne Rae Base #e = [HEE . Laccolith of dioritie magma is empl IIA, Diorite differentiates by gravity into granite and norite. Nickel bodies form. MILA, Nickel ore aceumulates at bottom of Inccolith and liquid; it is thruat into cracks and fissures of the base, IVA. The laccolith slumps to form a lopolith und is peneplaned, IB. A laccolith of basie magma is emplaced. UB, Magma difforentiates forming granodiorite, diorite, gabbro, pyroxenite and dunite with platinum metals. LEB. The laccolith is arched up. TVB. Erosion exposes the di increasingly acidic rocks, @ (with platinum) surrounded by jooossive belts of As crystallization goes on, the liquid portion generally becomes more and more acidic or siliceous, although some silica also may crystallize out early in the process. If viscosity is not too great, the heavy minerals will sink and accumulate at the bottom of the liquid mass (Fig. 7)10 THB PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Later, the heavy material remaining liquid at the bottom, or owing to relief of pressure, remelted may be injected as dikes Although the mechanism of magmatic differentiation! is not fully understood, there is much evidence that it has operated, for commonly an igneous rock grades into another igneous rock of different composition, although the two have formed from the same molten body In many large bodies of igneous rocks, however, the chemical com- position is nearly uniform over large areas. It is natural to suppose that the processes above outlined would operate to segregate the elements much more generally than they do. ‘These processes are opposed by con- vection currents and other movements of the magmas, which tend to keep the solutions uniform, and by viscosity, which tends to prevent diffusion or movement of molecules through the mass. Whateyer the cause, it is found generally that magmatic differentiation, if operative, is incomplete and that commonly noteworthy proportions of magnetite, pyrite, or other heavy materials remain distributed throughout the great rock masses. Occurrence.—Valuable magmatic segregations of metals do not occur in ordinary surface lavas. The lavas cool quickly, and appreciable segregation rarely takes place in them.? Owing to the relief of pressure when they are poured out, steam and other gases that aid diffusion eseape. At a few places, gems and metals are found in surface lavas; some proba- bly were formed before eruption. ‘The deep-seated basic rocks, such as norite, gabbro and peridotite, are common associates of magmatic segregations.* Shape.—Some valuable minerals like diamonds and rubies are sparingly disseminated in igneous rocks. In some deposits the rock mass may be essentially homogencous, and the segregation must have taken place before the body now exposed came to rest. ‘The entire intrusion then represents a mineral deposit. Such masses may be tabular dikes (like the sapphire deposits at Yogo, Mont.) or irregular 1gixcewaty, J. T., Jn, Magmatic segregations, “Ore Deposits of Western (Lindgren volume), pp. 504-524, 1933. Stvarwaxp, J.T, Jn, The titaniferous iron ores of the United States, U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 64, pp. 1-145, 1913. Touman, ©. P., and A, ¥, Roaers, A study of maginatie sulphide ores, St Univ., ser. 76, pp. 1-87, 1916. 2 Gertain thiek basic lavas show some segregation of metals due to the rise of pases in them. Bnoppntck, T. M., Differentiation in lavas of the Michigan Keweenawan, Geol. Soe. American Bull. 46(4), pp. 503-558, 1985. Broverick, T. M,, and C. D. Hout, Differem Feon. Geology, vol. 30, pp. 801-312, 1935. 1 Buppineron, A. F., Correlation of kinds of igneous rocks with kinds of minerali- zation, “Ore Deposits of Western States” (Lindgren yolume), pp. 350-385, 1933. nford ation in traps and ore depositioanu S}op ew] -OLw UG) FF rao Sale nat vasumge: Jou ee ete BlsO49/A ToBOS Noe Terie ice, 1 Tepildegt + + © +3. Wa UTERT Es + eps Reade ede + MAGMATIC SEGREGATIONS Seco BAISNuAN] AUNBanS: anisMAny AuneaNS Y12 THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC G LOGY pipes (like the Kimberley diamond deposit), or they may be irregularly shaped like any irregular intrusive igneous body. Some deposits of titaniferous magnetite are simply igneous dikes. A deposit that forms only part of the parent rock mass is generally irregular, but some of thes also are broadly tabular. In general, however, deposits segregated in the parent magma approach the tabular form less closely than fissure veins, Any magmatic segregation may be faulted, folded, or dynamically metamorphosed, Rudely tabular bodies may be warped upward or downward (Fig. 7). Size—In size, deposits due to magmatic segregation are diverse. Among the large ore bodies formed by this process are the deposits of nickel-eopper ores in Sudbury, Ontario (Fig. 8) and certain deposits of magnetic iron ores that aggregate millions of tons. On the other hand, small segregated deposits of chaleopy- rite, of galena and schlieren' of chromite may be too small to be valuable, Composition —As deposits due to magmatic segregation are igneous rocks, their minerals are the igneous o” a2” oa” oo” o@” vock-making minerals and their al- Lit 414 t1tt teration products? A list of the more important minerals is given on * page 13. Texture.—The constituent min- erals of these deposits generally are mutually interlocked, like the min- erals of granular igneous rocks. In some deposits, magnetite, pyrite, olivine, and other minerals haye erystallized out before the more siliceous minerals, such as feldspar and quartz Segregation may take place prior to crystallization, however, and in some ore bodies of this class the ore minerals have crystallized after the gangue minerals and now enclose them (Big. 9). Although banding is not characteristic of deposits formed by mag- matic segregation, some of them—for example, some of the magnetites of New York—show many. bands of magnetite alternating with feldspar. 1 Schlieren is 2 Gorman term without an English equivalent, used to describe poorly defined streaks of material formed in or near the border of an igneous mass before the magina came completely to rest. They are even less persistent than most veinlets or gash veins. ?Cuarx, F. W., and H. S. Wasmincroy, The Composition of the Earth's Crust, US. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 127, pp. 1-117, 1924. 6. 9.—Iron ore formed by n segregation, Iron Lake, M intergrowth of magnetite lightis feldspar, (After Singowald.)MAGMATIC SEGREGATIONS 18 ‘The banding is not crustified, however, and this feature, together with the mineral composition, serves to distinguish them from fissure veins. ‘The same minerals are found in the ore and in the parent country rock, and as a rule the ore passes into the country rock by a diminution of ore minerals or by an increase in gangue minerals. The zone of gradation between ore and country rock may be very narrow; in some deposits, it is less than 4 inch wide. Vugs are lacking, and miarolitie cavities are much less common than in pegmatite veins. Deposits formed by mag- matic segregation generally are not metasomatic, and pseudomorphous replacements are rare in the original ore. If sulphide ores enclose well- shaped (euhedral) crystals of feldspar (as shown in Fig. 10), there is a very strong probability that the deposit is due to magmatic segregation. Partian List or Muverais or Macmatic Suorecations! Mineral Specific mravity Composition Quart SiO: Orthocluse. KAISiOs Albite NaAlSisOs Anorthite CaAl,Si205 Museovite KAI.(OH);AISi0\» Biotite. .. K(Mg, Fe),OH2AISiO.0 Augite Ca(Mg, Fe)Si:Os Ca(Mg, Fe)(Al, Fe)AISiOe Amphibole (horn- Cay(Mg, Fe) Al(OH) :AISi:O22 blonde)... Ca:Na(Mg, Fe) AI(OH) (Al:SiOs2) Forsterite. Mg.Si0, Fayalite FesSiO, Apatil B.15 |Ca«(CaF, CaCl) (PO.)s Magnetite. 5.18 |FexO. Hematite. 5.5 - 6.5 |FeOs Pyrrhotite. 4.65 |FeiSs 6.00- 6.5 |FeSs | 4.60 |(Ni, Fe)s Chaleopyrite.......] 4.2 — 4.3. |CuFeS. Rutile... 6.0 - 6.5 |TiOs Timenite, 55-6 |FeTiOs Chromite | 4.8% 4.57 FeCriOx Corundum, -| 3.05- 4.1 |ALOs Diamond. . 3.52 |C Platinum. . 19 |Pt Spinel 5 - 4.1 [Mgal.O. Lollingite..........| 5.0 - 5.5 |PeAse Zircon. 4.68- 4.70 |ZrSiO. The idiomorphic or euhedral crystals in magmatic segregations com- monly ure resorbed and indented by the sulphides (Fig. 11). This also is ‘Fraser, H. J., and R. M. Drevex, Microchemistry of minerals, Amer. Mineralo- gist, vol. 22, pp. 949-976, 1937. Fraser, H. J., idem, pp. 1016-1034, 1937.