Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

Minimisation and recycling of spent acid

wastes from galvanizing plants
C. Stocksa , J. Woodb,∗ , S. Guyb
a Ashact Ltd., Bridge House, Station Approach, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire HP16 9AZ, UK
b Centre for Formulation Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham,
Edgbaston B15 2TT, UK

Received 22 April 2003; accepted 19 November 2004

Abstract

The galvanizing process introduces environmental stresses from solid, liquid and air-borne emis-
sions. Spent pickling acid represents the largest mass of such waste production, but its major con-
stituent, iron chloride, could be used in the wastewater treatment industry to remove phosphate. A
survey of the operational procedures adopted and the acid wastes produced by UK Galvanizers are
reported. Various methods to produce spent acid of suitable composition have been investigated but
elimination of zinc contamination of the acid was considered to be the only feasible method. Careful
acid management is necessary to maintain low zinc levels, whilst substitution of titanium for mild
steel jigs not only assists in reducing zinc in spent acid but also produces considerable savings in zinc
carry-over on the jig. Application of the Kleingarn acid management system reduces waste volume,
saves hydrochloric acid (HCl) and increases component throughput whilst, in conjunction with zinc
elimination, could allow recycling of the majority of galvanizer’s acid wastes.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Recycling; Galvanizing; Hydrochloric acid management; Steel; Titanium; Economics

1. Introduction

Mild steel is a very strong, easily formed, easily joined and cheap metal that is ubiquitous
in modern society. Its main weakness is a tendency for the iron in steel to revert to the more

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 121 414 5295; fax: +44 121 414 5324.
E-mail address: j.wood@bham.ac.uk (J. Wood).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2004.11.005
154 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

thermodynamically stable oxide form, i.e. rust. For unprotected steel, this reversion can take
as little as 2 or 3 years. To reduce rusting of steel, it must be protected to prevent oxygen
in aqueous solution reacting with the surface. Galvanizing is a process in which iron on
the surface of steel reacts with zinc to form iron zinc alloys with a coherent surface layer
of zinc. The surface zinc either oxidises to provide a protective layer or provides cathodic
protection for very small areas where damage reveals an iron surface.
The use of zinc prolongs the life of steel products by 20–40 times, depending on hu-
midity and salt aerosols, which is beneficial to the environment as it reduces waste and
costs of fabrication. However, both production of zinc and the galvanizing process itself
are not without significant environmental impacts. Much of UK industry comes under Inte-
grated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) legislation (DEFRA, 2002), including the
galvanizing sector.
The project described here addressed some of the issues associated with IPPC: assess-
ment of polluting releases and the identification of best available technique (BAT), energy
efficiency, waste minimisation and management. Successful galvanizing of steel surfaces
requires a dirt-, oil- and rust-free surface for the alloying reaction. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
is utilised to remove rust, referred to as pickling, and this process results in large volumes
of iron and zinc contaminated low acid wastes across the industry.
Previous work on recycling of galvanizing products, including pickle liquor, has been
reported (Dahab et al., 1994; Kerney, 1992). Kerney (1992) suggested a mobile treatment
plant for recycling pickling acids. Dahab et al. (1994) found that pollution reduction could
be achieved by relatively simple operational changes to the process that gave fairly short
payback times. Possibilities for operational changes to the galvanising process are further
explored and discussed in this paper.
The water treatment industry uses large quantities of ferric chloride to remove phosphate
from treated wastewater prior to discharge to surface water. Iron chlorides do not occur
naturally and have to be manufactured by dissolving scrap steel in HCl. The ferrous chloride
(FeCl2 ) present in acid waste from galvanizing could be oxidised and recycled for use in
ferric chloride production for wastewater treatment, provided the iron chloride is at a high
level (130 g/l Fe) and the zinc chloride is below a specified level (<1 g/l Zn) (Griffiths, 2002,
personal communication, High Chemicals, UK).
This paper will examine the galvanizing process to identify the quality and quantity of
spent pickling acid, the potential for reusing spent acid, possible separation processes or
changes to the present pickling process to enable reuse of spent acid and more efficient
utilisation of acid in pickling the steel.

2. The galvanizing process

To achieve a homogeneous surface reaction, and hence a uniform zinc and alloy coat-
ing, the surface of the work must be chemically prepared by a series of treatments before
dipping in zinc at 450 ◦ C (Galvanizers Association, 1999). These usually include degreas-
ing, to remove oil or grease from the surface of the work, acid pickling to remove iron
oxides such as rust or scale, and fluxing to activate the surface and promote reaction with
zinc.
 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 155

With a past reputation as a ‘dirty industry’ galvanizers have abated environmental impact
to air and currently recycle the majority of solid waste zinc products. However, by far the
greatest quantity of waste produced by galvanizers is the spent acid from pickling and recent
interest has been directed to the reduction and recycling of these solutions.
In the UK, pickling is carried out in hydrochloric acid, usually a marketed industrial
by-product itself. The acid is delivered to site at 28–36% (w/w) and is diluted to around
16% (w/w) HCl. As pickling proceeds, HCl reacts with iron and iron oxides to form ferrous
chloride in solution. This continues until the acid concentration falls to give unacceptable
pickling times. The remaining acid is then usually used for stripping zinc from rejected
galvanised work until the acid is deemed ‘spent’. Zinc may also enter the pickling line via
hooks, jigs, cages and baskets that are used to suspend the work during dipping. These are
galvanized, sent back to the head of the plant for reuse and stripped during pickling of the
next work piece, thus contaminating the acid with zinc. Spent pickling acid is, therefore, a
solution containing various concentrations of HCl, FeCl2 and ZnCl2 .

3. Quantity and composition of pickling acid

The UK galvanizing industry currently produces about 32,000 tonnes of acid waste/year
from 87 sites with a range of 22–2000 tonnes/year per site. Currently, all acid waste is
removed by tanker for treatment at special facilities. Iron is oxidized, acid is neutralised
and precipitated solids are sent to landfill. This treatment process results in all potentially
valuable iron, zinc and remaining acid being lost.
Samples of pickling acid, taken from a range of galvanizers, were found to contain up to
193 g/l Fe and 192 g/l Zn. Figs. 1–3 illustrate that acid composition varies greatly depending
on how long it has been used for pickling and operational techniques. A typical old acid that
is nearing disposal contains 130–150 g/l Fe, but this value will be lower if zinc concentration
is high. Acid baths that were designated as zinc stripping baths contained concentrations
of between 60 and 238 g/l Zn, depending on the age of the bath and the amount of acid
remaining in solution when stripping began.
The range of zinc contamination originates from the different methods employed to
suspend the components to be galvanized. The majority of components are suspended from
jigs by wire or removable steel hooks. The used wire is scrapped after galvanizing whilst the
hook is reused, mainly without removing the zinc that covers a proportion of each hook. The
zinc on the hooks is dissolved during subsequent pickling of components together with any
zinc sputter that falls from the jig. Where wire and hooks are the only mountings employed
on the plant, zinc concentrations of 5–30 g/l were measured in pickling baths.
Some galvanizers receive components in sufficient quantity to justify construction of
specialised mounting equipment. For example, long pipe or cable can be suspended between
fixings at each end of a jig, fencing can be suspended from jigs with fixed hooks and small
components, such as bolts, are galvanized in baskets and then centrifuged. These jigs are
immersed in the galvanizing bath, the adhering zinc dissolves in pickling acid and this
results in zinc concentrations of 30–100 g/l.
Most galvanizers utilise depleted pickling acid to strip zinc from components that have
failed to be galvanized to a set standard because weak acid can still react very quickly with
156 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

Fig. 1. Distribution of HCl concentrations found in pickling baths.

zinc, compared to iron oxide. Some companies dedicate a fresh acid tank for stripping only,
resulting in zinc concentrations of over 200 g/l.
The concentrations of iron and zinc recorded in virtually all the samples analysed from
pickling baths fall outside the acceptable range for utilisation in the water treatment industry.

Fig. 2. Distribution of iron concentrations found in pickling baths.

 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 157

Fig. 3. Distribution of zinc concentrations found in pickling baths.

Therefore, changes to the present galvanizing process are necessary to transform the spent
pickling acid from waste to valuable by-product.

4. Separation of iron and zinc

There are several chemical separation techniques that could achieve iron/zinc separation
from these acid wastes, such as chemical precipitation, ion exchange and solvent extraction.

4.1. Chemical precipitation

Chemical precipitation of iron as oxides results in all iron being lost to landfill but
produces a zinc chloride solution that can be processed for zinc recovery. It can be applied,
however, to remove iron from the flux bath, thereby reducing dross formation in the kettle, or
from a dedicated stripping bath, thus regenerating flux or producing moderately high-purity
ZnCl2 for recycling.

4.2. Ion-exchange separation

Ion-exchange separation has been examined (Maranon et al., 2000) and a possible process
outline is shown in Fig. 4 (European Commission, 2001). Maranon et al. (2000) compared
two ion exchange resins, Lewatit MP-500 and Lewatit M-504, to remove iron and zinc from
acid pickling baths. The breakthrough curves for both resins showed that they exhibited
a higher capacity for Zn than Fe. In the study reported in this paper, resin manufacturers
158 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

Fig. 4. Ion exchange system for separation of iron and zinc in acid waste (redrawn from BREF report of the Euro-
pean Commission, ©(2001), with permission of the European Commission, Institute for Technological Studies).

were contacted and DOWEX MSA-1 (Dow Chemical Company), a strong base anion resin
in chloride form, was selected for testing. A spent acid with 127 g/l Fe and a currently
achievable zinc level of 5.8 g/l was used to assess absorption capacity. Fig. 5 shows that
after treating about three bed volumes of acid, zinc levels in the resin start to rise, and
thereafter, rise sharply up to six bed volumes of acid. Therefore, a large volume of resin,
with high investment costs, would be required to treat presently generated spent acid, with
its unpredictable and high zinc levels. Regeneration of the resin would also produce large
volumes of dilute zinc solutions of around 15 g/l Zn requiring further treatment and disposal.
However, it is possible to employ ion exchange as a corrective technique where target zinc
concentration is just exceeded.

4.3. Solvent extraction

Solvent extraction was reported by Kerney (1994a, 1994b, 1997) as a viable treatment
process to separate FeCl2 and ZnCl2 from HCl. Fig. 6 shows a flow diagram representing
the material and energy flows in the process. Diaz and Martin (1994) also considered
solvent extraction as part of the Zincex process, which uses atmospheric leaching, solvent
extraction and conventional electrowinning, in order to recover zinc ingots of high purity.
Kerney (1994a) found that solvent extraction was preferred to an electrolytic separation
process. The study of Kerney (1997) reports a plant capital investment of around £415,000
 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 159

Fig. 5. Experimental zinc breakthrough and elution data for Dowex MSA-1.

and spent acid treatment costs of around £100/tonne. This was considered to be viable
because disposal costs of around £160/tonne are levied in Germany (Kerney, 1994b), but is
not viable at the UK average disposal cost of around £40/tonne. Also, other environmental
issues such as solvent loss to aqueous effluent and energy input must be considered and
compared to waste prevention and minimisation techniques.
Other techniques, such as spray roasting and evaporative treatments, concentrate on the
recovery of hydrochloric acid (European Commission, 2001). Neither technique addresses
the issue of mixed iron and zinc concentrations, both require high energy input and the
relatively low cost of HCl in the UK renders them non-viable.
At present UK disposal charges, at an average of £40/tonne, are too low to make sep-
aration and recovery economically viable. This may change in the future with significant
rises in landfill tax charges expected (Waste Management News, 2002). Consideration must
be given also to the fact that under IPPC ‘end-of-pipe’ treatment is not considered best
available technique when prevention and minimisation can be achieved viably within the
process.

5. Prevention of zinc contamination of pickling acids

To prevent significant zinc contamination of the majority of pickling acids, each galva-
nizer must operate an isolated and dedicated bath for stripping of rejected work. The major
route of zinc contamination would then be dissolution of zinc from galvanized mountings,
such as hooks, cages, jigs and baskets, used to suspend work. One option would be to strip
each mounting in the isolated stripping bath before being loaded with new components. This
160 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

Fig. 6. Solvent extraction system for the recovery of FeCl2 , ZnCl2 and HCl from spent pickling acid (redrawn
from BREF report of the European Commission, ©(2001), with permission of the European Commission, Institute
for Technological Studies).

may be achieved easily in some operations but for others, space may be a problem. Also,
the number of mountings might need to be increased in order to allow work to continue
while stripping takes place, whilst continuous galvanizing and stripping greatly reduces the
lifetime of steel mountings, as occurs now.
 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 161

A minor source of zinc contamination arises from zinc ‘sputter’; as the steel is immersed
in the molten zinc, the reaction causes zinc to splash up and solidify on the large booms
used to support the mountings. These splashes of zinc fall into the acid during movement
into and out of the pickling baths resulting in an increase in zinc concentration over the
lifetime of the bath. Vibrating or brushing the boom, increasing the distance between the
boom and the zinc surface by using longer hooks, or heating the component before dipping
to reduce sputter may help reduce contamination from this route. For this system to be
effective, operator training is of great importance to ensure that all galvanized steel passes
through the stripping acid and every effort is made to prevent zinc contamination.
Another option is to manufacture the mountings from titanium, as it does not galvanise
and is acid resistant. Titanium is around 10 times more expensive than steel, but its reported
lifetime is at least 10 times longer and it has a substantial residual scrap value. Therefore,
titanium jigs and hooks present a higher capital investment, but this is offset by a very much
longer life and residual scrap value. However, operating costs are significantly reduced as
titanium does not galvanise, thus reducing zinc transfer into acid solution, thereby achieving
savings in zinc consumption.

6. Waste minimisation through optimisation of pickling

According to Kleingarn (1988), faster pickling times can be achieved when iron is present
when compared to iron free solutions of the same acid concentration. Fig. 7 shows the opti-
mum pickling time curve and relative pickling times achieved at various acid compositions.
This indicates that controlling acid and iron concentrations within the tank increases pick-
ling rate compared to replacing the entire spent acid bath with fresh acid.
When an iron/zinc separation system is adopted, the traditional ‘killing-off’ of remaining
acid, from 9 to 5% (w/w) is no longer possible. Application of the Kleingarn (1988) acid
management system allows efficient pickling to a lower acid concentration prior to disposal
or recycling. Pickling to lower acid concentrations also increases iron concentration in
the spent acid, thereby making it more amenable to recycling and reducing the volume
of spent acid requiring transport. The Kleingarn chart, Fig. 7, shows the composition of
acid samples taken from several galvanizers. The concentration of samples within the acid
replacement region indicates that the majority of acid tanks are operating outside the area
of optimum pickling rates. The tanks operating within the Kleingarn region should give
increased pickling rate at lower acid concentrations but with higher iron.
To adopt the Kleingarn method, several technical issues need to be addressed. Most road
tankers used for acid/waste transport carry around 23 m3 ; this may or may not be a convenient
volume for acid top-up aliquots depending of tank size. If not already available, acid storage
facilities would offer flexibility when adding small amounts of high concentration acid. Acid
storage would also allow ‘back-to-back’ use of road tankers. That is, fresh acid could be
delivered to storage and spent acid could be removed for recycling by the same tanker,
thus reducing transport costs and environmental impact. However, the acid tanks would no
longer be emptied and cleaned on a regular basis, which may lead to a build-up of oils and
grease on the surface of the acid as a result of carry-over from the degrease tank. This issue
could be addressed by investment in oil ‘skimming’ system. Even partial application of an
162 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

Fig. 7. Acid sample composition with respect to Kleingarn acid system.

acid top-up system can achieve substantial reductions in acid consumption and waste acid
production.
The dedicated stripping bath can also be operated by an acid top-up system. The con-
centration can be maintained between 2 and 8% HCl, thus reducing HCl aerosol formation
from vigorous hydrogen evolution in higher acid concentrations. A spent stripping solution
with <2% HCl and >200 g/l Zn could then be achieved. With close control to minimise the
iron concentration in these spent acids, it would be possible to recycle them to flux solutions
or use in ZnCl2 manufacture after iron precipitation.
 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 163

Following promising laboratory work, Múgica (2003, personal communication) carried

out pilot scale trials at Spanish and French galvanizers. When operating an acid top-up
system maintained at 25 ◦ C and agitated with diffused air, several advantages were achieved,
including:
(i) Pickling times were reduced by 50–60%.
(ii) HCl consumption was reduced by 10–15%.
(iii) Pickling was achieved down to an HCl concentration of 17–20 g/l.
(iv) Iron concentration in spent liquor was increased to 180–200 g/l.
(v) The volume of spent liquor was reduced by 40–50%.
The improvements in the pickling process achieved in the trial were further increased
by heating the bath to 25 ◦ C and employing acid agitation, known as activated pickling.
Both these actions increase the pickling rate and allow efficient pickling to lower acid con-
centrations. Another advantage of operating at lower acid concentrations, even at increased
temperature, is the reduction in HCl partial pressure (Perry and Green, 1984), thereby
reducing acid loss to atmosphere and improving the environment for the workforce.

7. Financial and environmental gains for recycling spent acid

7.1. Present disposal costs for spent acid

The disposal costs charged by waste management companies for removing this hazardous
waste is, on average, £40/tonne, but again with a range of £23–100/tonne depending on
location. These values translate to acid disposal costs to the galvanizing industry nationally
of £1.3 M/year.

7.2. Loss of materials to the environment

A 40 m3 acid tank with an iron concentration of 130 g/l contains 5.2 tonnes of iron
(11.8 tonnes of ferrous chloride), which is lost to landfill using current disposal methods.
This totals about 9400 tonnes of ferrous chloride/year nationally and is equivalent to reacting
around 4200 tonnes of iron and 5400 tonnes of hydrochloric acid.
At present, acid wastes contain 60–200 g/l Zn, which means that at an average of 130 g/l
Zn, the UK galvanizing industry disposes of around 4200 tonnes of zinc per annum. At
£750/tonne Zn this has a value of £3.15 M.

7.3. Reduction in zinc consumption from using titanium jigs—a case study

A study was made of one company that used a large jig to galvanize certain components.
The process used four jigs and each went through the galvanizing process four times/day.
The effect on additional zinc and acid consumption was calculated as follows:
Area of jig in contact with zinc, 6.8 m2 ; zinc coating, 100 ␮m; density of zinc,
7.14 tonnes/m3 ; cost of zinc (including melting and handling), £800/tonne; acid consumed
by zinc stripping, 130 g/l reduction in strength; cost of disposal of spent acid, £50/tonne;
164 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

cost of steel jig, £500 each; cost of titanium jig, £5000 each, assuming cost is in same ratio
as raw material costs.
Then 4.89 kg of zinc was lost for each jig at each pass, giving 77.68 kg/day or £310.73
cost/week. The extra cost of waste acid is £28.85/week, giving a total cost of £339.58/week.
Based on these figures, the payback time is 14.7 weeks and without accounting for the
smaller mass of titanium (it is stronger and less dense than steel), its considerable scrap
value and the savings made through not having to replace acid lost through zinc dissolution.
Also, there would be potential savings on disposal costs as the acid would be suitable
for recycling. Reductions in zinc consumption also reduce the considerable environmental
impact associated with zinc production and transport.

7.4. Application of Kleingarn acid management system

The costs of replacement of the spent pickling acid with new could potentially be reduced
by topping up the acid bath with fresh concentrated acid periodically. For example, consider a
40 m3 pickling tank at an initial concentration of 18% (w/w) HCl. Pickling can be carried out
to an acid concentration of around 9% before reaction times become too slow. Traditionally,
this would then be used as a stripping acid; however, this practice can no longer take
place when preventing zinc contamination. Therefore, the solution must be replaced and
all remaining acid is lost. Alternatively, an acid top-up strategy could produce a new acid
solution of 18% HCl and 40 g/l Fe. Higher pickling rates could be achieved to a lower
acid concentration of around 5% HCl and 130 g/l Fe before requiring further adjustment by
acid top-up. Further adjustments can then be made to maintain optimum pickling rates at
reduced acid concentrations between 5 and 14% HCl. Table 1 shows the potential savings
that could be achieved by adopting such an acid management system.

7.5. Overall economic assessment for a typical galvaniser

Table 2 represents an overall analysis of the economics of using titanium jigs instead
of steel in combination with application of the Kleingarn acid management system. The
calculations were made on a basis of 200 tonnes/year concentrated hydrochloric acid used
by a galvanizer operating four jigs for holding the steelwork to be galvanized. It was found
that the total saving to the galvanizer of applying the Kleingarn acid management system
was around £15,934, and the total saving due to use of titanium jigs instead of steel was
£9,836. These calculations demonstrate that it is already economically feasible for UK

Table 1
Comparative cost and material use for fresh acid vs. acid top-up
Parameter 40 m3 fresh acid 20 m3 acid top-up Saving
£ %
Acid disposal (£40/tonne) £1600 £800 800 50
Acid use (36%, £50/tonne) 18.5 tonnes, £925 15 tonnes, £750 175 19
Water use (70 p/m3 ) 21.5 m3 , £15 5 m3 , £3.50 11.50 77
Total £2540 £1554 986
 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166 165

Table 2
Overall economic assessment of using titanium jigs instead of steel and implementing the Kleingarn acid manage-
ment system (note that at the time of submission of the publication on September 7, 2004, GB£1 = US$ 1.773 =
D 1.467)
Item Note Cost (£)
Conventional galvanizing process
Purchase of concentrated acid 200 tonnes at £50/tonne 10000
(concentration 28 %, w/w)
Cost of water used to dilute acid 148 tonnes at £0.7/tonne 103
Spent acid disposal cost 348 tonnes at £40/tonne 13920
Cost of steel jigs currently in use 4 jigs costing £500 each, assuming 6000
replacement every 4 months
Loss of zinc by transfer on steel jigs Assuming 16.6 tonnes of zinc 12000
lost/year
Total overall annual cost of purchasing steel jigs and acid, 42023
and disposal of spent acid
Galvanizing process with titanium jigs applying Kleingarn acid management
Purchase cost of concentrated acid with application of 160 tonnes at £50/tonne 7985
Kleingarn acid management system
(acid replacement followed by two top-ups)
Saving from acid otherwise lost in the conventional 1836 credit
galvanizing process through zinc dissolution
Cost of water used to dilute acid 72 tonnes at £0.7/tonne 50
Cost of acid disposal Not required as acid which is not 0
contaminated by zinc can be recycled
for use in ferric chloride production
Annual cost of titanium jigs Four jigs costing £5,000 each, based 10000
on two year lifetime of the jigs
Loss of zinc by transfer on jigs Avoided by using titanium 0
Total overall annual cost of purchasing titanium 16200
jigs and acid

galvanisers to adopt an acid management system, and to use titanium jigs instead of steel. If
the costs of acid disposal were to rise from £40 to 100/tonne, then a sensitivity calculation
showed that applying the Kleingarn acid management system could make an annual saving
of £36,814, compared with £15,934 for acid disposal at £40/tonne. In future, there will
be strong pressure on galvanisers to adopt the recommended system, both on economic
grounds and to comply with IPPC.

8. Practical applications

The galvanizing companies need to accumulate analytical information on all waste

streams, especially spent acid, so that waste minimisation strategies can be planned. By
quantifying the volume and concentration of iron, zinc and acid that leaves the plant in the
spent acid stream, informed judgement can be made on the viability of different methods
of environmental improvements. This should be an integral part of the waste management
system employed by companies.
166 C. Stocks et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 44 (2005) 153–166

As part of the DTI funded project, a trial is being carried out to produce very low
zinc spent acid. To do this across the industry, it will be necessary to make the workforce
understand the importance of providing environmental improvements and to keep all zinc
products out of the acid pickling baths. If this trial is successful, then the acid from this one
bath will be used in the production of iron chloride for the wastewater treatment industry.
With spent acid being recycled to wastewater treatment at little or no cost to the galvanizer,
the environmental and economic benefits of the suggested operational changes are clear.

Acknowledgements

The project was funded by the DTI recycling programme and carried out by the University
of Birmingham in association with the UK Galvanizers Association, UK Galvanizers and
High Chemicals UK Ltd. The authors wish to thank the DTI for its support.

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