General Chemistry 2: Learning Activity Sheet

12
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
QUARTER 1
Week 5-6
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name _ Grade Level: _

Date: Score: _
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTE

AND NONELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS
Background Information for the Learners (BIL)
Colligative properties are physical properties of a solution that depends on the

amount of a solute but not on the nature of solute. This means similar amounts of
completely different solutes can alter these physical properties in similar quantities.
Hence, the colligative properties depend on the ratio of the solute amount and solvent
amount. Solutions have four colligative properties namely: vapor pressure lowering,
boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. For a given
solute-solvent mass ratio, all colligative properties are inversely proportional to solute
molar mass. Electrolytes are substances that can form solutions that are able to
conduct electricity through this solution. Such solutions are known as electrolytic
solutions. Nonelectrolytes are substances that are not capable of forming electrolytic
solutions. Both these types (electrolytes and nonelectrolytes) have colligative
properties.
Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

Colligative properties of electrolytes are Colligative properties of nonelectrolytes
the physical properties of electrolytic are the physical properties of non-
solutions that depend on the amount of electrolytic solutions that depend on the
solutes regardless the nature of solutes. amount of solutes regardless the nature
of solutes.
Solute
Electrolytes provide more solutes to the Nonelectrolytes provide low solute to
solution via dissociation; hence, the the solution since there is no
2
NOTE: Practice personal hygiene protocols at all times
colligative properties are considerably dissociation; hence, the colligative
changed. properties are not considerably changed
Effect on Colligative Properties
The effect of electrolytes on colligative The effect of nonelectrolytes on
properties is very high compared to colligative properties is very low
nonelectrolytes compared to electrolytes.
When an electrolyte is dissolved in a solvent such as water, the electrolyte

separates into ions (or any other conductive species). Therefore, dissolving one mole
of electrolyte always yields two or more moles of conductive species. Hence, the
colligative properties of the electrolytes are considerably changing when an electrolyte
is dissolved in a solvent. A simple example of an electrolyte solution is sodium chloride
in water. In the presence of water, solid sodium chloride dissociates as it is dissolved,
forming an electrolyte solution:
NaCl(s)→Na+(aq)+Cl−(aq)
When a nonvolatile (does not turn to vapor easily) solute is added to a liquid
to form a solution, the vapor pressure above that solution decreases. To understand
why that might occur, do a simple experiment in Activity 1.
Learning Competency:
Differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and of electrolyte
solutions (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-116)
3
Activity 1. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Materials: Water
Figure 1.1 Experiment set-
Aqueous sugar
up for vapor-pressure
solution Two glasses lowering
One sealed enclosed

container
Procedure:
1. Get two glasses placed side by side in a sealed enclosed container.

One glass contains pure water, the other an equal volume of an
aqueous solution of sugar. Take note of the volume of water and
sugar solution. (See figure 1.a)
2. Leave the set-up until the next day. Gradually measure the volume
of the sugar solution and that of the pure water. Is there any change
in their original volume? (See figure 1.b)
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Analysis:
1. What can you infer about the change in volume of the sugar solution and that of
pure water?
2. What has caused this change in volume of the sugar solution and that of pure
water?
4
After finishing the activity, you should now see why the vapor pressure
of the solvent decreases upon addition of a non-volatile, non-
electrolyte solute (sugar).
Figure 1.2 A nonvolatile solute reduces the rate of

vaporization of the solvent.
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e+on+water+vapor+lowering&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwi4
v8qau5PrAhUG6ZQKHZYrD-0Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=solvent+solution+image+on+water+va
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Non-electrolytes are substances that do not create conductive

solutions when dissolved in a solvent. In the activity, sugar is a nonelectrolyte because
when sugar is dissolved in water, it exists in molecular form (does not dissociate into
ions). These sugar molecules are incapable of conducting electric currents through
the solution.
The number of solutes present in a non-electrolytic solution is less compared

to an electrolytic solution. Therefore, the effect of nonelectrolytes on colligative
properties is also very low. For example, the degree of vapor pressure lowering by
adding NaCl is higher compared to the addition of sugar to a similar solution.
The vapor pressure of an electrolytic solution is dependent on the ratio of solute

to solvent molecules in a solution while the vapor pressure of nonelectrolyte solution
is directly influenced by the number of solute molecules present in a given amount of
solvent.
The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure is

proportional to its concentration. This was discovered by French chemist Francois
Raoult (1830-1907). Raoult’s law states that for nonelectrolyte solutions, the partial
vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution (P1) is equal to the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent (Po1 ) multiplied by the mole fraction of the solvent (X1 ). This law is
mathematically expressed as:
P1 = X 1 Po 1
For solutions of electrolytes, the vapor pressure lowering equation can be

expressed as:
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P1= iPo X
1 1
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, named after Jacobus Henricus van’ Hoff (1852-1911),
who won the very first Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1901 for his work on colligative
properties of solution. The i factor gives the number of particles per formula unit of
+ -
the solute. For example, NaCl solution dissociates to give one Na(aq) and one Cl(aq ),
the iNaCl = 2, because there is one Na+ and one Cl- ion in solution per formula unit of
solute.
On the other hand, if both components of a solution are volatile (readily

evaporates), the vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the individual partial
pressures. The total pressure is given by Dalton’s law of partial pressure:
PT = PA + PB
or
PT = XA Po +A X B PoB
Sample Problem:
What is the vapor pressure of the solution containing 20 g of sugar (C12H22O11)
in 1.5 kg water at 25oC. Note: Po atwater
25oC is 24 torr
Explanation:
1 mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g and 1 mole of water (H2O) is 18 g. The number
of moles of each component is computed as:
For sugar:
1mol C H O
20 g C H O  12 22 11  0.06 mol C H O
12 22 11 12 22 11
342 g C12H22O11
6
For water:
1500 g H2 O  1mol C12H22O11  83.33 mol H 2O

18 g C H O
12 22 11
And mole fraction of water (solvent) is computed as:
83.33 C H O  1.00
X H O  83.33  0.0612 C22H 11O
2
12 22 11
PH2O  XH 2O  PoH2 O
Therefore, the vapor pressure is:  1.00  24 torr
PH2 O  24.0 torr
Solve the given problem:

Calculate the vapor pressure of salt solution containing 20 g salt (NaCl) in
1.5 kg of water at 25oC? Note: Po ater o
w at 25 C is 24 torr and molecular
weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol.
Note: Remember that NaCl is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to Na +
and Cl- ion respectively.
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is of prime importance to living organisms because it influences the

distribution of nutrients and the release of metabolic waste products. Living cells of
both plants and animals are enclosed by a semipermeable membrane called the cell
membrane, which regulates the flow of liquids and of dissolved solids and gases into
and out of the cell.
7
Did you know?
Oceans cover over 72% of the earth and a reservoir for 97.2% of the earth’s water.
However, out of the 97.2% of earth’s water, only 2.5% is available as freshwater and less than
1% is available as groundwater or surface water for human use. Scientists have found a new,
cheaper and more economical way of making seawater possible for drinking. The process is
known as reverse osmosis. Through this process, seawater is made to pass through a semi-
permeable membrane and by applying a pressure greater than 30 atm (Note: 30 atm is the
pressure that must be applied to saline solution of seawater in order to facilitate osmosis), the
osmotic flow would be reversed, and fresh water made to run through the membrane. Now, that’s
chemistry in action!
The osmotic pressure ( ) of a solution is the pressure required to stop

osmosis. The osmotic pressure of the solution is given by:
 = MRT
where M is the molarity of solution, R the gas constant (0.0821 L . atm / K . mol), and
T the absolute temperature (in Kelvins).
The osmotic pressure is expressed in atm. And since osmotic pressure
measurements are carried out under constant temperature, molarity is preferred over
molality as concentration. Again, for solutions of electrolytes, the osmotic pressure
equation can be expressed as:
 = iMRT
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, the number of particles per formula unit of the solute.
Sample Problem:
What is the osmotic pressure of the solution containing 0.2 M sugar (C12H22O11)
solution at 25oC?
Explanation:
8
  MRT 
0.2 mol C12H22O11  0.0821 L  atm  298 K   4.89

1L solution K  mol
  4.89 atm

Calculate the osmotic pressure of 0.2 M salt solution (NaCl) at 25 oC?
Boiling Point Elevation
Remember that boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor of a liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure. In the presence of a non-volatile, non-electrolytic
solute such as sugar, the pressure that will be exerted by the vapor of the solvent is
lesser in comparison with that of the pure solvent at equal volumes. And as a
consequence, the solution will boil at a higher temperature than that of the pure
solvent.
To clearly understand what boiling point elevation is all about, you re task to do
Activity 2.
Activity 2. Boiling Point Elevation

Materials: three
eggs 1 tbsp
of salt
1 tbsp of sugar
9
boiling water
Procedure:
1. Put the first egg in two cups of water and take note of the time until the water
boils.
2. Again, using two cups of water, put the second egg in the water and add 1
tbsp of salt. Record the time it will take the water to boil.
3. Repeat step 2, but add 1 tbsp of sugar instead of salt. Again, take note of
the time it will take the water to boil.
4. Compare the time it will take for water to boil and cook the hard-boiled egg
in step 1 to step 3. Record your observations.
Analysis:
1. Which set-up took less time to cook hard-boiled eggs? Why?
_ _
_ _
2. Did the water take more time to boil when electrolyte (NaCl) solute was
added? Why?
_
3. Did the water take more time to boil upon addition of non-electrolyte (sugar)
solute? Justify your answer.
_
Since we have already established that the boiling point of the solution is
greater than that of the pure solvent, the boiling point elevation (Tb) is mathematically
expressed as follows:
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Tb = Kbm
where (Kb) is boiling point elevation constant, equivalent to 0.52 oC/m for aqueous
solutions. This means that, for example, 1 mole of sugar (nonelectrolyte) in 1 kilogram
of water will increase the boiling point from 100oC to 100.52oC. And (m) is the molal
concentration of solute. It is also important to note that Tb is a positive quantity and
should be added to the boiling point of pure solvent (water), which is 100oC.
Remember that molality is used here over molarity because we are dealing with
a solution whose temperature is not constant and concentration cannot be expressed
in molarity because it changes with temperature.
Again, for solutions of electrolytes, the boiling point elevation equation can be
expressed as:
Tb = iKbm
Sample Problem:
At what temperature will the sugar solution boil if 20 g sucrose (C12H22O11) is

added to 1.5 kg of water?
Explanation:
Remember that sugar is a nonelectrolyte so there will be no need for the van’t
Hoff factor. A mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g. Thus, molality of sugar can be
computed as:
20 g C12H22O11  1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11  0.04 m


1.5 kg H2O 342 g C12H22O11 kg H2O
11
The boiling point elevation is calculated as:
Tb = Kbm
= 0.52 oC x 0.04 m
m
Tb = 0.02oC
Thus, the boiling point of the solution is:
100oC + 0.02oC = 100.02oC

At what temperature will salt solution boil if 20 g salt (NaCl) is added
to 1.5 kg of water? (Molecular weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol)
Note: Remember that NaCl is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to
Na+ and Cl- ion, respectively.
Freezing Point Depression?
Have you ever tried sprinkling salt over ice? What have you noticed? Salts such
as NaCl and CaCl2 cause ice to melt. This method of thawing depresses the freezing
point of water. To learn more about freezing point depression, it will help to do Activity
3.
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Activity 3.Freezing Point Depression
Materials: one tsp. salt stirrers

one glass of water spoon
one glass of crushed Ice thermometer
Procedure:
1. Using one glass of water and one glass of crushed ice, stir the mixture; then
using a thermometer, observe and record this temperature.
2. Add one tsp. of salt to the water/ice mixture, then observe and record the
temperature. You should repeat this procedure until the temperature
reaches 10oC. More ice should be added if necessary.
Analysis:
3. What happens to water and ice when salt is added to this mixture?
_
_
_
4. What happens to the temperature when salt is added to the mixture?
_
_ _
_
5. What variables would cause these differences?
_
_
_
Water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC. Salt water will not freeze until the
temperature is below 0oC. The more salt, the lower the freezing point of the solution.
In the above experiment, energy is lost from the water in the form of heat. This heat
is used to melt the ice. Since heat is lost from the water the temperature of the water
goes down. Since there is now salt dissolved in the water it cannot freeze again, hence
we observe a lower temperature.
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The freezing point depression (Tf) is mathematically expressed as:
Tf = Kf m
where Kf is the freezing point depression constant. equivalent to -1.86 oC/m for
aqueous solutions. Again, for example, 1 mole of sugar (nonelectrolyte) in 1 kilogram
of water will decrease the freezing point from 0 oC to -1.86oC. (m) is the molal
concentration of solute. And since we have already established that the freezing point
of the solution is less than that of the pure solvent, then Tf is a negative quantity and
should be subtracted from the freezing point of pure solvent (water), which is 0oC.
Again, for solutions of electrolytes, the freezing point lowering equation can be
expressed as:
Tf = iKfm
Sample Problem:
At what temperature will the sugar solution freeze if 20 g sucrose (C12H22O11)
is added to 1.5 kg of water?
Explanation:
Since sugar is a nonelectrolyte, there will be no need for the van’t Hoff factor. A
mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g. Molality (m) of sugar can be computed as:
20 g C12H22O11  1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11  0.04 m


1.5 kg H2O 342 g C12H22O11 kg H2O
The freezing point depression is calculated as:

Tf = Kf m
= -1.86 oC x 0.04 m
m
Tf = -0.07oC
Thus, the freezing point of the solution is:
0oC - 0.07oC = -0.07oC
14
Practice Exercise:
At what temperature will salt solution freeze if 20 g salt (NaCl) is added
to 1.5 kg of water? (Molecular weight of NaCl is 58 g/mol)
Note: Remember that NaCl is a strong electrolyte and dissociates to
Na+ and Cl- ion, respectively.
Did you know?
NaCl (salt) is added to ice to make a freezing mixture that

results in a tasty, homemade ice cream. Lowering the freezing
temperature of the ice-water-salt mixture causes the ice cream
ingredients to freeze more quickly.
15
Let’s Summarize
A. Summary of Key Equations
For nonelectrolytes:
Raoult’s Law: P1 = Po1X 1
Dalton’s Law of Partial Presssure: PT = P A + PB
Osmotic Pressure:  = MRT

Boiling Point Elevation: Tb = Kbm
Freezing Point Depression: Tf = Kf m
For electrolytes:
Raoult’s Law: P1 = iPo1 X1

Dalton’s Law of Partial Presssure: PT = iPA + iPB
Osmotic Pressure:  = iMRT

Boiling Point Elevation: Tb = iKbm
Freezing Point Depression: Tf = iKf m
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: _ Grade Level:

Date: Score: __

Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
Boiling Point Elevation

The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. Boiling points
measured under 1 atm pressure are called normal boiling points. Since a non-volatile
solute decreases the vapor pressure of a liquid, a solution will not boil at normal boiling
point of the solvent at 1 atm pressure. It is necessary to increase the temperature
above this point in order to attain a vapor pressure over the solution of 1 atm. The
boiling point of a solution containing a non-volatile molecular solute, therefore, is
higher than that of the pure solvent. The elevation is proportional to the concentration
of solute in the solution. Thus, boiling point elevation is the amount the boiling point
temperature increases compared to the original solvent.
The elevation of the boiling point; Δtb, can be calculated by multiplying the molal
boiling point elevation constant of the solvent, kb, by the molality of the solution,m.
That is, Δtb = mkbi
Wherein, Δtb = boiling point elevation
m = molality of the solution
kb = molal boiling point elevation constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves (for
covalent compounds, this is always equal to 1)
17
Freezing Point Depression
The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid changes to solid. At
a given temperature, if a substance is added to a solvent (such as water), the solute-
solvent interactions prevent the solvent from going into the solid phase. The solute-
solvent interactions require the temperature to decrease further in order to solidify the
solution. A common example is found when salt is put on icy roadways. The salt is put
on the roads so that the water on the roads will not freeze at the normal 0°C but at a
lower temperature as low as -9°C.
The freezing point depression is the difference in the freezing points of the
solution from the pure solvent. This is true to any solute added to a solvent; the
freezing point of the solution will be lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
The freezing point depression, Δtf, of a solution can be calculated from the
molality of the solution and the constant for the solevnt, kf.
That is, Δtf = mkfi
Wherein, Δtf = freezing point depression
m = molality of the solution
kf = molal freezing point depression constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves
(for covalent compounds, this is always equal to 1)
Learning Competency
Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the concentration
of a solute in a solution (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-117)
18
ACTIVITY 1: COLOR THERMOMETER
Directions: Search for the boiling point and freezing of each sample. Mark the
thermometers with the boiling and freezing point of the given samples. Using your
coloring material, color the thermometer where the substance BOIL and FREEZE.
Color it RED where it freezes and BLUE where it boils.
0°
0° 0°
0°
0°
WATER ACETIC ACID BENZENE ETHANOL CHLOROFORM
Activity 2: FROZEN
Directions: Apply your knowledge of molality to solve the problems below involving
freezing point depression of a solution. Label each variable with the correct unit of
measure.
1. What is the lowest freezing temperature for a saltwater solution? The solubility of
sodium chloride (NaCl) is 280g per 1000g of water at 0°C. kf of H2O = 1.86°C/m.
19
2. At what temperature will a solution freeze if 200g of calcium chloride, CaCl 2, is
dissolved in 850mL of water? kf H2O = 1.86°C/m
3. What is the freezing point of a solution that contains 64.3g of sucrose, C 6H12O6, in
200g of water? kf H2O = 1.86°C/m
4. What is the freezing point of a solution that contains 610g of benzoic acid,
HC7H5O2, in125g of camphor? kf camphor = 40°C/m
20
5. Determine the freezing point depression of 24g urea, CH4N2O, dissolved in 200g of
water. kf H2O = 1.86°C/m
21
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Date: Score: __

Molar Mass from Colligative Property
Calculating Molar Mass

Freezing point or boiling point data can be used to determine the molar mass
of an unknown solute. Since we know the relationship between a decrease in freezing
point and the concentration of solute, if we dissolve a known mass of our unknown
solute into a known amount of solvent, we can calculate the molar mass of the solute.
The kf or kb of the solvent must be known. We also need to know if the solute is an
electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte. If the solvent is an electrolyte, you would need to know
the number of ions that is produced when it dissociates.
For instance, the molar masses of Vitamin C and nicotine can be determined
from the temperatures at which water solutions of these substances begin to freeze.
This technique is specially helpful when identifying an unknown compound or
determining the formula of a newly isolated compound.
The molar masses of many organic substances that are not soluble in water,
like fat soluble vitamins and other natural products, can be found by dissolving known
amounts in a nonpolar solvent such as camphor. The temperature at which the
solution begins to freeze is noted. Then the molar mass of the solute is determined
from the rearrangement of the freezing point equation that we have studied previously.
22
Steps in finding for the molar mass from colligative property data.
1. List the known quantities from the given problem.
2. Find the molality of the solution using the freezing point depression (Δt f) or
boiling point elevation (Δtb).
m = Δtf /kf
3. Use the molality equation to calculate the moles of solute.
mol solute = m x kg H2O
4. Divide the mass solute by the moles solute to determine the molar mass.
Molar mass = mass solute/moles solute
Sample Problem 1.
The Δtf of Camphor is 179.80°C and its kf is 39.7°C/m. When 0.2000g of a
compound X is added to 100g of camphor, its freezing piont drops to 179.29°C. what
is the molar mass of compound X?
a) Find the molality, m = Δtf /kf
m = Δtf /kf
m = (179.8°C – 179.29°C) / 39.7°C/m
m = 0.013mol/kg
b) Calculate the number of moles X
m = mol (X) / kg (camphor)
m = 0.013mol/kg x 0.1000kg
m = 0.0013mol
c) Find the molar mass
Molar mass = grams (X) / mol (X)
Molar mass = 0.2000g / 0.0013mol
Molar mass = 153.85g/mol
23
Sample Problem 2.
A solution prepared by dissolving 0.300g of an unknown volatile solute in 30g
of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has a boiling point that is 0.392°C higher than that of
pure CCl4. What is the molecular weight of the solute? kb = 5.03°C/m
a) Find the molality, m = Δtb /kb

m = Δtb /kb
m = 0.392°C / 5.03°C/m
m = 0.078 mol/kg
b) Calculate the number of moles X

m = mol (X) / kg (CCl4)
m = 0.078mol/kg x 0.03kg
m = 0.0023mol
c) Find the molar mass

Molar mass = grams (X) / mol (X)
Molar mass = 0.300g / 0.0023mol
Molar mass = 130.43g/mol
Learning Competency
Calculate molar mass from colligative property data (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-118)
24
Activity 1: IT’S HUNT TIME!
Directions: Find and circle all of the listed words below that are hidden in the grid.
The words may be hidden horizontally, vertically, diagonally and backward.
COLLIGATIVE FREEZING POINT SOLUTE

MOLAR MASS BOILING POINT MOLE
MOLE SOLUTE ELEVATION
MASS SOLUTE DEPRESSION
25
Activity 2: PROBLEM SOLVING
Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known variables
and solve for the unknown variable following the steps in solving a problem. Label
each known variable with the correct unit of measure.
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 38.7g of nonelectrolyte into 218g of water.

The freezing point of the solution is measured to be -5.53°C. Calculate the
molar mass of the solute. kf of water = 1.86°C/m
2. When 36g of a nonvolatile, molecular substance is dissolved in 100g of water,

the solution begins to freeze at -37.2°C. What is the molar mass of the solute?
kf of water = 1.86°C/m
26
3. When 27.3g of nonvolatile molecular substance is dissolved in 300g of water,
the solution begins to freeze at -0.49°C. Find the molar mass of the solute. kf of
water = 1.86°C/m
4. When 2.55g of a substance is dissolved in 150g of water, the solution freezes

at -0.42°C. What would be the molar mass of the substance? kf of water =
1.86°C/m
5. Find the molar mass of an unknown nonvolatile molecular solute if the solution
begins to freeze at -0.186°C. The solution was prepared by dissolving 1.80g of
unknown solute in 1000g of water. kf of water = 1.86°C/m
27
28
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Date: Score: __

Laboratory Solution Preparation

Many of the reagents used in science are in the form of solutions which need
to be purchased or prepared. For many purposes, the exact value of concentration is
not critical; in other cases, the concentration of the solution and its method of
preparation must be as accurate as possible.
This learning material is designed for both the beginner and experienced
solution maker. It provides valuable information on the basic concepts of preparing
solutions and instructions for preparing most solutions required in the senior high
school science laboratory. Professional quality solutions are possible when high
quality and fresh chemicals and solvents are used, and meticulous procedures are
followed
Basic Concepts of Preparing Solutions
Molarity
The most common unit of solution concentration is molarity (M). The molarity of a
solution is defined as the number of moles of solute per one liter of solution. Note that
the unit of volume for molarity is liters, not milliliters or some other unit. Also note that
one liter of solution contains both the solute and the solvent. Molarity, therefore, is a
ratio between moles of solute and liters of solution. To prepare laboratory solutions,
usually a given volume and molarity are required. To determine molarity, the formula
weight or molar mass of the solute is needed. The following examples
illustrate the calculations for preparing solutions.
29
If starting with a solid, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the molar

mass, MMs.
2. Decide volume of solution required, in liters, V.
3. Decide molarity of solution required, M.
4. Calculate grams of solute (gs) required using equation 1.eq. 1. gs = MMs x M
xV
Example:
Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride.
(MMNaCl = 58.45 g/mol)
gNaCl = 58.45 g/mol x 2 mol/L x 0.8 L
gNaCl = 93.52 g NaCl
Dissolve 93.52 g of NaCl in about 400 mL of distilled water, then add more
water until final volume is 800 mL.
If starting with a solution or liquid reagent:
1. When diluting more concentrated solutions, decide what volume (V2) and
molarity (M2) the final solution should be. Volume can be expressed in liters or
milliliters.
2. Determine molarity (M1) of starting, more concentrated solution.
3. Calculate volume of starting solution (V1) required using equation

2. Note: V1 must be in the same units as V2.
M1V1= M2V2
30
Example:
Prepare 100 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid from concentrated (12.1 M)
hydrochloric acid.
M1V1= M2V2
(12.1 M)(V1) = (1.0 M)(100 mL)
V1 = 8.26 mL conc. HCl
Add 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl to about 50 mL of distilled water, stir,

then add water up to 100 mL.
Percent Solutions
Mass percent solutions are defined based on the grams of solute per 100 grams of
solution.
Example: 20 g of sodium chloride in 100 g of solution is a 20% by mass solution.
Volume percent solutions are defined as milliliters of solute per 100 mL of solution.
Example: 10 mL of ethyl alcohol plus 90 mL of H2O (making approx. 100 mL of

solution) is a 10% by volume solution.
Mass-volume percent solutions are also very common. These solutions are
indicated by w/v% and are defined as the grams of solute per 100 milliliters of
solution.
Example: 1 g of phenolphthalein in 100 mL of 95% ethylalcohol is a 1 w/v% solution.

Conversion Between Percent Solutions
You may wish to convert mass percent to volume percent or vice versa. If so, follow
this procedure:
31
A 10% by mass solution of ethyl alcohol in water contains 10 g of ethyl alcohol and
90 g of water.
1. The formula for determining the volume of the component (ethyl alcohol in our
example) is:
mass of ethyl alcohol

Volume = ——————————
density of ethyl alcohol
2. Determine the volume of the total solution by dividing the mass of the solution by
the density of the solution.
3. Determine the percent by volume by dividing the volume of the component by the
volume of the solution.
Let’s solve 1, 2, and 3 above as follows:
1. Mass of ethyl alcohol = 10 g (given)

Density of ethyl alcohol = 0.794 g/mL
mass
Volume =
density
10 g
Volume of ethyl alcohol = ————— = 12.6 mL
0.794 g/mL
32
2. Mass of solution = 100 g (given)
Density of solution (10% ethyl alcohol) = 0.983 g/mL
100 g
Volume of solution = ————— = 101.8 mL*
0.983 g/mL
3. Volume percent of solution

volume of ethyl alcohol 12.6
Percent = —————————— = ——— = 12.4%
total volume of solution 101.8
Reverse the procedure to convert volume percent to mass percent.
Calculating Molarity from Percent Solutions

To determine the molarity of a mass percent solution, the density of the solution is
required. Use the following procedure:
1. Determine the mass of solution by multiplying the volume of the solution by the
density of the solution.
mass = volume x density
2. Determine concentration in percent by mass of the solute in solution. Change to the

decimal equivalent.
3. Calculate the molar mass of the compound, MM.
4. Multiply mass (step 1) by mass % (step 2) and divide by molecular mass (step 3) to
find the number of moles present in the whole solution.
5. Divide the number of moles (step 4) by the volume in liters of the solution to find the
molarity of the solution.
33
Example: Determine molarity of 37.2% hydrochloric acid (density 1.19 g/mL).
1. Mass of solution = 1,000 mL x 1.19 g/mL = 1,190 g

2. Mass % = 37.2 % = 0.372
3. Molar mass of hydrochloric acid = 36.4 g/mol
4. mass x mass % 1,190 g x 0.372

———————— = ———————— = 12.1 moles
MMHCl 36.4 g/mol
5. Molarity = moles/liters = 12.1 moles/1 liter = 12.1 M
Terms to Remember:
Buffer: A solution which tends to maintain a constant pH when excess acid or base is
added.
Concentrated: For some commonly used acids and bases, the maximum solubility
(at room temperature) in an aqueous solution or as a pure liquid.
Concentration: The relative amount of solute and solvent in a solution.
Hydrates: Compounds containing water chemically combined in a definite ratio.

Computations using formula weight must take the water molecules into account.
Miscible: The ability of two liquids to be completely soluble in one another.
Normality: A concentration unit (N); defined as the number of equivalents of solute

per liter of solution. (e.g., 1 M H2SO4 = 2 N H2SO4)
34
Saturated Solution: A solution that contains the maximum amount of a particular
solute that will dissolve at that temperature.
Solute: The substance which is dissolved, or has gone into solution (typically a solid).
Solution: A uniform homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The individual

substances may be present in varying amounts.
Solvent: The substance which does the dissolving (typically a liquid, such as water or
alcohol). Must be greater than 50% of the solution.
Standard Solution: A very precise solution, usually to 3–4 significant figures, used in
quantitative analysis or an analytical procedure.
Supersaturated Solution: A solution that contains more solute than equilibrium

conditions allow; it is unstable and the solute may precipitate upon slight agitation or
addition of a single crystal.
Molality: A concentration unit (m); defined as the number of moles of solute divided
by the number of kilograms of solvent.
Molar Mass: The mass of a mole of any element or compound.
Molarity: A concentration unit (M); defined as the number of moles of solute divided
by liters of solution.
35
Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119)
Activity 1: PROBLEM SOLVING ON SOLUTION PREPARATION

Directions: Perform the needed calculations in the following.
1.)23.5g of NaCl is dissolved in enough water to make .683 L of solution.
a) What Is the molarity (M) Of the solution?
b) How Many moles of NaCl Are contained in 0.0100 L Of the above NaCl solution?
c) What Volume (L) Of this NaCl Solution would contain 0.200 Moles of NaCl?
2) 12.5g Of glucose (C6H12O6) is dissolved in enough water to make 750.0 mL of

solution.
a) What Is the molarity (M) Of the solution?
b) How Many moles of glucose are contained in 237 mL of the above glucose
solution?
c) What Volume (L) Of this glucose solution would contain 0.079 Moles of glucose?
36
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Date: Score: __

The First Law of Thermodynamics
To understand and perform any sort of thermodynamic calculation, we must

first understand the fundamental laws and concepts of thermodynamics. For example,
work and heat are interrelated concepts. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy
between two bodies that are at different temperatures and is not equal to thermal
energy. Work is the force used to transfer energy between a system and its
surroundings and is needed to create heat and the transfer of thermal energy. Both
work and heat together allow systems to exchange energy. The relationship between
the two concepts can be analyzed through the topic of Thermodynamics, which is
the scientific study of the interaction of heat and other types of energy.
Definition: 1st Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that “energy cannot be created nor
destroyed. It can be transformed into another form but the total amount of energy
remains the same.
How energy is conserved is shown when you eat your meal. The chemical
energy in the food will be converted into mechanical energy that enables you to
perform your daily task. But not all the chemical energy from the food you take will be
transformed into mechanical energy. Some of it will be released from your body as
heat when you sweat or feel warm. In this law we talk of energy, work and heat.
37
Figure on the left shows two
examples of energy being
transferred from one system to
another and from one form to
another. Humans can convert the
chemical energy in food like the
ice cream cone into kinetic energy
(the energy of movement to ride a
bicycle. Plants can convert light
energy from the sun into chemical
energy.
©courses.lumenlearning.com
How are these quantities related when we speak of thermodynamic systems?

In this Law, the energy added to a system is equal to the sum of increase in internal
energy and the external work done by the system.
In simpler term:
Heat Input= increase in internal energy + work output
Mathematically the relationship among the three is expressed as:
ΔU=q+w
Where:
ΔU is the total change in internal energy of a system,
q is the heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings, and
w is the work done by or on the system.
Example
A gas in a system has constant pressure. The surroundings around the system
lose 62 J of heat and does 474 J of work onto the system. What is the internal energy
of the system?
SOLUTION
To find internal energy, ΔU, we must consider the relationship between the
system and the surroundings. Since the First Law of Thermodynamics states that
energy is not created nor destroyed we know that anything lost by the surroundings is
38
gained by the system. The surrounding area loses heat and does work onto the
system. Therefore, q and w are positive in the equation ΔU=q+w because the system
gains heat and gets work done on itself.
ΔU=(62J)+(474J) =536J
©physicsabout.com
The diagram above shows that the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the heat
transferred to it. Also in the absence of any heat interaction, the energy change of a system is
equal to the net heat transfer.
The internal energy of a system would decrease if the system gives off heat or
does work. Therefore, internal energy of a system increases when the heat increases
(this would be done by adding heat into a system). The internal energy would also
increase if work were done onto a system. Any work or heat that goes into or out of a
system changes the internal energy. However, since energy is never created nor
destroyed (thus, the first law of thermodynamics), the change in internal energy always
equals zero. If energy is lost by the system, then it is absorbed by the surroundings. If
energy is absorbed into a system, then that energy was released by the surroundings:
ΔUsystem=−ΔUsurroundings(3)
Where:
ΔUsystem is the total internal energy in a system, and
ΔUsurroundings is the total energy of the surroundings.
Table 1: Visual example of the First Law of Thermodynamics

Sign of Sign of
Process
heat (q) Work (w)
Work done by the system N/A -
Work done onto the system N/A +
39
Table 1: Visual example of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Sign of Sign of
Process
heat (q) Work (w)
Heat released from the system- exothermic
- N/A
(absorbed by surroundings)
The table symbolizes how energy lost by a system is gained by the

surroundings. The effects of different surroundings and changes on a system help
determine the increase or decrease of internal energy, heat and work.
Example:
A system has constant volume (ΔV=0) and the heat around the system increases by
45 J.
a. What is the sign for heat (q) for the system?
b. What is ΔU equal to?
c. What is the value of internal energy of the system in Joules?
SOLUTION
Since the system has constant volume (ΔV=0) the term -PΔV=0 and work is equal
to zero. Thus, in the equation ΔU=q+w w=0 and ΔU=q. The internal energy is equal to
the heat of the system. The surrounding heat increases, so the heat of the system
decreases because heat is not created nor destroyed. Therefore, heat is taken away
from the system making it exothermic and negative. The value of Internal Energy will
be the negative value of the heat absorbed by the surroundings.
a. negative (q<0)
b. ΔU=q + (-PΔV) = q+ 0 = q
c. ΔU = -45J
Explain the first law of thermodynamics (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-124)
40
Activity 1: True or False
1. The heat added to a system is used to increase the system’s internal energy
2. The first Law of thermodynamics is a restatement of the conservation principle

of the Law of Conservation of Mass.
3. Steam engines operate by boiling water to produce steam. The work done by
the steam is due to the expansion of water as it turns into the steam.
4. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at equal
temperatures and are not equal to thermal energy.
5. Work is needed to create heat and the transfer of thermal energy.
Activity 2: Analyze and solve the problem (5 points)
1. If 5J of energy is added to a system that does no external work, by how much

will the internal energy of that system be raised?
41
2. A system has constant volume (ΔV=0) and the heat around the system
increases by 50 J.
a. What is the sign for heat (q) for the system?
b. What is ΔU equal to?
c. What is the value of internal energy of the system in Joules?
3. 300J of heat is added to a system and 250 J of work is added by the system.
What is the change in internal energy by the system?
4. 300 J of heat is added to a system and 250 J of work is done on the system.
What is the change in internal energy of the system?
5. 300 J of heat leaves the system and 250 J of work is done on the system. What
is the change in internal energy of the system?
42
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: Grade Level:

Date: Score:

The Enthalpy of Reaction
Basic Information for the Learner (BIL)
We have stated that the change in energy (ΔU) is equal to the sum of the heat
produced and the work performed. Work done by an expanding gas is called pressure-
volume work, (or just PV work). Consider, for example, a reaction that produces a gas,
such as dissolving a piece of copper in concentrated nitric acid. The chemical equation
for this reaction is as follows:
Cu(s)+4HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+2H2O(l)+2NO2
If the reaction is carried out in a closed system that is maintained at constant

pressure by a movable piston, the piston will rise as nitrogen dioxide gas is formed
(Figure 5.4.1). The system is performing work by lifting the piston against the
downward force exerted by the atmosphere (i.e., atmospheric pressure). We find the
amount of PV work done by multiplying the external pressure P by the change in
volume caused by movement of the piston (ΔV). At a constant external pressure (here,
atmospheric pressure),
w=−PΔV
The negative sign associated with PV work done indicates that the system loses
energy when the volume increases. If the volume increases at constant pressure
(ΔV>0), the work done by the system is negative, indicating that a system has lost
energy by performing work on its surroundings. Conversely, if the volume decreases
(ΔV<0), the work done by the system is positive, which means that the surroundings
have performed work on the system, thereby increasing its energy.
43
Work Performed by a Reaction Carried out at Constant Pressure
The figure above is an Example of Work Performed by a Reaction Carried Out at Constant
Pressure. (a) Initially, the system (a copper penny and concentrated nitric acid) is at
atmospheric pressure. (b) When the penny is added to the nitric acid, the volume of NO2 gas
that is formed causes the piston to move upward to maintain the system at atmospheric
pressure. In doing so, the system is performing work on its surroundings.
The internal energy U of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential
energy of all its components. It is the change in internal energy that produces heat
plus work. To measure the energy changes that occur in chemical reactions, chemists
usually use a related thermodynamic quantity called enthalpy (H) (from the Greek
enthalpein, meaning “to warm”). The enthalpy of a system is defined as the sum of its
internal energy U plus the product of its pressure P and volume V:
H=U+PV
Because internal energy, pressure, and volume are all state functions, enthalpy is also
a state function. So we can define a change in enthalpy (ΔH) accordingly
ΔH=Hfinal−Hinitial
If a chemical change occurs at constant pressure (i.e., for a given P, ΔP=0), the
change in enthalpy (ΔH) is
ΔH=Δ(U+PV)
=ΔU+ΔPV
=ΔU+PΔV
44
Substituting q+w for ΔU (First Law of Thermodynamics) and −w for PΔV , we obtain
ΔH=ΔU+PΔV
=qp+w−w
=qp
The subscript p is used here to emphasize that this equation is true only for a process
that occurs at constant pressure. From Equation above we see that at constant
pressure the change in enthalpy, ΔH of the system, is equal to the heat gained or lost.
ΔH=Hfinal−Hinitia=qp
Just as with ΔU, because enthalpy is a state function, the magnitude of ΔH depends
on only the initial and final states of the system, not on the path taken. Most important,
the enthalpy change is the same even if the process does not occur at constant
pressure.
To find ΔH for a reaction, measure qp.
When we study energy changes in chemical reactions, the most important quantity is
usually the enthalpy of reaction (ΔHrxn), the change in enthalpy that occurs during a
reaction (such as the dissolution of a piece of copper in nitric acid). If heat flows from
a system to its surroundings, the enthalpy of the system decreases, so ΔHrxn is
negative. Conversely, if heat flows from the surroundings to a system, the enthalpy of
the system increases, so ΔHrxn
is positive. Thus:
 ΔHrxn <0 for an exothermic reaction, and
ΔHrxn >0 for an endothermic reaction.
45
©ThoughtCo
In chemical reactions, bond breaking requires an input of energy and is therefore an
endothermic process, whereas bond making releases energy, which is an exothermic
process. The sign conventions for heat flow and enthalpy changes are summarized in
the following table:
Reaction
Q ΔHrxn
Type
<0 (heat flows from a system
Exothermic <0
to its surroundings)
> 0 (heat flows from the
>0
Endothermic surroundings to a system)
If ΔHrxn is negative, then the enthalpy of the products is less than the enthalpy of the reactants;
that is, an exothermic reaction is energetically downhill. Conversely, if ΔHrxn is positive, then
the enthalpy of the products is greater than the enthalpy of the reactants; thus, an endothermic
reaction is energetically uphill . Two important characteristics of enthalpy and changes in
enthalpy are summarized in the following discussion.
Bond breaking ALWAYS requires an input of energy; bond making ALWAYS releases
energy.
46
The Enthalpy of Reaction
Figure: The Enthalpy of Reaction. Energy changes in chemical reactions are usually measured
as changes in enthalpy. (a) If heat flows from a system to its surroundings, the enthalpy of the
system decreases, ΔHrxn is negative, and the reaction is exothermic; it is energetically
downhill. (b) Conversely, if heat flows from the surroundings to a system, the enthalpy of the
system increases, ΔHrxn is positive, and the reaction is endothermic; it is energetically uphill.
Reversing a reaction or a process changes the sign of ΔH. Ice absorbs heat when
it melts (electrostatic interactions are broken), so liquid water must release heat when
it freezes (electrostatic interactions are formed):
heat+H2O(s)→H2O(l)ΔH>0
H2O(l)→H2O(s)+heatΔH<0
In both cases, the magnitude of the enthalpy change is the same; only the sign is
different.
For a clearer understanding of reaction, consider the following application:
Problem no.1 How many joules are required to heat 15.2 g of water at 35.0°C to
70.0°C?
In order to be able to determine how much heat is required to increase the temperature
of your sample of water from 35.0∘ C to 70.0∘ C , you need to know the value of
water's specific heat.
As you know, a substance's specific heat tells you how much heat is required to
increase the temperature of 1.0 g of that substance by 1∘ C.
Water has a specific heat of about 4.18 J /g ∘ C .
47
This tells you that in order to increase the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 ∘ C , you
need to provide it with 4.18 J of heat.
Therefore, in order to increase the temperature of 4.18 g of water by 1 ∘ C , you would
need 4.18 times more heat than water's specific heat value.
Also, , in order to increase the temperature of 4.18 g of water by 4.18 ∘ C , you will
need (4.18×4.18) times more heat than water's specific heat value.
The problem above wants you to increase 15.2 grams of water by 35.0 ∘ C. This means
that you will be needing (15.2 x 35) times more heat than water’s specific heat value
Mathematically, this is expressed as:
q = (m)( c) ( ΔT)
where:
q is the heat absorbed
m is the mass of the sample
c is the specific heat of the substance
ΔT is the change in temperature (defined as final temperature minus initial
temperature
Substitute the equation with the given values:
q = (15.2 g) (4.18 J/ g ∘ C) (70.0-35.0) ∘ C
= 2,223.76 J
48
Explain enthalpy of reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-125)
Activity 1: IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF REACTION IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS

1. Melting ice
2. Sublimation of naphthalene balls
3. Thermal decomposition
4. Dissolving ammonium chloride in water
5. Photosynthesis
6. Cellular Respiration
7. Water freezes into ice cube
8. Rusting Iron
9. Burning of candles
10. Setting of cements and concrete
ACTIVITY 2: Solve the following. 5 pts. Each
1. How many joules are needed to warm 25.5 grams of water from14 O C to
22.5OC? (Note that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18J/gO C)
2. Calculate the number of Joules released when 75 grams of water are

cooled from 100 OC to 27.5 OC?
3. If 1.13 x 10 4J of heat is added to a water sample and temperature rises

from 88.0 OC to its boiling point, what mass of water is in the sample?
49
4. How much heat would be needed to to warm 250 grams of gold from 25 OC
to 100 OC if the specific heat capacity of gold is 0.128 J/g OC?
5. What is the temperature change if 1.386 x 10 3J is absorbed by 60.0 grams

of copper with specific heat capacity of 0.385 J/g OC?
50
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name: Grade Level: __

Date: Score: _

ENTHALPY

Enthalpy, or enthalpy change, is
how much energy (in the form of
heat) has been transferred out or
taken in during a chemical reaction.
Many compounds cannot be directly

synthesized from their elements. In
some cases, the reaction proceeds
too slowly, or side reactions
produce substances other than the
desired compound. In these cases,
https://www.google.com/search?sa=G&hl=en&tbs=simg:CAQSxgIJWbgojuFMP4saugILELCMpwgaYgpgCAMS
KK0XvgvAF7gXygrNCpIMyQrjDM8egynfNJ8nnDa6KekhxDWrJ8oq2ycaMGtxFjinol4Ic_1zRZ2D5_1LRzZDD6 ∆H °f (enthalpy change) can be
1ySYvVvxrs88vIVXXNc6JRPXw2-l8cFxoxa_1lSAEDAsQjq7-CBoKCggIARIEY-
5fLwwLEJ3twQkasgEKJAoSYWxjb2hvbGljIGJldmVyYWdl2qWI9gMKCggvbS8wMTJtagoqChZzdGlsbCBsaW
ZlIHBob3RvZ3JhcGh52qWI9gMMCgovbS8wMjdfbnkzCiAKDWJvdHRsZWQgd2F0ZXLapYj2AwsKCS9tLzAy determined by an indirect approach,
NDI0NwofCgxnbGFzcyBib3R0bGXapYj2AwsKCS9tLzA4OW14cQobCghkZWNhbnRlctqliPYDCwoJL20vMDZr
N19mDA&q=Laboratory&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiqoZbk6PjqAhXDIqYKHdoZCfEQwg4oAHoECBAQJg&bi
which is based on Hess’s law of heat
summation, or simply Hess’s law,
named after the Swiss chemist
Germain Henri Hess.
Hess’s law is also known as "Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation," can be
stated as: “states that the total enthalpy of a chemical reaction is the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the steps of the reaction”.
51
Therefore, you can find enthalpy change by breaking a reaction into component
steps that have known enthalpy values. This example problem demonstrates
strategies for how to use Hess's Law to find the enthalpy change of a reaction using
enthalpy data from similar reactions.
Example 1:
What is the value of ΔH for the following reaction?

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) Eq.1
Given:
2C(s) + O2(g) →2CO(g); ΔHf = -221.0 kJ/mol Eq. 2
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ΔHf = -393.5 kJ/mol Eq. 3
Solution
Hess's Law says the total enthalpy change does not rely on the path taken
from beginning to end. Enthalpy can be calculated in one grand step or multiple
smaller steps.
Step 1: Manipulate given equations to most closely resemble equation of

interest.
To solve this type of problem, organize the given chemical reactions where the total
effect yields the reaction needed. There are a few rules that you must follow when
manipulating a reaction.
1. The reaction can be reversed. This will change the sign of ΔHf.
2. The reaction can be multiplied by a constant. The value of ΔHf must be
multiplied by the same constant.
We see resemblance of value from the equation of interest (Eq. 1) to equation 2
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) Eq 1
2C(s) + O2(g) →2CO(g) ; ΔHf = -221.0 kJ/mol Eq 2
52
Flip equation 2 so that 2CO(g) will be on the reactant side as reflected by the equation
of interest. Applying rule #1, this will become:
2CO(g) → 2C(s) + O2(g) ; ΔHf = +221.0 kJ/mol Eq 4
Another resemblance from the equation of interest (Eq. 1) to equation 3.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) Eq 1
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ΔHf = -393.5 kJ/mol Eq. 3
Both resemblance are on the product side but their coefficients are not the same,
therefore multiple the whole equation 3 to have a coefficient of 2. Applying rule #2,
this will become:
2C(s) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g); ΔHf = -787 kJ/mol Eq. 5
Step 2: Add new reactions together.
Add equation 4 and equation 5 together with their ΔHf This will become
. 2CO(g) → 2C(s) + O2(g) ; ΔHf = +221.0 kJ/mol Eq 4

2C(s) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) ; ΔHf = -787 kJ/mol Eq. 5
_ _ _
2CO(g) + 2C(s)+ 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2C(s) + O2(g) ΔHf = -566 kJ/mol
53
Step 3: Cancel out any compounds that rethe same on both sides of the reaction
arrow.
Anything that are the same on both of the reaction arrows can be cancelled out.
2CO(g) → 2C(s) + O2(g) ; ΔHf = +221.0 kJ/mol Eq 4

2C(s) + 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) ; ΔHf = -787 kJ/mol Eq. 5
_ _
2CO(g) + 2C(s)+ 2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2C(s) + O2(g) ΔHf = -566 kJ/mol
Step 4: Write the new equation and double check to make sure it matches the
equation of interest.
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) : ΔHf = -566 kJ/mol
Therefore the value of ΔH for the following reaction 2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2 CO2(g)
is -566 kJ/mol
Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law
(STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-127)
54
Activity 1: JUSTIFY ME
Directions: Explain your answer comprehensively. Limit your justification in
3-5 sentences. Refer to the scoring rubric below the questions.
1. All Hess's Law says is that if a reaction is the sum of two or more other
reactions, then the change in enthalpy of this reaction is going to be ?
Explain
2. What does it mean to have a lower enthalpy? Does the energy be

released or absorbed? Explain.
Criteria Point
Content (topic or idea) 4
Clarity and Organization 3
of thoughts
Grammar 3
55
Activity 2: ANALOGY
Directions: Cite an example or analogy that best interpret Enthalpy or Hess Law.
EXAMPLE: Suppose you go from the first floor to the sixth floor of
a building by elevator. The gain in your gravitational potential energy
(which corresponds to the enthalpy change for the overall process) is
the same whether you go directly there or stop at each floor on your
way up (breaking the trip into a series of steps).
56

General Chemistry 2: Learning Activity Sheet

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General Chemistry 2: Learning Activity Sheet

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LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Name _ Grade Level: _

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTE

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Colligative properties are physical properties of a solution that depends on the

Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

When an electrolyte is dissolved in a solvent such as water, the electrolyte

One sealed enclosed

1. Get two glasses placed side by side in a sealed enclosed container.

Figure 1.2 A nonvolatile solute reduces the rate of

Non-electrolytes are substances that do not create conductive

The number of solutes present in a non-electrolytic solution is less compared

The vapor pressure of an electrolytic solution is dependent on the ratio of solute

The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure is

For solutions of electrolytes, the vapor pressure lowering equation can be

On the other hand, if both components of a solution are volatile (readily

of moles of each component is computed as:

1500 g H2 O  1mol C12H22O11  83.33 mol H 2O

And mole fraction of water (solvent) is computed as:

Solve the given problem:

Osmosis is of prime importance to living organisms because it influences the

The osmotic pressure ( ) of a solution is the pressure required to stop

Solve the given problem:

Boiling Point Elevation

Activity 2. Boiling Point Elevation

At what temperature will the sugar solution boil if 20 g sucrose (C12H22O11) is

20 g C12H22O11  1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11  0.04 m

Thus, the boiling point of the solution is:

100oC + 0.02oC = 100.02oC

Solve the given problem:

Freezing Point Depression?

Materials: one tsp. salt stirrers

20 g C12H22O11  1mol C12H22O11 0.04 mol C12H22O11  0.04 m

The freezing point depression is calculated as:

0oC - 0.07oC = -0.07oC

Did you know?

NaCl (salt) is added to ice to make a freezing mixture that

A. Summary of Key Equations

Raoult’s Law: P1 = Po1X 1

Dalton’s Law of Partial Presssure: PT = P A + PB

Osmotic Pressure:  = MRT

Raoult’s Law: P1 = iPo1 X1

Osmotic Pressure:  = iMRT

Name: _ Grade Level:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Boiling Point Elevation

WATER ACETIC ACID BENZENE ETHANOL CHLOROFORM

Name: _ Grade Level:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

Background Information for the Learners (BIL)

Calculating Molar Mass

a) Find the molality, m = Δtb /kb

b) Calculate the number of moles X

c) Find the molar mass

COLLIGATIVE FREEZING POINT SOLUTE

1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 38.7g of nonelectrolyte into 218g of water.

2. When 36g of a nonvolatile, molecular substance is dissolved in 100g of water,

4. When 2.55g of a substance is dissolved in 150g of water, the solution freezes

Name: _ Grade Level:

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET