Question 1: Identify on a cell model or diagram the three major cell regions (nucleus,

cytoplasm, and plasma membrane), and discuss their functions.

CELL MODEL

FUNCTIONS:

● Nucleus- For cells, the nucleus is the headquarters or the control center. The nucleus,
or control center, directs the operation of cells and is required for propagation. The
nucleus comprises genetic material (DNA), which holds protein synthesis instructions.
The function of a cell that has depleted or expelled its nucleus is to self-destruct.
● Cytoplasm- The cellular material outside the nucleus and within the plasma membrane
is the cytoplasm. It is the location for most cellular operations. Where most cellular
activities occur is the cytoplasm. Its fluid content, cytosol, includes cytoplasmic
inclusions, preserved or dormant materials (fat globules, liquid vacuoles, crystals, etc.)
and specialized organelles, each with a particular function, called organelles.
Mitochondria, for instance, are ATP synthesis locations, ribosomes are protein synthesis
locations, and the Golgi apparatus bundles substances from the cell for distribution.
Intracellular digestion is carried out by the lysosomes, and peroxisomes disable harmful
chemicals in the cells. In cellular support and movement, cytoskeletal components work.
In the cell division, the centrioles play a significant role and shape the cilia and flagella
foundations.
● Plasma membrane- The plasma membrane restricts the cytoplasm and encircles it and
serves as a selective barrier to the passage in and out of the cell’s substances. It
consists of a protein-containing bi-lipid layer. The basic membrane structure forms the
water-impermeable lipid part. Proteins (several of which are glycoproteins) serve as
membrane transport in enzymes or reservoirs, form membrane or porous channels,
provide hormones as well as other substances with receptor sites, or play a factor in cell
recognition and coordination throughout growth as well as immune responses.

Question 2: The plasma membrane is composed of proteins and sugars. How do they
contribute to the proper functioning of the cell?
 Usually, the proteins in the plasma membrane assist the cell to associate with its
surroundings. Plasma membrane proteins, for instance, perform roles as diverse as escorting
foods throughout the plasma membrane, receiving chemical signals from outside the cell,
converting chemical signals into intracellular action, and often attaching the cell at such a
specific position. Specific protein functions are as diverse as their distinct sequences of amino
acids and depend on their three bases structures. Also, the sugars known as carbohydrates,
shape distinctive cellular markers along with membrane proteins, kind of of like molecular
Identity cards, that enable cells to identify one another. In the immune system, these markers
are very critical, helping immune cells to distinguish between body cells they should not kill and
foreign cells or tissues they must fight. It is located on the outer surface of the cell membrane
and is linked to formation to our proteins (glycoprotein) or to lipids (glycolipids).

Question 3: There are three main types of cell junctions: tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap
junctions. How do these cell junctions differ in terms of structure and function?

STRUCTURE

Our cells are bound together by our glycoproteins. This attachment is called cell
membrane junctions. These junctions vary depending on their role. The first type of cell
junctions is the tight junction. Tight junctions are impermeable junctions and its structure is that
it surrounds the cells and ties them together in order for the sheets to be a leak proof. Adjacent
plasma membranes fuse together tightly and form like a zipper in tight junctions and to prevent
substances from moving between cells into the extracellular space. Its function for instance,
these junctions prohibit digestive enzymes from dripping into the bloodstream in the small
intestine. Our second type of cell junction is the desmosomes. In structure, the desmosomes
junctions are like button-like thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes that are linked by the
fine filaments of proteins. The thicker protein filaments extends its adjacent plasma membrane
within the cell to another adjacent plasma membrane located in the other directions. This
causes the formation of a strong internal system of so-called “guy wires''. Desmosomes are
anchoring junctions along the sides of neighboring cells distributed like rivets. Its function is to
avoid the pulling apart mechanism of cells that is attributed to significant pressure including the
heart muscle cells as well as skin cells. The third and last type of junctions is the gap junctions.
In structure, The adjacent cells are bound in gap junctions by hollow cylinders made of proteins
named connexons, spanning the entire width of the landscaped membranes that are called
transmembrane proteins. Gap junctions are junctions that act primarily to facilitate
communication. In the heart and between embryonic cells, these junctions are mainly
encountered. The chemical compounds, such as nutrients or ions, may travel from one cell to
another directly via the water-filled connecting pathways (connexon).

Question 4: Identify the organelles on a cell model or describe them, and indicate the major
function of each.

CELL STRUCTURE

ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTION

Question 5: Define selective permeability, diffusion (including simple and facilitated diffusion
and osmosis), active transport, passive transport, solute pumping, exocytosis, endocytosis,
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.

● Selective permeability- An entry that enables some substances to pass through it, thus
blocking others. It also enables the entrance of nutrients into the cell, but retains some
unnecessary or harmful compounds. Inside the cell, essential cell proteins and other
compounds are retained, and waste is allowed to flow out of it.

● Diffusion- Diffusion is the mechanism by which molecules transfer away from more
concentrated areas to less concentrated areas. For cells of the body, it is a significant
 means of passive membrane transport. In general, the other passive method of
transport, filtration, occurs only through capillary walls.

a. Simple diffusion- Simple diffusion is known as the unsupported diffusion of

solutes via the plasma membrane (or any selectively permeable membrane).
Solutes that are being transported in here are lipid-soluble such as fats, fat-
soluble vitamins, oxygen, carbon dioxide.
b. Facilitated diffusion- For certain essential substances (notably glucose) which
are indeed lipid-insoluble and too large to move through the membrane pores, or
charged, like in the situation of chloride ions moving via a membrane protein
channel, facilitated diffusion facilitates passage.
c. Osmosis- Water diffusion is specifically known as osmosis through a selectively
permeable membrane, such as the plasma membrane. All the time, osmosis into
and out of cells happens when water flows down the gradient of concentration.
Water flow occurs rapidly through the membrane; the water diffusion is through a
specific channel protein (aquaporin).

● Active transport- Active transport is the passage across the cell membrane of dissolved
molecules into or out of a cell, from a region of lower concentration to a region of greater
concentration. By using energy released during respiration (ATP), the particles travel
against the concentration gradient. This is also called as solute pumps.

● Passive transport- Passive transport is a form of membrane transport that needs no

energy to transfer substances through the membranes of cells. Passive transport
depends on the second law of thermodynamics to guide the passage of substances
across cell membranes rather than using energy to cells, such as active transportation.
The types of passive transport are the simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.

● Solute pumping- Solute pumping requires the use of protein carriers as well as
facilitated diffusion, however the molecules transferred are pushed against their
electrochemical gradients by solution pumping. This includes the expense of ATP.
Solute pumps carry amino acids, some sugars, and most ions. A major example of
solute pumping is the sodium-potassium pump. Within the cell, there is a greater
concentration of K+ than outside, and outside the cell, there is a larger concentration of
Na+ than within. If left alone, both ions will go down their concentration gradient. By
pumping Na+ out of the cell, the sodium-potassium pump retains those gradients when
pumping K+ ions into the cell at the very same moment.

● Exocytosis- The method by which vast quantities of substances are transferred out of
the cell is exocytosis. In tiny membranous vesicles, the substances to be released are
packaged. The vesicles move to and fuse with the plasma membrane, and the
compounds then leak out of the cell.

● Endocytosis- The method by which vast quantities of materials are inserted into the cell
is endocytosis. The plasma membrane covers compounds to be carried into the cell and
the membrane then grabs off from the plasma membrane to create a membranous
vesicle inside the cell.
 ● Phagocytosis- As it involves endocytosis of bigger particles including such bacteria or
dead or worn-out cells, phagocytosis is often referred to as cell eating. Cytoplasmic
extensions of the membrane, or pseudopods, envelop the particles. The pseudopods
fully cover the substance and pull off a membranous vesicle from the plasma membrane.

● Pinocytosis- 'Cell drinking' is also called pinocytosis. The plasma membrane

invaginates (indents) in this step to develop a fluid-filled membranous vesicle containing
dissolved proteins and fats.

● Hypertonic- This occurs when there is less water (low concentration of the solute) than
a cell and has more solvents like salt or sugar. One example of this is the seawater. In
any scenario, a cell shrinks if you put an animal or a plant cell in a hypertonic solution,
this is because it loses water. The water moves from a higher concentration inside the
cell to a lower concentration outside. Therefore, when you get thirsty, drinking sea water
at the beaches leaves you so much more dehydrated.

● Hypotonic- This occurs when there is more water (high concentration of the solute) than
a cell. Examples of this are the tap water and clean water. In a scenario, when you put a
single animal cell into a hypotonic solution (RBC), the water will fill up and eventually will
burst so this is why applying water to a bloodstained piece of clothing makes the hue
worse.

● Isotonic- Both sides of the cell membrane have the same water concentration (equal
concentration of the solute). For example, our blood is isotonic.

Question 6: What is the energy source for all types of diffusion?

Kinetic energy. Because it is naturally possessed by the molecules and with each
collision, they collide and change direction as the molecules travel around randomly at high
speeds. This irregular movement's ultimate consequence is that molecules pass down their
gradient of concentration. The higher the concentration difference between the two sites, the
quicker the diffusion takes place. Since the kinetic energy of the molecules themselves is the
source of energy, the frequency of diffusion is influenced by the size of the molecules and the
temperature.

Question 7: Explain the phrase “move down the concentration gradient”.

During diffusion, the molecules tend to move down the concentration gradient. In
question 6, we have known that the kinetic energy of the molecules is the source of energy.
Due to this, it is said that molecules move down the gradient of concentration when they move
from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.

Question 8: Discuss the events that take place during mitosis through cytokinesis.

Mitosis is cell division in somatic cells. Mitosis occurs during growth and
repair/replacement of tissues. The result of mitosis is two identical daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the original cell. It involves different stages called P.M.A.T. The first stage
of the event that takes place during mitosis through cytokinesis is the prophase. In prophase,
chromosomes are being paired up. The nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes
thicken and shorten (become visible). The centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus.
Second, metaphase occurs. Chromosomes meet in the middle. Chromosomes arrange at the
equator of the cell and become attached to spindle fibres by centromeres. Third, anaphase
occurs. The chromosomes get pulled apart and spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids to the
opposite poles of the cell. The chromosomes split at the centromere, and the strands separate
and move to opposite ends of the dividing cell. Then, telophase occurs. Here, there are now
two, the chromosomes uncoil, spindle fibres disintegrate, centrioles replicate, nuclear
membrane forms and cell divides. The cell membrane pinches in as the cell continues to divide.
The telophase is divided into two; early telophase and late telophase. Early telophase is where
nuclear membranes form and late telophase where nuclear membranes are complete. In short,
mitosis is complete.

THE P.M.A.T

EARLY TELOPHASE AND LATE TELOPHASE

Lastly, the cytokinesis occurs. This is where the separation of the cell cytoplasm
happens. In here, the cell splits. After mitosis is complete, there are finally two daughter cells.
The nuclear membrane is now present and the chromosomes are no longer visible.

Question 9: Epithelial tissues are found in different locations all over the body. Draw a simple
model of the human body and indicate the type of epithelial tissue found in some body parts and
discuss the relevance of having such type of epithelium in that site.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE HUMAN BODY WITH THE EPITHELIAL TISSUES

RELEVANCE OF THE EPITHELIAL TISSUE IN A SPECIFIC SITE
Question 10: How does wound healing occur? You may illustrate your answer if you prefer.

PHASES OF WOUND HEALING

Inflammation Phase
↓
Granulation Phase
↓
Remodelling Phase

The wound healing occurs in two ways. It can be regeneration or fibrosis. Regeneration is the
replacement of the damaged tissue by the same kind of cell tissue. On the other hand, fibrosis
is a repairing of damaged tissue by dense connective tissue. The fibrosis is the type of wound
healing where the scars will occur after. These two occur depending on what type of tissue is
destroyed or harmed and the severity level of the wound you had. The healing of our wounds
are divided into three phases.
 These are the inflammation phase, granulation phase, and remodelling or replacement
(regeneration or fibrosis) phase. The inflammation phase is where the damaged cells will
release inflammatory chemicals as a signal to make the capillaries selectively permeable. This
results in the liquids to flow that are rich in clotting proteins and this makes a clot that serves as
the plug to the hole of our tissue. This clot enables our wound to be protected from the bacterias
or harmful things that may enter our wound. The clot will eventually be dried and hardened
because of the environment we have and this will result in the formation of a scab.

Second, the granulation phase. It is where new tissues will occur. These tissues are
composed of a bundle of numbers of new capillaries that grows in the damaged area and the
physical look of this kind of pinkish. These new capillaries are from the unaffected blood vessels
near the wound. So if we will remove the scab that we had in the previous phase, it will no
longer bleed too much because our granulated tissue is composed of phagocytes. Its function is
to throw out the blood clot and our connective tissue will eventually produce collagen fibers to
replace the thrown out temporary seal of wound (scab).

Lastly, the remodelling phase. This is where our epithelial cells start to regenerate the
damaged tissue. It was able to regenerate because of the granulation tissue and the scab.
When our scab eventually starts to fall off naturally, our wound is now fully replaced by new
epithelial tissue cells. It is covered by our scars at first. However, the scars may be visible or not
as can be seen by a naked eye as a white thin line. The scars may be permanent, temporary,
visible, or invisible depending on the case of the severity of the wound that you have.