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Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

ICAAMM-2016

A Critical Review on Recent Research Methodologies in Additive

Manufacturing
M.Srinivasa, B.Sridhar Babub*
a
Assistant professor,Department of Mechanical Engineering,CMR Institute of Technology,Hyderabad,Telengana, India
b
Associate professor,Department of Mechanical Engineering,CMR Institute of Technology,Hyderabad,Telengana, India

Abstract

In view of the significant increase in research activity and publications in additive manufacturing in the last few years,
the present article is an attempt to identify and highlight the topics that are most relevant to additive manufacturing systems and
review representative journal publications that are related to these topics. A critical review of the reported studies in the area of
titanium and aluminium alloys along with Fe-Al intermetallics in temperature distribution and melt geometry in various melting
processes, Laser Deposition for additive manufacturing, selective laser melting process, in-situ alloy formation and residual stress
reduction, Weak support material techniques, wire-arc additive manufacturing process, control of remelting in high-energy beam
additive manufacturing, Evaluations of effective thermal conductivity of support structures in selective laser melting, Crack
propagation and fracture toughness behaviours, Effects of build orientation and heat treatment on the microstructure and
mechanical properties, Flexural properties, mechanical properties, High Speed Sintering, Thermal behaviour, Light curing
strategies and with an emphasis on the recent works published since last two years. Because of the extensive growth in the body
of knowledge in additive manufacturing in the past years, The review is limited to a manageable level by concentrating on
temperature & thermal distribution, thermal conductivity, residual stress reduction, Metallurgy of additive manufacturing, Crack
propagation and fracture toughness. This review is intended to provide a feel for the variety of studies and applications related to
additive manufacturing. An effort has been made here, to include all the important contributions in the current area of interest.
The critical areas regarding future research needs for the successful implementation of additive manufacturing in design are
outlined in the conclusion.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and Peer-review under responsibility ofthe Committee Members of International Conference on Advancements in
Aeromechanical Materials for Manufacturing (ICAAMM-2016).

Keywords: Additive manufacturing, laser and electron-beam melting processes, Direct Laser Deposition, Electron beam welding, laser melting
process, residual stress reduction.

* B. Sridhar Babu. Tel.: +00919490747062;

E-mail address:srinivasmantravadi@hotmail.com

2214-7853© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and Peer-review under responsibility ofthe Committee Members of International Conference on Advancements in Aeromechanical
Materials for Manufacturing (ICAAMM-2016).
9050 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059

1. Introduction

Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component
in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive
Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is
clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a work piece from solid
block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are
available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

The technology has especially been applied in conjunction with Rapid Prototyping - the construction of illustrative
and functional prototypes. Additive Manufacturing is now being used increasingly in Series Production. It gives
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) in the most varied sectors of industry the opportunity to create a
distinctive profile for themselves based on new customer benefits, cost-saving potential and the ability to meet
sustainability goals.

The strengths of Additive Manufacturing lie in those areas where conventional manufacturing reaches its
limitations. The technology is of interest where a new approach to design and manufacturing is required so as to
come up with solutions. It enables a design-driven manufacturing process - where design determines production and
not the other way around. What is more, Additive Manufacturing allows for highly complex structures which can
still be extremely light and stable. It provides a high degree of design freedom, the optimization and integration of
functional features, the manufacture of small batch sizes at reasonable unit costs and a high degree of product
customization even in serial production.

The system starts by applying a thin layer of the powder material to the building platform. A powerful laser beam
then fuses the powder at exactly the points defined by the computer-generated component design data. The platform
is then lowered and another layer of powder is applied. Once again the material is fused so as to bond with the layer
below at the predefined points. Depending on the material used, components can be manufactured using stereo
lithography, laser sintering or 3D printing. [1], [2]

2. Types of Additive Manufacturing (The 7 Categories of Additive Manufacturing)

2.1 VAT Photo polymerisation
Vat polymerisation uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the model is constructed layer by
layer. An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the resin where required (fig 1), whilst a platform moves
the object being made downwards after each new layer is cured. As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is
no structural support from the material during the build phase. Unlike powder based methods, where support is
given from the unbound material. In this case, support structures will often need to be added. Resins are cured using
a process of photo polymerisation or UV light, where the light is directed across the surface of the resin with the use
of motor controlled mirrors. Where the resin comes in contact with the light, it cures or hardens. [1]

2.2 Material Jetting

Material jetting creates objects in a similar method to a two dimensional ink jet printer (fig 2). Material is
jetted onto a build platform using either a continuous or Drop on Demand (DOD) approach. Material is jetted onto
the build surface or platform, where it solidifies and the model is built layer by layer. Material is deposited from a
nozzle which moves horizontally across the build platform. Machines vary in complexity and in their methods of
controlling the deposition of material. The material layers are then cured or hardened using ultraviolet (UV) light.
As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to use is limited. Polymers and waxes are
suitable and commonly used materials, due to their viscous nature and ability to form drops. [1]
 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059 9051

Fig 1. Step by step Photo polymerisation Fig 2. Jet Printer.

2.3 Binder Jetting

The binder jetting process uses two materials; a powder based material and a binder. The binder acts as an
adhesive between powder layers. The binder is usually in liquid form and the build material in powder form. A print
head moves horizontally along the x and y axes of the machine and deposits alternating layers of the build material
and the binding material. After each layer, the object being printed is lowered on its build platform. Due to the
method of binding, the material characteristics are not always suitable for structural parts and despite the relative
speed of printing, additional post processing can add significant time to the overall process. As with other powder
based manufacturing methods, the object being printed is self-supported within the powder bed and is removed from
the unbound powder once completed. The technology is often referred to as 3DP

2.4 Material Extrusion

Fuse deposition modelling (FDM) is a common material extrusion process (fig 3). Material is drawn
through a nozzle, where it is heated and is then deposited layer by layer. The nozzle can move horizontally and a
platform moves up and down vertically after each new layer is deposited. It is a commonly used technique used on
many inexpensive, domestic and hobby 3D printers. The process has many factors that influence the final model
quality but has great potential and viability when these factors are controlled successfully. Whilst FDM is similar to
all other 3D printing processes, as it builds layer by layer, it varies in the fact that material is added through a nozzle
under constant pressure and in a continuous stream. This pressure must be kept steady and at a constant speed to
enable accurate results. Material layers can be bonded by temperature control or through the use of chemical agents.
Material is often added to the machine in spool form as shown in the diagram. [1]

2.5 Powder Bed Fusion

The Powder Bed Fusion process (fig 4) includes the following commonly used printing techniques: Direct
metal laser sintering (DMLS), Electron beam melting (EBM), Selective heat sintering (SHS), Selective laser melting
(SLM) and Selective laser sintering (SLS).

Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods use either a laser or electron beam to melt and fuse material powder together.
Electron beam melting (EBM), methods require a vacuum but can be used with metals and alloys in the creation of
functional parts. All PBF processes involve the spreading of the powder material over previous layers. There are
different mechanisms to enable this, including a roller or a blade. A hopper or a reservoir below of aside the bed
provides fresh material supply. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is the same as SLS, but with the use of metals
and not plastics. The process sinters the powder, layer by layer. Selective Heat Sintering differs from other processes
by way of using a heated thermal print head to fuse powder material together. As before, layers are added with a
roller in between fusion of layers. A platform lowers the model accordingly
9052 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059

Fig.3. Step by step process of material extrusion. Fig4. Step by step process of power bed fusion.

2.6 Sheet lamination

Sheet lamination processes (fig 5) include ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and laminated object
manufacturing (LOM). The Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing process uses sheets or ribbons of metal, which are
bound together using ultrasonic welding. The process does require additional cnc machining and removal of the
unbound metal, often during the welding process. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) uses a similar layer by
layer approach but uses paper as material and adhesive instead of welding. The LOM process uses a cross hatching
method during the printing process to allow for easy removal post build. Laminated objects are often used for
aesthetic and visual models and are not suitable for structural use. UAM uses metals and includes aluminium,
copper, stainless steel and titanium (Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing Overview, 2014). The process is low
temperature and allows for internal geometries to be created. The process can bond different materials and requires
relatively little energy, as the metal is not melted. [1] Directed Energy Deposition (DED) (fig 6)covers a range of
terminology: ‘Laser engineered net shaping, directed light fabrication, direct metal deposition, 3D laser cladding’ It
is a more complex printing process commonly used to repair or add additional material to existing
components (Gibson et al., 2010). A typical DED machine consists of a nozzle mounted on a multi axis arm, which
deposits melted material onto the specified surface, where it solidifies. The process is similar in principle to material
extrusion, but the nozzle can move in multiple directions and is not fixed to a specific axis. The material, which can
be deposited from any angle due to 4 and 5 axis machines, is melted upon deposition with a laser or electron beam.
The process can be used with polymers, ceramics but is typically used with metals, in the form of either powder or
wire.Typical applications include repairing and maintaining structural parts.

Fig 5. Step by step process of sheet lamination. Fig 6 step by step process of direct energy deposition

3. Review on Present Research

3.1 Thermal behavior of Pure Titanium Powder during SLM
Commercially pure titanium (CP Ti) is widely used for the fabrication of implants and aerospace components
because of its sound corrosion resistance, high mechanical strength, and good biocompatibility.During conventional
 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059 9053

processing, Ti tends to assimilate oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen from the atmosphere at high temperatures because
of its reactive nature. This has an adverse effect on the on the component manufactured and modern Ti components
typically have complex configurations that are difficult to fabricate by conventional processing methods.Selective
laser melting (SLM) is a promising additive manufacturing(AM) technique with advantages for direct fabrication of
three-dimensional (3D) parts with complex structures. SLM is generally performed in an inert-gas protection
system, which prevents Ti from assimilating oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen from the atmosphere.However, since
SLM is a complex physicochemical metallurgy process, uncontrollable defects such as balling, curling, and thermal
cracks can occur.SLM involves multiple types of mass, heat, and momentum transfer that can be significantly
affected by the operating temperature. Therefore, significant research efforts are required to study the thermal
behaviour during SLM. However, experimental measurements of the temperature during SLM are considered to be
difficult because of the localized heating and superfast melting and solidification involved. Numerical simulation is
a useful alternative to solve these problems.It has been found that the stability of the process was highly dependent
on the scan speed, powder layer thickness, and the thermal properties of the materials. These results indicated that
laser-heated regions experienced rapid thermal cycles, which would be accompanied by significant thermal stress
cycles.The influence of the moving heat source intensity, the scan speed, and the thickness of the powder layer on
both the configuration of the heat-affected zone and the temperature distribution was investigated.Despite these
numerical simulations of thermal behaviour during selective laser sintering/melting of metal powders, there has been
limited research on thermal behaviour during SLM of CP Ti powder.To close this research gap, establishment of a
transient 3D finite element (FE) model based on solutions to heat transfer equations to predict the thermal behaviour
in a CP Ti powder bed during SLM has been done.

3.1.1 SLM model

Physical description
Fig.7 shows a schematic of the SLM process for metal powder. When the laser beam irradiates the surface
of a powder bed, a fraction of the laser energy is reflected and the remainder is absorbed by the powder. The
absorbed laser energy melts the powder, thereby yielding a small molten pool. Metallurgical bonds form between
adjacent tracks and neighbouring layers as solidification occurs. During SLM, besides thermal conduction, heat
losses due to convection and radiation should also be taken into account for proper description of the thermal
behaviour [2]

Fig. 7. Schematic of the thermal behaviour of a powder bed under laser irradiation.

3.2. Crack propagation and fracture toughness of Ti6Al4V alloy produced by selective laser melting

In SLM process non-melted powder remains in place to support the structure. Consequently, the static and
dynamic material properties must be sufficient to meet in-service loading and operational requirements. It is well
known that the SLM process is characterized by high temperature gradients leading to rapidly solidified, non
equilibrium microstructures. High localised thermal gradients and very short interaction times, which leads to rapid
volume changes, causes substantial residual stress development. Furthermore, the option of changing the process
parameters can have a strong influence on the microstructure, density and surface quality. As a result ,the
mechanical properties of SLM parts can differ substantially from one another and from those produced by
9054 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059

conventional techniques. In this respect it is recognised that the advantages of SLM can only be realised when the
mechanical behaviour of the final products is at least able to be matched to conventionally produced components of
the same material. In recent years, much research has focused on optimising the SLM process. Concentration on
studying the SLM part and material properties specifications in order to improve the quality of the resulting products
has been done. In another study focus on how the mechanical properties obtained with SLM may differ from the
ones of bulk material has been done. At present, Ti-alloys are being processed with high repeatability and hence low
variation in material density and mechanical properties are obtained. Studies on the effect of applying specific heat
treatments to SLM produced Ti6Al4V in order to produce a preferred final microstructure are being done. Properties
such as tensile strength, hardness, and impact toughness have been well characterised and are reported to match
those of conventional wrought materials. On the other hand, substantial complexities arise when attempting to
characterise the dynamic mechanical behaviour, since crack initiation and propagation is critically sensitive to the
interaction between fracture path, orientation, microstructure and loading conditions. In addition, residual stresses
which arise as a result of the rapid localised temperature fluctuations during the SLM process strongly influence
crack initiation and growth. A previous study has shown that these residual stresses have detrimental effects on the
mechanical behaviour of SLM parts. The knowledge of these properties and the underlying failure mechanisms
remains limited, and consequently there is insufficient confidence in being able to predict fatigue life.

3.2.1Materials

Standard tensile and compact-tension (CT) specimens were manufactured from grade 5Ti6Al4V spherical
powder for the determination of tensile, fracture toughness (K1c) andfatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) properties.
The powder particle size ranged between15μm and 45μm. [3]

3.2.2 Heat treatment

In the case where heat treatment was applied to the as-built specimens, two different processes were
considered. For the stress relief (SR) treatment, specimens were soakedat 650 ˚C for 4 hours. The annealing
treatment was performed at 890 ˚C for 2 hours. All heat treatments were carried out in ahorizontal tube furnace
under a protective argon atmosphere and specimens were furnace cooled. Heat treatments were performed prior to
final machining. [3]

3.2.3 Mechanical testing

Tensile testing, fracture toughness (K1c) and FCGR measurements were performed.

3.2.4 Microstructure

The microstructure parallel to the build direction is indicated in Figure 8. As is common for the SLM
production of Ti6Al4V specimens, a columnar grain structure is clearly visible which arises as a result of the
epitaxial growth caused by the successive layer deposition. The heat treatments in this study were designed to avoid
significant grain growth by maintaining the maximum temperature below the transus temperature (approximately
1000°C). The metal powder solidifies to form the phase which subsequently transforms during cooling.

Fig 8: Columnar prior grains in microstructure section parallel to SLM build direction (BD)
 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059 9055

3.2.5 Result

The consideration of SLM build orientation and process condition has highlighted thesensitivity of
mechanical properties to the anisotropic micro structural and residual stresseffects that arise from the highly
directional and rapid transient nature of the SLMmanufacturing process. In particular, the following findings are
highlighted:-The effect of the relationship between build direction and fracture plane on the fracture toughness and
fatigue crack growth rate is most noticeable when material is tested in the as-built condition and may be accounted
for by the anisotropic residual stress distribution. Low temperature stress relief and annealing heat treatments
improve fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth resistance relative to the as-built condition and at the same
time contribute to the elimination of the influence of anisotropy. The uniaxial tensile properties are much less
influenced by specimen orientation relative to build direction.

3.3 Effect of interpass temperature on in-situ alloying and additive manufacturing of titanium aluminides using gas
tungsten arc welding

Numerous AM processes have been successfully established for conventional metals, ranging from
aluminium, nickel, steel and titanium. Intermetallic γ-TiAl based alloys are one of the most valuable materials in
aerospace and automotive industry owing to the attractive combination of low density, distinctive mechanical
properties, and resistance to oxidation. The development of AM methods for γ-TiAl alloys has recently become a
new focus. Some researchers have succeeded in fabricating titanium aluminide components using AM technique by
laser melting deposition of prealloyed powders. Electron beam melting (EBM) has also been used to produce γ-TiAl
based intermetallic components in combination with hot isostatic pressing (HIP).Alternatively, more interest has
gravitated to wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) with the continue need for reducing the material cost
and minimizing the likelihood of contamination Limited success in manufacturing intermetallics via WAAM has
been reported. These alloys are difficult to weld and the welding process parameters must be under strict control.
Previous research has demonstrated the potential to produce full density γ-TiAl alloys using wire and arc AM
process, which combines gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) with in-situ alloying by separately depositing elemental
pure Ti and pure Al wires. For this promising GTAW-AM approach as well as other additive manufacturing
techniques, it is crucial to comprehend how the processing parameters influence microstructure and properties of
materials. This is important to succeed in obtaining repeatable and reproducible material with acceptable quality.
Similar to multipass welding processes applied to conventional metallic alloys, the interpass temperature is an
important process parameter that affects the micro structural and mechanical properties of the fabricated component.
Interpass temperature is defined as the temperature of the material in the weld area immediately before the second
and each subsequent pass of a multiple pass weld. The focus of this research study is to determine the effect of
interpass temperature on the microstructure and micro hardness of the in-situ alloyed and additively manufactured
titanium aluminide components, and thereby decides upon a suitable interpass temperature for future application of
this process. [4]

3.3.1Materials and method

Five straight walls with 20 layers each were produced by GTAWAM using a water cooled CK machine
mount torched to a Kemppi MasterTIG MLS 2000 inverter power supply at a 120 A current, 3.5 mm arc length, 100
mm/min welding speed, 850 mm/min Ti wire-feeding rate and 775 mm/min Al wire-feeding rate. The
manufacturing process and the equipment used in the current work are shown in Fig. 9. The first layer was joined to
the substrate on which the torch created a melt pool. A twin wire feeder arrangement was used to individually
deliver the feed Ti and Al wires into the melt pool to form a layer when the molten metal solidified.A new layer was
subsequently deposited onto the previous layer after the torch and the twin wire feedstock nozzles were raised by a
vertical distance equal to the layer thickness. The process was repeated to deposit consecutive layers until the wall-
like part was fully constructed in a layer-by-layer manner. A local argon gas shielding device was appropriately
designed to protect the deposition process from oxidation, in order to fabricate a final product with minimal oxygen
and nitrogen contamination. It should be noted that the substrate is pure titanium, so there will be a near-substrate
zone of the sample where the aluminium content of the deposited material progressively increases towards the
desired value. Three test specimens were sectioned from the middle of each wall to produce a total of 15 specimens.
9056 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059

The microstructure was subsequently observed on the polished and etched cross-sections using Leica DMR OM for
each sample. A solution of 6 vol. % nitric acid and 3 vol. % hydrofluoric acid in water was used for etching. Vickers
microhardness measurements were performed at 1 mm intervals from the fusion line to the last layer along
centreline of cross-sections for all the specimens using 200 g load (HV0.2). The chemical composition was
determined using an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis system, which is equipped on a scanning
electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JSM-6490LA). The point analysis was used to measure the composition of in-situ
elements at approximately 0.5 mm distance alongside the hardness indentations.. Then the average values of
microhardness and chemical composition for the majority part of each wall are calculated from all the indentations
in this region excluding the near-substrate zone for the sectioned three samples from each wall. The phases present
in each wall were identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) utilising a GBC MMA X-ray diffractometer with CuK_
radiation . The corresponding phase fractions were determined by Rietveld analysis of the XRD patterns. [4]

Fig. 9. GTAW-AM process and experimental equipment: (a) schematic drawing shown the GTAW-AM process; (b) the experimental setup and
electric resistance heating element

3.4Metallurgy of additive manufacturing: Examples from electron beam melting

Recent reviews involving laser and electron beam melting applied to the additive manufacturing of metal
and alloy components have generally outlined their non-equilibrium physical and chemical nature which contributes
to unique and novel metallurgical phenomena . In this context, additive manufacturing (AM) utilizing laser or
electron beam melting reduces the need for tooling such as molds and jigs, although AM can fabricate more
optimized and complex patterns than metal and alloy casting; especially applicable in automotive, aerospace,
electronic and medical/biomedical (including dental) product manufacturing. AM also allows for low volume
production of customized metal parts and reduced capital investment and transportation costs since production can
occur closer to the consumer. Complex monolithic geometries involving little or no joining operations
accommodating rapid design changes enable flexible production and mass customization strategies using AM
technologies involving laser and electron beam processing of pre-alloyed powder beds by incremental (layer)
manufacturing. This differs dramatically from more conventional powder metallurgy (PM)processing. The
incremental powder layer interaction with laser and electron beams is also fundamentally different from surface or
near surface processing of bulk metal or alloy products, although there are some similarities in regard to heat
treatment and melting.
The incremental layer-by-layer melt and solidification phenomena associated with the laser and electron
beam AM of metal or alloy powders differs fundamentally from more conventional metallurgical processing,
including directional solidification involving a continuously moving melt/solidification front. In addition, traditional
metallurgical processing of bulk melt/solidification products involving thermo-mechanical treatment regimens can
be facilitated to some extent in the AM of the same products by adjusting and optimizing beam scan parameters and
scan sequencing strategies to achieve desired microstructural features incrementally rather than by bulk cast or
wrought product post treatment.
 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059 9057

The present discussion is on the interaction of scanning laser and electron beams with metal and alloy
powder layers in terms of coupling of photons or electrons and their corresponding energy absorption. Metallurgical
aspects of electron beam melting (EBM) fabrication of several examples of metals and alloys are compared along
with comparative examples of EBM and wrought or cast mechanical properties. Specific examples include Ti-6Al-
4V, Co-Cr super alloy, Inconel alloys 625 and 718 (Ni-base super alloys).
3.4.1 Overview of thermal analysis applied to laser and electron beam interactions with matter

Heat flow for a rapidly moving, high-powered laser or electron beam is dominated by conduction in a solid
material scanned in the x-direction at constant velocity (Fig. 2) be related to the thermal diffusivity, D, and specific
heat per unit volume, Cp, by
Q
− ∇ T=
C
∙
where T is the temperature distribution in the material in thickness t (or dt) and related to the power density, Q. The
partial differential form in Eq. (1) can also represent the cooling rate as expressed generally by
=−

where the x–y plane is normal to the beam axis (z-axis) or direction as illustrated in Fig. 2. The power density Q is
related to the power absorbed at the surface or surface layer (P) by

=
2
Where f is a Gaussian beam distribution function .Heat is created as portions of beam energy (hν for a laser beam
and mve2/2 for an electron beam; with electron mass m and velocity, ve) is absorbed by various, characteristic
coupling mechanisms between phonons or electrons composing the solid matter: Due to their large density of free
electrons, metals and alloys have large optical absorption coefficients for scanning laser beams. Reflectivity is high
above some critical wavelength but below this critical wavelength it decreases rapidly.

3.5 AlSi12 in-situ alloy formation and residual stress reduction using anchorless selective laser melting

Claim that SLM or EBM offers “unlimited” design freedom is untrue due to the requirement for
supports/anchors that prevent certain geometries from geometrically distorting as a result of thermal residual stress.
Further to this anchors are often costly, difficult and time consuming to remove. Because of the limitations anchors
exert over the process, today efforts to limit the number of supports/anchors and minimise residual stress remains a
major research priority.[6]

3.5.1 Stress development and requirement for anchors/supports during SLM.

During SLM processing, high heat intensities are generated by the laser source, this is required to ensure
complete melting of metal powder particles and minimise part porosity. However the rapid heating/melting of
material is followed by a rapid solidification that induces thermal variations that cause areas of the
scanned/processed layer to expand/contract at different rates, subsequently generating residual stress which can
cause a component to geometrically distort/warp. Anchors are metallurgically fused to the substrate plate and
various locations across the laser melted component, forcibly holding geometries in place.

3.5.2 Processing using Anchorless Selective Laser Melting.

Removing or alleviating stress build up and the requirement for anchors within SLM can be achieved by
preventing parts from completely solidifying during processing or maintaining in a stress reduced state. ASLM has
been developed to prevent processed metal from completely solidifying during an SLM build. This is achieved by
9058 Srinivas / Materials Today: Proceedings 4 (2017) 9049–9059

forming a eutectic alloy or eutectic system (hyper/hypo eutectic) from two or more un-alloyed materials and
maintaining powder bed pre-heating above the newly formed eutectic melting/ solidification point. Below the
eutectic melt point so that stresses are not developed or are sufficiently relieved. When the laser scans regions of the
powder bed the individual A and B powders will melt and form a eutectic alloy in-situ that will now only solidify at
temperatures below the eutectic solidification point. Because the bed temperature is set near the eutectic point the
melted/alloyed regions will not rapidly solidify or if within the diffusional temperature range will generate less
stress than those formed during conventional SLM. A large processing window may be advantageous as the bed
temperature control would not need to be regulated as precisely compared to that of a small processing window.
Further to this a large processing window may reduce unwanted solid state sintering of unprocessed powders due to
preheat temperature being far lower than the melt temperature of the un-alloyed material. This solid state sintering
or “caking” of material causes material deposition issues due to agglomeration.[6]

4. Conclusions

A review of various investigations carried out in the existing literaturefor the Thermal behaviour of Pure
Titanium Powder during SLM,Crack propagation and fracture toughness of Ti6Al4V alloy produced by selective
laser melting,Effect of interpass temperature on in-situ alloying and additive manufacturing of titanium aluminides
using gas tungsten arc welding,Metallurgy of additive manufacturing,AlSi12 in-situ alloy formation and residual
stress reduction using anchorless selective laser meltinghave been presented in the present article. An effort hasbeen
made to include all the important contributions in the currentarea of interest highlighting the most pertinent literature
availableto research engineers studying Additive Manufacturing. The general remarks from the current literature
survey are as follows:
• Numerical simulation is a useful alternative to solve thermal problems. It has been found that the stability
of the process was highly dependent on the scan speed, powder layer thickness, and the thermal properties
of the materials. These results indicated that laser-heated regions experienced rapid thermal cycles, which
would be accompanied by significant thermal stress cycles.
• The consideration of SLM build orientation and process condition has highlighted thesensitivity of
mechanical properties to the anisotropic micro structural and residual stresseffects that arise from the
highly directional and rapid transient nature of the SLMmanufacturing process.
• Interest hasgravitated to wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) with the continue need for reducing
the material cost and minimizing the likelihood of contamination Limited success in manufacturing
intermetallics via WAAM has been reported.
• Traditional metallurgical processing of bulk melt/solidification products involving thermo-mechanical
treatment regimens can be facilitated to some extent in the AM of the same products by adjusting and
optimizing beam scan parameters and scan sequencing strategies to achieve desired microstructural features
incrementally rather than by bulk cast or wrought product post treatment.

References

[1] http://www.lboro.ac.uk/research/amrg/about/the7categoriesofadditivemanufacturing.
[2] Yali Li , Dongdong Gu,”Thermal behavior during selective laser melting of commercially pure titanium powder: Numerical
simulationand experimental study”.
[3] V. Cain L. Thijs J. Van Humbeeck B. Van Hooreweder R. Knutsen Crack propagation and fracture toughness of Ti6Al4V
alloy produced by selective laser melting.
[4] Yan Ma, Dominic Cuiuri, Chen Shen, Huijun Li, Zengxi Pan “Effect of interpass temperature on in-situ alloying and additive
manufacturing of titanium aluminides using gas tungsten arc welding”.
[5] L.E. Murr “Metallurgy of additive manufacturing: Examples from electron beam melting”
[6] Pratik Vora, Kamran Mumtaz, Iain Todd, Neil Hopkinson, “AlSi12 in-situ alloy formation and residual stress reduction using
anchorless selective laser melting”.
[7] Haijun Gong, Khalid Rafi, Hengfeng Gu, Thomas Starr , Brent Stucker “Analysis of defect generation in Ti–6Al–4V parts made using
powder bedfusion additive manufacturing processes”.
[8] Joy Gockel, Jack Beuth , Karen Taminger “Integrated control of solidification microstructure and melt pool dimensions in electron
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