ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING

Plumbing system includes all portable water supply and distribution pipes, all plumbing fixtures
and traps , all sanitary and drainage systems , vent pipes, roof drains, leaders and downspouts
and all building drains and sewers including their respective joints and connections , devices,
receptacles and appurtenances within the property; water lines in premises, potable, tap, hot and
chilled water piping ,potable water treating or using equipment , fuel gas piping, water heaters
and vents for the same.
It consists of a supply pipe leading to a fixture and a drainpipe taking the used water away from
this fixture.
The system constitutes the following:
1. The water supply and water distribution system: carries water from the water source,
street main or a pump to the building and to various points in the building at which water
is used.
2. The plumbing fixtures: the receptacles that receive the supplied water and allow the
occupants of the building to use water.
3. The drainage system: the piping network within the building which conveys from the
plumbing fixtures all wastes and sanitary drainage as well as storm drainage to a point of
disposal or treatment facility.
SCOPE OF PLUMBING
1. Plumbing (from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes were once made from lead) is the skilled
trade of working with pipes, tubing and plumbing fixtures for drinking water systems and the
drainage of waste.
2. The plumbing industry is a basic and substantial part of every developed economy due to the
need for clean water, and proper collection and transport of wastes.
3. Plumbing also refers to a system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the
distribution of potable water and the removal of waterborne wastes.
4. Plumbing is usually distinguished from water and sewage systems, in that a plumbing system
serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings or a city.
THE PLUMBER
Is one who works or engages in the business of installing in buildings the pipes fixtures and other
apparatus for bringing in the water supply and removing liquid and waterborne wastes.
There are three categories of plumbers based upon their graces of experiences. They include:
1. Apprentice plumber- a beginner at the trade who usually serves for 3 to 5 years as a
helper to a journeyman
2. Journeyman plumber- has served his apprenticeship and is competent to perform the tasks
of installing and repairing plumbing
 3. Master plumber: a person technically and legally qualified and licensed to practice the
profession of master plumbing without limitations in accordance with republic act 1378,
having passed the examinations conducted by the Professional Regulation Commission
(PRC) and received a certificate of registration from the board of master plumbing and
possess the current license of practice.
ROLE OF A PLUMBER
1. Install, repair and maintain plumbing systems and components
2. Maintain all building codes, installation requirements
3. Detecting and repairing leaks in both water and wastewater systems
4. Replacing old plumbing or renovation
5. Installing and repairing plumbing fixtures
6. Installing water filters and appliances
7. Perform other related duties as when required
PLUMBING SYSTEMS
In home plumbing, different types of plumbing operation which includes complex world of
drains, pipes and stopcocks! We’ll take a look at some of the different components and how they
work together – providing you with more confidence and some vital foundation knowledge. A
complete plumbing system provides an adequate supply of water and removes waste.
There are three principal parts:
1. Water supply system.
This brings in freshwater in under enough pressure to allow it to travel upstairs, around corners
or wherever its needed. As water comes into your home it passes through a meter that registers
the amount you use.
The main water valve is typically located close to the meter. In a plumbing emergency it’s
important that you close the main shut off valve otherwise in case of a pipe burst, water can
flood the house with no time. If the emergency is confined to a sink, tub or toilet however you
might want to turnoff the main water supply. Therefore most fixtures should have individual stop
valves.
Water from the main supply is immediately ready for your cold water needs.
Direct cold water system
Here mains water comes into your house through the raising main as usual and then branches off
to feed the kitchen, bathroom and any other cold taps. It also usually but not always feeds the
cold water storage tank in the loft.
The hot water supply however requires another step, one pipe carries water water from the cold
system to your water heater. From the heater a hot water line carries the water to all the fixtures,
outlets and appliances that require hot water. A thermostart on the heater maintains the
temperature you select by turning the device heating elements on and off as required.
The normal temperature setting for a home water heater is between 140 degrees F and 160
degrees F, but 120 degrees F is usually adequate and is also more economical.
Some automatic dish washers require higher temperatures, though many of these have a water
heater within them that boosts the temperature another 20 degrees F.

2. Water and waste removal system. (Drainage systems)

Whether your home is on a sewer or septic system the systems within the home are essentially
the same.
Drainage systems do not depend on pressure as supply systems do. Instead waste matter leaves
your house because the drainage pipes all pitch, or angle , downward. Gravity pulls the waste
along. The sewer line continues downward flow to a sewage treatment facility or a septic tank.
Cont…..
This includes vents, traps and clean outs. The vents sticking up from the roof of the house allow
air to enter the drain pipes. if there was no air supply coming from the vents, waste water wont
flow properly and the water in the traps would need to be siphoned away.
Traps are vital components of the drainage system. A trap is found under every sink. It’s the
curved or S-shape section of pipe under a drain. Water flows from the basin with enough force to
go through the trap and out through the drain pipe, but enough water stays in the trap afterwards
to form a seal that prevents sewer gas from backing up into the home. Every fixture must have a
trap.
Toilets are self trap and do not require an additional trap at the drain. Bathtubs frequently have
drum traps not only for a seal against sewer gas but also to collect hair and dirt in order to
prevent clogged drains.
Some kitchen sinks have grease traps to collect grease that might otherwise cause clogging,
because hair and grease generally cause clogging traps often have clean out plugs that give you
easier access to remove or break up any blockage.
3. Fixtures
Toilets , sinks and tubs are fixtures. In addition an outside faucet is a fixture so is a washing
machine. All devices that draw fresh water and discharge wastewater are called fixtures and all
are designed to keep the supply and drainage systems strictly segregated.
In plumbing jargon any bridge between the supply and drainage system is a fiture.
General terminologies used in plumbing
Bleed – to release excess air in a pipe by opening a valve at the end
Brass- generic slang term for any faucet fixture
Branch drain –fixture drain which leads to the main drain pipeline
Effluent- liquid waste in a septic system
Fitting -term used to describe any part that connects two sections of pipe
Flow rate – how much water flows through a plumbing system measured in either gallons per
minute (GPM) or per hour (GPH)
Gallons per flush (GPF)- measurement of water needed to flush ;used to regulate toilets and
flush valves; 1.6 GPF is the current legal maximum permitted for new toilets
Gray water- water waste from non toilet fixtures
Kilopascal (kPa)- metric unit of pressure equaling 1/100th of an atmosphere
Maximum containment level(MCL)- maximum amount of a contaminant permitted in a water
supply by law
Non-ferrous- contains no iron
Potable – water which is safe to consume
Pressure head- unit of measurement for pressure in a plumbing system describing the vertical
force caused by water at a depth of one foot.
Riser- vertical supply pipes which bring water from the branch to a fixture or to a higher flow
Sediment- debris that settles at the bottom of water tanks
Soil pipe- pipe carrying waste from a toilet
Trap seal- the water in a trap which serves as a liquid seal
Trap weir- the highest point for water before it drains in both P- traps and S traps
Water hammer- a loud banging sound caused when the water supply is suddenly cut off from a
fixture , causing a hydraulic shock
Plumbing components and fixtures
Aerator-insert screwed onto a faucet nozzle that reduces splashing by mixing air into the
flowing water
Ball check valve- which employs a ball which can seal against a seat to stop the flow in one
direction
Closet bend- curved fitting located under the toilet connecting it to the drain
Closet flange- ring used to anchor a toilet and connects to the closet bend; sometimes called
floor flange
Flow control valve- device which can reduce costa and improve efficiency by reducing the
water flow to a plumbing fixture
Gasket- flat rubber or fibre ring used to create a water tight seal between metal fixtures
Interceptor- device which separates oil and grease from drain systems
Main- the main pipeline in a supply or drain system to which all branches connect
Manifold- fitting that connects multilple branch to the , acting as a distribution point
O ring – round rubber washer used to make valves stems watertight
Scald guard – valve that maintains the balance between hot and cold water pressure in your
shower by shifting back and forth behind the shower handle in response to sudden pressure
drops
Shutoff valve- valve under toilet or sink to stop water supply for repairs
Tee- t shaped fitting used where three pipes intersect
Trap- a curved portion of plumbing designed to hold enough water to block or seal the section
of pipe from gasses, odors and pests.
Valve seat- the stationery section of a valve
Vent- sloped or vertical section of drainpipe designed to allow sewer gasses to escape and be
replaced by outdoor air so pressure is not lost during the venting
Water hammer arrestor: device which prevents the banging sound known as water hammer by
absorbing the hydraulic shock caused from suddenly cutting the water supply to a fixture
Wye fitting: drain fitting which connects two sections of pipe is rigid and commonly found in
drains, vents and waste lines.
IMPORTANCE OF PLUMBING
Water supply goals
The goal of every community should be for a piped central source of good quality water for all
domestic uses. In addition with a piped drinking- water supply, proper sanitary transport and
waste treatment and disposal facilities are important to ensure safe domestic and community
environment. Both initial costs for construction and maintenance of these facilities and
sustainability requires provision for finance, operation and maintenance.
1. The local drinking water supply should be adequate in terms of quantity, safety
continuity and reliability
 The quality of water supplied is the responsibility of the water supply authority. It should be
continuous and pressurized at all times, it should also meet the national water standards as
well as the WHO drinking water guidelines at the consumer taps. The distribution system
should also not be affected by leakages and should be constructed with appropriate materials.
2. Water supplied for human consumption should be safe at all times
Plumbing systems in domestic or commercial should not be permitted to degrade the mains
in any way. The drinking-water supply must be protected from cross-connections with unsafe
sources or with wastewater plumbing systems. It must be able to cope with the hazards of
backpressure or back siphonage, and the water should not be in contact with plumbing
materials that might impart contamination. Those materials should meet quality and
performance specifications determined by the authorities, or by an accepted certification
organization.
3. Every building should have an internal drinking-water piped system
An adequate piped supply provides safe access to water for domestic needs. It obviates the
need for the dedication of time and effort to transport water, and reduces the risk of
contamination during collection, transport and storage. Ready access to sufficient safe water
within the home improves personal hygiene and facilitates safe management and disposal of
sanitary waste. The quality and quantity of the drinking-water supply within the home not
only has a profound effect on the health of the householders, but also contributes to the
comfort and enjoyment of their lives and those of the community. Interim measures, based on
public standpipes and communal facilities, are effective but they should be regarded as an
intermediate stage towards the realization of these principles.
4. Water should be conserved by minimizing leakage and wastage
Piping systems and plumbing fixtures should be so designed, maintained and used as to
minimize leakage and wastage. Leakage can also be avoided by sound installation practices
and protection of pipes and fixtures against corrosion and accidental damage, including that
caused by freezing. Quickly repairing leaking faucets is an important practice. Wastage can
also be minimized by proper education on the need for rational use of drinking-water.
5. Water should be supplied from a suitable number of accessible and hygienic fixtures
Ideally, every self-contained family dwelling should have, as a minimum, one water closet,
one washbasin, one kitchen sink and one bathtub or shower, and provision for laundry
facilities. Other buildings, whether used for habitation or other purposes, should be provided
with an adequate number of fixtures in accordance with their respective needs. All plumbing
fixtures should be made of durable, smooth, nonabsorbent and corrosion-resistant material,
so designed as to be fit for the purpose and easily cleaned, free from concealed surfaces that
could become fouled, and incapable of contaminating the mains drinking-water supply by
back siphonage. They should be located and spaced so that they are accessible for the
intended use and for cleaning. Walls and other surfaces that may become accidentally fouled
during the use of the fixture should be impervious to water and accessible for cleaning.
6. Building contents should be protected from the effects of malfunctioning of the
plumbing system
Precautions should be taken against damage to the property, or danger to the health of its
occupants, in the event of malfunctioning of the system. Fixtures should be provided with
 adequate overflow capacity. Roof tanks and other hidden elements of the system should be
similarly provided with overflows that discharge in such a way as to act as a warning before
causing damage. Every pressure vessel that is part of the system should be equip.ped with a
temperature and pressure relief valve. Food preparation and storage rooms within the
building should be located so that any leakage or backflow in the drainage system cannot
contaminate their area or contents. In the case of industrial or commercial premises where
food is processed or prepared, or where sterile goods or similarly susceptible materials are
stored or handled, additional precautions should be taken by indirect connections of the
internal fixtures to the plumbing system.
7. Adequate lighting and ventilation should be provided for toilet and washing fixtures
Rooms where water closets, toilets, urinals or other similar fixtures are located should be
properly lighted and ventilated. No such fixture should be allowed in a room used for living,
working, food preparation or other such purposes. Industrial or commercial premises or
public buildings containing rooms where food and drinks or other material for human
consumption are served, handled, stored or prepared should not have a water closet or urinal
open directly from such a room, but should be separated by an adequately ventilated lobby or
passage. Other fixtures, such as sinks, washbasins and baths, should be located so that
lighting and ventilation are adequate to ensure their safe and hygienic use.
8. Hot water systems should be carefully designed to avoid health hazards
Equipment for heating and storing heated water should be designed and installed in
ventilated areas to guard against dangers from explosion or overheating. Pipes used for the
conveyance of hot water should be made of materials suitable to withstand the temperature of
their contents, and water temperatures should be maintained at the specified level.
Liquid waste disposal goals
1. Liquid wastes should be disposed off promptly and hygienically
Every fixture, including a wall-mounted tap, should have drainage facilities to prevent the
accumulation of wastewater and spillage, even though this may be uncontaminated.
Wastes should be removed rapidly from each fixture by a system of drainpipes that will
prevent any further human contact. When a public sewer exists within reasonable
distance of the premises the building waste system should drain to that sewer. Where no
such sewer exists, disposal should be through an approved method of treatment, such as
to a septic tank, where soils and population densities permit, that is located so as to cause
no nuisance to the occupants of the building or to those of neighbouring properties.
Where chemical closets are used, adequate arrangements must be made for sanitary
disposal of wastewater (such as the wastewater from other fixtures, sinks or baths), as
well as the residue from the chemical closet.
2. Drainage systems should be of adequate size and easily cleaned
Drains should be of adequate capacity and should be designed, constructed and
maintained to convey wastewater rapidly from the building without fouling, depositing
solids or clogging. They should be furnished with adequate, easily accessible clean-outs
or access chambers (manholes) arranged so that the pipes can be readily cleaned.
3. Drainage systems should be equipped with liquid seal traps
 Each fixture, or group of fixtures, connected to the drainage system should be equipped
with a liquid seal trap. The depth of liquid in each seal must be adequate to prevent the
emission of odours and gases, and must prevent access by insects or rodents from the
sewer to the premises. Self-sealing waste valves are a possible alternative to liquid seal
traps in some situations.
4. All drains should be adequately ventilated
Every drainage system should be designed and constructed so that adequate quantities of
air can circulate through every pipe, thus enabling the system to function properly and
protecting the liquid seal of the traps. The uppermost part of the drainage system should
be connected to a ventilating pipe of adequate size, discharging above roof level and
positioned so that the return of foul air to the building is prevented. Air admittance valves
are a possible alternative when positive pressure is not required. The valves open
automatically on sensing negative pressure within the system, allowing air ingress only.
5. Deleterious substances should be excluded from sewers
Precautions should be taken to exclude from the drainage system any substance that may
clog or increase the likelihood of clogging of pipes, produce explosive mixtures, corrode
or otherwise damage pipes or their joints, or interfere with the functioning of sewage
treatment plants or not be removable by them, thus contaminating receiving waters.
Substances that can endanger those who work on the public sewerage system must also
be excluded. Pretreatment requirements and other controls should be imposed on
industrial and non-domestic dischargers so that they use suitable disposal methods for
those wastes.
6. Backflow of sewage should be prevented
Drainage systems should be designed and constructed so that sewage cannot enter
buildings connected to the sewerage system in the event of backflow from the public
sewers due to flood, blockage or any other cause.
Plumbing goals
1. Plumbing materials and workmanship should conform to accepted quality
standards
Pipes, joints, fixtures and other elements of a plumbing system should conform to
accepted quality and performance standards, and should be sufficiently durable to give
satisfactory service over a long period. Indications of conformance with standards is
often marked on the product. These standards should be specified or adopted from
existing standards by appropriate authorities. Only those persons who have been properly
trained and have given evidence of their competence should be responsible for the
selection and installation of plumbing systems.
2. Plumbing installations should be tested and disinfected before being put into service
Tests suitable for various types and designs of plumbing systems should be specified by
the water, sewerage and other authorities concerned, and no system should be put into
service until such tests have been satisfactorily completed
3. Adequate training should be provided for plumbing professionals and the public
should be made aware of the dangers of poor plumbing
 It is imperative that individuals installing and monitoring plumbing systems have access
to adequate continuing education and training. An accreditation system should be
developed to ensure that all such individuals have achieved and demonstrated appropriate
levels of competency.
4. Plumbing systems should be properly maintained
Risk avoidance and minimization depend on the effectiveness of maintenance of
equipment and facilities. For large or complex systems, or where public use or the
handling of food for sale is involved, the public health (or other) authority may require
periodic inspection and retesting as a condition for approval. The owner of any plumbing
system, irrespective of its size or purpose, should be obligated to identify and to promptly
have repaired any fault that may develop, whatever its cause.
HSTORY OF PLUMBING
Development of plumbing from ancient time

The History of Plumbing

Water is an important element for survival and plumbing has made providing water much more
convenient. Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations such as the Greek, Roman, Persian,
Indian and Chinese cities as they developed ways to irrigate their crops and provide public baths,
wastewater removal and portable water. Here is a timeline of historical events that have shaped
the modern plumbing systems that we know today.

Prehistory-Middle Ages

 The earliest plumbing pipes were made of baked clay and straw and the first copper pipes
were made by the Egyptians. They dug wells as deep as 300 feet and invented the water wheel. We
know this because bathrooms and plumbing features have been found in the pyramids for the dead.
 The Greeks mastered the science of hot and cold running water. They made shower
technology for athletes to bathe in after their Olympic games.
 The most significant accomplishments were made by the Romans who built channels that
carried water from the mountains to the city and was distributed underground with lead lines.
 The Roman baths heated their hot water with wood furnaces. Public latrines had 20 seats
arranged in a single room while water constantly ran beneath them and carried waste to the nearest
sewer. As cities grew, the waste caused outbreaks and diseases.
 After the fall of the Roman and Greek empires, plumbing technology came to a standstill
until many decades later.

Early Modern Plumbing

 John Harington gifted Queen Elizabeth I with the first flushable toilet. She was too scared
to use it because it made terrible rushing water sounds.
 In America, Boston pioneered the first water system in the mid-1600’s.
 The first valve-type flush toilet was invented in 1738 by J.F. Brondel.
 Alexander Cumming patented the flush toilet in 1775, the beginning of the modern toilet.
 Modern Plumbing

 The first shower was invented in 1810. It continually pumped the same wastewater from
the lower basin to the top and dumped water directly above the bather’s head. It was considered a
novelty and performed only once or twice a year.
 Philadelphia was the first to undertake a safe water supply in 1815. Steam turbines were
used to draw water from the Schuylkill River into Centre Square.
 The first public water main was installed under New York streets in 1830. Multiple fires
meant there was a need for an adequate water supply for firefighting.
 The first floor of the White House received running water in 1833.
 In 1848 the National Public Health Act was passed in England and became the role
model in plumbing codes around the world.
 America built its first integrated sewer system in Chicago in 1856 because waste was
being dumped into Lake Michigan, which also supplied the city’s drinking water. It caused a
deadly outbreak and claimed nearly 75,000 lives.
 John Kohler created the first cast iron bathtub in 1883 made from an iron horse trough.
 World War II restricted the use of iron, steel and copper and forced the plumbing industry
to start using new materials like plastics.
 Water saving laws started to be introduced in 1978. California was prohibited to use more
than 3.5 g.

QUALITY SERVICE, EVERY TIME

27 Historical Events that Shaped Modern Plumbing Systems
in Plumbing /by Lisa Zollinger
Imagine what life would be like without a modern plumbing system. How would you cope
without running water or flushing toilets? Water is the most essential nutrient for life on earth; it
forms the basis of a healthy diet and lifestyle. The world today with its large, high-density
population would not sustain life as we know without a modern plumbing system that provides
clean drinking water and sewage systems that remove contaminated used water.
The past is replete with historical events that show the successes and failures of plumbing. One
of the most recent examples is the New Zealand earthquake in Christchurch in February 2011.
Both water and sewage systems were destroyed. The people were told not to drink, shower or use
the toilets due to the lack and quality of a water supply. Many had to resort to digging a hole in
the backyard to deposit sewage.

Although modern plumbing systems are much more up to date than those in ancient times, the
New Zealand earthquake can still serve as a learning experience on how to develop better
plumbing systems.

By studying the historical events of plumbing, we are less likely to repeat the errors, unsafe
designs or installations that lead to the uncontrollable fires and plagues of the past. Check out our
chronological list of the top 27 most influential historical events that shaped today’s plumbing
systems! It covers achievements from ancient through modern times. Feel free to add your events
to the list. We’d love to read your comments too!

Ancient plumbing systems date back to 4,000 B.C.

1. Archaeologists discovered copper water pipes in the palace ruins of the Indus River Valley in
India. (4,000 to 3,000 B.C.)

2. Egyptians developed copper pipes that were used to build elaborate bathrooms inside the
pyramids and intricate irrigation and sewages systems. (2500 B.C.)

3. “The Code of Hammurabi,” written by Hammurabi, the 6th king of Old Babylon, was the first
known code of ancient Babylon. One of the clauses of the code called for people to be put to
death if a house that was not constructed properly fell and killed an owner. (1700 B.C.)
4. Rainwater cisterns were developed on the island of Crete which allowed for storage of
rainwater until it was needed for drinking, washing, bathing and cooking uses. (1500 B.C.)

5. Archeologists discovered the remains of an ancient plumbing system (at least 3,000 years old)
on the island of Crete at the site of an ancient palace of Knossos. This ancient plumbing system
included a bathtub made out of hard pottery that looked similar to the shape of a cast-iron
bathtub of  late 19th-Century America. There was also evidence of a water closet with a seat and
crude flushing device. (1000 B.C.)

6. The Romans were some of the most advanced in ancient plumbing systems. Out of the Roman
Empire aqueducts were developed as well as underground sewer systems, public and private
baths, lead and bronze water piping systems, and marble fixtures with gold and silver fittings.
The Romans utilized lead pipes, which at the time made vast improvements in sanitary
conditions. (500 B.C. to A.D. 455)

7. For the first time, iron pipe was installed in Siegerland, Germany. German craftsmen had
learned how to build fires hot enough to melt iron and pour it into castings to make hollow pipe.
(1455)

8. Sir John Harington, godson to Queen Elizabeth, invented the first flushing water closet. (1596)

9. In Versailles, France, King Louis XIV ordered construction of a cast-iron main plumbing line.
This was to carry water about 15 miles from a pumping station to the palace fountains and
surrounding area. (1664)

10.  The castles of the 17th Century housed privies. Unfortunately, the plumbing systems dumped
directly into the surrounding moats. (1600 to 1700)
11. The first underground sewer was installed in 1728. This came about after health officials in
New York responded to complaints about the smell of open sewers.
12. The first public water main was installed under New York streets in 1830. Numerous fires
had demonstrated the need for an adequate and available supply of water for fire fighting.

13. Drainage piping systems were installed into buildings. These systems helped convey sewage
away from the buildings to a suitable disposal terminal. (1845 to 1850)

14. The National Public Health Act was passed in 1848. Most of the world has adopted this
model plumbing code.

15. The first water heaters were developed in private homes and small buildings in the 1870s.
Circulation pipes were installed between water-heating units and hot water storage tanks so as to
make pressurized hot water available in volume.
16. The Venting Theory was proved. By connecting a vent pipe to the drain at the trap outlet, the
air pressure was kept the same. This method prevented objectionable odors and sewer gases from
escaping at fixture waste outlets. (1874)

17. In 1890 Robert Manning invented the “Manning Formula,” which allows engineers to
calculate flow in sloping drains.

18. Laws were passed in many areas of the country requiring plumbing systems be installed with
minimum number of fixtures. (1900s)

Modern plumbing systems feature invention of water closet

19. The water closet was invented from 1900 to 1932. The U.S. Patent Office received
applications for 350 new water closet designs, including the designs of Charles Neff and Robert
Frame. These men were the first to produce a siphoning water closet that would become standard
in the United States.

20 The Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA) organization was formed in 1915.
This was the first attempt to coordinate building codes on a national level.

21. President Warren Harding appointed Herbert Hoover, a prominent engineer, as Secretary of
Commerce in 1921. Hoover started the Materials and Structures division of the National Bureau
of Standards (now known as The National Institute of Standards and Technology or NIST).

22. Dr. Roy B. Hunter, who was appointed to head the plumbing division of the National Bureau
of Standards, dedicated his talents to the research of plumbing systems in an effort to standardize
regulations in the United States. Current plumbing codes are based on his research. (1930s to
1940s)

23. The first plumbing code was published (1928)  and nicknamed the “Hoover Code,” after
Herbert Hoover’s efforts to instigate the code.

24. Due to a shortage of copper, non-metallic, plastic piping was introduced into use for  modern
plumbing systems in 1966.
Public restrooms required to be accessible to physically handicapped

25. In 1961 all buildings and facilities, including plumbing, were required to be accessible to,
and functional, for the physically handicapped.  In 1990 President George H. W. Bush signed the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

26. Legislation was adopted as part of the Energy Efficiency Act in the 1980s and later amended
with the Energy Policy Act of 1992 to restrict water flow rates in plumbing fixtures.

27. In 2003, the three model building code agencies, the Building Officials and Code
Administrators International (BOCA), the Southern Building Code Congress International
(SBCCI) and the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), formed one single
organization, the International Code Council (ICC).

MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED IN PLUMBING

Importance of proper tools

Tool chest

1. Basin Wrench

This is one of the most common plumbing tools inside every plumber’s toolbox. It is made with
a long shaft and a swivel. At the end of the basin wrench, there is a clamp-like apparatus. With
the basin wrench, you will be able to tighten or loosen a nut on your skin taps. Also, it is useful
for loosening tap bolts which are positioned in a deep, narrow space behind the sinks.
2. Adjustable Wrench

If you have to deal with plumbing components having hexagonal-shaped nuts, then endeavour to
have an adjustable wrench at hand. The tool will come handy for supply lines and compression
fittings. You will recognise a quality adjustable wrench by its firm jaw setting, which will never
slip during operation. For your toolbox, you can get six-inch and 10-inch adjustable wrenches.

3. Pipe wrench

Compared to the adjustable wrench, this plumbing tool is larger and heavier. It is perfect for
tightening as well as the loosening of nuts and fittings. Keep in mind that you will need two pipe
wrenches; one piece for turning of nuts and the second piece for holding. While using, ensure
that you cover the jaw with a piece of cloth to prevent any scratch on your fixtures.

4. Tongue-and-groove Pliers
This is a kind of slip-joint plier having serrated jaws which are positioned at angle 45 to 60◦ from
the handles. Hence, it has a curved structure. A tongue-and-groove plier is a versatile tool that
can be used for twisting, grabbing, loosening, tightening, pulling, or holding of the component.

5. Hacksaw

If you aim to cut through plastic or metallic pipes, nuts, bolts, or screws, then, try to have a
hacksaw in your toolbox. It is advisable to have extra blades as the blade on your hacksaw can
break or become dull unexpected. While cutting through sturdy hardware, ensure that the blade is
tense to make the operation easier.

6. Metal file

You may see some rough edges when you cut a metal pipe. To make the edges smooth, you will
need your metal file. The metal file comes in various sizes; however, for your plumbing toolbox,
try to get a half-round file having rounded and flat surfaces as well as a rat-tail file which is
tapered and round.

7. Thread Seal Tape

Some people refer thread seal as PTFE tape or plumber’s tape. It is useful for the prevention of
leaks where pipes are connected. Thread seal tape is cheap. It can be used for several plumbing
tasks such as showerheads, water line connections, among others.

8. Hand Auger

This tool is quite useful for your DIY drain unblocking project, most especially if your plunger
fails to solve a clog issue. A hand auger comes with a hand crank, which is used for pushing the
metal wire through showers, sinks or tub drains to clear off blockages. However, rather than
using your hand auger on flush toilets, use it for the job.
9. Tubing Cutter

This device is used for cutting copper pipes evenly without rough edges. For your toolbox,
endeavour to get a standard tubing cutter and a mini-cutter. If you ever have to cut under
challenging places, try to use the mini-cutter.

10. Toilet plungers (flange and cup)

Every household with a plumbing system needs a plunger. Get a plunger having flange and cup
plungers. With the flange, you can unclog your toilets while the cup plungers will assist you in
unblocking your showers, sinks, and tubs.

Commonly used tools

Identification of tools used in pipe work and plumbing: Marking/ Measuring, levelling, Holding,
Cutting, Threading, Assembling/ Fastening/ Miscellaneous.
Marking/Measuring Tools
Steel Rule  These are made up of stainless steel and
are available in many sizes ranging from
1/2 ft. to 2 ft.
 They are marked in inches or
millimeters. All the faces are machined
true.
 The edges of steel rule should be
protected from rough handling.

Measuring  Measuring tape is a flexible form of

Tape ruler.
 It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic,
fiber glass, or metal strip with linear-
measurement markings.

Masons  Used for measuring squareness of object

Try square

 Used to check rectangularity of external

and internal corners. It is made of
carbon steel sheet

Levelling Tools
Plumb bob  Used to ensure verticality of
with twin-e construction
Spirit level  Helps in levelling both vertically and
aluminium horizontally
450mm

Holding/Clamping Tools
Pipe vice  Used for holding large pipes
(Chain vice)

Pipe vice  Pipe vice is used for holding the pipe for
(yoke vice) performing various operations.
 They are available s free standing,
portable site vices or fixed vices

Work Bench  A fitting process can be done at various

places, but most of the important
operations of fitting are generally
carried out on a table called work bench.
 The work bench is a strong, heavy and
rigid table made up of hard wood.
 The size of the work bench required is
about 150 to 180 cm length, nearly 90
cm width and approximately 76 to 84
cm height.
Bench vice:  It is firmly fixed to the bench with the
help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a
cast Iron body and cast iron jaws. Two
jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws.
 The holding surface of the jaw plates is
knurled in order to increase the gipping.
Jaw plates are made up of carbon steel
and are wear resistant. One jaw is fixed
to the body and the second slides on a
square threaded screw with the help of a
handle.
 The jaws are opened upto required
length; job is placed in the two jaws and
is fully tightened with the help of
handle. Handle is used to move the
movable jaw
Cutting /Finishing Tools
Hand  This is a fine-tooth hand saw with a
Hacksaw blade held under tension in a frame,
used for cutting materials such as metal
or plastics.
 There are two main types, the adjustable
frame hacksaw which uses blades of
between 250 and 300mm long and
smaller blade approximately 150mm
long.
Pad saw  The blades are only fixed on one end in
wooden or metal handle. They are used
for sawing restricted areas where
hacksaw will not fit.
  Used for cutting plastic pipes such as PE

Plastic pipe
cutter

Plasti cutter
Pipe cutter  Pipe cutter is used to cut the pipes.
 The 1 and 3 wheel cutters are normally
used on steel pipes with the multiple
wheel cutters being used on brittle pipes
such as cast iron and earthen wear.
 Small single wheel cutters are also
available for small bore copper pipe.
 Place the cutter on the pipe at 90
degrees so that both guide wheels are in
contact with the pipe.
 Then turn the adjustable handle to bring
the cutting wheel into contact with the
pipe. Use the handle to turn the whole
tool completely around the pipe through
360.
 Continue to do this while slowly
slowing increasing the pressure from the
cutting wheel until it eventually cuts
through the pipe.

Cold Chisel  Used for cutting through concrete and

making grooves on wall with the help of
hammer

Boring Tools
Drills and  A drill is a tool with a rotating drill bit
Drill machine used for drilling holes in various
materials.
 All sizes of drill bits are available
depending upon the size of the hole to
be drilled.

Centre punch Before drilling any hole,a centre punch

should be used to make an indentation in the
material that will prevent the drill from
slipping.

Drilling bits  These are the tools used to make

cylindrical holes by cutting the material.
 Bits are fitted to a drilling machine
which rotates it and make the hole

Hole cutter  Used for cutting round holes in

pipes,cisterns,tanks.
 Used for hot water tapping
 They can be turned by drill or driven by
hand.
Reamer Removes burrs from the inside of the pipe.
Burrs are the flakes of metal or plastic on
the outside and inside of the pipe after the
pipe is cut.
It is cone-shaped with ratchet handles.
Straight-fluted reamers have straight cutting
edges.
They can be used by hand or in a pipe
rotating on a power drive unit.
Spiral-fluted reamers have spiral-shaped
cutting edges.
They cut more easily, save time and are
often used by sheet metal workers to
enlarge holes in sheet metal and conduit box
outlets, as well as smoothing inside edges of
pipe.
File Used for variety of work like removing
sharp edges, smoothening surfaces, shaping
jobs etc.

Hammer They are classified according to the shape

and weight of the head
These include straight pain hammer, ball
pein hammer or lump hammer.

Threading Tool

Diestock with  They are used to form threads on the

dies sets end of steel pipes prior to jointing.
 The pipe die set is used for threading
external taper threads on pipes.
 The die set is available in the sizes
varying between 6.35 mm to 50.8 mm.

Threading  They may either be hand operated or

machines automated machines.
 They can cut from 6mm to 150 mm.
Joining/Assembling/Fastening Tools
Pipe Wrench  Used to grasp pipes and other curved
surfaces.
 Has two serrated jaws, one adjustable
and the other fixed and slightly offset
 The jaws will leave marks on the pipe
 Some pipe wrenches have aluminum
handles for lighter weight.
 The straight pattern is standard, but
other styles are also available.
 The end-pattern style has jaws slightly
offset and is handy for working in
restricted spaces or close to walls.
 The offset style has jaws at 90° to the
handle and is also handy for tight spots.

Smooth Jaw  Reed offers large capacity wrenches for

Wrenches geometric and delicate work.
 The hex wrench works for hex-shaped
fittings on meters, drains, spuds, and
chrome valves without damage from
teeth.

Torque  Used for bolt tightening.

wrench  Appropriate torque values and
tightening procedure should be used to
ensure proper connection.
Chain Pipe  Turns pipe in either direction and can be
Wrench used like a ratchet wrench.
 The handle can be loosened, shifted and
turned again without removing the chain
from around the pipe.
 Offers easy handling in close quarters
on round, square or irregular shapes
without crushing the object.
 Consists of a forged-steel handle
attached to a length of heavy sprocket
chain.
 The chain wraps around a length of pipe
and engages the sprockets in notches on
the back of the handle. Sharp teeth on
the face of the handle
Adjustable  An adjustable wrench or spanner is even
wrench more likely than an opened spanner to
wreck the head of the nut or bolt.

Footprint pipe  This is normally used on small diameter

wrench pipe work and fittings

Strap  Provides gripping power without

Wrenches scratching or deforming plastic or
polished metal pipe.
 Used on plastic pipe, filters, or any slick
or smooth surface. Strap wrenches work
well on irregular shapes, too
Hydrant  For working on hydrants
Wrenches

Ratchet  Dual socket wrenches fit the most

Wrench popular water works fasteners for
mechanical joints, flange bolts,
repair clamps, service saddles and
sleeves.

Copper  Joins metal parts to form metallic or

soldering iron electric bond

Open ended  Spanners are used for fixing and

/ring Spanners opening nuts and bolts.
 Different types of spanners are
available such as double ended
spanner, ring spanners, socket
spanners.
 Spanners are available in set of
different sizes.
Heavy duty  Used by plumbers to fit screws
flat screw
Pliers  Pliers should never be used to do-up
or undo nuts and bolts.
 Use pliers on a nut or a bolt if it has
already been rounded and it’s
impossible to use a spanner or
socket.

Water-pump  It is a common plier used by plumbers

plier/gland for holding, tightening and loosening
pliers work during fixing process.

Swaging tool  Used to open out pipe ends to form

socket or lips on copper or plastic pipes
prior to jointing

Compression  Used for tightening compression fittings

fitting C
spanner

Adjustable  A plumbing tool for removing and

basin wrench installing sink faucets. It has a long
handle that reaches up from under a sink
to turn nuts on fittings and faucets.
 The hinged jaw repositions itself after
each turn. Its long handle with spring
tension pipe-gripping jaws at the end
allows a plumber to reach up to grip
pipe nipples or tighten or loosen nuts in
 tight, hard-to-reach areas.
Basin Wrench  Same as above though not adjustable

PPR pipe Used for fitting PPR pipes

welding
machine

Butt fusion Joining PE /PP,HDPE pipes

machine

Other tools and equipment

Chain Pulley  Chain pulley blocks are used for laying
Block big pipes.
 The arrangement allows lifting heavy
items with less effort.
 Chain pulley block is fitted on the
tripod.
Pipe Bending  Pipes are cold bent to minimize the need
Machine for expensive connectors and to reduce
the cost of installing pipe systems.
 Bending may be done by hand or
machine.
Plumbers  For soldering.
Torch
Trowel  Used for plastering of surface

Oil can ½ Ltr  Storage of lubricating oil

Tool box  storing tools

Generator Provide power in areas without pow er grid

Welding  They are used as a heat source for range

machine of plumbing works
Testing pump  This is used to check pressure pipework
systems and appliances for leaks.
 It consists of a steel cistern for holding
upto 12 litres of water,a lever operated
pump,flexible rubber pipework and
couplings with flow valves and pressure
gauge.
 2.1. Pipe Joining chemicals and materials

Pipe Cleaner • Use in conjunction with pipe solvent cement

and primer. Apply the cleaner before applying
the primer.
• Removes surface dirt and grease from plastic
pipe and fittings.
•.
Pipe Primer • Used in conjunction with pipe solvent cement
• Prepares plastic pipe and fittings for solvent
cement by softening its surface. Apply primer
prior to applying solvent cement.
• Never use primer with ABS pipe and fittings.
• Some primers also contain a cleaner that helps
remove surface dirt and grease from the pipe.
Pipe Solvent Solvent cement used to weld together plastic
Cement pipe and fittings.
(eg Tangit) • There are different types of solvent cement
used for PVC, CPVC and ABS pipe and fittings.
The type of solvent cement used will also vary
based on the pipe diameter.
• One type is a one-step solvent that combines
primer and solvent into one. Check local codes
to determine acceptability of one-step solvent
cements.

Thread Seal • Also known as Teflon tape. Thin tape applied

Tape to pipe threads before joining. It does thesame
job as pipe joint compound, but is easier to use.
• Check packaging to see what types of pipes it
is suitable for. Not all tapes may be suitable for
joining gas pipe.
Pipe Joint • Also known as pipe dope.
Compound
• Use for joining threaded pipe and fittings. This
is a thick oily paste brushed on pipe threads
before joining.
• Prevents leaks, corrosion and makes it easier to
disassemble.
• Check packaging to see what types of pipe it is
suitable for. Not all compounds may be suitable
for plastic pipe and gas pipe.
Plumber’s • Setting compound used to install sinks, drain
Putty plugs and faucets.
• Ensures a good seal.
• Use a non-staining putty in granite, marble,
quartz and all other porous surfaces in order to
Prevent discoloration around the fixture.
Hemp fibrous materials rubbed on the treaded spigot
end

Boss white  semi-solid material used together with hemp

 BOSS™ white is suitable for flanged or
screw threaded joints and is used mainly in
the plumbing and gas fitting industries.
Hemp may be used as reinforcement. This
must be fully wetted with compound prior to
assembly of the joint.
Plumbers soap Washing

Lubricant thick liquid used to lubricate pipe ends

 emery cloth: An abrasive cloth used for polishing and
cleaning metal.

Various types of pipes

PIPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Choice and selection of pipes

(a) Government regulations Regulations

Normally governments through regulatory authorities and professional bodies specifies the
required standards for water and sanitation pipe. The standards mainly defines the allowable
stresses, and temperature and pressure ranges under which the piping component may be used.
Additionally some industry sector groups publish standards for handling specific substances.
Some of the regulatory standards for guiding plumping and pipe work materials are as follows
a) The Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS)
b) The National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) regulations.
c) The Kenya Building Code Regulations
d) Local Authority By-laws.
e) The Electricity Supply Authority By-Laws
f) British Standard and Codes of Practice as published by the British Standards Institution
(BSI)
g) The United Kingdom Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)
Guides.
h) The United Kingdom Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Regulations for the
Electrical Equipment of Buildings.
i) The United Kingdom Chartered Institute of Building Services
j) Engineers (CIBSE) Guides.
k) International Standards of organization(ISO)
 l) DIN: (German institute of standardization): Over the years, many DIN standards were
integrated into the ISO standards, and thus also a part of the EN standards.
m) EN: European standards

(b) Force and pressure

Water like all liquids pushes on the sides and base and vessel that contains it. The push of the
water against the wall is known as force and the SI unit is newton (N). Pressure on the other hand
is force exerted divided by the surface area on which the force acts. The international unit for
pressure is the Pascal (pa). Generally units may be given as Imperial units (ft., inches, lb.,
pounds per square inch (psi)) or Metric (mm, cm, m, kg etc.)

Please note the following

i. 1 (Pa) =1N/m2
ii. 1,000 pa = 1Kpa
iii. 1,000,000=1Mpa
iv. Pressure can measured by variety of other ways such as kg/m2, kg/cm2, lb./ft2, psi etc.
v. Another unit for measuring pressure is the bar
 1 bar =100,000 (105) pa or 100 kpa
 1bar =0.1Mpa
 Mpa=10 bars
 1 bar = 105 (N/m2) = 0.1 N/mm2 = 10,197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.9869 atm =
14.50 psi (lb./in2) = 106 dn/cm2 = 750 mmHg

vi. Another useful way of expressing pressure is by the concept of head of water.
 1bar = 10 m head of water
 1Mpa=100 m head of water
c) Cost of the pipe
Water Service Providers Association, Kenya (WASPA) recommends use of HDPE (100) -100
year span pipe for water distribution by water service providers. Where budget is not available
uPVC pipes may be considered. However, the industry can still use different types of pipes
provided they do not produce chemicals that contaminate drinking water. The cost of transport is
also another factor to consider
d) Purpose of the pipeline
i. Transport and main distribution pipes
 HDPE –First choice
 uPVC-limited budget
 Ductile iron (corrosion protection) –very high pressure ,when required diameter is
large
ii. Distribution branch and house connection pipe
 HDPE
 uPVC
iii. Small diameter applications (water meter to tap)
 PP-R
 GI

e) Condition of the surface the pipeline will be laid

There are some specific types of pipes that will have to be used for certain site conditions e.g.
GI /DI pipes will be first choice where pipeline will cross bridges, roads, rivers and rocky
surfaces where trenching is proved to be uneconomical
f) Jointing process, maintenance and repairs: When selecting pipe, the skill for jointing,
maintaining and repair must be readily available

3.2: Color Codes and pipe size

(i) Color codes: Pipes should be color coded in accordance with latest editions of regulations.
The color coding may indicate:
 the use of the pipe e.g. Cold or Hot water systems
 The class of the pipe e.g. GI pipes
 Purpose of the pipe e.g. Drinking water, waste pipe etc.
(ii) Pipe size: The size of pipe is mainly determined by its diameter. Most pipes sizes are
determined by their external diameters: The following terminologies are associated with pipe
size
 Outside Diameter (OD): Diameter of pipe measured from outside.
 Internal Diameter (ID): Pipe of size measured from inside
 Nominal Pipe Size (NPS): Diameter of pipe in imperial measurements e.g. inches. It’s
also known as Nominal Bore (NB)
  Diameter Nominal (DN): Size of pipe in mm (metric measurements). The relationship
between NPS and DN is shown below
NPS (inches) DN
(mm)
½ 20
¾ 25
1 32
2 63
3 90

N/B: The outside diameter is not necessarily the same as DN or NPS. From 1/8 inch to
12’’ pipe NPS is neither OD nor ID of the pipe. For 14 Inches and above, the outside
diameter is same as NPS
 Pipe Schedule (SCH): The size of pipe given as indication of pipe thickness. The higher
the pipe schedule, the higher the thickness. Standard schedule numbers are
5,10,20,30,40,60,80,100,120 and 160.

(iii) Pressure codes:

 British Standards (BS): For uPVC pipes, class B (6 bar), class C (9 bar), class D
(12 bar), class E (15bar)
 ISO standards: uses PN (pressure Nominal) as unit of measuring strength.1 PN =1
bar
 PE : used for HDPE pipes to indicate the type of material
 MRS: Minimum Required Strength.
The table below shows the relationship between pressure class, PN, bar, meter head, Mpa, Kpa
and PSI.
3.3 Types of pipes used in Kenya
3.3.1: Galvanized Iron (GI)

(a) Sizes/Grades
 Diameter range 1/2’’(15mm) -6’’ (150 mm)
 Length mostly 6 meters per piece
CLASS COLOUR DESCRIPTION
CODE
A Yellow

Light: Least preferred for water supply.

B Blue

Medium: Most common for water supply

system
C Red

Heavy: Used for carrying water at very high

pressures
(b) Area of use
 Used as main water supply lines
 Used in rocky grounds
 Used where pipeline crosses roads, stream and busy paths
 Used where water theft is to be controlled

(c)Advantages
 They are robust,
 More durable than any plastic pipe.
 Are more difficult to tap into illegally by those who want to steal
 Are easy to join

(d) Dis-advantages
 Are so expensive
 They are very disruptive and difficult to lay
 High friction losses
 Corroded in some soils /salty/acidic conditions
 Unsuitable for drinking water when the metal gets corroded.
 Heavy and difficult to handle and transport
 Life is short – 7 to 10 yrs
 Easily affected by acidic and alkali waters – incrustations form easily inside the pipe
3.3.2: Ductile Iron Pipes

a) Sizes/grades
Ductile iron pipes are manufactured with inside cement mortar and external zinc coating.
They are commonly produced from DN 80mm-DN 1000 mm. Ductile iron pipe is
considered as the most preferred pipe material for water supply and pressure sewerage
application all over the world. It offers high tensile strength of 420 Mpa (min) and retains the
inherent corrosion resistance of cast iron. It is also ductile as compared to cast iron which is
brittle making it better in sustaining external static and dynamic loading.

b) Areas of use
 For very high pressure applications where HDPE and uPVC pipes’ allowable
operating pressure of the pipes are lower than the required design pressure
 When required diameter is too large that the installation of HDPE pipe or uPVC pipe
become impractical
 Where the ground has many sharp stones
c) Advantages
 Same as GI
d) Dis-advantages
 Rubber gaskets at joints can be damaged as pipes are joined leading to contamination
 Very expensive compared with other pipes.
3.3.3: Polypropylene Random Pipes (PPR)

a) Sizes/grades
 Diameter range (20mm-63mm)
 Length (any length- 4000mm rolls)
 Grade: PN 10, 16 and 20 or 10 bar,16 bar, 20 bar.
b) Areas of use
 Can transport hot and cold water
 These pipes are distinguished by a color strip al long the pipes
Hot water - Red
Cold water - Blue
Note
PPR pipes are manufactured with electronic identification print on the pipes (showing
manufacturer, date of manufacture, manufacture standards, pipe class)
c) Advantages
 Light on weight and easy to assemble
 Most suitable for drinking water
 Safe and water tight joints
 Long operational durability
 Excellent chemical and corrosion resistance
 Resistant to abrasion
 Easily joined with other pipes e.g. GI pipes
d) Dis-advantages
 Requires skilled personnel for joining
 Requires special tools for joining
 Susceptible to UV thus should not be exposed to sunlight.
3.4: Polyethylene Pipes (PE)

PE pipes can be used in range of temperatures -40 oC to 60 oC considering the change of

operating pressure.
a) Sizes and grades
They are usually supplied upto lengths of 100m
Diameter (16mm-110 mm)
 Typically the standard specification identify class of a PE pipe is by the nominal pressure
class - PN – eg. PN 20 or 20 bar.
 PE pipe can also be classified by the material used to manufacture them- PE 100 ,PE
80,PE 63.
Produced in three broad categories
 High Density Polyethylene – HDPE (PE 63, PE 80, PE 100)
 Medium Density Polyethylene
 Low Density PolyEthylene – LDPE (PN 20 etc.)
Color codes to classify use of pipes

Color Code PE Pressure Grade

Yellow PN 4
Red PN 6
Blue PN 10
Green PN 16
Common colors used to classify use of the pipes
 completely black for industrial applications
 completely blue, or black with blue stripes, for potable water
 completely yellow, or black with yellow stripes, for gas conduits

b) Areas of use
 Most suitable for drawing water from submersible /jet pumps pump ready for distribution
 Most recommend for water distribution by water service providers
Note
HDPE pipes are manufactured with electronic identification print on the pipes (showing
manufacturer, date of manufacture, manufacture standards, pipe class).

c) Advantages
 High specific strength
 Harder and more opaque
 Can withstand high temperatures
 Light in weight
 Chemical resistant
 Maintenance free
 Long lasting
 Can be produced up to 100m-less jointing needed, lower chances of joint leak
 Flexibility of the pipe.

d) Dis-advantages
 Expensive compared to PVC
 Can’t be used in certain conditions of soil e.g. that contaminated with oils and petrol
 Need to be joined together correctly to avoid contamination
 Require skilled labor of joining(joined using fusing machine)
3.5: POLY-VINYL-CHLORIDE (PVC)

PVC is mainly used for cold water supply systems.

a) Sizes/grades
Normally manufactured in approximately 6.0 or 20 feet long
Manufactured in two joining forms
 Flat sockets
 Rubber ring joints
Pressure classes
Class Code Bars PRESSURE kg/cm2
B Red 6 6
C Blue 9 9
D Green 12 12
E Brown 15 15

b) Areas of use
General water supply works. Not recommended for transporting portable water.
c) Advantages
 The pipes are lighter and easier to transport
 They are corrosion resistant
 They have low thermal conductivity
 They have low hydraulic resistance Good electric insulator
 Cheap in price compared to G.I pipes
 Easy to work with Are flexible
 Connecting sockets easily made in the field

d) Dis-advantages
 They contain chlorine as one of their manufacturing compounds thus harmful
 They are brittle and cracks easily when exposed to sunlight
 They can be damaged by vibration and heavy weight of vehicles
 They are not rigid enough to be suspended across a stream/valley
 Cannot be used for domestic hot water systems.
3.6: Unplasticised PolyVinyl Chloride (uPVC)
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is strong but lightweight plastic pipe .It is made softer and more
flexible by the addition of plasticizers. If no plasticizers are added, it is known as uPVC
(plasticized polyvinyl chloride). Lack of plasticizers makes it rigid, hard and strong. It is the
most recommitted for transporting portable water.

3.7 Chlorinated PolyVinyl Chloride (CPVC) pipes

CPVC is the most superior plastic alternative to Polypropylene. It can withstand water
temperatures upto 90 thus can be used for hot and cold water inside of a house. It has same
outside diameter as copper and PEX can share same push-fit fitttings.

Advantages
 Heat resistance upto 90˚C
 Chemical resistance over a broad temperature range
 Long term proven service performance of more than 50 years
 Lower installed cost
 Suitable for potable water and can be produced with NSF or WRAS approved grade
• Does not sustain burning
 CPVC Other Plastics
Initially when torch is applied Initially when torch is applied

CPVC Other Plastics

- After torch is removed - After torch is removed

3.9 Cross-linked Polyethylene (PEX)

PEX is commonly used for hot and cold water in homes, and for hydronic heating systems (such
as radiant under-floor systems) due to its resistance to hot and cold temperatures. PEX is widely
used now for its competitive pricing, ease of use, and the long rolls of piping that it can come in.
PEX can be joined in many different ways including push-fit fittings and specialty PEX tools
used with crimp rings to secure the joint. Do not weld with solvents. Join with heat fusion,
flare, crimp ring or compression fittings.
Advantages
 Good flexibility and strength
 It can make turns around corners without couplings.
 Excellent chemical resistance to acids and alkalis, but do not use for fuel oil, gasoline or
kerosene systems.

In a PEX plumbing system, a separate line is run from the main water supply to each fixture in a
setup much like a circuit breaker box.

3.8 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene. (A.B.S. waste pipes)

Commonly used for DWV (drain-waste-vent) applications or for underground electrical
conduits. Use compression or solvent weld connections to join this type of pipe. Made from a
thermoplastic resin. Lightweight and easier to use than metal pipe. Available as either solid wall
or cellular core construction. ABS stands for

3.9 Concrete Pipes

They are produced as:

• Plain cement concrete pipes – small sizes ( dia 0.6m)
• Reinforced cement concrete pipes – large sizes (dia 1.8 m upto 4.5m)
• Manufacturing Methods (based on location)
– Cast in-situ
– Precast
• Manufacturing process of RCC pipes
– Ordinary methods of concrete pouring and tamping
– Centrifugal type
– Cylinder type
 Mix used – 1:2:2 with max. aggregate size as 6mm
 Diameter : 0.1m to 1.2m
 Thickness : 2.5cm to 6.5cm
 For head greater than 30m, prestressed pipes are used.
– Laid with a welded steel cylinder to ensure water tightness.
– High tensile wire is wound around it to cause prestressing of the core.
– Concrete is laid by centrifugally.
– Available in diameter ranging from 80 mm to 1800 mm.
Advantages
 Inside of pipe is smooth hence friction losses are low.
 Durable.
 Low maintenance cost.
 Life is at least 75 years.
 Resist external compressive loads and do not collapse under nominal vacuums
and traffic loads.
 Easy to construct at site or at factories with local ingredients
 No need of expansion joints when laid above the ground.
 If laid under water, empty pipes do not float because of their heavy weights
Disadvantages
 Heavy and difficult to handle.
 Likely to crack during transportation.
 Repair work is difficult.
  Likely to corrode by ground water due to the presence of acids, alkalis or sulphur
compounds.
 Cannot withstand very high pressures.
 Difficult to join
 Tend to leak due to shrinkage cracks and porosity

3.10 Copper Pipe

This type of pipe is mostly used for hot and cold water distribution, as well as being regularly
used in HVAC systems for refrigerant lines. Although once used in gas piping, this is no longer
allowed in some jurisdictions.
Copper piping works in both underground and above-ground applications, but copper can be
affected by some soils and should be sleeved if used underground. Due to the price of copper and
longer labor needed to install, many builders are switching to alternative water distributions
piping, such as PEX.
Copper comes in different thicknesses which are labeled M, L, and K. M is the thinnest grade of
copper. Copper can be connected in different ways, including compression fittings or with a
torch so you can sweat solder it. 
3.11 Stainless steel pipes
Stainless pipes are designed for outdoor installation for laying pipelines and internal plumbing.
Stainless steel pipe is used in heating, hot and cold domestic water, because stainless steel does
not have a negative impact on water quality. This type of material has a quite big cost
Steel pipes are covered with zinc, because they are highly susceptible to corrosion, especially
under the influence of water. Zinc is more active metal that oxidizes rapidly, thus protecting steel
pipes from corrosion.
Hazards and safety associated with handling plumbing materials

This chapter covers both general safety hazards and specific hazards associated with common
plumping and pipework activities and suggests ways of dealing with them.
1.1 Safety Clothing
(a) Eye protection
(i) safety goggles

(ii) welding goggles

(b) Body protection

(i) overalls
(ii) boiler suits
(c) Foot protection
(i) Safety boots with steel caps
(ii) Rubber boots to help prevent water borne contaminants

(d) Hand protection

(i) Heavy duty canvas gloves for handling materials with sharp edges
 (ii)-Rubber /plastic gloves for protecting skin against irritation when handling materials
like cement, oils or grease etc.

(e) Head protection

(i) Safety helmet

(ii)Hard hat
Face mask which covers mouth and nose to protect against general dust inhalation
(iii) Ear protection
Worn in workshop where high noise is likely.

1.2 Safety in Workshop

(a) Keeping working area tidy
 Keep working area tidy
 Always clear all trash on the floor
 Ensure spilt fluids, oils etc. are adequately wiped out
(b) Handling toots and equipment
 Keep all blades and cutting surfaces sharp and if possible covered when not in use
 Striking surfaces of steel chisels used for cutting masonry should be kept free of
excessive splay /mushrooming.
 Never use files of similar tools without handles
(c) Safety signs
Sno. Sign Symbol Shape Color Meaning Example
 1. Prohibitio Circular Red Shows No smoking
n Signs borders and what must
cross bar. NOT be
Black done
symbols on
white
background
2. Mandatory Circular White Shows Wear eye
Signs symbol on what must protection
blue be done
background

3. Warning Triangular Yellow Warns of Danger

Signs background hazard or electric
with shock risk
danger
black
border and
symbol
4. Informatio Rectangul White Indicates or First-aid
n Signs ar symbols gives facilities
on green information
background on safety
provision

(d) Hazardous Substances/Chemicals

Work with hazardous substances requires an assessment of the risk of using the substance to be
carried out before the work begins. Manufacturers of substances in support of the risk assessment
process are required to adequately package the product, showing the dangers that the substance
presents, and provide instruction on its use. Hazardous substances tend to fall into the following
categories illustrated by figures below.

No Category Description Symbol

1. Toxic poisonous liquids and
gases

2. Harmful a general term that is

used as a classification
for many
hazardous substances

3. Corrosive products that may

corrode such as bleach

4. Irritant products, such as loft

insulation, that may
cause irritation to
parts of the body

5. Extremely flammable substances that may

lead to fire, e.g. LPG

6. Oxidizing – these are substances

that remove oxygen
from the
Surrounding air, e.g.
ABS cement for
jointing plastic
pipework.
1.3 Safety on Building and construction sites
(a) Ladders
Falls from ladders account for a high proportion of accidents in the construction industry. Here
are some of the key points of ladder safety:
 Ladder should only be used to gain access to a work platform such as a scaffold, or for
short-term work of usually less than 30 minutes’ duration. Work at heights for longer
periods should be carried out using safer access equipment such as a mobile tower
scaffold.
 There are a number of classes of ladder – Class 1 (industrial ladders) should normally be
used for construction activities.
 The ladder should be checked for safety and for visible signs of damage each time it is
used – if in any doubt the ladder should not be used.
 Care must be taken when transporting the ladder around site and when erecting it
 The ladder must only be used on firm, level ground.
 If the ladder is to be used on or near a public footpath or road, there should be barriers
around its base
 The angle of the ladder to the building should be 75°, or 4 up to 1 out
 The ladder should preferably be secured at the top and bottom, footing by a co-worker is
an alternative method of securing at the bottom
 The top of the ladder should project 1m or approximately five rungs above a working
platform or roof access point.
 Independent and putlog scaffolds working in excavations
 (b) Scaffolding
Mobile tower scaffolds provide a safer solution to gaining access for plumbers working at
heights. Here are the main points associated with their use:
 They should only be erected by those who have been properly trained
 A tower scaffold over 2m from floor height must be fitted with toe boards and guard
rails. A guardrail must be fitted between 0.4m and 0.7m above the working platform. The
hand rail should be no more than 910mm above the working platform
 When in use, the scaffold wheels must be locked
 The platform should not be moved whilst holding people or materials.
 The tower must be stable, there should normally be a 1:3 base to height ratio
 Outriggers may be used to increase the height of the tower and its stability
 Towers above 9m in height should be firmly secured to the building.
 Towers should not normally be used above 12m in height
 The tower should include a purpose-designed ladder securely fixed inside the structure to
gain access to the working platform.
( c) Electricity on Site Safety
 Low-voltage (cordless) power tools tend to be preferred to their mains fed counterparts,
as they are safer to use.
 On construction sites in particular, 110-volt power tools tend to be used as an alternative
to the standard 240 volts found in domestic properties Lower voltage is again safer by
design.
 All power tools should be visually checked for signs of damage before. They are used –
damaged cables, plugs and casings, etc. Damaged tools must be taken out of service until
disposed of or repaired
 All power tools should be subject to a Portable Appliance Test (PAT), this is a periodic
check for electrical safety by a competent trained person, the recommended frequency of
test for construction applications is three-monthly; all tested appliances should include a
test label showing that the appliance has passed the test and the date of the next test
should be displayed.
 Residual Current Device (RCD) is a type of electrical protection device that can be used
in the electrical circuit supplying the power tool in order to provide added protection to
the user.
 Power tools, e.g. circular saws, may also be supplied with adjustable guards. The tool
must always be used with the guard firmly in place – it’s there to protect the user! On no
circumstances must it be removed to make the job easier.
(d ) Work excavations

Shoring trench
Work in excavations can be particularly hazardous and therefore a risk assessment must be
conducted before the work is commenced to ensure that proper control measures are applied to
safely do the work. The following are typical measures:
 Underground lines, equipment and electrical cables shall be identified and located by the
Contractor Coordinator prior to beginning work that involves.
 An assessment of the ground material type must be undertaken to determine the need for
shoring .Only properly trained plumbers must work in excavations. Walls and faces of
trenches and excavations, deeper than 1m, shall be shored, sloped or shielded as required
by the type of soil encountered
 Daily inspections shall be conducted by a competent person for evidence of a situation
that could result in possible caveins, indications of failure of protective systems or other
hazardous conditions.
 Any work carried out should be in pairs, one plumber carrying out the work in the trench,
the other passing tools and materials
 Fencing must be erected around trenches over 2m in depth to prevent persons falling into
the trench.
  Material removed from the trench should be safely stored so that it may not fall back into
the trench.
 Barriers such as vehicle stop-blocks may need to be used where dump trucks are being
used in the vicinity of the trench, this is to prevent the vehicle falling into it.
 Employees shall not be permitted underneath loads handled by lifting or digging
equipment.

e) Storage of Materials at Heights

 All materials at height should be stored where they cannot fall on to workers. Work tools
and materials stored at height should be kept to a minimum to minimize the risk of
objects falling.
 Materials should be kept tidy and secure making sure that all access routes are kept clear.
Working platforms should not be cluttered with stored materials, and adequate space
must be maintained to allow safe access. All loose materials and waste should be
removed on an ongoing basis

1.4 Fire Safety

Plumbers need to be aware of the fire risk that may be associated with their work. Some of the
dangers are:
• igniting combustible materials in the location of hot working
• Faults caused by electrical work. In order for a fire to occur the following need to be
present:
• Fuel – combustible material
• oxygen – air supply
• Heat – ignition source.
Remove any of these three items and fire will not take place.

Classes of fire

Fires are classed into groups according to the fuel type:

Class A – fires involving solid materials, extinguished by water
Class B – fires involving flammable liquids, extinguished by foam or
carbon dioxide
Class C – fires involving flammable gases, extinguished by dry powder.
Class D – fires involving flammable metals, extinguished by dry powder.

Fire-fighting equipment
 There are a variety of different types of fire-fighting equipment. In undertaking plumbing
work you are more likely to come across the fire extinguisher as the main source of
protection; here are some points to its use:
 An extinguisher should be kept in the immediate work area when hot working, e.g. using
LPG gas heating equipment
 A fire extinguisher should only be used when it is safe to do so, personal safety must
come before attempts to contain a fire
 Fire extinguishers should only be used by those trained in their use
 The following shows the colour coding for extinguishers for dealing with the different
types of fire.

Fire extinguisher colour code

1.5 First Aid

The requirements for providing first aid are laid down in the First Aid at Work Regulations,
which require the employer to conduct a risk assessment of first-aid arrangements for the
company, this will include establishing the need for first-aid kits and trained first-aiders. The
+following diagram shows the typical contents of a first-aid kit.

THE PLUMBING CODE

The improper installation of plumbing may affect the health of the occupants of a building and
create a center point for the spread of diseases. The right of the government to regulate the
details of plumbing is based on the principle of the protection of public health.
The basic goal of the National Plumbing Code of the Philippines is to ensure the qualified
observance of the latest provision of the plumbing and environmental laws.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE NATIONAL PLUMBING CODE

1. All premises intended for human use or habitation shall be provided with a supply of pure
and wholesome water, neither connected to unsafe water supply nor subject to backflow
or back siphonage
2. Plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances shall be supplied with water in sufficient
volume and pressure adequate to function satisfactory and without undue noise
3. Plumbing shall be designed and udjusted to use the minimum quantity of water consistent
with proper performance and cleaning
4. Devices for heating and storing water shall be so designed and installed so as to prevent
dangers from explosion through overheating
5. Every building abutting on a street, alley or easement with a public sewer shall connect
its plumbing fixtures to the sewer system
6. Each family dwelling unit shall have at least one water closet, one kitchen type sink, a
lavatory and a bathtub or shower to meet the basic requirements of sanitation and
personal hygiene
7. Plumbing fixtures shall be made of smooth non-absorbernt material free from concealed
fouling surfaces and shall be located in ventilated enclosures
8. The drainage system shall be designed, constructed and maintained to safeguard against
fouling, deposit of solids, clogging and with adequate clean outs so arranged that the
pipes may be readily cleaned
9. All piping shall be of durable NAMPAP –(National master plumbers/plumbing engineers
of the philipines)approved materials, free from defective workmanship, designed and
constructed by registered master plumbers to ensure satisfactory service
10. Each fixture directly connected to the drainage system shall be equipped with a water
sealed trap
11. The drainage pipes piping system shall be designed to provide adequate circulation of
free air from siphonage , aspiration or forcing of trap seals under ordinary use
12. Vent materials shall extend to the outer air and installed to prevent clogging and the
return of foul air into the building
13. Plumbing systems shall be subjected to such tests to effectively disclose all leaks and
defects in the workmanship
14. Substance which will clog the pipes, produce explosive mixtures, destroy the pipes or
their joints or interfere unduly with the sewage –disposal process shall not be allowed to
enter the building drainage system
15. Proper protection shall be provided to prevent contamination of food, water, sterile goods
and similar materials by backflow of sewage. When necessary the fixture device shall be
connected indirectly with the building drainage system.
16. No water closet shall be located in a room or compartment which is not properly
ventilated
17. If there is no sewer system in the area, suitable provision shall be made for the disposal of
building sewage by some accepted method of sewage treatment and disposal such as a
septic tank
18. Where a plumbing drainage system may be subject to backflow of sewage suitable
provision shall be made to prevent its overflow in the building
19. Plumbing systems shall be maintained in serviceable conditions by registered master
plumbers
20. All plumbing fixtures shall be installed properly spaced, to be accessible for their
intended use
21. Plumbing shall be installed with due regard to the preservation of the strength of
structural members and the prevention of damage to walls and other surfaces through
fixture usage
22. Sewage or other waste from plumbing systems which maybe be deleterious to surface
and sub-surface waters shall not be discharged into the ground or into any waterway,
unless first rendered innocuous through subjection to some acceptable form of treatment