SOLAR CARS

1. AN OVERVIEW

A solar car is a vehicle, which is powered by sun’s energy. A solar car is a light weight, low
power vehicle designed and built with a single purpose in mind – racing. They have limited
seating (usually one, sometimes two people), they have very little cargo capacity, and they
can only be driven during the day. It does, however, offer an excellent opportunity to develop
future technologies that can be applied to practical applications.

Figure 1: Energy Flow Diagram of a Solar Car

The main component of a solar car is its solar array, consisting of photovoltaic cells, which
collect the energy from the sun and converts it into usable electrical energy. The energy is
passed either to the battery for storage, or to the motor to run the car, though a device called
power tracker, which convert it into the required voltage. The decision on whether to transfer
the power to the motor or battery is made by a small onboard computer called the motor
controller. It is responsible for sending the electricity smoothly to the motor when the

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accelerator is depressed, controlling the torque that goes to the motor such that the car
maintains the desired speed. Some cars also use a process called regenerative braking, which
allows some of the kinetic energy stored in the vehicle’s translating mass to be stored in the
battery when the car is slowing down.A solar car is made up of many components that have
been integrated together so that they work as a single system. For the ease of explanation it
has been broken down into five primary systems:

• Driver Controls & Mechanical Systems

• Electrical System

• Drive Train

• Solar Array

• Body and Chassis

2. HISTORY

The first solar car invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created by William G. Cobb of General
Motors. Called the Sunmobile, Cobb showcased the first solar car at the Chicago Powerama
convention on August 31, 1955. The solar car was made up 12 selenium photovoltaic cells
and a small Pooley electric motor turning a pulley which in turn rotated the rear wheel shaft.
The first solar car in history was obviously too small to drive.Now, let's jump to 1962 when
the first solar car that a person could drive was demonstrated to the public. The International
Rectifier Company converted a vintage model 1912 Baker electric car (pictured above) to run
on photovoltaic energy in 1958, but they didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640
individual solar cells were mounted to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it.In 1977,
Alabama University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebird solar car, which was a
prototype full scale vehicle. The Bluebird was supposed to move from power created by the
photovoltaic cells only without the use of a battery. The Bluebird was exhibited in the
Knoxville, TN 1982 World's Fair.Between 1977 and 1980 (the exact dates are not known for
sure), at Tokyo Denki University, professor Masaharu Fujita first created a solar bicycle, then
a 4-wheel solar car. The car was actually two solar bicycles put together.In 1979 Englishman
Alain Freeman invented a solar car (pictured right). He road registered the same vehicle in
1980. The Freeman solar car was a 3-wheeler with a solar panel on the roof.At the
engineering department at Tel Aviv University in Israel, Arye Braunstein and his colleagues

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created a solar car in 1980 (pictured below). The solar car had a solar panel on the hood and
on the roof of the Citicar comprised of 432 cells creating 400 watts of peak power. The solar
car used 8 batteries of 6 volts each to store the photovoltaic energy.

3. DRIVER CONTROLS & MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Solar cars do have some of the standard features found in conventional cars, such as turn
signals (front & rear), brake lights, accelerator, rear view mirrors, fresh air ventilation, and
usually cruise control. The drivers and passengers are protected safety harnesses and helmets.
Drivers and passengers can look forward to uncomfortable seats, cramped positioning, and
high cockpit temperatures as these cars have very few amenities for the driver.

3.1 REAR VISION:

Mirrors mounted to a car's exterior greatly increase aerodynamic drag; therefore, an out-of-
the–box thinking is required to find a solution. SUNRUNNER, a solar car developed by the
University of Michigan in 1995, utilized a fibre optic cable connecting an eyepiece in the
driver's area to a lens located in an aerodynamic fin mounted on top of the canopy. MAIZE &
BLUE, a later model developed by the University, on the other hand, chose an electronic
system consisting of a miniature camera installed in the car's trailing edge and a pocket
television in the driver's area. Some cars also have externally mounted mirrors of mirrors
within a bubble canopy.

3.2 VENTILATION:

High temperatures are obviously bad for the driver (and passenger), but they are also bad for
electrical and electronic components as high temperatures will generally reduce the efficiency
and shorten the life of solar cells, batteries, motors, motor controllers and other electronic
equipment.

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Figure 2: The comfortable interior temperature and air flow rate as a function of outside
temperature

Something like 10 kilograms of air would typically have to be provided every minute to
approach passenger car comfort levels. Obviously, that's seldom feasible in a solar car due to
the drag that it might impose on the vehicle, if such cooling flows are not also required by
electrical, electronic and mechanical components of the vehicle.Vehicle designers usually use
the same airflow several times over as it passes through the vehicle; for example cooling
driver, electronics, electrics and motor sequentially. Placing a sizeable air inlet at the forward
stagnation point of the vehicle minimises drag due to the opening. 'NACA ducts’ are an
alternative for getting air into the car if there's a reasonably-flat, external surface nearby that
doesn't have significant divergent (or convergent) flow.The mechanical systems of a solar car
are designed to minimize friction and weight while maintaining the strength needed to handle
the various road conditions. Lightweight metals like titanium and composites are commonly
used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio. It includes:

3.3 STEERING:

The major design factors for steering are reliability and efficient performance. The steering
system is designed with precise steering alignment because even small misalignments can
cause significant losses and increase tire wear. Different cars use different steering
mechanisms depending on their budget and other considerations. The SUNRUNNER utilized

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a rack and pinion system that was attached to the steering arms by means of tie rods.
TESSERACT, a single-seat high performance solar racecar, uses a centre mounted
handlebars, much like that on bicycles that connect to a rack-and-pinion steering system.

3.4 BRAKES:

To maximize efficiency, the brakes are designed to move freely, eliminating brake drag,
which is caused by brake pads rubbing against the brake surface. Hydraulic disc brakes are
commonplace in solar cars because of their adjustability and good braking power. As a
supplemental system, some teams have regenerative braking which allows some of the
kinetic energy stored in the vehicle’s translating mass to be stored in the battery when the car
is slowing down. Here the car's motor becomes a generator as regenerative braking is applied
and adds energy to the batteries during deceleration. Both MAIZE& BLUE and
SUNRUNNER had hydraulic disc brakes while only SUNRUNNER used regenerative
braking.

3.5 SUSPENSION:

Of the available front suspension variants, MacPhearson struts or double A arms are most
common in solar cars. A MacPhearson strut requires a large vertical clearance since it is
positioned perpendicular to the ground. Double A arms require less vertical clearance, but
consist of more components. Depending upon the design a suitable one is chosen. The most
common rear suspension is a trailing arm, similar to that found in motorcycles. Due to a
single degree of motion, the trailing arm suspension allows for convenient packaging of
dampers and the drivetrain.

3.6 WHEELS:

Wheels, however, are the least efficient part of a solar car due to rolling resistance. About one
third of the energy used by a solar car is lost due to this factor. Due to this limitation, contact
with the ground should be minimized.Solar cars typically have three or four wheels. The
common three-wheel configuration is two front wheels and one rear wheel (usually the driven
wheel). Four-wheel vehicles are sometimes configured like a conventional vehicle (with one
of the rear wheels being driven). Other four-wheel vehicles have the two rear wheels close
together near the centre (similar to the common three wheel configuration).Solar car wheel

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designs are similar to those of bicycle tires. Generally, the wheel's rims and hubs are
aluminium while the spokes are made of steel. A Mylar film is placed over the spokes to
increase aerodynamic efficiency. Pneumatic tires are preferred over solid rubber tires because
they weigh less and provide a smoother ride. The best tires currently available are the
Bridgestone Ecopia tires made for solar cars. They are very thin and operate at over one
hundred pounds/inch pressure.

4. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The heart of a solar car is the electrical system, which is made up of batteries and power
electronics. Power electronics include the peak power trackers, the motor controller, and the
data acquisition system. The primary function of the power electronics is to monitor and
control the electricity within the system.

4.1 BATTERIES:

A solar car uses the battery pack to store energy, which will be at a later time. The battery
pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to generate the required system
voltage. The types of batteries used include:

• Lead-Acid

• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)

• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)

• Lithium Ion

The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio over the more
common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to maintain.The battery pack is made up of
several individual modules wired together to generate the required system voltage. Typically,
teams use system voltages between 84 and 108 volts, depending on their electrical system.
For example, Tesseract uses 512 li-ion batteries, broken down into twelve modules, which are
each equivalent to a car battery, but only weigh 5 lbs each. Through an innovative pack
design, the batteries are ventilated with even airflow to minimize temperature differences
between the modules.

4.2 PEAK POWER TRACKERS:

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The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the solar array to maximize
the power and deliver it either to the batteries for storage or to the motor controller for
propulsion. When the solar array is charging the batteries, the peak power trackers help to
protect the batteries from being damaged by overcharging. Peak power trackers can be very
lightweight and commonly reach efficiencies above 95%.A maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) is a DC-DC converter that matches the output of a PV string to the battery voltage in
a way that maximises the power generated by the PV string.The power generated by a PV
string depends on the operating voltage. PV power increases steadily with operating voltage
to a maximum, and then drops off rapidly as the voltage is increased further to the open-
circuit voltage. A tracker allows the PV string to always operate at the most efficient point,
independently of the battery voltage. For example, if your battery voltage is 100V and the
ideal operating point for an array string is 2A x 120V = 240W, the tracker output will be
2.4A x 100V = 240W. In practice, there is always a small loss of 1-2% due to inefficiencies
in the tracker electronics.

MPPTs are of three types:

• down (buck) converters, which convert the PV voltage to a lower battery voltage;

• up (boost) converters, which convert the PV voltage to a higher battery voltage; and

• dual (buck-boost) converters, which will convert either way, though usually with a
penalty in efficiency.

4.2.1 FINDING THE MAXIMUM POWER POINT: There are two methods to find the
maximum power point.

1. Open-circuit voltage tracking: The tracker periodically measures the open circuit
voltage, VOC, of the PV string, then sets the operating voltage to Vmp = k VOC, where k is a
constant. The method is simple, and reasonably effective. This method is used by AERL
trackers.

2. Power tracking: The tracker measures changes in output power as it makes small
changes to the operating point, and adjusts the operating point to maximise output power.

4.3 MOTOR CONTROLLERS:

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This component performs the complex task of deciding how much current actually reaches
the motor at a given time. This determination of current by the motor controller allows the car
to accelerate, decelerate, or stay at a constant speed. The better motor controllers are up to
90% efficient.

4.4 TELEMETRY:

A team's telemetry system is used for data acquisition. A commercial or custom system
monitors conditions such as speed, battery voltage, power collection and consumption, and
motor temperature. The system then relays that information to the driver and team strategists.
Most telemetry systems allow for two-way data transmissions and are based on
microcontrollers and radio modems.

5. DRIVE TRAIN

The drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which the motor's power is
transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move. Due to the low amount of power
generated (less than 5 hp) usually only one wheel in the rear of the car is driven by the
electric motor. The motor types that have been used in solar cars include

• brushed DC motors

• DC brushless motors

• induction motors

DC brushless motors are commonplace in solar car racing. Rare-earth, permanent magnets
mounted on the rotor, reacts to magnetic fields produced by the motor's windings. Three-
phase windings allow the rotor remain at constant torque. A motor controller sends signals to
the windings, regulating the magnetic field around the rotor. The most common type of motor
used in solar cars is the dual-winding DC brushless. It is fairly lightweight and can reach
efficiencies of 98% at their rated rpm.

The dual-winding motor is sometimes used as an electronic transmission. Switching between

the dual windings changes the speed rating of the motor. The low speed windings provide
high torque for starting and passing, while the high speed windings have higher efficiencies
and are best for cruising.

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There are several variations of two basic types of transmissions used in solar cars.

1. single reduction direct drive

2. variable ratio belt drive

3. hub motor

In the past, the most common type was the direct drive transmission where the motor is
connected to the wheel through a chain or belt with a single gear reduction. This is a reliable
and easily maintained transmission if special care is taken when aligning the components.
Efficiencies above 75% can be achieved when designed properly.For a variable ratio belt
drive, gear ratio changes as the speed of the motor increases. This gives the motor more
starting torque at lower speeds, but still allows the car to run efficiently at higher speeds.
Variable belt drives require precise alignment and careful setup to work efficiently.A hub
motor eliminates the need for any external transmission because the motor shaft is connected
directly to the wheel hub. This greatly increases the efficiency of the drive train and reduces
the number of moving parts necessary to drive the wheel. A hub motor uses low rpm to
account for the lack of gear reduction, which tends to drop their efficiency slightly, but they
still can achieve efficiencies in excess of 95%.

6. SOLAR INSOLATION

The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day. However, the amount of
energy changes due to the time of day, weather conditions and geographic location. The
amount of available solar energy is known as the solar insolation or irradiance and is most
commonly measured in watts per meter squared or W / m 2.

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Figure 3: Typical solar insolation for a sunny day.

Solar irradiance is generally modelled as having three components:

• direct beam irradiance,

• diffuse irradiance, from the sky, and

• reflected irradiance, from the ground.

The sum of these components is called global irradiance. The irradiance that will fall on a
surface depends on the many factors, including:

• the day of the year

• the position of the sun in the sky

• the inclination of the surface

• cloud cover.

These factors should be taken into account while designing the solar array.

7. SOLAR ARRAY

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Solar cells or photovoltaics collect the energy from the sun and converts it into usable
electrical energy. They are made from silicon by joining an n-type and a p-type silicon
semiconductor, creating an electron rich and an electron poor layer. When sunlight strikes the
cell, photons cause atoms of the semiconductor to free electrons, leaving behind positive
charges. The flow of electrons thus created constitutes an electromotive force that drives the
current to charge a battery or power a motor.The cell's positive contact is on the bottom while
the negative contact, or bus bar, is located on the top of the cell. Each cell produces
approximately .5 volts and 3 amps of current. Connecting the cells in series, i.e., positive to
negative, increases voltage. Parallel connections, i.e., negative to negative and positive to
positive, increase current. Therefore, connecting the cells in various series and parallel
configurations produces modules of different voltages and currents.

Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of a Solar

Figure 5: Solar Cell Diagram

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Cells can be grouped into space grade and terrestrial grade categories:

• Space grade cells are up to 29% efficient, and are used mainly in satellite production
due to their high cost. These high efficiency cells cost in excess of $500 per square inch.

• Terrestrial grade cells having a efficiency of 14%, are much cheaper causing them to
be the cells of choice for solar cars. Each cell measures 10cm x 10cm, costs approximately
$6.00, and produces 1.5 watts of power. A large number of solar cells are wired together to
form a solar array. The entire solar cells together form the solar array. Solar cells should also
be divided into several zones. For example, if you have 750 solar cells, you might want to
wire 3 sets of 250 cells, each zone producing about 125 volts. If one zone fails, two other
zones are still producing power. SUNRUNNER'S array consisted of 14,057 razor blade sized,
16% efficient space grade cells.The cells are extremely fragile. So many engineers put them
through a process called encapsulation. Doing so strengthens solar cell durability, but
decreases the efficiency. Encapsulation is the process of coating the cells with a tougher
material like resins or sandwiching it between two sheets of fibre glass, which prevents the
cells from being damaged. For cells 14% efficient, encapsulation would reduce the overall
efficiency to12.5%.Solar-powered cars are not a common sight on American roadways
because no production-ready models have been developed as of 2010. Green-minded
consumers have been buying readily-available gas-electric hybrid vehicles. But the
advantages that sun-powered cars offer make them a potentially attractive alternative for
consumers in search of more ecologically-friendly personal transportation. So, researchers
continue to work on developing affordable, reliable, solar-powered vehicles.

8.ADVANTAGES

No Emissions
Because solar-powered cars have electric motors, they burn no fuel and produce no
emissions. This key aspect of solar-powered cars is of interest to motorists who wish to
utilize personal transportation without contributing to air pollution and greenhouse gases in
the environment, as well as to researchers and automobile manufacturers who develop solar-
powered prototypes and concept cars.
Preservation Of Natural Resources
Although the panels and other components of a solar-powered car initially consume energy
and resources to manufacture, the solar car would require no additional energy input. Because

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solar-powered cars consume no fuel and do not require oil changes, their dependence on
petroleum-based products is limited to the lubrication of wheels or plastics used in
replacement parts. The electric motor and other components of solar cars are potentially
maintenance-free, in contrast to the engines in current gas-powered vehicles.
No Fuel Costs
There are considerable economic incentives to develop, produce and operate solar cars.
Because of their lack of dependence on external fuel sources, they are free from the fuel costs
normally associated with gas, diesel, and even hybrid automobiles. Sunlight, which solar
panels convert into electricity, is available and free to everyone during the day.
Driving Comfort
Electric motors designed to power solar-cars are generally smaller than the equivalent gas
engine, and operate without the noise and vibrations generally associated with conventional
cars, according to Elements Online Environment Magazine. Solar-powered cars can also be
designed to be much lighter, allowing for faster turning and stopping.

9.LIMITATIONS
To put the limitations of a solar car in perspective, a simple calculation will suffice. Only
1000 W/m2 of energy reaches the earth’s surface in an hour of “peak sun”. This term can be
thought of as the amount of sunlight that reaches a sunny area on cloudless, summer day
around noon. An average solar array configuration span 8m, meaning the total amount of
energy hitting the solar car during peak sun is 8KWh/m2. Of this energy, average solar cells
are only able to convert 12.5% to electricity. As a result, the total amount of converted energy
available to a car consists of 1 KW/h, approximately the same amount of energy used to run a
hairdryer.With cars running on 700-1500 Watts, efficiency is hypercritical. Therefore,
advances in all aspects of engineering, from mechanical to electrical to materials and
computer science are the key. The three primary areas of energy loss consist of aerodynamic
drag, braking, and rolling resistance. To minimize aerodynamic drag, engineers make solar
cells as sleek as possible. Rolling resistance is proportional to weight. Hence solar cars
should be engineered to be very light.

10.CONCLUSION

The solar cars are used exclusively for racing in tournaments, at present. Though they have
been around for about twenty five years now, the technology is still in the developmental

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stages. Hence they can not be used as a practical means of transport. The challenge lies in
making it a viable means of transport. Further research is needed in this regard to improve
solar panels, reduce weight, to improve reliability and to reduce the cost. Research is being
carried out on many semi-conductors and their alloys to develop more efficient solar cells. It
can be safely assumed that with the advent of mass production there would be greatly
reduced. Thus this technology will definitely live up to its potential some time in the future.

11.REFERENCES

1. http://www.americansolarcarchallenge.org

2. http://www.solarcar.mcmaster.ca

3. http://www.formulasun.org

4. http://scg.levels.unisa.edu.au/src/pmwiki.php

5. http://www.raccoon.com/~cpraven/thesis/

6. http://www.umr.edu/~dougc/solar/sun.html

7. http://web.umr.edu/~wif/experimental/Beijing.Kevlar.html

8. http://sunsite.anu.edu.au/questacon/aimscc_main.html

9. http://www.wikipedia.com

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