Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 77, No.
6, 2019
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
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686 Publisher
Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the Associated
Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian Serials, European Society
for the History of Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education
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Editors-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Šiauliai University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr., Prof. Muammer Calik, Trabzon University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Margaret Chan Kit Yok, MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Malaysia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
Copyright of this issue is the property of Scientia Socialis, Ltd, Lithuania. By virtue of their appearance in
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Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019
Contents 687
Editorial
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE PREPARATION: A COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION

Vincentas Lamanauskas ..............................................................................................688
Articles
TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT:

A CASE STUDY AMONG MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
Kalai Selvan Arumugham ........................................................................................... 695
SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS’ MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE: REFLECTIONS

FROM SHORT LEARNING INTERVENTION PROGRAMME (SLIP)
Loyiso C. Jita, Olugbenga Adedayo Ige ...........................................................................705
IMPROVING THE SELF-AWARENESS CAPACITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

BY FORMING A SCHOOL COUNSELING MODEL BASED ON STUDENT
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT ORIENTATION IN VIETNAM
Luong Tran, Son Van Huynh, Hoi Duc Dinh, Vu Thien Giang ................................................. 722
LEARNERS’ VIEWS ON ASYMPTOTES OF A HYPERBOLA AND EXPONENTIAL

FUNCTION: A COMMOGNITIVE APPROACH
Vimolan Mudaly, Sihlobosenkosi Mpofu ..........................................................................734
EXPLORING THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COOPERATIVE LEARNING

IMPLEMENTATION IN SCHOOL MATHEMATICS CLASSROOMS
Angel Mukuka, Vedaste Mutarutinya, Sudi Balimuttajjo .........................................................745
PRINCIPALS’ ROLE IN MANAGING TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

THROUGH A TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS
Millicent Ngema, Mapheleba Lekhetho ............................................................................ 758
INDUCTION OF WOMEN BEGINNER TEACHERS AT TWO SOUTH AFRICAN

COMMUNITY SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Happy Ngwira, Onoriode Collins Potokri ......................................................................... 774
THE ESTIMATION OF TEACHING PROFESSION EDUCATION (TPE) PARTICIPANTS’

ABILITY IN INDONESIA: AN ASSESSMENT MODEL WITH PARTIAL SCORING
Lian Gafar Otaya, Badrun Kartowagiran, Heri Retnawati ...................................................... 790
MULTIVOCAL DIDACTIC MODELLING: COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH REGARDING

TEACHING AND CO-ASSESSMENT IN SWEDISH PRESCHOOLS
Ann-Christine Vallberg Roth, Ylva Holmberg, Camilla Löf, Catrin Stensson ............................... 806
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 835

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688
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE PREPARATION: A
COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION
Vincentas Lamanauskas
Šiauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@su.lt
Writing and publishing scientific articles (research, review, position etc. articles) are
referred to as responsible academic activities. Any scientist/researcher is somehow involved
in scientific writing. Thus, this is a technique assisting the researcher with demonstrating
individual performance. Most of the main scientific/research journals are published in English,
and therefore scientific information is made internationally available by a wide audience and
actually becomes accessible to every scientist and/or researcher. On the other hand, a valid point
is that scientific/research journals are published in different national languages. Nevertheless,
it should be noted that science policy has recently become one-dimensional and resulting in a
blind orientation towards support for scientific/research journals published in English. As noted
by Poviliunas and Ramanauskas (2008), national languages face a legitimate risk of becoming
domesticated and to one degree or another being excluded from scientific, cultural, education
and public areas of life. However, this is material for another discussion.
Still, every researcher finds relevant to properly prepare a scientific article, i.e. describe
the conducted research and publish the obtained results. The previous editorial attempts were
made to discuss the fundamental structural elements of the scientific/research article, including
the title, summary and keywords (Lamanauskas, 2019). This time, efforts are exerted to share
certain insights and gained experience in writing the introduction to the article.
Prior to starting the article, each researcher does some preparatory work, which has a
major impact on future work. The analysis of the already published scientific sources (research
information) is of utmost importance. Consistent and detailed reading thus trying to delve and
understand deeper the issues considered in the field of interest to the researcher seems to be
the only option. Moreover, these aspects are important for writing a focused scientific/research
article as well as for the justification of the presumed (planned) study, search for the research
problem, etc. This is an efficient way to gain a broader view of research findings, the validity
and reliability of the conducted study and the methods other researchers tried to apply in order
to solve the encountered problems. Thus, possible contradictions, gaps in the research field
under consideration, etc. can be accepted in a more appropriate way. In contrast, to substantiate
our research, we can be more focused on relevant statements provided in the published articles
and made conclusions as well as stay more concentrated on the issues that may seem not clear
and/or comprehensive enough.
Hence, the question on the essence of the introduction arises. Researchers frequently
regard this subject matter as a minor issue and pay scant attention to it. As a result, the
introduction of the scientific article leads ‘to nowhere’, which is often noticed when reading
and reviewing scientific/research manuscripts. The introduction is prepared as a completely
separate part of the manuscript and poorly relates to the logic of the whole scientific/research
article. However, the introduction is a supremely important part of the scientific/research article
and acts as the ‘entrance gate’ to the entire study described (Shah, 2015).
In general, the introduction has to answer the fundamental question – why has the
research/study been undertaken? The introduction should contextualize the study by indicating
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. Scientific article preparation: A comprehensive introduction
PROBLEMS
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Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019
what and why has already been done locally and globally. Consequently, the other key questions 689
we should try to answer in the introduction are as follows:
• What is the problem?

• Are there any existing and appropriate solutions?
• What is its main limitation?
• What is a researcher aimed at?
Thus, three main stages can be identified (Figure 1).
3)3) What
Whatdo
do we
we know?
know? 2)2) What
What don‘t
don‘t wewe 1) 1)
WhyWhydid did
we do
we this
do this
know?
know? research?
research?
Figure 1. Three main stages of the introduction.
The elaborated position on the above stages shows that we first describe the available
information. Then, we make an attempt to find out possibly unknown and doubtful facts or feel
uncertain about certain matters. Finally, we formulate the overall purpose of the research (aim)
and the research hypothesis/es and/or questions. However, this cannot be considered to be true
in all situations. Subject to the type, purpose and research idea, the formulation of research
hypothesis and/or questions is not considered an absolute attribute. A valid point is that when
writing the introduction, we move from general data (i.e. context, common information on the
investigated field, topic or a problem being studied) to more specific facts and figures. This is
the method of substantiating the research problem thus claiming this is the issue to be solved.
Some examples of the problem under investigation are presented below (Table 1).
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688

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690 Table 1. The examples of problem description.
Example Comment
The description
of the problem is
extremely vague. The
text is linguistically
questionable; the
future tense is in use.
The problem is hardly
disclosed.
The problem is
described applying
a single question,
which is generally
inappropriate. The
purpose of the study is
also unclear.
A typical example. The

researcher is focused
on describing the
problem by formulating
two questions. One
sentence contradicts
another. Measuring
statistical relations is
considered a problem.
A quite common
situation when a
research problem is
defined by formulating
questions, which
is considered
inappropriate. The
example provides
alternating terms
‘study’ and ‘research’.
As a rule, the introduction ends with a clear formulation of the research aim and question
(s). Thus, the introduction usually presents researchers` brief overview of what is supposed to
be solved during the reported original research.
Next, some acceptable and unacceptable features of the introduction to the article are
discussed (Table 2).

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Table 2. The acceptable and unacceptable features of the introduction section 691
of the article.
Unacceptable features Acceptable features
• The introduction contains a number of quotations • The introduction contextualizes the conducted
and references; sometimes with no actual needs; research;
• The introduction is clearly too long, the so-called • The local and global nature of research is clearly
‘common-knowledge-introduction’; revealed;
• A wide range of varying educational terms and • The question How does this relates to my work/
concepts are noticeable and presented in the research? is clearly answered;
concise form with a focus on the extremely poor • The introduction begins with a clear statement of the
expression of individual researcher's attitudes; researcher's original position;
• Different statements are inadequately substantiated • The introduction is of relatively appropriate/optimal
or completely lack evidence in general; volume (approximately 10-12% of the whole article);
• The introduction resembles a textbook in the field • English (or other language) tenses are properly
of education and repeats widely accepted truth matched (Present simple tense is used for
(knowledge, facts, etc.); mentioning the basic facts, Present perfect – for
• The introduction applies to some references for referring to the previous research done);
researchers claims from the studies conducted in • The introduction discloses the importance of the
different scientific areas; research done and shows the goals the researcher
• The introduction has relatively superficial focuses on;
argumentation; • The question ‘What is the issue/concern this
• In general, the introduction does not announce or research addresses?’ is clearly answered;
explain the research problem; • The introduction clearly stresses how particular
• Literature overview appears to be very random in research is different from others;
the introduction; • The introduction clearly synthesizes the previous
• Research aim is formulated prior to revealing the studies in order to emerge the needs and originality
research problem/idea/ concept; of the particular research;
• Incorrect use of English (or other) language tenses • Clearly describes the research problem (problem
(for example, future tense); field);
• The introduction is written in the imaginative and • The main purpose and questions (if required) of the
emotional way; study are properly articulated;
• The introduction contains plenty of personal • The introduction is written using the scientific
pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘we’, ‘my’, ‘our’, etc. language, style, etc.
It is commonly accepted that writing an accurate introduction section of the article is

hardly possible in all cases, but researchers should find useful to note the features mentioned in
this paper. The submitted scientific/research articles (or other papers) are of varying complexity,
but in spite of the fact that each of those demonstrates certain specificity, some common features
remain.
As mentioned above, the introduction sometimes resembles a textbook or synopsis of the
specified field. Thus, it should be acknowledged that scientific texts are produced for experts in
a particular field of science, and therefore there is no need for terms/concepts to be explained
and clarified each time: their meaning is clear and conveyed. On the other hand, researchers
suggest it is sometimes necessary to explain particular terms or words in the papers, which is
the case to do so (Kvašytė & Macienė, 2010).
The beginning of the introduction is another very common misconception (Table 3).
Authors frequently write the whole series of citations and/or references yet in the first sentences
as if they demonstrated their knowledge of the subject matter. This should be avoided. On the
contrary, it makes much more sense and purpose when a researcher starts with his/her own
comment, then supports his/her view with citations and/or other adaptations. In other words, an
appropriate beginning of the introduction is clearly visible and can be referred to as an ‘opening
paragraph’.

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692 Table 3. The examples of starting the introduction.
The introduction is started

improperly. Two questions are
introduced. It is still not clear
whether these are questions about
research and what is the material
they are based on. The questions
are followed by a sentence with a
reference.
The introduction starts using a very

vague language, sentence structure
is complex, the hierarchy of
concepts is questionable (training is
a part of education).
The beginning of the introduction

is inappropriate. A number of
general reasoning and trivial stuff.
Duplicates compared to the article
summary are found.
Inappropriate first paragraph of the

introduction is started with a quote
from a specific source and, with
reference to it, basically proceeds
to make an attempt to give certain
statements.
A scientific article is most frequently a strictly structured document, although it

depends on a specific area of science. Thus, the introduction is also characteristic of a certain
structure. A review of the previous research is sometimes written in a separate section such as
‘Literature Review’. The theoretical justification of the problem under consideration can also
be distinguished as a separate section, e.g. ‘theoretical overview/framework’. Although this is
basically justified, it should make more sense to divide the introduction into specific sections.
In this case, both the analysis/review of the sources of scientific information and theoretical
framework can be presented as the basic subsections, which mainly leads to the justification
and description of the research methodology. It is common for researchers to ask the question
like What is the difference between an introduction and a literature review? And the answer
here should be rather simple, because the literature review is a part (usually the largest, most
important) of your introduction.
Literature review is the theoretical basis for research and is aimed at describing and
evaluating the previous studies. However, this does not mean it is only a brief description of
the previously conducted research (quite common situation presented in the articles), because a
critical review of the performed study is required thus summarizing the key approaches, ideas
and problems.

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It is often a problem when the object and purpose of the research are not clearly 693
formulated in the introduction. What is more, it is frequently stated that ‘the article is aimed
at...’ one subject matter or another etc. An article as such is purposeless. The primary purpose of
any article is to provide readers/users with a certain type of scientific information. According to
Day and Sakaduski (2011), a scientific article is a printed, published report describing research
results, and therefore it is not appropriate to interpret the purpose of the article in some other
way. Nevertheless, the article is one of the forms of introducing and making public the results
of research activities. Thus, the introduction identifies the object/subject (research focus) and
purpose of the study performed. Some researchers point out that the subject of the study is highly
dependent on the purpose of the article (Poviliūnas & Ramanauskas, 2008). Still, the followed
approach is wrong methodologically. First, the research problem is clearly defined. Following
the formulated research problem, the subject of the specific research is selected, for example, a
social educational process and/or situation, the field of social reality or public relations contain
appropriate contradiction. The object of the research points to the area to which the research
activity is directed. The aim (usually expressed in one sentence) of the carried out research
should be clearly worded and consistent with the title of the research article. As mentioned
above, the title of the article is a verbal expression of the research problem (Lamanauskas,
2019). Later, if necessary, the main aim of the research/study is specified into several goals that
can form objectives / tasks.
Although the common practice of writing scientific articles shows that quite a lot of
researchers focus on writing the introduction completely and immediately, this is not the case.
Before starting with the major part of research description, only a part of the introduction needs
to be written and includes the justification of the relevance of the study, the formulation of the
main purpose and research questions. The rest can be written after the whole article has been
completed with the clear logic of the article being prepared. After all, the introduction section of
the article should be linked to conclusions. Hence, it is worth noting that the introduction has to
• attract reader’s/user’s attention;

• clearly disclose the reason and motivation of the carried out research;
• explain how the conducted research will possibly help the reader/user with solving
a similar and/or related problem;
Upon writing the introduction section of the article, analysing it with the following key
points in mind is recommended:
• research object, the main purpose (possible explanatory goals/objectives), primary
hypotheses and/or research questions have to be clearly formulated in the case they
are required;
• the basic contradictions are eliminated;
• the relevance and novelty of the research are fully disclosed;
• the main latest researches of the analyzed problem are exhaustively discussed.
In addition to the considered features of writing the introduction, the use of a proper
language is of high importance. The text should not contain any unexplained abbreviations,
emotional stress or mysterious and confounding expressions (Armağan, 2013). The text of
the introduction should clearly distinguish between generally accepted statements and those
provided by the author, the statements made by the author and cited authors (researchers) of
the articles. On one hand, statements may be treated as very convincing or generally accepted,
whereas on the other, they may seem less persuasive and rather questionable.
Thus, effort to write the introduction should focus on the reader in order to create a picture
of the essence and significance of the research carried out. In other words, the introduction

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694 should act as the Curriculum Vitae of the studied research problem. The researcher has to
convince the reader/user that his/her research done is important and meaningful. Finally, the
practical aspect should be taken into account, because every scientific article is published in
one way or another. Hence, prior to going deeper into the content of a publication, the editor of
an appropriate journal first assesses the structural parts of the article in which the introduction
most likely largely determines whether the article will be accepted for evaluation and possible
publication. Reviewer's assessment is also a salient point, because the reviewer represents
readers/users. A reviewer’s feedback on the submitted article is most frequently the reaction of
an ordinary reader. No one will understand an article that may seem incomprehensible to the
reviewer. In this case, the arguments that fail to convince the reviewer will hardly be strong
enough in favour of the reader.
Regarding all above discussed aspects of writing the introduction section of the article,
considering the specificity and requirements for a particular research publication play a
significant role.
Note
Some examples have been taken from the manuscripts submitted for journals Journal of
Baltic Science Education and Problems of Education in the 21st Century.
References
Armağan, A. (2013). How to write an introduction section of a scientific article? Turkish Journal of
Urology, 39(Suppl 1), 8–9. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.046.
Day, R. A., & Sakaduski, N. (2011). Scientific English: A guide for scientists and other professionals, 3rd
ed. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC.
Kvašytė R., & Macienė, J. (2010). Mokslinio darbo pradmenys [Basics of scientific work]. Šiauliai:
Šiaulių universiteto leidykla, 143 p.
Lamanauskas, V. (2019). Scientific article preparation: Title, abstract and keywords. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 77(4), 456-462. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.456.
Poviliūnas, A., & Ramanauskas, J. (2008). Vadybos ir administravimo mokslinio straipsnio savitumai
ir struktūra [Features and structure of scientific article in the management and administration
sciences]. Vadybos mokslas ir studijos – kaimo verslų ir jų infrastruktūros plėtrai = Management
Theory and Studies for Rural Business and Infrastructure Development, 15(4), 6-13.
Shah, J. N. (2015). How to write ‘introduction’ in scientific journal article. Journal of Patan Academy of
Health Sciences (JPAHS), 2(1), 1-2.
Received: October 10, 2019 Accepted: December 02, 2019
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, Senior Researcher, University of Šiauliai, Institute of Education,
P. Visinskio Street 25-119, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@su.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/;
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincentas_Lamanauskas
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-7899

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TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS 695
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT: A CASE

STUDY AMONG MALAYSIAN PRIMARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS
Kalai Selvan Arumugham
Tunku Seri Indera Putera High School, Malaysia
E-mail: kalvan_80@yahoo.com
Abstract
Alternative assessment plays an important role in gathering information about students’ learning.
Introduction of new curriculum in Malaysian primary school education namely Standard Curriculum of
Primary School has highlighted portfolio as an assessment tool. Therefore, research has been conducted
to examine teachers’ understanding towards this new alternative assessment method. The qualitative
data used in this research were gathered from three interview sessions and classroom observations. Five
primary school teachers were selected as participants of this research. They are teaching core subject
such as English, Mathematics and Science. Thematic analysis was conducted to examine the themes
emerged to represent their understandings towards portfolio. Teachers’ understandings towards portfolio
were grouped into three major themes: As students’ work collections, as feedback and improvement
tools and as teaching, learning and grading tools. They used portfolio in classroom as they understood.
Different understandings were revealed as these teachers are also teaching different subjects. This may be
the reason why these teachers were having different understandings towards portfolio assessments. This
research is significant to teachers, stakeholders, school administration and even society about portfolio
assessment.
Keywords: classroom assessment, learning process, portfolio assessment, teachers’ understanding.
Introduction
All over the world, a number of countries are reforming their educational systems from
being centralized examination system to School-Based Assessment (SBA). In order to achieve
this, formative assessment method has been given more priority compared to summative
assessment and if it is correctly implemented, it can engage students in the learning process
(Sidhu, Chan, and Sidhu, 2011; Shepard 2000). One of the methods that has been used widely
in conducting formative assessment is portfolio assessment (Birgin & Baki, 2009; Hamilton,
2011). Portfolio gives more reliable and dynamic data about students for teachers, parents and
also students themselves (Arter, 1999). Portfolio assessment method especially in primary
schools provides clear information about students and helps teachers to plan their teaching and
learning activities more effectively (Borhan, 2005).
Portfolio can present a wide perspective of learning process for students and enables
an ongoing feedback for them (Charoenchai, Phuseeorn, & Phengsawat, 2015; Zhang, 2009).
Besides, portfolio also enables students to have a self-assessment for their studies and learning
(Gavriel, 2013). Portfolio also can provide visual and dynamic proofs about students’ interests,
their skills, strong sides, successes and development in a certain time period, portfolio which
is the systematic collection of the students’ studies helps assessing students as a whole (Birgin
& Baki, 2009).
Many previous studies have been conducted on portfolio assessment. Charvade,
Jahandar, and Khodabandehlou (2012) studied 50 students in EFL classroom. An experimental

Kalai Selvan ARUMUGHAM. Teachers’ understanding towards portfolio assessment: A case study among Malaysian primary
school teachers
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Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019
696 design study which has been done by dividing the students into experimental and controlled
group revealed that the students in the experimental group outperformed the students in the
control group in their reading comprehension ability. Since this research has been done in EFL
classroom, the researchers suggested that portfolio assessment should be applied in some other
subjects as it has a potential to develop students’ learning process.
Zhang (2009) has conducted a study on the use of portfolio in Chinese context. The
study has been done among English teachers. Questionnaire and interviews were used in the
process to gather data. Quantitative data revealed that teachers have been using portfolio as
an assessment tool widely as they can keep on track on their students’ learning process, while
qualitative data indicate that teachers prefer to use portfolio as they can differentiate students’
ability and it has become students’ learning evidence.
Ugodulunwa and Wakjissa (2015) aimed to investigate portfolio assessment technique
in teaching geography. The quasi-experimental design study has been conducted in two schools
in Jos South, Nigeria. Students were divided into experimental and controlled group. Findings
from this study revealed that portfolio assessment helped in improving students’ performance
in map sketching and location where the experimental group recorded higher mean gain scores
of 33.32 as against 1.65 from controlled group.
A recent study done by Samad, Hussin, and Sulaiman (2015) was done among
Malaysian ESL teachers. The study intended to determine the techniques ESL teachers use in
implementing portfolio as an assessment tool. These researchers proposed a model of portfolio
assessment since there was no specific model or technique to conduct portfolio assessment in
Malaysia. Furthermore, Samad, Hussin, and Sulaiman (2015) have stated that, in Malaysia
portfolio assessment was heard, but not widely used. Semi-structured interviews and classroom
observations from nine ESL teachers were utilized in order to collect data. Findings revealed
that, portfolio model developed has provided ESL teachers the opportunity to document
individual student’s growth.
The findings from all of these studies revealed that portfolio assessment has many
advantages comparing with standardized testing. Portfolio assessment enables measuring high
level skills with meaningful for a certain period of time comparing to standardizing test which
will be tested in a certain period (Arter, 1999). Besides, portfolio assessment can give a chance
for teachers to give some feedback for students for their learning process and make affective
communication with teachers and even their parents.
In summary, portfolio assessment provides more authentic and valid assessment of
students’ achievement. It can give a clearer picture to teachers, parents and even to the students
themselves on what they are learning. Teachers also will have an opportunity to give feedback
to students about their strength and weakness. In addition, portfolio assessment has a potential
to demonstrate students’ learning process and learning product over time. As a result, it can give
detailed information about students’ development in the learning process.
Research Problem
Realizing these needs, Malaysian Education Ministry also has introduced Portfolio
assessment through the newly implemented curriculum known as Standard Curriculum of
Primary School. Through this curriculum, assessment will be conducted in school level in order
to gain information about students’ ability and allowing teachers to provide ongoing feedback
for students to help them to improve on their learning process. In Malaysia portfolio assessment
has been introduced since 2017, so the purpose of this research is to identify primary school
teachers’ understanding towards portfolio assessment and how they are using this portfolio in
their teaching process. Furthermore, most of the past studies that have been discussed earlier
seem to be more on the implication on portfolio uses in teaching and learning. To achieve this

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aim, some information of portfolio such as definition, types of portfolio and its advantage and 697
disadvantage were discussed in depth. Studying teachers’ perceptive of portfolio assessment
is important because evidence suggests that teachers’ understandings of teaching and learning
strongly influence how they teach and what students learn and achieve (Frohbieter, Greenwald,
Stecher, and Schwartz, 2011; Mullin, 1998; Wiliam, 2010). To illustrate Samad, Hussin, and
Sulaiman’s (2015) case study of assessment in Secondary School English classes revealed an
eclectic array of conflicting assessment practices, seemingly because the teachers held differing
perceptions of teaching and student learning. Similarly, research suggests that changes in
formative assessment practices are directly related to the changes in teachers’ attitudes (Dekker
& Feijs, 2005; Gavriel, 2013). Therefore, it is imperative that there is a need to study on teachers’
understanding before implementing changes at in-service teachers.
Research Focus
This qualitative case study approach explores a group of teachers’ understanding of

portfolio assessment and how they have used portfolio in classroom teaching and learning.
Research Methodology
General Background
The aim of this research was to explore in depth teachers’ understanding of portfolio
assessment and how they integrated it into their teaching and learning process. In order to
get deep understanding on this issue, researcher chooses to use qualitative case study method.
Qualitative research is one of the methods that can help the researcher to investigate the matter
of the study deeply (Braun & Clark, 2013). In this case, researcher has been with the participants
for six months in order to conduct an interview and observations.
Sample
Using purposive sampling method, five primary school teachers teaching the core subject
(English, Science & Mathematics) and who were directly using portfolio as an assessment tool
were selected to participate in this research. The number of participants was not determined
prior to data collection; instead, it depended on the resources and time available as well as
the iterative nature of qualitative data collection (Creswell, 2013). For confidentiality reasons,
in this research the teacher identified were Hasanah, Jamaliah, Patrick, Premila and Aruna.
Hasanah, Premila and Aruna have been teaching for more than ten years, while Patrick and
Jamaliah have taught for less than ten years.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
Semi-structured interviews were conducted based on an interview protocol. The

interview questions were reviewed by the expert to ensure that the participants understood
them and were able to respond. The teachers were interviewed three times throughout this
research to ensure consistencies in their responses. Following each round of the interviews,
data were analyzed for recurrent themes based on a priori categories and emergent categories to
reflect the teachers’ understanding of portfolio assessment. Classroom observations were also
conducted to examine how teachers used portfolio in teaching, learning and assessment. The
researcher took notes of all the steps done by the teacher during the observation process. This
observation helped the researcher to validate data collected via semi structured interview. In

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698 order to minimize the researchers’ influence on the data collected, each teacher was observed
for multiple times.
Data were analyzed manually in two phases. In the first phase, the researcher took
notes on the main point while data were collected. The second phase analysis was done after
the researcher completed the whole data collecting process. All the main phases were coded
and categorized according to the research questions and objectives. Finally, the themes were
developed according to the frequency of the phrases.
Research Results
Interview Results
Data analysis of the teachers’ understanding of portfolio assessment revealed the

following themes: portfolio as a students’ work collection, portfolio as a feedback tool and
portfolio as a teaching, learning and grading tool.
Students Work Collection
Patrick and Aruna, who teach Science for year three students, have been using portfolio
to keep their students’ task throughout their teaching and learning process. They compiled all
the work in one hard covered file named students’ portfolio.
For me portfolio is just a file to compile students’ task throughout the teaching process (INT 2/
Patrick).
Portfolio is more than a file that teachers need to use to keep students’ work (INT 2/Aruna).
For both of them portfolio is a file that they are using to compile all students’ work
throughout the teaching process. In their case, they are not using any exercise books. Both of
them prepared worksheet for each lesson.
I’ll ask my students to keep all the worksheets inside the file as the stakeholders ask us to do so
(INT1/Patrick)
For me better my students to keep all the worksheets inside the file because this is what the
stakeholders ask us to do (INT1/Aruna).
Both of them are doing the same by asking the students to keep all the worksheets inside
the file as it is requested by the stakeholders. Patrick and Aruna are also looking at portfolio
as a file to compile all students’ work. Both of them prefer to keep students’ work inside the
portfolio as it will be the students’ learning evidence if there is any supervision.
I like to keep everything inside the portfolio as it will be easy for me to show all this evidence if
there is any supervision (INT3/Patrick).
Stakeholders are always looking for students’ evidence, so that I like to keep all my students’ work
in their portfolio. I can show it during any supervision (INT2/Aruna).
Both of them are very alert on school supervision by stakeholders. They realize that the
stakeholders are looking for students’ learning evidence. During the supervision, they will
show the portfolio to the stakeholders as a proof of teaching and learning process. As Patrick

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and Aruna are teaching Science, they have many work tasks and they make use of the portfolio 699
as a tool to compile all the worksheet.
In this case both Patrick and Aruna have understood portfolio as a file to compile student
works. In that case, their practice also seems to be like what they have understood. They are
more concerned on supervision as the stakeholders need teaching evidence as a proof of teaching
and learning process. In their case, portfolio doesn’t seem to be a learning tool but more on
collecting student’s evidence. Both of them didn’t ask the students to bring their portfolio;
instead they collected the work tasks and filed them into students’ portfolio.
I won’t give the portfolio to the students, but I will do all the filing for them. I keep the file in the
SBA room, so anyone can access the portfolio (INT3/Patrick).
I didn’t return the portfolio to students. I keep at school so the administrative can monitor students’
work (INT2/Aruna).
In summary it can be concluded that both Patrick and Aruna understood

portfolio as a tool to keep students’ learning evidence for supervision purpose. Their
understanding makes them emphasize portfolio as a tool to compile students’ work.
Feedback and Improvement Tools
Hasanah and Jamaliah who are teaching mathematics, understood portfolio as a feedback
and improvement tool. Hasanah is teaching mathematics for year two students, while Jamaliah
teaches year three. Both of them are working in the same school with different teaching
experience. Hasanah and Jamaliah did not use portfolio to keep the entire task as done by
Patrick and Aruna, but they chose the task to be kept inside the portfolio.
Portfolio is more to give grading for students towards the end of the year, so that I won’t ask
students to keep all the task, instead I will choose the essential one to keep inside the portfolio
(INT1/Hasanah).
Only certain tasks will be in my students’ portfolio. It depends on the need for assessment criteria.
Normally I ask students to keep materials related to their topical assessment (INT2/Jamaliah).
The way that these teachers understood about portfolio is totally different comparing
to the previous teachers. Their understanding towards portfolio assessment is more likely as
showcase portfolio. They prefer to select certain tasks to be kept in the portfolio as they can use
these tasks for grading purposes. As has been mentioned in literature, there are many types of
portfolio and these teachers have understood portfolio in this way.
I like to select task to be kept in portfolio as this task has been used for feedback purpose. Due
to time constraint I used to choose task and provide feedback for students’ improvement, so I ask
my students only to keep task that I’ve used to give feedback for improvement (INT3/Hasanah).
Some tasks are not suitable to be kept in the portfolio. I like to choose the materials that are
involved in the improvement process, so I can get a clear picture on that particular student (INT2/
Jamaliah).
Hasanah and Jamaliah perceived portfolio as a tool for students’ improvement. These
teachers used to give feedback for the students’ improvement. As they just need to know the
students’ progression on certain area, so they asked the students to keep only the relevant task
inside the portfolio. These teachers are doing so as they need to know about the students’

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700 learning process at the same time they can measure the students’ progression for final grading.
During the classroom observation, students of both Hasanah and Jamaliah bring portfolio each
time they have their mathematics lesson but use it when there is a need. They are still using
exercise and workbooks instead of portfolio.
In summary Hasanah and Jamaliah understood portfolio as a tool to provide feedback for
students. They asked students to keep the important task with some feedback for improvement
purpose.
Teaching, Learning and Grading Tools
Premila is looking at portfolio as a blended teaching, learning and grading tools. For
Premila, she will use portfolio throughout her teaching process. Students need to bring their
portfolio each time during the English lesson. Premila who has been teaching English for year 2
and 3 for more than ten years perceived that portfolio works as a teaching and learning tool. For
her perspective as a teacher, she can provide materials for her students to be kept in portfolio
and even she can ask students to find suitable materials for classroom activities.
Portfolio is something very unique! I’ve utilized for many purposes, such as teaching, learning
and even to give a grade for students. During my lesson, I’ll provide my students with necessary
task and even I’ll ask them to bring their own materials, such as newspaper cuttings, pictures, and
sometimes material from internet. All these things I will use for my teaching and students learning
purposes. End of the year I will use their portfolio to grade them (INT2/Premila).
Premila has understood that portfolio must be used throughout the lesson. Students need
to bring their portfolio each time of the lesson and they must use it for learning purpose. At the
early stage, Premila used portfolio for her teaching process. She also assumed portfolio is a tool
that can help students to learn a lesson from the beginner level to an advanced level. For an
example, she used to start teaching essay writing from constructing sentences. She will provide
words and pictures to stimulate student’s idea on how to write sentences. After students were
able to construct sentences, she will move on to the next writing level. At this stage, she will
teach students to write a short paragraph. She carried out the lesson until students were able to
write a complete essay. For Premila, portfolio is a tool where students can learn from one level
to another level. In teachers’ perspective she can assess students continuously throughout the
learning process.
I always repeat this process until I’m satisfied with my students’ writing. It is not easy to teach
writing for students with different background, since it is a long process, I prefer to use portfolio
to keep on track about the writing improvement. For example, let’s say I have four lessons on
writing, so with students’ portfolio I can check through all the four lesson activities to get a picture
on students’ learning progression (INT3/Premila).
Premila used portfolio to identify students’ strength and weakness. From this report, she
can do a further step and plan for her teaching. If she feels that the students need to work more
on that particular lesson, she will do some extra activities to help her students, otherwise she
can move on to the next lesson. Besides, she also asks students to find materials for the learning
process. For students’ learning process, she asks students to find relevant materials for their
own learning.

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Observation Results 701

Observation process was carried out to validate the data collected via interview. This
process was done while teachers are teaching in classroom. Researcher observed on how teachers
are using portfolio as an assessment tool and cross check the field note with their interview
transcript. Patrick and Aruna who understood portfolio as the students’ work collection are only
using portfolio to compile the students’ task. Throughout the classroom teaching and learning
process, students did not use any exercise book. These teachers prepare the task for students.
During the teaching and learning process, Patrick and Aruna used the task to do discussion
and explained each of the aspects to the students. Once the discussion done, Patrick and Aruna
collected the task and they compiled it inside the students’ portfolio. This process is as they
mentioned in their interview. To enhance the validity of the observation data, the researcher did
observation three times. All the three times, both of these teachers did the same process.
Okay students, you can return your task now. I will keep it inside your portfolio. (FN1/Patrick)
Students, you need to submit your enrichment task. As usual I will keep it inside your portfolio.
(FN2/Aruna)

Hasanah and Jamaliah who perceived portfolio as a feedback and improvement tool also
did the same things during the observation process. Both of these teachers conduct their lesson
as they planned. At the end of the teaching and learning process, they provide the task for the
students. They will give approximately ten to fifteen minutes for the students to complete the
task. This has been done during all the observation process. They collected the task once the
allocated time finished. During the next lesson, teachers returned the task for the students with
some feedback and comment provided on the task. Before they started the lesson, they provided
feedback for the command mistakes done by the students and they provided additional task
for the students for improvement purpose. Every ten to fifteen minutes they spent providing
feedback for the assessment purpose. Even though there are many assessment activities, but
these teachers chose only the selected tasks to be kept inside the portfolio. Throughout the three
observations, they carried out the same process.
Okay students, out of the three enrichment activities please send me the one you achieved the
highest band. (FN3/Hasanah)
Students all the while I had taught you increasing and decreasing numbers. We had done few for
this topic and you have all of it. Please submit all the tasks and teacher will choose the one you
got the highest band and keep inside your portfolio. (FN3/Jamaliah)
The field note shows that both of these teachers selected only the material with the
highest band to be kept inside the file. This may be requested by the stakeholders to compile the
evidence for the assessment purpose.
Premila who understood portfolio as the teaching, learning and grading tool used
portfolio for all these purposes. From the observation, during her writing lesson with year three
students it was observed that she provided students with tasks such as pictures, words with
some graphics, and some example of sentences. Later she asked the students to tell about the
pictures orally and pronounce the listed words. She also asked students to classify the words
according to the pictures. As an enrichment activity, she asked the students to write sentences
based on the words and the pictures and she collected the tasks.

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702 Students, you need to use all these words to write a short paragraph based on the picture given.
It is advisable for you to check the grammar to avoid the grammatical mistakes (FN2/Premila)
Later when the researcher observed her for the next lesson, she returned the task to the
students and gave feedback on their writing. She even wrote some sentences taken from the
students’ works to show and the students copied them. From this process she taught her students
based on the mistakes done by them. After she had done with this step, she asked the students
to keep this task inside the portfolio. The next step, she asked the students to exchange the
portfolio with the student who was sitting next to them to share how their friends constructed
sentences. During this process, she observed the students and guided them. Towards the end of
the lesson, Premila asked the students to find a picture about a wedding ceremony and asked
them to construct five sentences based on the wedding ceremony picture. She used portfolio for
her teaching and learning process. She compiled the entire task in students’ portfolio and finally
she used the portfolio to provide grades for the students.
Discussion
In a nutshell, there are three themes revealed from this study. Teachers understood
portfolio as students’ work collection file, as a feedback tool and as a teaching, learning and
grading tool. Out of these three themes two of them have been discussed thoroughly in some
previous studies. Arter & Spandel (1992) and Collins (1992) clearly stated that portfolio can
be students’ compilation file. Teachers can keep students’ task according to the teaching and
learning progression. This was done by Patrick and Aruna. They compiled the entire task in one
file named portfolio. They used the portfolio if there is any supervision from the stakeholders.
However, the main aim of portfolio assessment introduction by Malaysian Ministry of Education
(MOE) is more on introducing portfolio as an ongoing assessment tool. Both interview and
observation data reported that these teachers understood and used portfolio to compile all the
students’ tasks. This shows that there is some dilution of information for them regarding the
purpose on portfolio introduction. Teachers perceived portfolio as a compilation file if they did
not look at the deeper meaning of portfolio assessment (Simon & Forgette-Giroux, 2000). In
this context both of them only understood portfolio as a file rather than an assessment tool.
The second theme revealed from this study also has been discussed in a few studies.
Portfolio as a feedback and improvement tool has been discussed deeply by Clark (2012) and
Thanh Pham & Renshaw (2015). Findings from these studies indicated that portfolio can be a
learning improvement tool. This finding aligns with what have been discussed by Hasanah and
Jamaliah. Both of these teachers used to give feedback for students based on the classroom
activities. The given feedback can be used for improvement purpose. However, they only keep
selected materials in students’ portfolio. Teachers need to compile all the materials throughout
their teaching process so it can be evidence if there is any need (Arter, 1999; Stiggins &
Chappuis, 2012). This seems to be contrast as Hasanah and Jamaliah selected only the materials
with high score to be kept inside the portfolio. It also shows that there is a dilution of information
regarding portfolio to these teachers.
The third theme is portfolio as a teaching, learning and grading tool. This has been
understood by Premila. She was looking at portfolio as a blend of these three things. Previously
findings have been reported that portfolio can be used for teaching and learning but not as a
grading tool (Ash & Levitt, 2003). However, in this study, findings revealed that portfolio can
be used for grading purposes. It may happen in local context because MOE stated the final stage
of portfolio assessment is a grading purpose. If compared to other countries, mostly they used
portfolio for the two main agenda that is teaching and learning, but in Malaysian context, it has
been expanded into grading purpose.

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Apart from these, findings from this study also show that the subject that the teachers are 703
teaching also influenced their understanding towards portfolio. Patrick and Aruna those who
are teaching science understood portfolio as a compilation file while Hasanah and Jamaliah
who are teaching Mathematics understood portfolio as a feedback and improvement tool.
However, Premila who is teaching English, understood portfolio as a blended teaching, learning
and grading. In this matter, a deep investigation should be done to find out the way how they
attended the courses during the curriculum change. This is because the information they have
gained may be different while they attended the in-house training.
Conclusion and Implications
In summary, portfolio in Malaysian context revealed a new finding rather than only was
used for teaching and learning. Findings from this study indicated that portfolio can be used
as a grading tool. While teachers are conducting classroom assessment, they can look into
students’ learning process which can finally be turned for grading purpose. However, overall
teachers in Malaysia who are implementing this curriculum change need to have a deeper
understanding towards this portfolio assessment. It is because; the dilution of information may
affect the aim of this alternative assessment introduction. In this case, the stakeholders need to
make sure teachers have been provided complete information regarding portfolio assessment.
Stakeholders need to provide ongoing training to enhance teachers’ understanding towards the
changes in policy.
The findings of this study compel the researchers to purpose two primary recommendations
concerning portfolio assessment. First, educational researchers must investigate whether there
is any difference in using portfolio within these three core subjects. As seen in this study, there
is a different understanding within these teachers as they are teaching different subjects. Patrick
and Aruna who are teaching Science perceived portfolio as students’ work compilation file,
Hasanah and Jamaliah who are teaching Mathematics perceived it as a feedback tool while
Premila who has been teaching English perceived portfolio as a teaching, learning and grading
tool. In this case, there is a need for future educational researchers to identify whether there
should be any differences in using portfolio among these subjects.
The second recommendation to be suggested from this study is to investigate the
implementation of portfolio in students’ perspective. Since this study has been done from
teachers’ perspective, there is also a need to get students’ understanding towards this portfolio
assessment. Educational research needs to be done in both students’ and teachers’ perspective
as both of them play a crucial role in molding a good education system.
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Received: May 01, 2019 Accepted: November 05, 2019
Kalai Selvan Arumugham PhD, Head of Department, Tunku Seri Indera Putera High School,
570, Taman Tunku Sarina, Jalan Atira 5, Kedah, Malaysia.
E-mail: kalvan_80@yahoo.com

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SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS’ 705
MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE:
REFLECTIONS FROM SHORT LEARNING
INTERVENTION PROGRAMME (SLIP)
Loyiso C. Jita, Olugbenga Adedayo Ige
University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
E-mail: jitalc@ufs.ac.za, IgeOA@ufs.ac.za
Abstract
This qualitative research reports the results of a short learning intervention programme conducted by
South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) Chair in Science and Mathematics Education
to enhance the mathematical knowledge of teachers in some South African schools. The short learning
programme comprised the fostering of teachers’ mathematical knowledge and the formation of lesson
study groups to apply the knowledge gained from the intervention programme in different schools in the
country. The sample comprised 53 male and 72 female Mathematics teachers who were nominated from
several school districts in the country. The participants were trained using Mathematical Knowledge for
Teaching (MKT) which included the topics of probability/ratio and proportion (grades 1-9). The MKT
consisted of these sets of expertise: Common Content Knowledge (CCK), Specialised Content Knowledge
(SCK), Knowledge of Contents and Students (KCS), and Knowledge of Content and Teaching (KCT). The
lesson study groups applied the knowledge acquired from the short learning intervention programme to
engage in group activities, lesson studies, and to report the major challenges in doing the lesson studies.
This model research comprised three stages: the first stage involved active participation in the workshops
that took place at the University of the Free State; the teachers that attended the training workshops
implemented the knowledge gained in the respective schools in their districts in the second stage; and the
third stage involved the compilation and submission of a Portfolio of Evidence (PoE) by the teachers that
participated in the training workshops.
Keywords: mathematical knowledge, short learning intervention programme, South African teachers.
Introduction
This research documents the experiences and breakthroughs of Mathematics teachers

working in South Africa. The teachers that participated in this study received a short learning
workshop from the South African National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) Chair in Science
and Mathematics Education at the University of the Free State, South Africa. The article presents
the training experiences of the teachers and the improvement it brought to their mathematical
knowledge. As recently as 2014, a notable study (Jita & Mokhele) projects the importance of
different programmes aimed at developing teachers professionally in the nooks and crannies of
the world. This development came at a time the disappointing performance of South African
school children in Science and Mathematics in Trends in International Mathematics Education
(TIMSS) needed urgent attention from academic researchers. Jita and Mokhele (2014) believed
that building the capacity of the teachers is the end that any ongoing professional development
such as the SANRAL Chair in science and Mathematics Education is designed to achieve.

Loyiso C. JITA, Olugbenga Adedayo IGE. South African teachers’ mathematical knowledge: Reflections from short learning
intervention programme (SLIP)
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706 Need for an Intervention Programme for South African Teachers on Mathematical
Knowledge
The short learning intervention programme is founded on scholars’ belief that the
most veritable channel of improving learning outcomes is to improve instructional delivery
(Labuschagne, 2016; Taylor, 2008). Evidences from the research of Venkat and Spaull (2015)
showed that inadequate fundamental understanding of mathematical concepts by South African
teachers is responsible for the poor performance of learners’ in Mathematics in South African
Schools (p. 121). The disappointing performance of South African children in TIMSS justified
the need for the short learning intervention programme. Furthermore, Reddy et al. (2012) noted
that South Africa, Botswana, and Honduras had low performance in TIMSS in 2011. These
countries whose Grade 9 learners were assessed were among the six countries that were rated
below the least achieved benchmark in Science and Mathematics. It is consequent on this
unfavourable performance that the short learning intervention programme was put together to
enrich the mathematical knowledge of teachers in South Africa.
The purpose of the short learning intervention was twofold: first, to foster teacher’s
mathematical knowledge in South Africa; second, to set up lesson study groups that will apply
the knowledge acquired from the programme in South African schools. The programme was
designed with focus on two major objectives; to overcome teachers’ knowledge deficit in
mathematical concepts that hinders empirically sound classroom practices, and to use strategies
(i.e. teachers’ cluster) that are research-driven to train teachers with ample teaching experience in
Mathematics. In view of this, the theoretical framework that is relevant to teachers’ professional
development is reviewed and presented an overview of the activities of SANRAL Chair in
Science and Mathematics Education. Finally, the nitty-gritty of the short learning intervention
programme is outlined, the research questions presented, and the results of the preliminary
exploration are given.
Theory of Peer Observation Process
The short learning intervention programme is underpinned by the model of the peer
observation process developed by Bell (2002). Different scholars have demonstrated that peer
observation is an effective tool to enhance teaching outcomes and experience (Bell, 2001;
McGrath, 2016). The model evolved by Bell (2002) is cyclical in nature and is diagrammatically
presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Peer observation process (Bell 2002).
The model is sub-divided into the following stages: pre-observation, observation, post-
observation feedback, and reflection. Despite the benefits inherent in the peer observation
process, Thomson, Bell and Hendry (2015) cautioned educational researchers on the inactivity
related to peer observation process such as the procedural and documentation aspects of teaching

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development. These inadequacies notwithstanding, Shulman (2000) argued that the scholarship 707
of teaching is developed when teachers’ work is peer-reviewed, critiqued and shared with other
colleagues in their professional communities (as cited in Engin, 2016, p.379).
The pre-observation stage of the peer observation process involves the discussion of
learning objectives and setting of ground rules for the observation (see Rees, Davies, & Eatwood,
2015, p.269). The observation stage is the primary focus of the peer observation process.
Hendry and Oliver (2002) stated that this stage is focused on helping teaching colleagues to
develop their teaching acumen. Martin and Double (1998) affirmed that the observing teacher is
involved in the experience without interfering in the dialogue and intellectual debates going on
in the classroom. Martin and Double (1998) proposed that the observing teachers should adopt
a systematic approach to taking observation notes in order to enable the active intermittent
teacher to note the contours of the teaching session. The post-observation stage is concerned
with the provision of an honest and constructive report from the observing teacher to the active
teacher. Rees et al. (2015) stated that the observing teacher is expected to trigger the goals
for personal development in the observed teacher (i.e. Tutor). It is expected that the goals for
personal development will provide the basis for the observed teacher to reflect.
Figure 2. Peer observation process model.
The Short Learning Intervention Programme reported in this research is founded on the
peer observation process developed by Bell (2002) in Martin and Double (1998, p.165). Some
of the elements of the intervention programme are also closely related with the contents of
Shulman’s model of pedagogical reasoning and action, which stressed an open and flexible basis
for handling the nexus between content and instructional delivery or strategies (see Shulman
(1986; 1987), using Shulman’s model of pedagogical reasoning and action in a preservice
programme. To this end, the researchers sought to answer these questions:
1. What are the pre-observational activities of the selected teachers after undergoing
the short learning intervention programme?

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708 2. What are the observational activities of the selected teachers after undergoing the
short learning intervention programme?
3. What are the feedbacks from the observing teachers to the active teachers after
applying the knowledge acquired from the short learning intervention programme in
their lessons (Post Observation Reflection)?
Research Design
The research used the after-the-fact research design of a qualitative type. The data were
taken from the ‘portfolio of evidence’ submitted by the teachers who partook in the short
learning intervention programme to the SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics research
office. The research focused on mathematics teachers at different grade levels in South Africa.
The duration of the research activities was three months. The training workshops took place on
15-16 November 2013, 7-8 February 2014, and 7-8 March 2014. The completed portfolios were
submitted by the teachers that participated in the intervention programme to the 20 March 2014.
Population and Sample
The population consisted of Mathematics teachers in public schools in Free State, South
Africa. There are 26,000 public schools in South Africa, 1255 of these schools are located in
Free State province (Free State Department of Education, 2017). 125 Mathematics teachers from
60 of the 1255 schools in rural and urban locations in Free State province were nominated by
the School Management Teams through the Free State Department of Education to participate
in the programme. 72(57.6%) of the teachers were female, while 53 (42.4%) were male. These
teachers taught Mathematics to grades 1 to 9 pupils in their various schools and were nominated
by the management of their respective schools for the research.
The Short Learning Intervention Programme (SLIP)
The SLIP was designed to improve teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching
(MKT), the topics of probability or ratio and proportion in grades 1 to 9 in South African
schools. The MKT included Common Content Knowledge (CCK), Specialised Content
Knowledge (SCK), Knowledge of Contents and Students (KCS), and Knowledge of Content
and Teaching (KCT). All teachers that participated in the study signed a binding contract with
their schools of affiliation to complete the programme.
The SLIP was made up of training phases which comprised professional development
workshops for the selected teachers, individual tasks, collaborative tasks, and group presentations
on mathematical problems solved during the workshops. The implementation phase of the
SLIP consisted of: Teachers’ formation of an active lesson study group which comprised 3-10
members per group, collaborative lesson planning among members of the lesson study group. A
minimum of 3 lesson plans were required. Lesson presentations which involved the presentation
of a minimum of 3 lessons by the study groups. Members of the lesson study groups mutually
observed the lesson of each other and submitted their observations. These observations were
discussed among members of the group.
The teachers recorded and submitted evidence of participating in each of the different
components of the lesson study with their group members. These evidences included pictures,
videos, and audio and were put in a report form and signed by the principals of the schools the
teachers in the lesson study group were affiliated to. The teachers submitted the ‘Portfolio of

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Evidence (PoE)’ to the SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics and reported again to the 709
principals and/or school management team where required.
Instruments
An instrument tagged ‘Lesson Study: individual Report was developed by SANRAL

Chair in Science and Mathematics Education. The LSIR was constructed in line with stages
of Bell (2002)’s peer observation model. These stages are pre-observation, post-observation
feedback, and reflection. The LSIR has the following sections: setting up the lesson study
groups; group activities, lesson study and challenges and opportunities (See Appendix 1).
Another instrument that was used in this research was the ‘Mathematical Knowledge for
Teaching UFS Short Learning Programme (MKTUSLP)’. This outline describes the nitty-gritty
of the SLIP, and other expected outcomes for the trainees that participated in the research.
Section 1 of the outline provides information on the sponsor of SLIP, section 2 highlights
the expectations of the service provider from participating teachers such as commitment and
responsibility, active participation during workshops, and implementation of workshops in
schools the teachers are affiliated to. Section 3 of this outline covers the administration and
logistics regarding the participation of teachers during the learning workshops that were held at
the University of the Free State (See Appendix 2).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The instruments used to collect data in this study were designed by a Professor of
Mathematics Education at the University of the Free State. The Professor has taught and
conducted research on Mathematics education for more than twenty years. The LSIR and
MKTUSLP were made available to officials of the Free State Department of Education
(FSDoE), Education, Training and Development Practices Sector Education and Training
Authority (ETDP-SETA) for their assessment and comments. These officials of the government
were brought in to ascertain if indeed the contents of the instruments were in line with best
practices for teachers’ professional development in Mathematics Education as stipulated in
government policy documents. Their comments and observations were used to improve the
research instruments.
Data Collection
Each teacher that applied the knowledge gained from the short learning intervention
programme in his/her school used the LSIR to create an individual report. Each Mathematics
teacher created a portfolio of evidence with his/her report and submitted to the Research Office
of SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics Education at the University of the Free State.
The data for the study were gotten from the portfolio of evidence submitted by the teachers
that participated in the intervention and these were collected from the Research Office of the
SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics Education.
Procedure
The research was divided into four phases (see Rossi & Stuart, 2007, p.141), namely:
• the development of short learning intervention programme by the SANRAL Chair in
Science and Mathematics Education,
• the implementation/use of the short learning intervention programme to train
Mathematics teachers,

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710 • the application of the knowledge acquired from the short learning intervention
programme to teach Mathematics lessons in the benefitting teachers’ school,
• and submission of a Portfolio of Evidence on the impact of the short learning
intervention programme to the SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics Education
at the University of the Free State, South Africa.
• The short learning intervention programme took place from 15 November 2013 to
20 March 2014. The learning workshops component of the SLIP took place on 15-16
November 2013, 7-8 February 2014, and 7-8 March 2014. The teachers concurrently
implemented the new knowledge gained from these training workshops in their
respective host schools. All the Portfolios of Evidence (PoE) were submitted on or
before 20 March 2014.
Integrated Quality Management System
These steps outline how the teachers that participated in the study implemented the short
learning intervention programme:
(Implementation of the Short Learning Intervention Programme by Mathematics Teachers)
1. The teachers’ convened a meeting in the Principal’s Office with a proposed agenda
tagged ‘information on Lesson Study’.
2. The teachers that have benefitted from the short Learning Intervention Programme
formed an active lesson study group consisting of 4-10 members.
3. The teachers exhaustively discussed strategies to teach the mathematical concept of
Probability (Grades 1-9) or Ratio and Proportion (Grades 1-9) which were the focus of
the short learning intervention programme.
4. The teachers collaborated to create teaching materials that would enable students to
effectively learn the selected mathematical concepts (i.e. Probability or Ratio and
Proportion).
5. The teachers convened another meeting at the Principal’s Office to collaboratively
prepare three lesson plans to teach the selected mathematical concepts.
6. Teachers in the group presented the lessons one after the other on a daily or weekly
basis while the other teachers in the group observed and wrote such in the teaching
observation forms.
7. Each lesson presented by the teachers that taught the selected concept lasted for one
hour.
8. The observing teachers gave a constructive feedback to the teacher that taught the
concepts one after the other.
9. The teachers collaboratively prepared a portfolio of evidence containing different
components of a lesson study (i.e. minutes of mention)
10. The teachers submitted the portfolio of evidence created to the SANRAL Chair in
Science and Mathematics Education.
Ethical Scrutiny
The ethical blueprints of the host university were stringently followed, while SANRAL
Chair in Science, Mathematics, and Technology obtained permission from the Free State
Department of Education (FSDoE) to train the selected mathematics teachers. The researchers
further collected informed consent from the teachers and made avenues for them to disengage
at any point during the research. However, the selected teachers signed a contract with the
nominating schools to complete the training programme before they can train other mathematics
teachers with the knowledge acquired from this research in their schools.

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Data Analysis 711
The data put together by the participants in the ‘Portfolio of Evidence’ which was presented
in line with the reporting format provided by SANRAL Chair in Science, Mathematics, and
Technology. These ‘Portfolios of Evidence’ were analysed to identify the patterns of participants’
responses and observations in line with the format of the individual reports (i.e. setting up
the lesson study groups, group activities, lesson study, and challenges and opportunities). The
constant comparison technique developed by Glasser and Strauss (1967) was used to open code
the data in an initial code list until analysis had reached theoretical saturation. The discussion
section highlighted the themes that characterised the data submitted in ‘Portfolios of Evidence’
by the mathematics teachers that participated in the short learning intervention programme.
Research Results
To ascertain how the participants used the knowledge benefitted from the short
learning Intervention Programme to teach the mathematical concepts of probability or ratio
and proportion, the korero (i.e. discussion or meeting) was thematically triaged along pre-
observational activities and feedback from the observing teachers. By repeatedly comparing
the contents of each pre-observation preparation from what was included in the portfolio of
evidence by the group of teachers, the elemental theme of pre-observational activities that
emerged is ‘clustered’ lesson plan preparation.
The excerpts below confirm the ‘clustered’ lesson planning that evolved from the
interactions of the participants after the intervention programme.
Table 1. Excerpts of clustered lesson planning.
DATE 27 February 2014

Place/School Nthapelleng Intermediate School
Time 13:30 (40 minutes)
Group Facilitator/Leader (+ contact details) Kyman N.D 0842593280
Kynman NT Kesebo TJ, Pkhlabi TM, Ramoshane DJ,

Planning Team (all teachers in the group)
Ekhulergeni JM
Topic Selected Probability: Tossing a coin

Simple experiment
Tallies
Learner Prior: Knowledge (Key ideas only) (content to be
Perform simple experiments
covered) (key ideas only)
List outcomes based on the conditions of the activity
Determine probability of possible outcomes
Compare relative frequency and probability
Intended Outcomes of the lesson List and predict outcomes
Conduct probability experiments
Textbook
Resources to be used during the lesson Coin
Chalkboard
Teacher introduces the lesson;

Lesson activities (what will the learners do? What will the Explaining keywords; show learners examples.
teacher do?) Learners toss coin, record the outcomes in a tally table
and find the frequency
Advisor (any external invited participants supporter:
Mr. Khema
principal/Deputy Principal (Signature and Stamp))

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712 Table 2. Excerpts of clustered lesson planning II.
The implementing teacher taught the mathematical concept ‘probability’ to Grade 7

learners.
Date 03 February 2014
Place/School Retsamaile P. School
Time 15h00
0714786509
Group facilitator/leader (+ contact details)
JJ Motokenk
Ms. Mathe, Ms. Motokenk, Ms Haknka-Munzi, Fr.
Planning team (all teachers in the group implementing
Kodike, Mr. Kefane
teacher)
Ms. CS Kather
Topic Selected Probability
Learners’ prior knowledge Counting figures

(Key ideas only) Money
Define probability,
Content to be covered Explain tally
(key ideas only) Complete the tally table
Recording the results
Discuss results
Intended Outcomes of the lesson To be able to record the results on a tally table
-coin
- chalkboard
Resources to be used during the lesson -worksheets
- textbook Premier LB page 219
- 220
Lesson activities (what will learners do? What will the

-the teacher explains how the experiment is going to
teacher do?)
be done/ performs and asks questions
Adviser (any external invited participants)
Supporter: principal/
No
Deputy Principal
Observational Activities
The observational activities adopted by the teachers were guided by the Lesson Study
Observational form. The observing teachers noted their observations every ten minutes
describing what the implementing teachers and observing teachers were doing. A teacher
observing the implementing teacher during a model lesson described what the teacher was
doing as follows:
- Explanation was brief and straight to the point
- Gave real life examples
- Explained the activities or experiment to the learners and allowed them to record the
results

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- Teacher did not explain how tally marks work 713

- Struggled with the idea of fair and unfair coin
- This teacher also described what the learners were doing as follows:
- Learners were listening attentively
- Each pair of learners was busy spinning a coin and recording the tally table.
Another teacher recorded her observations of the Mathematics teachers that taught probability
to Grade 9 learners at Rankwe thus:
School: Rankwe Intermediate Subject: Mathematics Grade nine (9):
Implementing Teacher: Pkohla G.A Date: 28-03-2014
Table 3. Excerpts of lesson study observations.
Describe what the teacher is Describe what the learners are

Time in minutes (every 10min)
doing doing
Introduction: she started by asking
questions?
What do you know about One learner answered according
5
probability? to his understanding
The teacher explained: it is the
chance of getting something.
A teacher got into subject matter.
She showed learners a formular of
-learners changed fractions to
5 calculating probabilities. She took
decimal and percentages.
a coin, showed two sides of the
coin, tail and the head.
Teacher’s demonstration of
10 probability of getting one was 1/6 =
0, 166 =1/6 x 100/1 = 100/6
Learners calculations:
She made questions of 5 blue
5/20 = 0,25 = ¼
pens and 15 black pens.
=25%
10 What possibility of getting 5 pens.
She made a wheel spinner and let
Learners did the probabilities
the learner do the problem
without a problem.
The observing teacher inferred that:
Learners are able to do identifications and all the necessary calculations.
Post Observation Reflections
These are the post-observation reflections of the teachers that observed the implementing
teachers in one of such selected schools (Rankwe).

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714 Table 4. Excerpts of post-observation observations reflections.
What worked well What did not work What were the What should be
and why? well and why? challenges? changed?
Collected enough
resources that Overcrowding in
helped the better Not all the learners the class and the Creation of classes with
Pkohla, G.A. understanding of the had a chance to fear of going to the reasonable numbers
(implementing topic. manipulate the board as they were of learners so that the
Teacher) I let the leaners resources and go to surprised to see teacher can reach most of
manipulate the the board. other teachers in the the learners.
resources and class.
calculate probability.
More time should be
allocated for Maths
periods.
Planning and teaching
aids. Time was enough
Planning was well for learners to show
Mathematics should
done and worked their calculations
Kefane T.S be allocated enough Chance:
together with the on the board and
(Observing time for learners -creating of space and re-
teaching aids. in their workbooks
Teacher) to have chance of arranging the groups.
Learners seemed to as feedbacks. Only
learning very well.
be understanding and few learners were
were involved through able to
the lesson.
The educator was

well- prepared and The learners
the lesson plan was didn’t take part Overcrowding of
Creation of learning
also good because it in manipulating the class was a
space should meet the
was well structured chalkboard due challenge
favourable condition of
and understandable; to lack of time. Some learners
Gakjalane learners.
presentation was Grouping of were shy to do for
G.S. Groups of 5-6 learners
good and learners learners did not independent work
should be done to allow
understood very well allow them to take on the black board.
them to take part in
what the educator part in using some Time was also a
activities.
said. Teaching aids of the teaching challenge.
were used in a good aids.
manner.
The learning Some of the learners

The lesson was well The teacher should apply
Dlamni T.C. space should were afraid to come
prepared, and the group work and encourage
(Observing be created for to the front to solve
teaching was relevant learners to work together
teacher) effective teaching problems on a
LTSM. and help one another.
and learning chalkboard.
The flow of the The space in the

lesson went well. The The learners were classroom must be
educator was well many in class and created so that groups are
Tshabalah
prepared and brought the teacher could formed, and each group
G.S The challenge was
to the classroom all get every learner has the learning aids to
(Observing overcrowding.
necessary teaching to manipulate or manipulate.
Teacher)
aids. Learners could touch the teaching This can create the lasting
see and touch the aids. memory of what was
teaching aids. tough.

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Teachers in another lesson study group in Botshabelo met and reflected on the lesson 715
taught by a teacher in the group on the mathematical concept of probability, which was observed
by other members of the group. The teachers individually commented as follows:
Table 5. Excerpts of post-observation observations reflections II.
What worked well and What did not work What were the What should be
why? well and why? challenges? changed?
Ms. Mathe
(Implementing
Teacher)
The teacher failed -Learners were
Explanation was so = Next time when
to control the class. so excited to the
interesting because the learners perform
Ms. Motokenk Because learners extent that they
teacher was using real life actively like this one
(Observing were so excited when saw the activity
examples. the teacher must
Teacher) they were performing as an opportunity
Learners were actively give them rule to
the events, spinning to be noisy and
involved keep order.
the coin. disruptive.
The class was a

The recording of
little bit tense.
The explanation of the the Tallies to the Explain how tally
-time taken was
Me. Haknka- term probability by the learners the teacher marks work, work
longer than the
Munzi, teacher to learners. failed to explain to in groups than in
planned time.
(Observing The learners actively the learners. So, it pairs.
The observing
Teacher) participated to the asking caused disruption to Recording of tallies
teacher took a
question activity the smooth running on the tables.
long time to fill in
of the activity.
the forms.
Time taken is
The explanation of
Fr. Kodike longer than Explained how tally
probability is brief and Failing to explain
(Observing planned because marks work with a
supported by real life how tally marks work.
Teacher) learners are larger group of
examples.
excited.
The learners
They need thorough
The teacher used simple They didn’t know didn’t know how to
practice of the term
Mr. Kefane and useful teaching aids. how to toss the count group the tally on
probability.
(Observing The teacher used the spin. the tally table.
They use the
Teacher) correct daily life teaching The learners
probability on their
aids. didn’t know the
daily life activities.
term probability
Discussion
To understand the changes brought about by the intervention programme in teachers’

mathematical knowledge, the discussion was arranged around pre-observational activities,
observational activities, and post observation reflection. At this point, we discuss how the
respondents transferred the knowledge gained from the SANRAL Chair in Science and
Mathematics Education workshops, reflect on what the implementing Mathematics teachers
have done well, and where the teachers need to improve in future lessons.
The findings of this study show that the selected teachers changed from a personalised or
individual lesson planning to clustered lesson preparation. Jita and Mokhele (2012) described a

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716 cluster as ‘a group of teachers’ that collaborates on specific subject matter issues’ (p. 5). These
teachers worked together to plan the lesson, implement the planned lessons, and reflect on their
instructional deliveries of the Mathematics lessons collectively planned. The clustered lesson
planning that emerged from the current study confirmed Jita, Maree, and Ndlalane (2008)’s
assertion that ‘teachers from different schools are opportune to discuss their own work when
they meet in a cluster’ (p. 482). Jita et. al. (2008) further asserted that feedbacks received from
the cluster meetings enable teachers to develop trust and confidence in their colleagues that
culminate into sharing and exchanging of aide-memoire on classroom practice. It is also noted
from the sample lesson plans included in the portfolio of evidence submitted by the teachers
that there was a transition from the conventional lesson plan to an activity-based lesson plan.
The inclusion of action activities that involved learners tossing a coin, recording the outcomes
on a tally table that enabled the learners to find the frequency change learning landscape
created by the teachers in the grade Mathematics classrooms. The emergence of an activity-
based lesson plan from the selected teachers ‘clustered’ interactions confirmed Lijanporn and
Khalisang (2015)’s assertion that ‘an activity-based learning should have essential features such
as motivation and experience, knowledge and practice, feedback and evaluation’ (p. 1709).
These four essential features highlighted by Lijanporn and Khalaisang (2015) were evident
in the model lesson plans included in the portfolio of evidence submitted by the teachers that
participated in the study.
The observational activities enabled the teachers in each cluster to collaboratively
assess each Mathematics lesson taught by their colleagues. This act exhibited by teachers in
the cluster networks was described by Jita and Mokhele (2014) as the ‘process’ benefits of
clustering. The findings from observational activities describe the utopian Mathematics lessons
that emanated from the improved mathematical know-how of teachers. It will be appropriate
to call the classrooms that emerged in this study ‘the ideal Mathematics classroom’. It is ideal
because a teacher implemented the lesson planned through clustering, other teachers in the
cluster observed the lesson to provide information on the worth of the instructional delivery
carried out by their colleagues. The evaluating teachers also learnt the pitfalls peculiar to the
delivery of such a concept in Mathematics, and techniques of preventing or arresting such a
trend in their lesson delivery.
A teacher that observed a Grade 9 Mathematics class at Rankwe intermediate school
where the Mathematics teacher taught ‘probability’ declared that learners could do the
identification and all the necessary calculations in this excerpt:
The way this teacher deconstructed the classroom that emerged from the clustering lesson
implementation exemplified a ‘collaborative’ Mathematics classroom. It is collaborative because
the Mathematics classroom encouraged teacher to teacher observation, teacher to student
interaction, and learner to learner involvement in solving the mathematical problems related to
probability.
The clustering teacher engaged in post-observation reflection after each Mathematics

lesson. Zeichner (2008) credits the emergence of post-observation reflection to Shulman and
colleagues at Michigan State University and states that it is aimed at developing teachers’
capacities to make intelligent decisions to achieve educational goals. The clustering teachers’
post-observation reflected on what worked well and why? What did not work well and why?
What were the challenges? And what should be changed?
The use of appropriate instructional materials to teach probability emerged as the
dominant theme in the clustering teachers post observation reflection on what worked well. The
dimensional use of instructional materials by the clustering teachers is in line with Firmender,
Gavin and McCoach (2014) that the mathematical community is the classroom where learners

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can engage in both verbal and written forms of mathematical communication. Firmender et al. 717
(2014) further assert that a teacher that implements instructional practices as exhibited by the
clustering teachers in this study listens to the ideas of students and challenges such students to
peoples’ rational basis for such ideas. The reason why the use of instructional insufficient time
allocated to Mathematics lesson thematically emerged as a primary factor of what did not work
well.
Materials worked well for the teachers because learners could see and touch the
instructional materials. The implementing teachers used the instructional materials in an
interactive manner which enabled the learner to carry out mathematical calculations on the
chalkboard. One of the observing clustering teachers responded to the question on what worked
well and why by stating that:
Planning and teaching aids. Planning was well done and worked together with the teaching aids.
Learners seemed to be understanding and involved throughout the lesson.
Insufficient instructional time allocated to Mathematics in the selected schools

thematically emerged primarily as what did not work well. Cattaneo, Oggenfuss, and Wolter
(2016) in comparing the efficiency of an additional hour of instruction for learners with varied
academic abilities and school environment in Switzerland discovered that an hour of instruction
might have a common productivity for all subjects but, with a possibility that different students
profit differently from extra instructional time from the descriptive analysis those scholars
applied to the data sets they used. A teacher that observed the delivery of the clustered-planned
Mathematics lesson in one of the selected schools illustrated a point that justified that some of
the learners might benefit from extra instructional time in these excerpts:
Time was not enough for learners to show their calculations on the board and in their workbooks
as feedbacks. Only few learners were able to.
Another teacher in the observing clustering team stated that:
The learners didn’t take part in manipulating the chalkboard due to lack of time.
These quotations from the clustering teachers show the importance of allocating
adequate time for Mathematics lessons. The observations of these clustering teachers confirm
the findings of Baker, Fabrega, Galindo and Mishook (2004) in their analysis of three global
datasets of instructional time in four curricular subjects namely Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA), TIMSS, and International Study of Civic Education (CIVICS)
2000, and 1999 respectively. Baker et. al. (2004) discovered that Macedonia and South Africa
devoted the least time for instructional delivery in Mathematics, while Italy and Denmark
had approximately five hours of Mathematics classes per week. Baker et al. (2004) further
discovered students in a country like Greece received 4.8 hours of weekly Mathematics classes,
New Zealand and Iceland afforded learners approximately 4 hours of Mathematics weekly
instructions, while other countries in the Schengen area did not devote up to three hours for
Mathematics classes per week.
Researchers should be aware that despite the benefits of reconstructing teachers’
mathematical knowledge through clustering, there are challenges inherent in it. Amosun and Ige
(2014) state that ‘all coins usually have two sides’, overcrowded classes and learners’ diffidence
emerged as the challenges that confronted the clustering teachers in the implementation or
delivery of the model Mathematics lessons. One of the clustered teachers stated that:

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718 Overcrowding of the classroom was a challenge. Some learners are shy to do individual work on
the black board. Time factor was also a challenge.
The challenge peculiar to the utilisation of knowledge acquired by the clustering teachers
from the short learning intervention programme is further encapsulated in this narrative:
Some of the learners were afraid to come to the front to solve problems on a board. Overcrowding
in the class and fear of going to the board as they were surprised to see other teachers in the class
when I am teaching.
This narrative justifies the inclusion of strategies to control overcrowded classes and
support timid learners in Mathematics classes in clustering lesson plans.
In stating what should be changed in using the clustering teaching approach that emanates
from a short learning intervention programme by teachers, a teacher commented on those things
that must be changed for effective clustering instructional delivery in Mathematics:
The space in the classroom must be created so that groups are formed, and each group has the
learning aids to manipulate. This can create the lasting memory of what was tough.
The teacher that implemented one of the Mathematics lessons also proposed changes in
her post-observation reflection. As the teacher commented:
Creation of classes with reasonable number of learners so that the teacher can reach most of the
learners. More time should be allocated for Maths periods.
From the reflections of this implementing teacher, it is evident that instructional

periods will become inadequate when teachers’ mathematical knowledge is improved using an
intervention programme. It should be noted that the implementing teacher taught the class she
is suggesting improvement to before her involvement in the short learning programme. From
the discussion, clustering teachers must pay attention to the following when implementing a
Mathematics lesson that is found on knowledge gained from an intervention programme:
1. The use of instructional materials which are essential to the mastery of the
mathematical concepts being taught.
2. Use of enough instructional time to teach the mathematical concepts.
3. Grouping of learners in a crowded classroom.
These emerging themes confirmed process benefits by Jita and Mokhele (2014) which
constituted the values of teamwork, instructional guidance, and pedagogical leadership. Fischer,
Borowski, and Tepner (2012) stated that Shulman (1986) described pedagogical knowledge
as classroom knowledge of general principles pertaining to organisation and management)
(Recast this. It’s confusing). It could be inferred from Shulman’s (1986) assertion that Jita and
Mokhele (2014) educational leadership connotes leadership in general principle of classroom
organisation and supervision.
The benefits of teaching observation are adequately documented in literature (Bulterman-
Boss, Terwel, Verloop & Wardekker, 2002). Bulterman-Bos et al. (2002) affirmed that informal
assessment such as observation enables teachers to become acquainted will their learners. The
observational activities carried out in this study enable teachers to get to know their colleagues.
Jita and Mokhele (2014) establish that the networks emanating from observational activities
that enable teachers to communicate share and address issues, observe each other’s lesson, and
develop expertise in multi-faceted aspects of teaching practice.

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Khachatryan (2015) stated that in her professional roles as a researcher, teaching leader 719
and teacher, it was discovered that teachers desire eagerly qualitative feedback on their teaching
practice, which they rarely receive. The Short Learning Intervention programme was put together
to meet the professional needs of in-service teachers discovered by Khachatryen (2015). Klette
and Blistad-Balas (2017) note the benefits of teaching observation and further posit that it
affords teachers opportunity to observe each other; school leaders such as principals, vice-
principals can observe their teachers, and teacher educators and teacher mentors can observe
student teachers.
Despite the immense benefits of using teaching observation as a tool for teachers’ professional
development, Klette and Blikstad-Balas (2017) reiterated Stuhlman, Hamre, Downer, and
Pinnta (2010)’s warning on the use of unstandardized, informal and un-validated instruments for
such a programme. This intervention programme used a standardized instrument to report the
post-teaching observations of the participants which involved the implementing and observing
teachers).
Conclusions
Consequent on the outcomes of this research, the teaching clusters that emerged from the
SANRAL Chair Science and Mathematics Education’s short learning intervention programme
were formed by the teachers themselves. The non-attachment of the teaching clusters to any
official organ of educational authority protected them from bureaucratic ethos and allowed the
teachers to focus on the utilisation of knowledge acquired from the intervention programme to
improve instructional delivery in Mathematics classes in the schools that nominated them for the
programme. In conclusion, despite the evidences emanating from this research on the benefits
of using intervention programmes for Mathematics teachers, further educational fact-finding
is proposed to juxtapose the findings reported in this research in other teaching clusters across
the world. The teacher clusters reported in this study are limited to South Africa. Educational
researchers should exercise caution in generalising the findings to other teacher clusters in
other countries of the world. However, the teacher clusters notified the School Management
Team (SMT) in schools selected for the implementation of the study. This research is one of
the earliest efforts on training mathematics teachers in South African public schools, and it has
contributed to current knowledge on the improvement of instructional practices in mathematics.
It is recommended that future educational researchers should replicate this type research in
science, technology, and engineering subjects to build the capacity of teachers for optimal
lesson delivery.
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Received: August 20, 2019 Accepted: November 15, 2019
Loyiso C. Jita Dean and SANRAL Chair in Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty
of Education, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: jitalc@ufs.ac.za
Olugbenga Adedayo Ige Lecturer/Researcher, Faculty of Education, University of the Free State,
(Corresponding author) QwaQwa Campus, Phuthaditjhaba, 9866, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: IgeOA@ufs.ac.za

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722
IMPROVING THE SELF-AWARENESS
CAPACITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS BY FORMING A SCHOOL
COUNSELING MODEL BASED ON
STUDENT CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
ORIENTATION
IN VIETNAM
Luong Tran
Can Tho University, Vietnam
E-mail: tluong@ctu.edu.vn
Son Van Huynh

Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Vietnam
E-mail: sonhv@hcmue.edu.vn
Hoi Duc Dinh

Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam
E-mail: dinhduchoi@dhsptn.edu.vn
Vu Thien Giang
Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Vietnam
E-mail: thienvust0708@gmail.com
Abstract
The self-awareness capacity has long been no stranger in the foreign education, but in Vietnam, self-
awareness capacity has only been developed in education in recent years. The self-awareness capacity
related problems among Vietnamese students have been exacerbated such as gender-based violence,
gender bias, wrong career choices, disorientation and school counseling activities currently could
not support this difficulty for students. Based on the theoretical framework of self-awareness capacity
from previous studies in Vietnam and further developing the aspects of self-awareness by age, the
questionnaire had been done to survey of 726 lower-secondary school students and 474 upper-secondary
school students to find the situation of their self-awareness capacity problems, as well as the need for
self-awareness capacity problems counseling. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between
self-awareness capacity problems and students’ need for self-awareness capacity problems counseling. In
addition, identifying self-awareness capacity problems encountered by students helps us to develop a new
school counseling model, as well as a process to counsel self-awareness capacity problems for students
to enhance the self-awareness capacity and support school counseling activities effectively, also meeting
the requirements of renewing the general curriculum in the students’ capacity development orientation
in Vietnam.
Keywords: self-awareness, self-awareness capacity, school counseling model, school counseling
activities, student capacity development orientation.

Luong TRAN, Son Van HUYNH, Hoi Duc DINH, Vu Thien GIANG. Improving the self-awareness capacity of secondary school
students by forming a school counseling model based on student capacity development orientation in Vietnam
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Introduction 723
Vietnam is in the process of renewing the general education program towards the
development of comprehensive student competencies (MOET, 2018). The capabilities that
the Vietnamese education program aims to be researched and implemented on the basis of 5
competencies of social emotional learning (SEL) model, which have been very successful in
many developed education programs around the world (Bierman & Motamedi, 2015; Peterson,
Gaskill, & Cordova, 2018; Zins, 2004). One of the key competencies that the Vietnamese
education program has been working towards is to enhance students’ self-awareness capacity
(SAC) through the content of subjects and educational activities in schools, including school
counseling (SC) activities (MOET, 2018).
According to Huynh’s study (2017) on the SAC of Vietnamese primary students when
applying SEL education model (1004 participants), the SAC’s mean was 2.45 - belonging
to the above average level, demonstrated that Vietnamese primary students were fairly well
aware of themselves. However, in Nguyen’s study (2019) on secondary students’ SAC when
applying the SEL education model (509 participants), the mean decreased to 2.40 - still at above
average level, but significantly lower than primary students’ SAC with p = .001 (Son, 2018).
The previous research had shown whether the SAC of Vietnamese students would continue to
decline as they enter secondary school.
For students at secondary school levels, their self-awareness (SA) was an uninterrupted
and important activity affecting human character formation and development (Nguyen, 2000).
In each period of life, humans had had the tendency to judge himself or herself differently and
express externally that SA orientation (Truong, 2003). During lower-secondary school time,
students started an adult life, with the beginning of puberty period, they preferred to talk with
friends rather to parents and tended to decide everything by themselves. In addition, they desired
to be free from parents’ care, protection and needed to be recognized as an adult (Huynh, 2011b).
SA at this age was shown mainly by the need for being recognized as an adult (Tran, 2009).
For students at upper-secondary school, they had more life experiences with a more objective
viewpoint of the world, they thought in a more mature manner and gradually built up their own
egos (Nguyen, 2009). They knew how to protect their own viewpoints, how to take care of
themselves and how to express this externally. Their SA at this age achieved substantially stable
development (Tran, 2014). Nevertheless, human’s psychological development sometimes does
not develop in a smooth way. Students often had arguments with parents, teachers, even friends
in topics like personal viewpoints, lifestyle, clothing style and communication. They wanted to
be themselves but had never been themselves (Tran, 2009). Many students became confused
and unaware of themselves, gender and even future occupation (Nguyen, 2012). They faced
a lot of problems in identifying hobbies, potential strongpoints and weaknesses, talents and
capacities that they should have (Trang, 2007).
In developed countries, the education curriculum to enhance the SAC is always invested
and becomes an indispensable feature of the educational program (Grossbard, 1954; Roeser
& Peck, 2009; Perez, 2011). But in Vietnam, SA has only been interested and integrated into
learning content for about 5 years - when the achievements of SEL education model have
been transferred into Vietnam (Son, 2019). Therefore, problems related to SA and SAC of
Vietnamese students, especially in secondary school age (including lower-secondary and upper-
secondary school education), are always a “top-trend” topic of many scientists. Some typical
studies in Vietnam on this issue were: self-esteem of high school students showing depression
expressions (Nguyen, 2000); self-image of students experiencing academic stress (Tran, 2013);
the ego of Vietnamese pedagogy undergraduate students (Nguyen, 2007); the phenomenon
of “illusion of strength” of high school students (Huynh, 2012); self-awareness and gender
issues of high school students (Son, Tu, Vu, & Hanh, 2019). These previous findings all pointed

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724 to the importance of SC, as well as the counseling processes on the problems related to SA.
However, up to now, Vietnam has not had a unified school counseling model (Son et al., 2019),
including counseling processes specifically for those who have difficulties in SA. Therefore, it
was necessary that school counselors should organize talks, sharing conference and personal
counseling activities so that students could themselves sketch their future life prospect, put an
effort in building it and have a better SAC.
Facing this reality, it should be directly to confirm that the current SC activities as well
as SC model in Vietnam do not meet the students’ need of counseling. Moreover, it could be
a debate that the SAC problems and the need for counseling on SAC problems (NCSAC) of
secondary students (SS) might have the correlation with each other and this correlation could
be led to the effectiveness of SC activities in Vietnam. Therefore, by renovating the Vietnamese
general education curriculum oriented to the capacity development of students, the purpose
of this research was to conduct on the correlation between SAC problems and the NCSAC of
SS to demonstrate the urgency of forming a new SC model supported by SAC problems for
Vietnamese SS.
General Background
In this research, the content of SAC-related problems of Vietnamese students were

inherited from SEL’s research by authors Huynh (2017), Van Huynh, Tran-Chi and Nguyen
(2018), Son (2019) and Nguyen (2019). Findings from these studies had shown that one of
the factors affecting SAC of Vietnamese students was the impact of culture and educational
programs. Vietnam is a matriarchal country, village culture and the influence of families always
strongly influence the psychological characteristics, as well as the child’s SAC. Children
must strictly follow family rules, as well as absolute obedience to what parents taught and
guided. It was these outdated Confucian educational ideas that were deeply ingrained in the
unconsciousness of Vietnamese. Thereby affecting the SAC of Vietnamese students today, they
found it difficult to realize their strength/weakness, as well as a correct appreciation of the social
position in their family and community. Their life goals seemed to be tightly restrained by the
wishes of their parents and since then, many negative social problems have arisen. Therefore,
the problems related to SAC of Vietnamese SS conducted in this study were:
- Recognizing personal strengths/ weaknesses (P1)
- Being fully aware of personal character/capacity (P2)
- Understanding personal aims/life ideals (P3)
- Identifying personal social status (P4)
- Knowing personal negative habits for change (P5)
Sample Selection
All participants were provided informed consent after receiving an explanation of

the purpose of the research. Secondary school education in Vietnam is divided into 2 levels:
lower-secondary level (from grade 6 to grade 9) and upper-secondary level (from grade 10
to grade 12) (Tran, 2010). Therefore, the participants were 1565 students randomly chosen
from 4 lower-secondary schools and 3 upper-secondary schools in Vietnam, after removing
unsatisfactory responses, the total number of participants was 1200 (see Table 1 for more
participants’ information).

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Table 1. General information of participants. 725
Sources F %
Male 449 37.4
Gender
Female 751 62.6
Lower-secondary school (from grade 6 to 9) 726 60.5
Education
level Upper-secondary school (from grade 10 to 12) 474 39.5
Grade 6 68 5.7
Grade 7 9 0.8
Grade 8 325 27.1
Grade Grade 9 324 27.0
Grade 10 69 5.8
Grade 11 246 20.5
Grade 12 159 13.3
With both parents 1026 85.5
Living With father (single-father family) 35 2.9
condition With mother (single-mother family) 52 4.3
(Family
status)
With grandparents, uncle, aunt, relatives 87 7.3
Instrument and Procedures
With 5 main problems related to SAC, a questionnaire of the situation of SS’ self-
awareness and their need to be counseled on these problems was conducted. The questionnaire
was designed in 2 steps: step 1 - rough survey with 15 open questions about SAC problems (8
items) and the need to counsel about SAC problems (7 items), the reliability of the questionnaire
is 0.848; step 2 - designing an official questionnaire with 10 items (eliminating 5 items that did
not match the developmental psychological characteristics of SS), in which, 5 items related
to SAC problems and 5 related items to the NCSAC. Besides, the questionnaire also included
the Introduction of research objectives and instruction on questionnaire responses, and the
Information of participants: gender, year of birth, school level, grade, living condition.
Data Analysis
The questionnaire results were coded based on 5 level (5-point Likert scale) as below
(see Table 2).
Table 2. Mean score encoding.
Mean Coded Level

1 to 1.80 Totally none/ Totally unnecessary 1
1.81 to 2.61 Under average/ Unnecessary 2
2.62 to 3.42 Average/ Optional 3
3.43 to 4.23 Rather difficult/ Necessary 4
4.24 to 5 Very difficult/ Totally necessary 5

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726 The results were shown and descriptively analyzed in the mean (M), the percentage (%)
and the ranking (R) of the 5 main problems. A code example is MSAC, which would denote the
mean of self-awareness capacity problems. Besides, the level of the SAC problems and the
NCSAC of SS were coded in the descriptive statistic table as SAC1, which meant the SS had
totally none of self-awareness capacity problems (level 1 – totally none), or NCSAC5, which
meant the need for counseling on self-awareness capacity problems of SS was totally necessary
(level 5 – totally necessary). The other abbreviations mentioned in the table were coded as
above examples. By analyzing the correlation (ANOVA and Pearson Correlation tests) between
SAC problems and SS’ needs for SAC counseling, the reliability of the results was verified.
Research Results

After surveying the participants, the situation of SAC of Vietnamese SS was found as in
Table 3 below:
Table 3. Students’ SAC problems and the need for SAC counseling.
Levels M SD Rank
Items
SAC1 NCSAC1 SAC2 NCSAC2 SAC3 NCSAC3 SAC4 NCSAC4 SAC5 NCSAC5 MSAC MNCSAC SDSAC SDNCSAC RSAC RNCSAC
N 310 211 202 164 469 242 112 310 107 273
P1 2.59 3.22 1.217 1.400 2 2
% 25.8 17.6 16.8 13.7 39.1 20.2 9.3 25.8 8.9 22.8
N 327 160 204 176 422 285 105 311 142 268
P2 2.61 3.29 1.292 1.322 1 1
% 27.3 13.3 17.0 14.7 35.2 23.8 8.8 25.9 11.8 22.3
N 322 202 213 121 419 283 134 311 112 283
P3 2.58 3.29 1.251 1.376 3 1
% 26.8 16.8 17.8 10.1 34.9 23.6 11.2 25.9 9.3 23.6
N 380 251 198 172 405 278 147 297 70 202

P4 2.44 3.02 1.215 1.379 4 4
% 31.7 20.9 16.5 14.3 33.8 23.2 12.3 24.8 5.8 16.8
N 307 222 310 176 405 264 114 278 64 260

P5 2.43 3.15 1.126 1.402 5 3
% 25.6 18.5 25.8 14.7 33.8 22.0 9.5 23.2 5.3 21.7
MX 2.53 3.20 1.071 1.221
MX-SAC = 2.53, evaluated as ‘below average’. Of all the 5 items, only one item reaches the
‘moderate’ level: students specifically had difficulty in being fully aware of personal character/
capacity whereas other behaviors are below average points.
MX-NCSAC = 3.20, evaluated as optional level. This result showed that SS only needed
SAC problems counseling when they were in troubles, but sometimes they chose to keep for
themselves and did not want to be counseled.
The differences in the needs of SAC counseling as well as the SAC problems in students
with different gender, school level and living conditions were shown in Table 4.

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Table 4. Verifying the differences among gender, school level and living condition 727
related to students’ SAC problems and the NCSAC.
M ANOVA test SD
Sources
MSAC MNCSAC pSAC pNCSAC SDSAC SDNCSAC
Male 2.42 3.09
Gender .416 .023
Female 2.68 3.25
Education Lower-secondary school 2.68 3.42
.001 .001 1.071 1.221
Level Upper-secondary school 2.42 3.04
Both father and mother 2.56 3.15
Father 1.86 4.16
Living condition .001 .001
Mother 2.60 3.53
Relatives/Others 2.38 3.05
Regarding gender, pSAC = .416 affirmed no significant difference between boys and girls.
Regarding education level, pSAC = .001 affirmed a significant difference between secondary and
high school level. High school students faced more SAC than secondary students. Regarding
living condition, pSAC = .001 affirmed a significant difference among students with different
living conditions.
All indicators had pNCSAC < .05, affirmed a significant difference in SAC counseling need
of SS based on gender, education level and living condition.
By using Pearson Correlation Test, the correlation between the SAC problems and the
need of SAC counseling of Vietnamese SS was found in Table 5:
Table 5. Correlation coefficient between the SAC problems and the NCSAC.
SAC problems NCSAC
SAC problems 1 .631**
NCSAC .631** 1
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
The result with p < .01 affirmed a significant difference between the SAC and students’
SAC counseling need.
Discussion
According to Jaleel (2016) in lower-secondary students’ SAC, students always desired

to discover personal capacities and characters so as to find the differences among themselves
and others. They needed to prove to others that they have grown up and have been mature
enough to solve real-life challenges. The thought of desiring to become adults and motivation
for discovering themselves attracted a lot of researchers because they considered these as
permanent teenager’ activities, listing Duong (2008), Huynh (2011b), Nguyen et al. (2016).
Comparing the previous findings, the result found in this research was the same. With regard to
other behaviors of SA, some students also showed their concern, but this was not their priority
need in their self-discovery at this age (Huynh, 2011a). Nevertheless, the results in Table 3
showed a substantial percentage of students facing lots of difficulties in their SAC at this age.
This made sense for the progression of human development to experience ups and downs;
hence, there should be gaps or scrolls or even regression (Phan, 2011). This could be called as
puberty crisis (Huynh, 2011b) or changes coming from their own living or study environment.
These impacts caused the condition of get off track and some students faced difficulties in

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728 their SAC. This feature was extremely important to SS; therefore, it would be recommended
that school counselors should be more conscious and better prepared for appropriate plans and
filtering methods so as to more effectively and efficiently assist those students in this special
group. Besides, even though the need of SAC counseling is at optional level, the results in Table
5 showed a substantial percentage of students with urgent needs of SAC counseling, mostly
beyond 20%, accounting for one-fifth at very necessary level among the 5 problems.
At a deeper analysis, SA is one completely decisive capacity for every human being: (1)
At kindergarten level, children learn how to distinguish his/her gender – knowing who he/she
is; (2) At primary level, students learn to understand more about his/her human body, begin to
discover his/her gender activities as well as is used to self-evaluation; (3) At lower-secondary
level, as the turning-point of puberty period, students are turning into grown-ups with clearer
SAC: they know what they want to do, what they like to do; on the other hand, they have the
desire to prove themselves and gradually separate themselves from parental protection; (4)
At upper-secondary level, their SAC is further enhanced when they once again reaffirm their
personal life values: they have the right to express their viewpoints, they almost escape their
childhood period and are in the progress to become grown-ups (Nguyen et al., 2016). During
each age period, one human being’ needs of SA are different, generally speaking, these needs
have advanced as time passes by. Lower-secondary and upper-secondary levels are the two
periods that students must be aware fully of themselves especially in their gender identification
period (Freud, quoted in Phan, 2011) and their life specification aim (Erikson, quoted in Phan,
2011). Therefore, the SAC counseling needs during the lower-secondary and upper-secondary
levels have been absolutely compulsory. This content must be included in the new SC model that
Vietnam is preparing to deploy. With subsequent studies, the proposed process of counseling on
SAC when forming a SC model could also be a promising study in Vietnam.
With the indicators of gender, education level and living condition, some findings were
discovered that needed to be considered when developing a SC model which was oriented
towards student capacity development, as well as supporting SAC related problems.
Equivalently to White, Moeller, Ivcevic and Brackett (2018) research in gender
identification and gender expression of 19,385 students in America. Their research revealed
that there existed no difference in personal SA through 4 indicators (biological sex, gender
identity, gender expression, sexual orientation) during students’ self-labeling or being-labeled.
Therefore, the problems related to students’ SA are independent of gender indicator. However,
the result showed that girls had a higher SAC need of counseling than boys. Different genders
resulted in different counseling needs of SAC. This result was similar to the research by Leland
(2015) related to the counseling need of SA of SS participating in Mindfulness training course.
This research presented that the number of girls outweighs that of boys as well as girls’ post-
training-course success surpasses that of boys’. This could be concluded that selection and
assistance tasks towards SS having SAC problems must be paid more attention to the gender
indicator so as to achieve higher efficiency and to assure gender equality.
The higher education level students were in, the more SAC problems they faced. This issue
should be explained because the need of SA and of self-judgement as well as other ego-related
problems had changed a great deal since students approached the high school age, in which,
lots of distinctive needs were still existing within this high school environment. According
to Hamedani and Darling-Hammond (2015), in researching American upper secondary
students’ social emotion capacity, upper secondary students’ SAC was lower than that of lower
secondary ones. In Vietnam, despite the fact that there had been no official research on high
school students’ SAC, the comparison and contrast between secondary level students (Nguyen,
2019) and primary level students (Huynh, 2017) in the study of social-emotional capacity in
Vietnam’s current educational program showed that secondary students’ SAC was more junior
than that of primary ones’ due to the heavy educational program at secondary level with a focus

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on scientific knowledge while there was little time on training soft-skills, life-skills as well as 729
other social emotion capacity. At high school level, the time spent on compulsory subjects in the
upcoming graduation examination and university entrance examination was shorter and more
stressful; consequently, their study task mostly became a pressure for each student. Furthermore,
the period of transition from secondary to high school level as well as bodily changes during
puberty period (Duong, 2008) affected high school students’ SAC. Therefore, high school
students’ SAC could not be more senior than that of those from secondary level. This range led
to the consequence that SS faced more SAC problems because this was the time that they had to
set up their lifetime goals besides understanding their personal capacity and hobbies as well as
define their personal core values (Pham, 2011). Besides, high school students’ SAC counseling
needs were higher than students from secondary level. Occupational orientation is the main
activity for high school students (Huynh, 2011): in any progress of occupational orientation
or orientational counseling activity, the initial step to be performed is to help students raise
their personal capacity, hobby and character (Le, 2019). More than that, SS just overcame the
examination into grade 10 based on regulations by Ministry of Education and Training (2019),
in which, new changes in study environment, classmates and study schedule unintentionally
became an invisible pressure and altered students’ usual previous personal values (Nguyen,
2000), they were usually lost at living direction and had the high SAC counseling need (Tran,
2014). Different education levels led to different SAC counseling needs.
Nonoyama‐Tarumi (2017), researched the impacts of single-parent families on children’s
study achievement and life in Japan, concluded that those children living in single-mother
families were disadvantageous (more than 50%) due to financial lack. For those children living
in single-father families, the educational shortcoming was further explained by the lack of
children educational resource, which was measured by discussions at home, home observation
and participating in school activities. Children living in single-father families had fewer personal
problems because they were assured with financial guarantee. They complained less about
financial issue and had clearer career orientation obviously influenced by fathers; nevertheless,
other problems (educational method, love, psychological support) were not so well-solved
compared to those living in families with mothers. Consequently, students with different living
conditions faced different SAC related problems besides one similarity in potential problems
related to students’ SAC living in single-father families. Besides, by using post hoc test, those
living with both parents and relatives presented no significant difference. The other two groups
implied the significant differences in SAC counseling need; especially, those living with single-
parent family had very high counseling need. This could be explained as below: for single-
father families, the SAC counseling need was the highest because these students were almost
influenced from father with masculine strength, decisiveness and ultimate decision-making in
life (Hanna, 2015), even obeying fathers’ force in future career choice or marriage decision or
other important events in their life (Jeynes, 2015). This led to the fact that students were losing
their private personal viewpoint and own ego, so it was hard for them to become ‘an ideal self”
(Rogers, 2017), consequently, the SAC counseling needs within these student groups were very
high. Related to single-mother families, students were provided with full of maternal love,
care and protection (Luthar & Eisenberg, 2017); however, these students lacked decisiveness
or determinedness characters from a father (Wong, 2017) as well as suffered unstable financial
background (Härkönen, 2018); as a result, students living in single-mother families possessed
a rather rough SAC and they were in need of support from SC activities.
This research had certain limitations. The SAC for a long time is no longer a problem
in many foreign education programs around the world. However, in Vietnam, SAC has always
been interested and invested in research to renovate the quality of education over the years. The
issues of gender discrimination, wrong choice of career or the value crisis of many Vietnamese
youths over the years have proved the need to implement SAC for students and also support

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730 them to have the right SA to themselves. Although the results only reflected the current situation,
the number of items in the questionnaire was very small, but these were all questions and
difficulties in SAC that Vietnamese students encountered in many past years. Therefore, these
findings have a certain meaning and can be an important data source to form a process of SC on
SAC problems for HS to develop their SAC or form a new SC model having this content in the
counseling activities when Vietnam applies a new education program.
Conclusions
In result, Vietnamese HS were facing SAC problems and their SAC counseling needs
mainly include: identifying personal strong-points/weak-points; knowing personal character/
capacity; understanding personal goal/life ideal; identifying personal position in social
relationship; knowing negative habits that need to change. The more SAC students faced, the
higher the counseling needs for SAC they had. Therefore, SAC counseling in SC activity must
be enhanced to support students in becoming more aware of himself/herself and know how to
adjust himself/herself to be suitable to life activities. This is also the content of HS counseling
activities on SAC problems that should be concerned by international SC models, especially
Asian countries with cultural similarities with Vietnam.
On the other hand, from the current situation of SC activity in Vietnam, it should be
concluded that this activity has been performed with some limitation, SC activity could not
totally prove its efficiency compared to the general demand of Vietnam educational program.
Therefore, the Vietnamese school counselors should put more effort in strengthening their
academic professional knowledge and applying continuously more detailed plans related to SC
activity for a substantial change in quality and quantity features regarding to this SC program.
Moreover, the forming of a new SC model to meet the capacity development requirements for
students, including SAC, is an essential condition for renewing general educational programs
that Vietnam is about to conduct.
Acknowledgement
This research project belonged to the ETEP program - Vietnam research mission in
2020.
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733
Received: September 01, 2019 Accepted: November 18, 2019
Luong Tran Doctor of Education, Head of Educational Psychology Department, Can Tho University,
area 2, Ba Thang Hai street, Xuan Khanh ward, Ninh Kieu district, Can Tho City, Vietnam.
E-mail: tluong@ctu.edu.vn
Son Van Huynh Doctor of Psychology, Vice-rector, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, 280A An
Duong Vuong street, ward 4, district 5, Vietnam.
E-mail: sonhv@hcmue.edu.vn
Hoi Duc Dinh Doctor of Psychology, Assistant Dean of Early Childhood Education Department, Thai
Nguyen University, No.20, Luong Ngoc Quyen street, Thai Nguyen City, Thai Nguyen
Province, Vietnam.
E-mail: dinhduchoi@dhsptn.edu.vn
Vu Thien Giang Bachelor of Psychology, PhD Student, Researcher, Psychology Department, Ho Chi Minh
(Corresponding author) City University of Education, 280A An Duong Vuong street, ward 4, district 5, Vietnam.
E-mail: thienvust0708@gmail.com

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734
LEARNERS’ VIEWS ON ASYMPTOTES
OF A HYPERBOLA AND EXPONENTIAL
FUNCTION: A COMMOGNITIVE
APPROACH
Vimolan Mudaly, Sihlobosenkosi Mpofu
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Republic of South Africa
E-mail: mudalyv@ukzn.ac.za, sihlobosenkosi@gmail.com
Abstract
Learners in South African schools often respond poorly in questions related to the asymptote. Despite the
fact that there are only a few functions in the South African curriculum that actually explore the asymptote,
learners still show some deficiency in their understanding of the concept. This research examined Grade 11
learners’ mathematical discourses about the asymptotes of the hyperbola and exponential functions. Data
were analysed using the Realisation Tree of a Function, an adaptation of the Realisation Tree Assessment
tool from Weingarden, Heyd-Metzuyanim and Nachlieli. While the Realisation Tree Assessment tool
focused on teacher talk, the Realisation Tree of a Function focused on learner expression and responses.
A qualitative research design was essentially adopted, with exploratory, descriptive and interpretive
elements complementing both its data collection and analysis. A purposive sampling strategy was
implemented. Data were collected by means of a test administered to a total of 112 Grade 11 participants
from four selected secondary schools. Focus group interviews were conducted with 24 of the best-
performing participants by using their responses from the written mathematical tests.
The results revealed that the learners’ mathematical discourse is not coherent. While learners’ work
on each representation was often mathematical there seemed to be a struggle when the task had an
unusual orientation. Different expressions of the same mathematical object elicited different responses.
The challenge is that learners exhibited a fragmented relationship between the mathematical objects of
the function.
Keywords: commognition, realization tree, ritualised learning, visual mediators.
Introduction
Mathematical functions are one of the most important topics in the South African national
curriculum as signified by the prominence given to it by the Curriculum and Assessment
Policy Statement (CAPS) (DBE, 2011) in terms of the teaching hours allocated. However,
national senior certificate results (Spaull, 2013; Taylor, 2011) showed that students still struggle
with questions related to functions. The research examined the learners’ interpretation of the
mathematical object, the asymptote, from three algebraic representations of the exponential
function and a hyperbola. While the mathematical object is the same there was a varying
interpretation of the asymptote by students, signifying that reification and alienation (Sfard,
2012; Nachlieli & Tabach, 2012; Nachlieli & Tabach, 2018) of the mathematical object has not
yet been fully realised. The partial objectification of the mathematical object, the asymptote,
is responsible for the struggles that learners have in learning of functions. Grade 11 learners’
responses to the three questions on the asymptote of a hyperbola and two on the exponential
function were analysed. The asymptote from the hyperbola had the equation presented in a
familiar classroom type format, the two exponential functions were presented in a somewhat

Vimolan MUDALY, Sihlobosenkosi MPOFU. Learners’ views on asymptotes of a hyperbola and exponential function: A commognitive
approach
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unfamiliar manner although the representations are within the realms of the curriculum to 735
which the learners were exposed.
Commognition
The theory of commognition, as proposed by Sfard (2008), posits that learning of

mathematics is about how the community of mathematics communicates in a language that
is understood by the members of this group (Professional community of mathematicians).
Mathematical discourse is composed of the words used to describe the mathematical objects,
the symbols that signify the mathematical objects, the routines used in the expression of
the mathematical objects and the endorsed narratives that are agreed by the professional
mathematics community (Caspi & Sfard, 2012, Nachlieli & Tabach, 2012; Sfard, 2012).
Thinking is communication with oneself (Sfard, 2008). Participants of the mathematical
discourse show their internal communication mostly through what they say, write, draw or
sketch. Communication is seen in both talk and action. In this research we analysed how learners
responded to questions on the asymptotes of the hyperbola and exponential functions expressed
in algebraic form. Learners’ response to these questions raised many questions about saming,
reification and alienation of the mathematical object, in this case the asymptote (Berger, 2013;
Sfard, 2008). Saming is when participants of the mathematical discourse fail to distinguish
between two or more similar mathematical objects, for example, an undefined portion of a
graph is regarded as an asymptote by some learners [consider the function

at the point x = 2 and x = 3]. While there were no struggles with drawing a dotted line by
learners to denote the asymptote it is their interpretation of the algebraic expression of the
asymptote that needs scrutiny. Algebra in mathematics is a generalisation and compression
of arithmetic processes. The realization tree of the function is firstly expressed in word form,
where statements (written or spoken) are drawn. Secondly it is expressed in the form of ordered
pairs and for neatness and aesthetic pleasure mathematicians use a table of values. Thirdly,
a function is represented in the form of a diagram on a plane and finally, an algebraic form
represents the realization of a function.
The Asymptote
Endorsed narratives are agreed upon by the community of mathematicians, and the
purpose is to have the same narratives applied within the community. Functions behave in
distinctive ways under particular conditions. In quadratic and cubic functions, the common
characteristics are the stationary points and intercepts when the x and y variables are equated
to zero. Mathematicians generally define an asymptote of a curve as a line that is tangent to a
curve at infinity. As the values of the curve increase, the curve and the asymptote approach each
other. According to this definition, a curve may sometimes cross the horizontal asymptote. The
vertical asymptote cannot intersect with the curve. While some functions such as
will have graphs not crossing the asymptote, there are functions such as in which
the horizontal asymptote is crossed infinitely many times as the independent variable x tends
to infinity.
In terms of the school curriculum definition, the asymptote is a line whose distance from
the curve tends to zero as the independent variable (either x or y) tends to infinity. Grade 11
learners are not expected to learn limits. As such, the definition with limits was not suitable for
them. At the same time, the proposition that the curve should not cross the asymptote is not

approach
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736 mathematically correct and should therefore be avoided in the teaching and learning situation
(Mpofu & Pournara, 2018). As stated in the paragraphs above, the horizontal asymptote may, or
may not cross the curve of a graph. However, it should not mean that learners should be exposed
to questions that show the asymptote crossing many times. What is emphasised here is for the
community of mathematicians not to have contradictions in their endorsed narratives.
There are generally three kinds of linear asymptotes, a vertical asymptote, a horizontal
asymptote, and an oblique asymptote. In addition, graphs may have a removable discontinuity.
In a vertical asymptote, the gradient is undefined, and the asymptote is presented in the form
of x=a Furthermore, the vertical asymptote is parallel to, or coincides with the y-axis. In many
instances, making a distinction between the vertical asymptote and the removable discontinuity
poses a challenge to the learners (Berger, 2013). A function will have a vertical asymptote at
the zero point of the denominator, provided the denominator is not a factor of the numerator. If
the denominator is a factor of the numerator, the zero of the denominator is then the removable
movable discontinuity.
An asymptote and a removable discontinuity occur when the denominator is zero. The
difference between the two is that an asymptote cannot be redefined to make the function
continuous at that point. On the other hand, there is a way of defining a function in removable
discontinuities such that they are continuous. If a denominator of a rational function is zero at a
certain value of x and the numerator is not zero, then there is a vertical asymptote at that point. In
contradistinction, when both the numerator and the denominator are zero, there is a removable
discontinuity (Berger, 2013). For example, at x=2 would be and
at x=4 would result in . In this case, the function f has a vertical

asymptote, while the function h has a removable discontinuity. At grade 11, the curriculum does
not require knowledge of this difference.
Challenges Concerning Learning Asymptotes
The official secondary school mathematics curriculum in South Africa presents learners
with functions whose asymptotes are either parallel to the axes or coincide with the axes. The
hyperbola and the exponential functions have asymptotes at the zero points of the denominator,
and there is no intersection between the horizontal asymptote and the graphs. The reviewed
literature showed that learners tended to struggle with the concept of the asymptote (Flesher,
2003; Kidron, 2011; Mpofu & Pournara, 2018).
A study by Flesher (2003) found that learners’ asymptote-related difficulties were
universal. In her cognitively inclined study, Flesher (2003) focused on college learners who
were expected to describe the meaning of graphical representations in their own words. Some
of the findings of this study indicated that learners’ mathematical discourse on the asymptote
was at a granular stage. Flesher’s study was cognitive in nature, hence her usage of the term
‘conceptual misunderstanding’ because she found that the students saw the asymptote as a
number and not as a line. This most probably arose from the algebraic calculations rather than
from the graphs. Some of the learners in the study struggled to position the asymptote, stating
that the asymptote can only coincide with the axes. This view emanates from an asymptote of
parent functions, in which there are no vertical or horizontal translations. Yet, some learners
could not define the horizontal and and/or vertical asymptotes after correctly calculating the
position of the asymptotes on the Cartesian plane.
Furthermore, learners generalise mathematical objects according to their what they see,
whether such objects are a procedure or a representation. In her cognitive study, Kidron (2011)
explored the learners’ concept image of the horizontal asymptote. The learner in question

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struggled to understand that the horizontal asymptote can intersect with the function. The 737
diagrams created some cognitive conflict in which the graph and the asymptote behaved in
a manner that she (Kidron, 2011) did not expect. After checking for errors in her work, she
finally accepted that the horizontal asymptote could intersect with the graph infinitely. The
lesson learnt from Kidron’s (2011) study is that the current high school definition introduced
to learners in the South African system of education will need to be changed, if learners are to
continue studying rational functions. The horizontal asymptotes would intersect with the graph
and in some instances, the asymptote would be a line in the form of y = mx + c.
In a study conducted by Yerusalemy (1997), learners defined the horizontal asymptote
as a slope with a gradient of zero. Their initial thoughts on the vertical asymptotes were that
they occur on every zero point of the denominator. They did not distinguish the removable
discontinuity from the asymptote. Some of these learners referred to the asymptote as a point,
which demonstrates that their view of the asymptote was incorrect. Similar to the study by Nair
(2010), learners in the study by Yerusalemy (1997) above also stated that asymptotes were
invisible lines.
Research Aim
Learners’ inability to adequately understand asymptotes and the way they could be
determined is a universal (common) problem (according to Flesher (2003)) and South African
learners are susceptible to such difficulties. Evidence obtained from teachers at schools indicate
that learners answer questions adequately in the written form but fail to explain what they have
written when asked to explain. Learners tend to believe that the word “asymptote” is used
only for a hyperbola. This assertion is supported by the National Senior Certificate Diagnostic
report for the 2015 final examinations in South Africa, where a number of candidates listed two
asymptotes for an exponential function in response to a question. This research then, attempted
to explore the following research question: What is the nature of learners’ mathematical
discourse on the asymptotes of the hyperbola and exponential function?
General Research Background
The participants (112) were selected from four rural secondary schools in Mthatha in the
Eastern Cape province in South Africa. This empirical, mixed methods research was underpinned
within the interpretivist paradigm. Mthatha is a small town with a dense population. Education
is affected by a variety of factors, including a high illiteracy rate, and a low per household
income as most residents rely on government grants and some households are child headed.
Sample
A homogeneous purposive sampling technique was used, where research participants’ in

possession of similar representative qualities with the study population were selected (Saunders,
Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012). A dual-purpose testing mechanism was used. Furthermore, six
learners were purposively selected for task-based interviews per school. The test served the
purpose of examining the mathematical discourse of Grade 11 learners in the sphere of functions
in general.

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738 Instruments
Qualitative and quantitative data were collected by means of a test and task-based
interviews. The test was used only to select the participants for the task-based interviews. The
validity of the test was ensured by asking five other teachers of Grade 11 classes to examine
the test and by also piloting the test among 10 learners in another non-participating school.
Approximately one hour was allocated for the actual test administration. The test was conducted
under strict examination conditions. The test itself comprised 4 questions (40 marks) based on
sections that the learners had already covered in lessons in previous and current grades.
Flexibility was used in the administration of the task-based interviews, allowing the
selected participants to use multiple methods of answering questions. Some preferred to answer
questions on the chalkboard, some on paper, while others preferred verbal responses only.
Participants were allowed to express themselves freely in their language of choice. While most
of the participants responded in English, there were some instances of some learners choosing
IsiXhosa (the local language widely used in the Eastern Cape) to express themselves.
The test was administered first because it was used to select the participants for the
task-based interviews. For purposes of enhancing “the authorial voice” of the participants, the
questions selected for both the test and the task-based interviews were as close as possible to
the participants’ everyday classroom experiences.
Four focus groups, comprising six participants each (a group per school) were
interviewed. This aspect of the research was not included in the study because the intention
was to look specifically at the individual participant’s discourses related to the asymptote and
therefore the focus group discussions had no tangible influence on these findings.
The Realization Tree of a Function
A realization is nothing more than a representation of a mathematical object (Weingarden,

Heyd-Metzuyanim and Nachlieli, 2018). Sfard (2008) coined the term realization because
she believes that mathematical objects do not exist in themselves but are a result of human
communication. For example, quadratic equations are solved using four basic methods. One
can factorise, complete the square, use a formula or use a graph. The four ways of solving
quadratic equations are the realizations of the quadratic equation. Learners need to realise the
connectivity between methods and that the result from each of the methods is the same. What
enhances learners’ realisation that they are actually doing the same process using different
means is allowing them (learners) to explore different ways of solving factorizable quadratic
equations rather than strictly using the formula for those equations that have irrational roots.
Mudaly (2014) states that visualisation can be used to make connections between concepts.
There are four basic realizations of a function and these are namely graphical, words, algebraic
and ordered pairs. Ordered pairs are usually written in the form of a table of values. What
learners see are discrete values that are not connected to each other. Sfard (2012) refers to this
kind of communication as impoverished realisations.
Realisation Tree of a Function Analysis tool
The Realisation Tree of a Function analysis tool (RTF) was adopted from the Realization
Tree Assessment tool (Weingarden, Heyd-Metzuyanim & Nachlieli, 2018). While Weingarden
et al. (2018) used a four staged shade coded tool to analyse the realisations by the teacher in
class, this research reduced the Realization Tree of an asymptote to only three steps to analyse
learners’ response to questions on the asymptote of a hyperbola and exponential function. The
RTF has three stages and for convenience, renamed them levels. Level one is where the learners’
realization became completely unacceptable to the community of mathematicians, for example
when an asymptote is written as a number (the asymptote is two) or when an asymptote is

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written in the form of coordinates (2;1). The second level is when learners’ response is partially 739
acceptable. For example, instead of writing two asymptotes of a hyperbola, the learner just
writes one asymptote. The last and the highest level of realisations is when the response is
acceptable to the community of mathematicians and there is no ambiguity. Whether spoken or
written when learners say the asymptote is y is equal to 2 and x is equal to 1. The highest stage
was named level three.
Classification Description Examples

Objectified communication. Fluidity in Able to relate all the realizations of a function.
Level 3 communication on the four representation of a e.g. an asymptote is a line; expressed in the
function form of x = a and y = b.
Partial objectification of the mathematical object.
Drawing a line for an asymptote but writing a
Level 2 Expressing related mathematical objects as if
number for the same mathematical object
they are not related
Failure to respond to questions or
Level 1 No objectification at all. unmathematical statements e.g. an asymptote
is a point.
The findings were that students readily recognised the asymptotes of functions in
equations or formula that are generally used in classrooms or tests but when there was a slight
change the number of correct responses declined.
Research Results
Participants’ Responses to the Equations of the Asymptotes
The participants were asked to Write the equations of the asymptotes of f in
. Most of the participants performed well in this question. Over 75% expressed
the asymptotes correctly, that is, x = 1 and y = - 2. However, 25 participants failed to express
the asymptote in any mathematically acceptable manner. Four participants did not respond to
the question at all, and simply left blank spaces. Twelve participants had all their responses
incorrect and could not name either of the asymptotes. Thirteen participants’ responses were
partially correct. Most of the participants (75%) responded in a manner that is acceptable to
the community of mathematicians by stating two asymptotes that were perpendicular to each
other. Participant A’s responses in relation to the equation of the asymptotes of f was simply x
= 1 and y = -2.
This response corresponds with the discourse of the community of mathematicians.
Participant A wrote the two asymptotes of mathematically because she

expressed them as evidence of interpreting the symbolic mediator; that is, the function f. Her
explanation of why she expressed her response in the form of an equation was that “…it is
because an asymptote is a function”. We classified her communication on the asymptote of
the hyperbola as being at level three because every member of the professional community of
mathematicians would have interpreted it in a similar way.
Participant B produced a non-mathematical response, which could be classified as a
ritualised routine and an example of a level two communication. Ritualised routines are a result
of ritualised learning where procedures are committed to memory and are recalled and applied
mechanistically when a particular application calls for its enactment. His initial response was
correct (x = 1 and y = -2), and then went on to write the coordinate (1; -2). The asymptote is

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740 regarded as a coordinate in the same manner that one would do for a turning point, or intercept
where the x and y-values are written as a coordinate. When asked why he wrote the coordinate,
Participant B pointed to the intersection of the two asymptotes as the reason for doing so.
However, it was clear that participants knew how to identify the asymptote from an equation,
but probably did not know what the asymptote actually was. Participant B could interpret the
symbolic visual mediator , which was classified according to the RTF analysis
tool as level two because his communication exhibits a partial development in the learning of
asymptotes, although he could write the equations for the asymptotes.
The work of the participants reflected the second type of mathematically unacceptable
responses when they presented the equation in terms of the p and q parameters. Participant
C presented his answer for the asymptote as p = x = 1 and y = q = - 2. When a function is
generalised, p and q are used to represent the vertical and horizontal shifts respectively. These
parameters are used in almost all the functions in the Further Education and Training (FET)
phase in South Africa. The participants’ responses were intentional and incorrect because they
tended to equate the vertical and horizontal shifts to the asymptotes. Adler and Ronda (2015)
supported this argument when they stated that learners misconstrue these mnemonics as part
of the Cartesian plane. From the researchers’ experience, mathematics teachers have inculcated
the notion of simplifying mathematics by emphasising the parameters to such an extent that
learners know the parameters to be the real asymptotes. Participant C wrote his equations and
included the letters p and q together with the equations, which showed that he is able to interpret
the symbolic visual mediator, as he is able to name asymptotes from the equation.
Participant C’s interpretation of the asymptote was classified as partially mathematical
because he could identify the equations of the asymptote. Participant C’s routines are “ritualised
mathematical” because he included p and q in his equation. Participant C’s communication
remained at the ritualised stage. His communication was classified as being in level two
because his communication has both mathematically accepted symbolic visual mediators and
mnemonics. The example of a third level classification according to the RTF analytical tool is
shown in the discussions that follow. The participants had some knowledge of the asymptote of
a hyperbola, which was demonstrated by the three respondents excluding the y and writing the
equation as if it was only a number.
Participant D used inductive reasoning to arrive at her answer. Naming the asymptote
as -2 is mathematically incorrect, since -2 cannot be located on the Cartesian plane. There is a
tendency by some learners to think that p or q could replace x and y respectively, or that they
were synonymous such that one could replace the other interchangeably. Participant D first
wrote a general equation , and had to be reminded of the asymptotes of the

function. She then substituted the number three for a. She further equated q to the asymptote.
Finally, she wrote that asymptote = -2. The object, which Participant D wrote, did not exist
on the Cartesian plane because the word asymptote did not show a clear representation on the
coordinate system. She did not do anything about the vertical asymptote. She also did not
mention the vertical asymptote. The participant’s routines were ritualised because she followed-
up the routines of others as her own routines, which did not lead to mathematically endorsed
narratives. Participant D’s equations were not mathematical as they could not be located on the
Cartesian plane. Her level of communication is at level one because she failed to identify the
asymptote from an algebraic representation showing some disjointed relationships.
In a question that required learners to write the equation of the asymptote of f(x) – 5
given , gave credence to the notion that participants’ routines were ritualised.
Participant R simply wrote down the answer y = - 5, without showing any working, procedure
or method. The answer was acceptable, as it was a horizontal asymptote. There was no

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ambiguity with her response, and the community of mathematicians would have deduced the 741
same meaning. Her interpretation was endorsed in the mathematical discourse. Participant W
also provided a similar solution, like many of the other participants.
Participant TT produced a different dimension to the asymptote of an exponential
function by writing . In responding to the question requiring the participants to
write the equation of the asymptote of f (x) – 5 , Participant TT multiplied the constant -5 with
the exponent x. An asymptote is a linear function, but what Participant TT wrote was not a
linear equation. Participant TT did not interpret the symbolic visual mediator f (x) – 5 in a
mathematically acceptable manner. He confused f (x) – 5 with. In fact f (5x), Participant TT only
responded to the former (f (x) – 5) by making substitutions to the equation and did not respond
to the question directly. There is nothing in the response that relates to an asymptote. He did not
know what an asymptote was and did not know how it is represented as an equation, which is
an example of level one communication on the Realization Tree of a Function.
In this section, the four categories of the participants’ test responses were discussed. The
first category is that of participants providing a correct answer without showing any process
or method. The second category was that of participants who provided the desired responses
and also showed the processes leading to the answer. The third category of participants wrote a
vertical line, instead of a horizontal asymptote. As a result, they misrepresented the asymptote
of an exponential function by writing an equation showing a vertical line instead of a horizontal
one. The last category consisted of a discordant depiction of responses, which had nothing to
do with the equation of an asymptote.
In the third question that the participants were expected to respond to, the phrase
exponential function did not appear in the question, but the equation was exponential
. The number of participants who successfully named the asymptote

decreased to 29 (when compared to the 84 who successfully answered question one). This
decline can be attributed to the general ritualization of learning of functions. The difference
in these two questions was that familiar mathematical language was used in the first question,
whereas changed, unfamiliar symbols were used in the third question.
While the variables in are θ and t learners used the variable y for the
asymptote. None of them used the variables from the equation. A few learners like Participant H
were able to identify the asymptote from the equation but they still expressed
their answer as y = 20 instead of θ = 20. Although the variables were incorrect, we classified
Participant H’s communication as level two because she could identify the asymptote from the
equation indicating that she recognized the exponential function, but her routines are ritualized
because the variable is θ and not y.
Discussion
Mathematics is not all about writing or stating mathematically acceptable responses to

questions. Learning mathematics necessitates that learners be able to show how mathematical
objects relate to each other, by displaying an understanding of the concept. Learning of
mathematics does not mean that learners should simply reproduce through rote learning what
they have done in class. Often, learners, through the authority of the teacher or textbook, adhere
strictly to the procedures demonstrated in class or in the textbook. Engelbrecht, Bergsten and
Kagesten (2016: 570) state that “as is the case in many countries in the world, mathematics
teaching at the upper secondary level often has an emphasis on procedural skills rather than
conceptual understanding”. This explains why some participants could successfully complete
certain questions whilst they struggled with those that were slightly different.

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742 When learners in this research displayed a low level of communication about the
asymptote, it showed that their understanding of the concept was still very poor. The learners
could replicate the simple solutions that they had already seen but had no idea about how they
should respond to questions that had symbols that were unfamiliar. The learners adhered to the
symbolic artefacts that they used previously but could not equate those symbols to new ones. This
implied that their narratives depended entirely on replicating procedure rather than engaging
with the mathematics required. Roberts and Le Roux (2018) agreed by stating that “relational
thinking could produce more than one way to solve a problem and each method would produce
a different branch on the realisation tree”. These learners should have discursively related
their previous ideas about the asymptote to the new equation and produced a solution that was
appropriate. The learners’ inability to extrapolate their solution from the ritualised version of
the problem to a changed version implies that there was a deficit of real understanding of the
concept and the process. Understanding can generally be viewed as the ability to use a concept
flexibly. This research showed that the learners were rigid in their application of the concept and
any variation in the symbols confused the learners.
This lack of understanding is explained by Rittle-Johnson and Schneider’s (2015)
argument that conceptual knowledge can be described as knowledge rich in relationships. The
learners had not created sufficiently detailed relationships between the concept of the asymptote
and the symbols associated with them. They recalled that which the teacher had done but they
could not complete the exercises that involved symbols that were different.
The learners’ failure to respond to a variation in questions reinforced the view that
participants’ mathematical discourses were mostly ritualised routines. As alluded to by
Nachlieli and Tabach, (2018), there is no guarantee that ritualised learning will lead to flexibility
in the learning and application of mathematics. The teaching and learning process should be
more about learners exploring mathematical objects and discovering endorsed narratives by
themselves rather than a learning situation where rules and procedures of doing mathematics
are often given to the learner.
Lavie, Steiner and Sfard (2019) claim that rituals are a necessary part of learning and
thus cannot be excluded from the classroom altogether. They claim that seminal routines are
essential at the stage where new discourses are likely to develop. One of the ways of beginning
the process of concept development is by creating it as a ritual. However, further exploration
and activity must be used to develop that routine into deeper understanding so that the learner
would become aware of some practical application of the concept.
Sfard (2016) also posited the argument that it was the intangibility of mathematical
objects, which constituted the main challenge in the learning of mathematics. This is true for
most mathematics but in order to influence the discursive narratives of the learners, they need
to engage in more explorative activities. The learners in this research were able to only work
with what their teacher did. It was argued that they simply followed routines learned. But
Robert and Le Roux (2018) theorised that “explorations are the most sophisticated form of
routine. Explorative discourse is characterised by narratives about mathematical objects that are
endorsable in terms of mathematical axioms, definitions and theorems”.
This is exactly why Anderson et al. (2001) state that “in instructional settings, learners are
assumed to construct their own meaning based on their prior knowledge, their current cognitive
and metacognitive activity, and the opportunities and constraints they are afforded in the setting,
including the information that is available to them” (p 38). Through an explorative discourse,
learners are able to negotiate meaning and accrue a deeper understanding that enables them to
answer questions that are changed from the ones that they have already interacted with.

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Conclusions 743
There was a lack of coherence in learners’ mathematical discourse, as what learners

wrote in one solution was different from the next one. Presenting the same question in a
different way, resulted in learners struggling with the same concept, signifying a ritualised
nature of learning of functions. The learners had memorised the procedure and the concept and
applied it to questions that they recognised. Their understanding of the process of identifying
the asymptote was shallow, isolated and disconnected. The procedure was accomplished by
rote execution of the procedure. There was no indication that the learners had attained a well-
connected understanding of the concepts.
Learning of mathematics is enhanced by means of explorations, rather than merely expecting
learners to follow ritualistically the solutions and procedures presented by their teachers, other
learners and textbooks. Opportunities for learning and deepening of mathematical discourses
have a chance of occurring when learning and teaching move from rituals to the exploratory
mode. Ritualised learning will often produce uncoordinated and fragmented communication
from learners. While learners were able to use mathematical words and symbols, they did so
without making connections with the Realisation Tree of that particular mathematical object.
For learners to solve unseen, non-routine problems their exploratory routines should be strong.
Use of different visual mediators was a hindrance to learners’ success mainly because
learners had a different interpretation of each visual mediator due to their inexperience. These
learners should have been exposed to different visual mediators during their exploratory work
as they engaged with the operational and symbolic relationships between the equation and the
derivation of the asymptote. Learners were not able to locate the asymptote because of the
symbols used. Each realisation morphs into a tree of understanding that enables the learner to
successfully produce correct solutions for the asymptote.
A further study focusing on interpretation of algebraic visual mediators of functions will
help in understanding some of the challenges the learners had with the interpretation of the
asymptotes from algebraic statements.
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Ireland.
Yerushalmy, M. (1997). Reaching the unreachable: Technology and the semantics of asymptotes.
International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Teaching, 2, 1-25.
Received: August 26, 2019 Accepted: December 04, 2019
Vimolan Mudaly PhD, Associate Professor, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X03, Ashwood,
(Corresponding author) 3605 Durban, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: mudalyv@ukzn.ac.za
Sihlobosenkosi Mpofu PhD Student, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Republic of South Africa.

E-mail: sihlobosenkosi@gmail.com

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EXPLORING THE BARRIERS TO 745
EFFECTIVE COOPERATIVE LEARNING

IMPLEMENTATION IN SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS CLASSROOMS
Angel Mukuka, Vedaste Mutarutinya
University of Rwanda, Republic of Rwanda
E-mail: mukukaangel@yahoo.com, vedastemuve@yahoo.fr
Sudi Balimuttajjo
Mbarara University of Science & Technology, Uganda
E-mail: sudib@must.ac.ug
Abstract
Literature is replete with research confirming the benefits of cooperative learning on students’
academic achievement and attitude towards mathematics. Despite these benefits, cooperative learning
implementation in most Zambian secondary school mathematics classrooms has remained a challenge.
An explanatory sequential mixed methods research design was employed to determine the causes of
teacher-resistance to cooperative learning implementation in selected schools. A cluster random sampling
method was used to select 62 teachers (43 male and 19 female) of mathematics from six public secondary
schools in Ndola district of Zambia. A questionnaire was administered to all the 62 teachers followed
by lesson observations in six randomly selected grade 11 mathematics classrooms, whose teachers
later attended a focus group discussion. Research findings revealed that the majority of participants
prefer expository teaching to cooperative learning. More than 64% of the participants indicated that
they resisted implementing cooperative learning in their classrooms due to shortcomings in; assessing
learners, ensuring a disciplined class environment, completing the already bulky syllabus, handling large
classes, students’ low reasoning abilities and preparation time versus high teaching loads. These results
provide evidence on the need for more attention to how the identified challenges could be addressed not
only in Zambian mathematics classrooms but in other educational settings elsewhere.
Keywords: cooperative learning, expository teaching, mathematics classrooms, mixed methods research.
Introduction
The ability to cooperate with others has been one of the most desired attributes for
individual citizens to cope with the demands of the 21st century workplaces and educational
environments. It is a well-known fact that teamwork maximizes the strengths of team members
while minimizing their weaknesses. Cooperation also brings about work and educational
environments that are dynamic, productive and efficient.
Theoretical Perspectives
In classroom setting, the need for students to work cooperatively stems from the
theory of constructivism, which requires students to interact and get engaged with knowledge
construction, and teachers to work as facilitators or guides (Davidson & Major, 2014). Other

Angel MUKUKA, Vedaste MUTARUTINYA, Sudi BALIMUTTAJJO. Exploring the barriers to effective cooperative learning
implementation in school mathematics classrooms
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746 leading proponents of cooperative learning (e.g. Butera & Buchs, 2019; Johnson & Johnson,
2015; Slavin, 2015) have identified more psycho-social theoretical perspectives that support
cooperative environments more than the individual and competitive ones. These include
the motivational, social cohesion, cognitive development/elaboration, behavioral and the
social interdependence theories of learning. Although some disagreements on why and
how cooperative learning affects academic achievement might have arisen among different
groups of scholars and researchers, Slavin (2015) has guided that scholars or researchers who
subscribe to different theoretical perspectives of cooperative learning need to start viewing
other perspectives as complementary rather than contradictory. Viewing all cooperative
learning theoretical perspectives as being complementary to one another would enable teachers
to improve students’ interactions with one another, and eventually lead to enhanced academic
achievement.
Similarly, the formulation of a new curriculum for Zambian secondary schools
(Curriculum Development Centre, 2013) was greatly influenced by a constructivist conception.
Like many other mathematics curricula elsewhere (see Baloche & Brody, 2017; Sharan,
2010), the Zambian curriculum for secondary school mathematics recommends an education
environment where students can interact with peers as they create meaning and construct new
knowledge. Therefore, enabling students to learn mathematics in a cooperative group setup
may offer support to such an environment. Cooperative learning enables learners to interact in
small groups to gain an understanding of the subject matter, complete a given task or meet a set
target. Brodie (2010) has argued that “learners’ inability to see mathematics as a worthwhile
human activity is in part due to low levels of collaboration in their classrooms” (p.59). This
provides evidence on the need for teachers of mathematics to employ approaches such as
cooperative learning, where students can develop and investigate mathematical conjectures,
draw conclusions, and share or debate mathematical ideas through peer interactions.
Through extensive research that has been conducted at different grade levels and settings,
various practical approaches to cooperative learning have been generated and evaluated (see
Slavin, 2015). Two major categories of cooperative learning have emerged. That is, Structured
Team Learning (STL) and Informal Group Learning (IGL) methods. Each of these two categories
consist of different types/models. Ghaith (2018) has provided a table describing each of those
cooperative learning models, their respective proponents and the conditions under which each
model could be implemented effectively (p.387). STL methods involve group rewards on the
basis of students’ learning progress and individual accountability. This implies that the success
of the team is more dependent on individual contributions than group products. On the other
hand, IGL methods are concerned with the social dynamics and not masterly of the specified
content.
Research Problem and Focus
Educational literature is abundantly supplied with research (e.g., Borůvková &

Emanovský, 2016; Entonado & García, 2003; Kramarski & Mevarech, 2003; Navarro &
Gallardo, 2015; Slavin, 1995; Yaduvanshi, S., & Singh, 2019) that have found cooperative
settings more beneficial than individual and competitive ones. It has been revealed that
cooperative learning environments lead to improved academic performance, higher order
thinking and reasoning, self-confidence, and more social interactions. Despite all these and
other benefits, cooperative learning implementation has been challenging for teachers not only
in Zambian secondary schools but in other settings elsewhere (see Baloche & Brody, 2017;
Buchs, Filippou, Pulfrey, & Volpé, 2017; Ghaith, 2018; Le, Janssen, & Wubbels, 2018). Worse
still, none of the research conducted in Zambia, and possibly many other Sub-Saharan African
countries has attempted to understand why most teachers in secondary school mathematics

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classrooms have continued their hold to expository teaching as opposed to the recommended 747
learner-centered approaches such as cooperative learning. The main aim of this research was to
understand why most teachers from the selected schools had been resisting to utilize cooperative
learning in their mathematics classrooms amidst all its perceived benefits.
Based on the research problem highlighted above, answers to the following research
questions were sought:
(i) Which is the most dominant teaching method in selected school mathematics
classrooms?
(ii) What are the most significant causes of teacher-resistance to cooperative
learning implementation in their mathematics classrooms?
(iii) How could the identified challenges be addressed to ensure that cooperative
learning is implemented effectively in those classrooms?
It was anticipated that answers to the above research questions could provide future
researchers and practitioners with deeper insights into the most appropriate cooperative learning
models for Zambian school mathematics classrooms and other similar contexts worldwide.
Research Design
An explanatory sequential mixed methods research design was employed in this

research. In line with the pragmatic world view (Creswell, 2014), this research combined both
quantitative and qualitative approaches to get more complete data to answer the stated research
questions. A mixed-methods research approach was considered appropriate for this phase of
data collection to gain deeper insights into the prevailing situation before implementation of the
intervention that was done about one month later.
Research Participants
Research participants were drawn from 6 public secondary schools within Ndola district
of Zambia. Sixty-two (43 male and 19 female) teachers of mathematics turned up for this
research, six of which participated in a focus group discussion two weeks after completing the
questionnaire. Respondents’ mathematics teaching experience at secondary school level ranged
from 1 to 27 years (M=11.37, SD = 7.03). Cluster random sampling method was used to select
the participants. Public secondary schools within Ndola District were categorized into three
clusters according to their academic average performance in national examinations (i.e. high
performing, moderate and low performing). Two schools were randomly selected from each
cluster and then all mathematics teachers at each of the selected schools were requested to
complete the questionnaire. Thereafter, one teacher of a grade 11 class was randomly selected
from each participating school. Each of the six teachers were then observed in their grade 11
mathematics classes, and later attended a focus group discussion.
Research Instruments and Validation Procedures
The questionnaire comprised four sections namely; demographic information,

development of students’ mathematical reasoning, mathematics teaching methods and the
perceived barriers to effective cooperative learning implementation. However, only the last
two sections of the questionnaire have been reported because they are deemed appropriate for

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748 addressing the stated research questions. Each of those questionnaire items was formulated
in line with previous research on how teaching methods influence students’ achievement
in mathematics (Haas, 2002) and the perceived barriers to effective cooperative learning
implementation (Aksit, Niemi, & Nevgi, 2016; Buchs et al., 2017). This was done to ensure that
only items similar to the ones that have been previously validated and checked for reliability
were included in the questionnaire. Nevertheless, reliability analysis and validation were carried
out before administering the questionnaire since the context and purpose of the present research
were different from the previous ones.
An exploratory factor analysis was carried out using the principal component extraction
method in SPSS version 20. Following recommendations by Guadagnoli and Velicer (1988),
22 out of the initial 28 items on 3 teaching methods met the criteria (i.e. factor loadings of .4 or
more) and were all retained. The retained items were then analyzed for internal consistency and
gave a Cronbach alpha of .911. This value was considered acceptable since it was greater than
the recommended threshold of .7 (Taber, 2018). Additionally, none of the pairs had inter-item
correlations of more than .8. This gave an assurance of the absence of multicollinearity among
the items and so all the retained items were independent (Field, 2013). A similar procedure
was followed on the barriers to effective implementation of cooperative learning. Only 1 item
did not meet the criteria and the other 13 items were retained with Cronbach alpha of .882.
Similarly, none of the pairs of items had correlations of more than .80.
As pointed out earlier, mathematics lesson observations were also carried out in each of
the six schools to confirm the authenticity of teachers’ self-reported questionnaire responses
and to understand the prevailing mathematics teaching practices in those schools. On the other
hand, the purpose of conducting a focus group interview was to gain deeper insights into the
motivations behind participants’ questionnaire responses and to make a follow-up on what was
noticed during lesson observations. Teachers explained why they had been resisting to employ
cooperative learning in their classrooms and made suggestions on how those challenges could
be addressed.
Data Analysis

Data from all the three research instruments were analyzed into categories of meaning
apropos of participants’ responses and the findings from previous studies. Three categories
or themes emerged: the prevailing mathematics teaching practices in the selected schools,
challenges associated with cooperative learning implementation, and the potentially optimum
ways through which the use of cooperative learning could be enhanced in school mathematics
classrooms. Descriptive statistics such as percentages, mean, standard deviations and standard
errors were used to summarize data from questionnaires.
A paired samples t-test was also performed to determine the most dominant teaching
method between expository teaching and cooperative learning. Since statistical significance
alone does not communicate the magnitude of the treatment or experimental effect, a Cohen’s
d was calculated using the formula:
Where symbolizes the sample effect size, the numerator representing the mean difference
while the denominator stands for the standard deviation of the difference scores of the paired
observations. Lakens (2013) has recommended this formula for calculating effect sizes of
paired or correlated observations (p.4).
In line with the recommended procedure for running a paired samples t-test (see
Field, 2013; Gaur & Gaur, 2009), assumptions were checked and it was found that only the

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normality assumption was violated. Further analysis revealed that the normality assumption 749
could have been violated due to the presence of three extreme outliers in the data. Following
the recommended procedure, three cases that produced those outliers were excluded from
the analysis and normality test was performed on the remaining sample of 59 respondents. A
Shapiro - Wilk (S – W) normality test was performed on score differences of the paired values
(Expository teaching and Cooperative learning) giving D(59) = .97, p =.204. Since the S - W
normality test showed insignificant results (p > .05), it was concluded that the distribution
of data was not significantly different from normal. This gave an assurance that a paired
samples t-test could maintain acceptable levels of type I error thereby producing objective and
worthwhile results.
On the other hand, a focus group interview/discussion was audio-recorded, transcribed
manually and analyzed qualitatively according to the themes that emerged from data. In line
with qualitative data analysis procedures, respondents who provided quotes were identified by
pseudonyms. As indicated earlier, lesson observations were carried out to confirm whether what
teachers reported in the questionnaires was a true reflection of reality. To achieve that, lesson
observations primarily focused on lesson preparation, lesson delivery (introduction, flow or
methods used in the lesson activities and conclusion), and overall lesson evaluation.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical issues were upheld at all stages of data collection and analysis. Before
commencement of this research, ethical approval was sought and granted by the Research and
Innovations Directorate of the University of Rwanda, College of Education. All participants
signed consent forms. Permission to collect data from the selected schools was granted by the
Permanent Secretary (Ministry of General Education), Copperbelt Provincial Education Officer
and Ndola District Education Board Secretary.
Research Results
Mathematics Teaching Practices in the Selected Schools
Teacher ratings for all the items under each teaching method were aggregated, and the
overall mean, standard deviation and standard error were generated. To establish the difference
between the two teaching methods, a paired samples t-test was performed. Table 1 and Table 2
display results for descriptive statistics and paired samples t-test respectively.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics on teaching methods.
Teaching method M n SD SE
Expository Teaching 4.16 59 .53 .07
Cooperative Learning 3.23 59 .53 .07

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750 Table 2. Paired samples t-test for expository teaching (ET) and cooperative
learning (CL).
Paired Differences
95% C.I of the Difference
M SD SE Lower Upper t df p
ET-CL .93 .51 .07 .80 1.07 14.16 58 .001
Results displayed in Table 1 and Table 2 indicate that, on average, expository teaching
was more prevalent (M = 4.16, SD = .53) than cooperative learning (M = 3.23, SD = .53). This
difference of .93, (95% CI [.80, 1.07]) was significant, t(58) = 14.16, p < .05, with an effect
size, d = 1.82. According to the benchmarks for the effect size, this value (d = 1.82) represents
an adequate and large effect (especially that it is greater than the threshold of .8 for a larger
effect). Based on these results, it was inferred that besides being statistically significant, this
effect is large enough to indicate that expository teaching was significantly more prevalent than
cooperative learning in those classrooms. Despite those classrooms having been dominated
by expository teaching methods (i.e. at an average of 4 in every 5 consecutive class periods),
questionnaire responses indicated that cooperative learning had also been implemented
substantially (i.e. at an average of 3 out of 5 consecutive class periods).
Although questionnaire responses revealed that teachers had been using cooperative
learning in their classrooms, it was noticed through lesson observations that none of those
lessons implemented or utilized cooperative learning accordingly. Lesson observations also
revealed that the majority of teachers did not understand what constitutes effective cooperative
learning implementation in their classrooms. For instance, there were some instances where
the teacher could ask students to work in groups but without clear guidelines given to them.
That resulted in groups having one or two students dominating the discussions while the rest
remained passive.
Besides that, there were cases where group work was included in the lesson plan but
was never used until the end of the lesson. This was because the majority of teachers spent
so much time explaining concepts to the learners thereby leaving little time for them to work
collaboratively on the given problem-solving tasks.
Another practice that was common during lesson observations was a situation where a
teacher could invite one student to present the solution on the chalkboard while other students
were requested to listen attentively and to clap for their classmates after the presentation.
Although this might be a good practice, most of those presenters did not explain the procedures
to their classmates but only ended up writing down the solutions while the rest of the students
were busy copying those solutions without proper understanding. Students’ conceptual
understanding was assessed through class exercises that were done individually in most cases
or pairs in a few cases. In all, lesson observations confirmed that expository teaching methods
dominated most of the classrooms and none of the observed lessons implemented cooperative
learning accordingly.
Teachers’ Perceptions regarding Barriers to Effective

Cooperative Learning Implementation
Table 3 illustrates the frequency of the extent to which the respondents (teachers) agreed
or disagreed with each of the barriers to cooperative learning implementation. The following
criteria were used:
1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

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Results displayed in Table 3 indicate that a substantial number (more than 50%) of 751
respondents tended to agree or strongly agree that the following perceived barriers had a negative
impact on cooperative learning implementation in their mathematics classrooms: large class
size (93.6%), alignment with the examination system (87.1%), inadequate or lack of resources
(85.5%), preparation time versus high teaching loads (85.4%), students’ poor communication
skills (79%), difficulties in preparing and organizing learners to cooperate (71%), difficulties in
assessing and monitoring students’ progress (67.8%), students’ low reasoning abilities (64.5%),
and lack of orientation or continuing professional development (CPD) workshops (51.6%).
Table 3 further reflects that only four potential barriers, received a combined agree
and strongly agree responses of less than 50% from the participants. These barriers include
inadequate initial teacher training (20.9%), learner-centered approaches being viewed as boring
by students (27.5%), teacher’s difficulties in coping with new role as a facilitator (38.7%) and
students’ negative perceptions about cooperative learning (40.6%).
Table 3. Perceived barriers to effective implementation of cooperative learning.
Frequency (%)
Perceived barrier 1 2 3 4 5
Overcrowded classrooms or large class size 0 6.4 0 32.3 61.3
Alignment with the examination system 0 12.9 0 45.2 41.9
Inadequate or lack of resources 0 8.1 6.5 46.8 38.7
Lack of orientation workshops (CPDs on CL) 3.2 32.3 12.9 35.5 16.1
Inadequate initial teacher training on CL implementation 22.6 35.5 21 16.1 4.8
Teacher's difficulties to cope with new role as a facilitator 14.5 21 25.8 30.6 8.1
Preparation time versus high teaching loads 0 12.9 1.6 54.8 30.6
Learner centered orientation viewed as boring by students 21 22.6 29 19.4 8.1
Difficulties in assessing and monitoring learners' progress 0 32.3 0 58.1 9.7
Difficulties in organizing and preparing learners to cooperate 0 29 0 48.4 22.6
Students’ low reasoning abilities may not support CL setups 0 35.5 0 43.5 21
Students' negative perceptions about CL approaches 12.6 24.2 22.6 25.8 14.8
Students' poor communication skills 0 21 0 51.6 27.4
Similar challenges to those reported in Table 3 were also reported during a focus group
discussion. Below are some of the notable submissions from the participants on how large
class size, lack of preparation time and alignment with the examination system impede the
effectiveness of cooperative learning implementation:
MB: Actually, that method (referring to cooperative learning) is more applicable when you are
teaching a small class. In large classes, you may spend the whole week on one question.
ML: It is difficult to use group work in those big schools and classes. You may find that students’
will pretend to be working or participating only when they see you coming to their group.
MK: The idea of groups does not help at our school because we waste a lot of time. So, if am
handling a large class, I usually put them in pairs.
KP: The examination system is too predictable. You can even tell 90% of the type of questions
included in the final examination paper. This promotes rote learning and discourages the use of
techniques like cooperative learning by teachers.

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752 Inadequate or lack of teaching and learning materials, difficulties in assessing and
monitoring students’ progress and students’ low reasoning abilities were also cited during a
focus group discussion as potential barriers to effective cooperative learning implementation.
The following submissions from participants suffice:
KP: It is difficult to assess and control students especially when the groups are too big……For
instance, a group of 10 students would be difficult to control because you can’t even know whether
the noise from students is a productive one or not.
MB: Some students fear to be laughed at because of failure to express themselves even when they
have a very good answer. So, students’ poor communication is also one of the challenges when
implementing cooperative learning.
ML: Yes….those whose reasoning ability is low do not participate fully in group work. So, to
some extent it is a hindrance and as a teacher, you may not be helping them by giving them group
work.
During a focus group discussion, teachers also reported that when learners are put in
groups to discuss, most of them just pretend to be participating when they see a teacher coming
to their group. Such talk from participants prompted the moderator (researcher) to inquire more
from teachers on how they encouraged their students to participate in group work discussions.
One of the participants gave the following response:
KP: I usually encourage everyone to participate because presenters are appointed at random. They
must be told at the beginning that the person to present from each group will be chosen at random.
That way, everyone will make an effort to understand the material during group discussions.
In as much as that idea was lauded by almost all the participants, one of them saw it as a
hindrance to those weak students. The participant indicated that weak students would be afraid
to be pointed at and as such, it may result in someone dodging classes. On the other hand, the
moderator wanted to find out whether teachers needed a lot of resources for them to implement
cooperative learning in their classrooms. In reaction, participants indicated that group work is
costly not only in terms of time but also the resources and equipment needed. It was further
indicated that effective implementation of cooperative learning may demand the availability of
things like worksheets, graph papers, flip charts, a projector, drawing equipment for both the
teacher and students and most of those things were not always available.
Discussion
Mathematics Teaching Practices in the Selected Schools
Based on the findings presented in the previous section, it has been noted that expository
teaching methods were still lauded by the majority of teachers of mathematics in those selected
schools. Both questionnaire responses and lesson observations revealed that “chalk-and-talk”,
characterized by a “question and answer” technique dominated those classrooms. Despite being
fully aware of the most recommended teaching approaches (see Curriculum Development
Centre, 2013), teachers had continued their hold to expository teaching methodologies.
Studies conducted in other settings (e.g. Buchs, Filippou, Pulfrey, & Volpé, 2017; Kartina,
Samanhudi, Aisyah, Nulhakim, & Evendi, 2011; Zakaria & Iksan, 2007) echo similar findings
on the persistence of traditional teaching methods in most mathematics classrooms despite
the extensive research literature that has revealed the benefits of other teaching and learning
approaches such as cooperative learning.
Additionally, the present research revealed that teachers from those selected schools
had been using cooperative learning in about 3 of the 5 consecutive class periods. Although
that was reported in the questionnaire responses, none of the observed mathematics lessons
utilized cooperative learning effectively. One significant inference that has been drawn here is

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that those teachers had never been exposed to cooperative learning settings during their initial 753
teacher training in colleges and universities. More so, there are no in-service training workshops
organized to orient teachers on how they can implement the newly recommended teaching
and learning approaches such as cooperative and problem-based learning. Upon noticing that
teachers had been resisting to implement learner-centered teaching and learning approaches
such as cooperative learning, a focus group discussion was organized to learn more about the
factors hindering them from employing such learning techniques. Most of those factors are
discussed in the following section.
Factors Inhibiting Teachers from Implementing Cooperative Learning in their

Classrooms
Although cooperative learning has been found helpful to learners’ academic performance,
their social interactions and attitudes towards mathematics (Ding, Li, Piccolo, & Kulm, 2010;
Hossain & Ahmad, 2013; Kristina, et al., 1997), most teachers from different settings (see,
Buchs et al., 2017; Gillies & Boyle, 2010; Sharan, 2010) have been struggling to implement
such techniques in an effective and efficient manner. The present research equally revealed
several challenges associated with cooperative learning implementation in selected secondary
school mathematics classrooms.
Firstly, class size was cited as one of the hindrances to effective cooperative learning
utilization. Most teachers revealed that cooperative learning was time consuming especially
for large classes. Although small classes have been found to be more favorable to both teachers
and students (Nye, Hedges, & Konstantopoulos, 2000), other scholars (e.g. Johnson & Johnson,
1991; Mulryan, 2010) found that teacher expertise in the determination of student learning was
more important than class size. Borůvková and Emanovský (2016) also pointed out that teachers
ought to focus more on the peer interaction that enables all the group members to justify their
understanding and build upon each other’s contributions. In fact, there is a need to understand
that cooperative learning could be an effective means of handling a large class because the
teacher’s main role is more of a consultant than an instructor who might be regarded as the
main source of knowledge. Through cooperative learning, students can team up with peers in
problem-solving activities and not necessarily relying on a teacher as the only authority.
Secondly, teachers revealed that assessing and controlling learners under a cooperative
group setup was quite difficult. Researchers from other settings (e.g., Blatchford, Kutnick,
Baines, & Galton, 2003; Topping, Buchs, Duran, & Keer, 2017) have also cited similar
challenges on teacher resistance to cooperative learning implementation in their classrooms.
Teachers opt to use expository teaching methods in their classrooms as those methods are
considered well suited for ensuring a disciplined class environment and an easier way to assess
learners’ academic achievement. However, this is at variance with the principles of a modern
constructivist approach, which advocates for learning environments where learners are actively
and directly involved in creating meaning and constructing knowledge as opposed to passively
receiving information. Hadi et al. (2018) are equally of the view that education in the 21st
century should not be regarded as a mere transfer of ready-made knowledge from the teacher
to the learner.
Thirdly, students’ low caliber or low reasoning ability was seen as an impediment to
effective implementation of cooperative learning by most of the teachers. Coupled with poor
communication skills, students’ failure to express themselves was cited as one of the reasons
teachers resist implementing cooperative learning in their classrooms. This challenge is not
new, neither is it unique to the Zambian context. Webb (1991) and Webb and Farivar (1994)
also observed that students who were not able to communicate effectively were less likely
to benefit from cooperative learning. Due to shortcomings in language, such students may

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754 find it difficult to explain their reasoning to others, neither could they ask questions nor offer
constructive criticism. To effectively overcome such challenges, Gillies & Boyle (2010) guided
that teachers should be oriented on how they can embed cooperative learning methodologies in
their classrooms to foster open communication and create an environment where every student
feels emotionally secure and supported.
Fourth, teachers reported that the examination system was still based on memorization of
facts, which might not require collaboration among students. Besides the examination system
being too predictable, it was also revealed that the syllabus was too bulk thereby forcing teachers
to teach students to memorize those concepts that are likely to feature in their final examination
papers. Like in other previous research (e.g. Aksit, Niemi & Nevgi, 2016; Buchs et al., 2017;
Gillies & Boyle, 2010; Sharan, 2010) most of the participants indicated that cooperative
learning techniques are too demanding in terms of preparation and implementation and so
teachers would prefer expository teaching that would enable them to complete the syllabus
and make their students pass the exam. However, this is against the guidance provided by
the Zambian curriculum for secondary school mathematics (Curriculum Development Centre,
2013), which advocates for teaching the skills that are relevant to addressing societal problems
amidst the growing sophistication in science and technology. In view of this, there is a need to
orient teachers on how they can effectively implement cooperative learning techniques even in
the thick of those challenges.
Suggested Ways for Effective Utilization of Cooperative Learning in

Mathematics Classrooms
Apart from reporting the challenges associated with cooperative learning implementation,
teachers made suggestions on how some of the identified challenges could be addressed. Some
participants pointed out that there is a need to consider mixing learners with varying aptitudes
when forming cooperative groups. Ensuring that each group has a gifted student would be helpful
and beneficial to weak students. This suggestion is consistent with what has been recommended
by previous researchers (Kramarski & Mevarech, 2003; Slavin, 2015). Having students to learn
in small heterogeneous groups is likely to enhance their communication, creativity, problem-
solving and critical thinking skills.
On the other hand, the idea of mixing students with varying aptitudes was not seen as
a good way to effective implementation of cooperative learning by some participants. They
observed that a group might have performed well because one or two members did the work
while the rest assumed the role of a spectator. It was also pointed out that the views of the less
able students are not always respected by group members. Teachers were then asked to suggest
some ways through which such challenges could be addressed. Most of them were of the view
that before the commencement of group work discussions, a teacher ought to have indicated to
the learners that the presenter from each group will be chosen at random. They indicated that
doing so would be an encouragement for the less able students to seek clarification from the
more knowledgeable ones.
The above-stated suggestion could be complemented by Slavin's (2015) recommendation
on the need for teachers to design tasks that would enable each group member to learn something.
All group members should aspire to spend time clarifying their reasoning to group mates as
well as asking for more explanations from their peers. This also suggests the need for teachers
to select problem-solving tasks that would enable learners to attain a deeper understanding of
various mathematical concepts.
Awarding hardworking and cooperative groups was also viewed as a way of encouraging
learners to participate in group work discussions. Teachers indicated that awards should not be
restricted to material items only but that students belonging to the same group could be given

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the same mark. Sticking of results for each group on the class notice board could also be an 755
encouragement for learners to cooperate whenever a group task is given.
Lastly, it was also noted that most teachers likened cooperative learning to a mere group
work. It was noted that some teachers who attempted to give group work did not explain clearly
on how important it was for each group member to participate fully in cooperative group
discussions. In view of this, teachers should always try to make it clear to their students that
cooperative learning goes beyond a mere group work as it encompasses issues of individual
responsibility, accountability and partnership (Le et al., 2018; Navarro & Gallardo, 2015). In
other words, teachers should always make students aware of their individual responsibilities for
each group to attain the set targets.
Conclusions and Implications
Findings of this research show that expository teaching methods have continued to
dominate mathematics classrooms in selected public secondary schools of Ndola district in
Zambia. Teachers also reported several challenges associated with cooperative learning
implementation in their mathematics classrooms. Although some of the findings of this research
do not differ significantly from what has been reported previously, this is one of the few studies
conducted in Zambia and possibly in other Sub-Saharan African countries where the practitioners
(teachers) have made suggestions on what needs to be done to improve cooperative learning
implementation in school mathematics classrooms. This appears to be an appropriate way of
informing policymakers and other stakeholders about homegrown solutions rather than merely
depending on what has been done elsewhere.
It has also been noted that teachers from those selected schools might have not been
exposed to effective use of cooperative learning approaches during their initial teacher training
as well as in-service professional orientation workshops. Another unique finding was that some
teachers believed that the reasoning ability levels of their students were quite low (on average)
and so employing cooperative learning in their classrooms could be risky. It has also been
noted that the major emphasis by the Zambian education system is on making students pass the
national examinations and progress to higher levels of education. This tends to leave teachers
with no option but to make use of expository teaching methodologies that seem to be well-suited
for them to complete the bulky syllabus and try to make students pass their final examinations.
One notable inference that could be of value at international level is that the number
of learners will increase as the population rises, so education systems will have to deal with
large classes against inadequate or reducing numbers of teachers. However, a deliberate action
of orienting mathematics teachers (in-service and pre-service) in cooperative as well as other
learner-centered or active learning methods is required. It is also beneficial to steer away
from examination-oriented teaching and curricula because it is detrimental in the long run as
it deprives learners of opportunities of authentic learning. Cooperative learning, if properly
implemented can assist in reaching the students and offering them a chance to interact with
content. For that reason, further research could investigate other possible challenges and
how those challenges could be addressed. Further research could also investigate the effects
of different cooperative learning models to identify the most appropriate ones for different
educational settings worldwide.
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ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0292-1324
Vedaste Mutarutinya Ph.D., Senior Lecturer of Mathematics, University of Rwanda, College of Education (UR-
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E-mail: sudib@must.ac.ug

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758
PRINCIPALS’ ROLE IN MANAGING
TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH A TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS
Millicent Ngema, Mapheleba Lekhetho
University of South Africa, Republic of South Africa
Email: engemam@unisa.ac.za, lekhem@unisa.ac.za
Abstract
Despite South Africa’s high spending in education compared to other sub-Saharan countries, its
education system is often criticized as ineffective as evidenced by poor student outcomes in both national
and international assessments. This educational inefficiency is often linked to poor teacher quality,
particularly in mathematics and science where some teachers are considered to have content knowledge
below the level at which they are teaching. The researchers interviewed five primary school principals
in KwaZulu-Natal on the training needs analysis methods they used to identify the training needs of
foundation phase teachers. They all reported that they only used the Integrated Quality Management
System template provided by the Department of Basic Education. However, they did not use it optimally
due to a lack of comprehensive knowledge of how it should be implemented. In order to address this, it is
recommended that principals should receive thorough training on the implementation of the Integrated
Quality Management System, and that training needs analysis should be conducted on a quarterly basis
rather than once a year.
Keywords: integrated quality management system, professional development, training needs analysis,
interpretive paradigm.
Introduction
The South African education system is often criticized as inefficient and wasteful as
indicated by poor educational outcomes, weak management of schools, poor teacher quality,
an ineffective system for identification of teachers’ training needs, and limited professional
development (PD) opportunities. This is worrying since South Africa spends around six percent
of its budget on education, which is far more than most sub-Saharan Africa countries, yet its
educational outcomes are far worse and its educational quality is poor and weak, particularly
for the black African population (Mlachila & Moeletsi, 2019; Motala, 2001). Despite this
generalization, the apartheid-era educational inequalities still exist in the sense that the formerly
‘whites-only’ schools are still high performing, whereas the previously ‘blacks-only’ schools
tend to be low performing (Spaull, 2014). Spaull (2015) further noted that South Africa has
fared badly in national and international assessments of educational achievement. In 2015, it
ranked 75 out of 76 countries in a list of education systems drawn up by OECD, and second-
last in a ranking of 34 countries by the International Association for Evaluation of Educational
Achievement in Grade 8 mathematics and last in science (Mlachila & Moeletsi, 2019). It also
fares badly in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) designed to
assess the learners’ knowledge of mathematics and science in Grades 4 and 8 (Reddy et al, 2016;
Spaull 2014). This bleak scenario confirms Motala’s (2001) assertion that the achievement of
education quality is an enormous challenge in South Africa.
As a strategy to diagnose and address the causes of poor educational outcomes, the
Department of Basic Education (DBE) conducted the first Annual National Assessments (ANAs)

Millicent NGEMA, Mapheleba LEKHETHO. Principals’ role in managing teacher professional development through a training needs
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in Grades 1–6 and Grade 9 in 2011 (DBE, 2014; Van der Berg, 2015). ANAs were primarily 759
introduced to evaluate the quality of primary education and the learners’ shortcomings, focusing
particularly on literacy and numeracy in the foundation phase (Grades 1–3) and languages and
mathematics in the intermediate phase (Grades 4–6) (DBE, 2019a; Van der Berg, 2015). An
analysis of the 2011 ANA results shows that the performance of South African primary schools
is generally poor, since even the best province, the Western Cape at 46 percent in Grade 3
literacy, was “well below what can be considered acceptable” (DBE, 2011, p. 6). Spaull (2013)
confirmed this educational crisis stating thus, “…with the exception of a wealthy minority –
most South African pupils cannot read, write and compute at grade-appropriate levels, with large
proportions being functionally illiterate and innumerate” (p. 3). This situation is disturbingly
bleak and shows that the government’s efforts to improve learners’ achievement have not made
much impact.
Robinson (2019) linked the learners’ alarming underachievement portrayed above to
poor teacher quality stating that most mathematics teachers possess content knowledge below
the level at which they are teaching. To address this, she proposed the introduction of high
teacher professional standards, which requires having high expectations of teaching quality.
She averred, “if you expect more from teachers, don’t allow them into the classroom until
they’ve met a basic set of criteria, and hold them to account if they fall short, then the quality
of teachers will improve” (p. 1). This accentuates the centrality of well-qualified, competent
teachers to learners’ academic success and the need for teacher training institutions to improve
their admissions selectivity and for school authorities to be selective when appointing teachers.
Research Problem
The success of a country’s education system depends largely on the quality and efficiency
of its teachers in performing their jobs. However, for teachers to do their work effectively, they
should be provided with relevant and adequate support and training. To accomplish this, a
training needs analysis (TNA) should be done for every teacher to determine their needs and
how these needs can be addressed. This research was prompted by the researchers’ realization
that many learners in the foundation phase (Grades 1–3) in the Imfolozi Circuit in KwaZulu-
Natal underperform despite the significant allocation of human and nonhuman resources to
these schools by the government. This situation shows that the government’s concerted efforts
to improve the learners’ achievement do not make much impact.
This research was undertaken to explore whether teachers are well equipped to perform
their duties effectively as expected. In particular, it probed whether principals are effective
in providing expected leadership in different aspects of their schools to ensure teacher
productivity and enhance quality education. The research probed how principals conducted
TNA for foundation phase teachers in their schools in order to assist them in their PD efforts.
Specifically, this research sought to answer the following main research question: How do
principals identify professional development needs of foundation phase teachers in order to
enhance their competencies?
Needs Assessment Context in South African Schools
Although the problems highlighted above can be addressed at different levels of the
country’s education system, this research focused on the school level, particularly on the
role played by principals in conducting TNA for teachers. Principals play a central role in
the professional growth of teachers, and this, in turn, influence student outcomes positively
(Brown & Militello, 2016; Kraft & Gilmour, 2016). They have an enormous influence on the
effective functioning of schools and creating a success-oriented school culture that supports

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760 teachers’ PD. Although the research focuses on TNA, it is helpful to explain the concept of
professional development, which is closely related. The OECD (2009) explained PD as the
“activities that develop an individual’s skills, knowledge, expertise and other characteristics
as a teacher” (p. 49). For Darling-Hammond, Hyler, and Gardner (2017), PD is structured
professional learning that seeks to improve teacher practices and student learning. It is also
defined as a comprehensive, sustained and intensive process of enhancing the effectiveness
of teachers and principals in order to raise student achievement (Brown & Militello, 2016).
Some of the descriptors used for PD include in-service training, continuing education, staff
development and self-improvement (Bredeson, 2002) intended to deepen teachers’ mastery
of content, critical thinking and problem-solving in order to develop 21st century student
competencies (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).
PD is instrumental to student learning and educational achievement which are key
indicators of educational quality (National Planning Commission, 2012). In South Africa, the
goal of continuing professional development is to improve teachers’ instructional practices, the
standard of teaching and student learning, and the quality of education (Jita & Mokhele, 2014;
Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2013). For PD programmes to be successful, the principal should
conduct an effective TNA for teachers. This helps to determine the current levels of performance
and knowledge related to a specific activity and indicates the highest levels expected (Cekada,
2010). As Coetzee (2007) noted, an individual TNA identifies individuals who should receive
PD within an organization and the kind of PD they need to improve their performance. Steyn
(2011) submitted that it is understandable why some teachers consider official PD programmes
to be wasting their time and are not keen to attend them because they do not address their
individual development needs or those of their schools.
Steyn (2011) noted that one of the weaknesses of the National Policy Framework for
Teacher Education and Development in South Africa (NPFTED) is that, although it underscores
the need for sustained leadership and support, it does not clearly encourage or clarify school-
based programmes for teacher development or the role of principals in such programmes. It is
a fruitless exercise if teachers receive training in areas that do not address their professional
or pedagogical needs because this may lead to a loss of morale. As Quint (2011) argued, the
primary role of the principal is to ensure that the school is committed to ongoing learning
and improvement, to organize regular meetings that foster change for teachers, to monitor the
content of teachers’ meetings and to explore strategies that can improve learners’ achievement.
To achieve this, it is also important that school leaders should mobilize resources to support
teachers and forge productive relations and collaboration among them as they engage in the
process of reflective practice (Wells, 2013).
In South Africa, teachers’ PD needs are addressed through different mechanisms such
as the IQMS and Continuing Professional Teacher Development programmes (DBE, 2011).
The IQMS was introduced to develop teachers’ competencies, to monitor and evaluate their
performance, and to provide support and opportunities for development (More, 2016; Tsotetsi &
Mahlomaholo, 2013). It can indirectly be used to monitor an institution’s overall effectiveness,
assess its strengths and weaknesses and promote accountability. However, the IQMS provincial
coordinators who visit schools from time to time often report that many of the problems and
inconsistencies in the system are caused by lack of proper understanding and insufficient teacher
development and support (DBE, 2011). In general, teachers consider the IQMS processes to be
time-consuming and believe that they should be streamlined by reducing paperwork and time
involved.
The IQMS plays a pivotal role in needs assessment in South African schools, and its
implementation is mandatory. Therefore, it is important that PD should be one of the top
priorities on the school’s agenda (Mestry, Hendricks, & Bisschoff, 2009). Its implementation
entails the recording of teachers’ needs in their Personal Growth Plans (PGPs) where they

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indicate the areas in which they want to be developed (DBE, 2011). However, the DBE (2011) 761
noted that teachers’ performance appraisals executed through the IQMS do not evaluate
competences sufficiently, and therefore, it does not help teachers to identify their development
needs adequately.
Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
The research has adopted two main TNA models, namely the organization-task-person
model often referred to as the OTP model developed by McGehee and Thayer in 1961, and
the performance analysis model developed by Mager and Pipe in 1970 (cited in Taylor,
O’Driscoll, & Binning, 2006) to frame the discussion. The OTP model has three components:
organization analysis, task analysis and person analysis. Organization analysis involves
assessing the goals and objectives, resource needs and efficiency indicators of an organization
to determine the areas where training is required (Taylor et al., 2006). In the context of this
research, training needs could be determined by reviewing school policies on aspects such as
student admission, subject choice, student absenteeism, ICT, instructional practices and staff
competencies. Task analysis (sometimes referred to as ‘operations’ analysis) seeks to establish
performance standards, the tasks that need to be performed to achieve those standards, the way
tasks are performed, and the knowledge and skills required to perform such tasks in order to
determine the content and scope of training required (Cekada, 2010; Taylor et al., 2006). This
could be established by assessing teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and instructional
competencies in their subjects. Finally, person analysis seeks to establish who needs training
and the type of training they need (Cekada, 2010; Taylor et al., 2006). This could be achieved
by determining the level at which each employee is operating to meet performance standards,
usually through performance appraisals. In schools, teacher competence can be ascertained
through performance appraisals, teacher observations and learner achievements in comparison
with others in similar circumstances or national standards.
Taylor et al. (2006) argued that performance analysis is an alternative model that seeks
to determine the causes of discrepancies between the desired and the actual performance. It
seeks to identify the performance gap, its root causes and possible solutions. It advocates
that training should be provided only when a performance discrepancy is linked to lack of
knowledge or skill, and not to other factors that influence work behaviour such as rewards and
punishments. The model also assumes that performance problems can be addressed by changing
the work environment rather than increasing the knowledge and skills of employees, implying
that training in organizations has little effect on worker productivity. If executed properly in a
school, performance analysis may point to deficiencies in teachers’ actual performance in areas
such as content knowledge and instructional practices against expected performance levels.
However, providing training only when there is a performance discrepancy may be problematic
because teaching is a dynamic profession that requires educational leaders to continuously look
out for training opportunities to develop and support teachers professionally in order to stay
abreast of developments in the profession.
The Principal’s Role in Teachers’ Professional Development
PD is seen as an antidote to all the challenges that ail education since the remedy for
all the complaints lodged against schools involves some form of PD. Brown and Militello
(2016) noted that most policymakers and leaders focus on interventions for teachers since they
have the most direct impact on student learning as they deliver subject content daily in class.
In spite of this, they observed, “the content, context, and delivery of PD in schools are fluid
and idiosyncratic” (p. 703). In South Africa where there is still a widespread problem of poor

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762 educational outcomes, the most direct way of improving the quality of teaching and learning is
through a comprehensive reform, review and reorientation of in-service education for teachers
(DBE, 2019b; Jita & Mokhele, 2014; Steyn, 2008). This could foster high-quality teacher
learning, and improve teachers’ knowledge and instructional practices. Arikewuyo (2009)
contended that this could be done if principals provide leadership through developing their own
professional knowledge, organizational and administrative competencies; developing sound
school policies; knowing how to delegate authority; and establishing good working relationships
with staff and parents. This requires principals to ensure that all school systems, processes and
human resources are transformed and improved gradually for optimal performance.
One of the key responsibilities of teachers is to support teachers and ensure that they
receive professional development continuously in order to stay efficient in their jobs (Ngema,
2016). Effective leaders engage teachers in reflective professional discourse, draw on research
and external ideas to shape their thinking and actions and challenge them to think critically
about what they want to achieve with learners and how they want to do it (Jita & Mokhele,
2014; Steyn, 2008). For this reason, Grogin and Andrews (2002) averred, “the school principal
is a key lynchpin between teacher development and school improvement” (p. 249). This
underscores the fact that principals play a pivotal role in creating and nurturing a success-
oriented school culture that supports teachers’ PD to enhance student outcomes. This research
explored how principals ensure that individual professional needs of foundation phase teachers
in the Imfolozi Circuit, KwaZulu-Natal are properly analysed.
Components of Teacher Knowledge
Since its transition to democracy in 1994, South Africa has undergone significant
curricular reforms that include Curriculum 2005, which was first introduced in 1998, and was
intended to be implemented in phases until its complete rollout in 2005. However, before this
could be realized, the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) was introduced in 2002.
Due to some teething problems in its implementation, RNCS was revised and renamed the
National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in 2008. The NCS also had some technical problems in
its design and content and was replaced by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
in 2012 (DBE, 2012). These rapid curricular changes have occurred over a short period, and
require teachers to continuously upskill and update their content and pedagogical knowledge.
During the phases of curriculum change, teachers normally attend workshops to prepare for its
implementation; however, many of these are ineffective as teachers encounter difficulties in
understanding and implementing the curriculum. In terms of the National Education Policy Act
(27/1996): Norms and Standards for Educators (2000), teachers are required to fulfil seven roles
of being a mediator of learning, assessor, designer of learning programmes, leader, manager and
administrator, researcher, scholar and lifelong learner and to take on a pastoral role.
Effective implementation of a new curriculum requires teachers to apply up-to-date
teaching strategies and techniques. To achieve this, they need to have sound knowledge of
the content and pedagogical content knowledge. Content knowledge involves knowing about
a topic from deep learning of the subject, whereas pedagogical content knowledge involves
knowing about the teaching and learning of a topic using effective instructional strategies
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Kind, 2009). Teachers with sound content knowledge and
pedagogical knowledge for particular content have been shown to provide high-quality
instruction (Kleickmann et al., 2012). Finally, the changes in curriculum require teachers to
access continuous, high-quality professional learning opportunities to develop and acquire new
relevant knowledge and skills. This indicates how crucial it is to ensure that a professional
development needs analysis of each teacher is done to determine whether he or she is able to
fulfil all the roles of the teacher outlined above.

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Some Approaches to Training Needs Analysis 763
Chiu, Thompson, Mak, and Lo (1999) identified two broad categories of training needs,
namely supply-led approach and demand-led approach. The supply-led approach, which
is described as ‘pedagogical’, is trainer-driven and authority-oriented in the sense that it is
directed by the vested interests of trainers. In this traditional approach, trainers are responsible
for identifying the needs and determining the scope of training. However, the weakness of this
approach is that trainers often lack line management experience and may not understand the
operational issues on the ground. This approach seems to be predominant in South African PD
programmes since it is mostly the DBE officials who identify the teachers’ training needs and
provide training without much input from the trainees.
The demand-led approach can be either business-oriented, process-oriented or trainer-
centred. The business-oriented approach emphasizes ‘bottomline’, profitability and growth
(Chiu et al., 1999). It uses an organization’s business plan as one of the sources of information
about training needs. It is considered to be anticipatory because it seeks to develop the skills
that an organization needs to achieve its objectives or growth. However, one criticism of this
approach is that it is top-down and emphasizes the business outcomes more than the trainee’s
development needs. Similarly, the process-oriented approach focuses on a division or department
rather than the whole organization (Chiu et al., 1999). Training is dictated by new processes like
technology or a new curriculum in schools. In such a scenario, training needs are identified to
ensure that the new work processes are implemented in an effective manner.
The trainer-centred approach uses “lectures or different kinds of presentations…
to transmit theoretical knowledge and basic skills to trainees who [are] treated as passive
recipients of ‘readymade’ knowledge rather than active agents engaged in decision-making
processes” (Tzotzou, 2016, p. 14). This approach is often contrasted with the trainee-centred
or an ‘andragogical’ approach (Delahaye, 1992). It is bottom-up, self-development driven and
emphasizes the employee’s training needs more than the business outcome or work efficiency
(Charungkaittikul & Henschke, 2018). It relies more on self-assessment as a source of
information that depicts a true reflection of the trainee’s development needs. In South African
schools, the DBE uses this approach by means of a standard IQMS template administered by
the principal to identify the teachers’ training needs. From the teachers’ expressed needs, the
principal draws up a school training plan, which is submitted to the circuit and district offices
to develop the circuit and district training plans respectively. However, in practice, it does not
appear that these are used as a frame of reference when developing training programmes as the
content and structure of training are largely influenced by the objectives of the DBE or trainers.
General Background
The performance of South African learners in the national and international assessments
such as ANA and TIMSS is poor compared to other developing countries including some poorer
African countries. To address this, principals are required to improve the quality of teaching in
their schools mainly through PD for teachers. This can be achieved if principals conduct TNA
for teachers properly. Accordingly, five principals were interviewed in the Imfolozi Circuit
in KwaZulu-Natal province to probe their perceptions of TNA and how they conducted it for
teachers. The research followed an interpretivist paradigm, which underscores that the best
way to learn about people is to go to their natural settings to obtain rich information about
their lived experiences (Bertram & Christiansen, 2014), which enables the researcher to gain
new insights about a phenomenon of interest (Thanh & Thanh, 2015). In qualitative research,

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764 participants are afforded an opportunity to provide their interpretations, perceptions, meanings
and understandings of a phenomenon, which are then regarded as the primary sources of data.
A case study design was used to generate data as it allowed for a systematic in-depth study of
one particular case, which could be an individual, a group of people, a school or a community
(Rule & John, 2011).
Sample Selection
The research sample comprised five principals purposively selected from a population
of 45 primary school principals in the Imfolozi Circuit in KwaZulu-Natal province. This was
considered a manageable number that would allow intensive interviews in this qualitative
research. The participants were selected because of their vast work experience and knowledge
of the TNA processes in primary schools accumulated over many years, first as teachers and
later as principals. The research focused on how principals conducted TNA for foundation
phase teachers (Grades 1–3). The participants were selected from five geographic areas of the
circuit, namely deep rural, rural, township, informal settlements and urban areas in order to get
a balanced view of the principals’ conceptions and implementation of TNA in their schools.
The participants were requested to share their views, experiences and strategies for conducting
TNA for teachers. All the participants had more than three years’ experience as principals, and
therefore, it was assumed that they would provide rich first-hand information pertinent to the
research. To uphold the principles of anonymity and confidentiality, the five principals were
labelled P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 respectively.
Instrument and Procedures
Semi-structured interviews were deemed appropriate for this qualitative research

because they allowed principals to provide rich descriptive data on the tools and methods they
used to conduct TNA for foundation phase teachers. In South Africa, TNA is embedded in the
IQMS template provided by the DBE. The semi-structured interviews included open-ended
questions and further probing questions to clarify some answers given (De Vos et al., 2011). All
five principals interviewed were also observed in their respective roles during post-evaluation
meetings. Field notes were written during the interviews to ensure the recording of unanticipated
events (Rubin & Babbie, 2014), and a voice recorder was used to capture the discussions. The
participants mainly responded in English, but occasionally codeswitched to isiZulu (their home
language); however, their responses were carefully translated during the transcription process.
Data Analysis
Data were analysed in three stages: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. In
the first stage, data were broken down into distinct parts, and then combined into new ways
during the second and final stages. Thereafter, they were selected and arranged into core
categories, which were then organized into themes and subthemes that sharpened understanding
and enabled interpretation. A narrative analysis was used wherein the participants’ responses
and experiences were transcribed. The principals’ narratives presented during the individual
interviews were reformulated in a manner that retained their voices (Earthy & Cronin, 2018).
In other words, their stories were synthesized to provide a holistic view of their responses to
specific questions. In keeping with the narrative analysis, the researchers put themselves in
participants’ shoes and tried to see the world from their perspectives.
Since the research followed an interpretivist or naturalist approach, the objective was
not to generalize the findings, but to generate a rich and contextualized understanding of how

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principals conducted TNA for foundation phase teachers. Therefore, to ensure the trustworthiness 765
of the findings, some dependability and credibility mechanisms were infused into the data
generation process. Dependability was ensured by conducting research in five different contexts:
deep rural, rural, township, informal settlements and urban areas to increase confidence in the
findings, designing comprehensive questions focused on how principals conducted TNA, and
rechecking the interview questions several times because in qualitative research, “the researcher
is the instrument” (Patton, 2002, p. 14). This also influenced the credibility of the findings as
this typically depends on the researcher’s ability and effort (Golafshani, 2003). Anney (2014)
explained that credibility refers to the degree to which the findings reflect the actual meanings
of the participants. To ascertain this, member checks were conducted wherein transcribed data
was taken back to the participants to confirm or disconfirm its authenticity.
Research Results
The main purpose of this research was to explore how principals carried out TNA with
teachers at their schools. The main findings that emerged from the data were synthesized and
presented thematically using narrative analysis. In some cases, the participants’ verbatim
responses are cited for the purpose of clarity, using codes P1 to P5 to represent each of the five
principals. The following main themes that emerged from data analysis are discussed under
different sections:
• Principals’ understanding of their roles;

• A single method of conducting an individual needs analysis;
• Lack of clarity about who should address teachers’ needs;
• Personal and other contextual factors that hinder effective teacher development;
• Consequences of lack of proper needs identification and professional development
of teachers; and
• Failure to address individual needs of teachers.
Principals’ Understanding of Their Roles
The first interview question probed the principals’ views on their role in identifying the
teachers’ professional development needs. In responding to this question, all five principals
disclosed that one of their duties was to ensure that the IQMS processes were effectively
implemented in their schools, and that teachers attended the staff development activities and
workshops organized by the DBE. They reported that they were required to sensitize teachers
on the implementation of IQMS at the beginning of the year mainly through training. After
training, teachers normally chose their Development Support Group (DSG) made up of three
people, that is, the principal or other School Management Team (SMT) member, a peer and
the appraisee. The principals also stated that the first pre-evaluation meeting for the DSG was
a platform for members to meet with the appraisee to discuss their PGPs using a form where
teachers recorded their professional development needs. P1 clarified her role as follows:
My responsibility as the principal of the school is to see to it that teachers attend workshops, come
back and report to the staff. I have to ensure that IQMS processes are implemented properly. At
the beginning of the year, I have to train teachers on IQMS processes although I feel that, we, as
principals, need to be trained from time to time. The information that we have needs to be updated.
I last attended the workshop in 2003, and since, then I have never been invited to any workshop. I
have heard the updates from the IQMS monitor from national level who was visiting schools that
were randomly selected, and he was questioning about some forms that we did not have and we
never heard about.

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766 The lack of regular workshops highlighted above was also echoed by principals P2, P4
and P5. They stated that they needed to be trained regularly on effective implementation of
IQMS processes and decried the fact that they last attended the IQMS workshops in 2003 when
it was introduced, yet they were expected to train teacher on IQMS at the beginning of each year.
The disclosure by P1 in the above excerpt that she learned about some new information during
the monitoring visit by the DBE official highlights some shortcomings and gaps encountered
in the implementation of the instrument. Irregular workshops that are few and far between
may lead to inconsistencies in the implementation of IQMS. To highlight lack of support for
principals in implementing IQMS, P4 stated:
I ensure that I train teachers in IQMS at the beginning of every year. However, I am not confident
with some areas since I have not attended any IQMS workshop since I was appointed to this
principalship position five years ago. I was only trained by the principal of my previous school.
In this instance, it would be difficult for P4 to be efficient in the implementation of IQMS

as he operated solely with basic knowledge gained informally on the job from the previous
principal and not from well-organized workshops. Ideally, the DBE at the district and provincial
levels should run training workshops for newly appointed principals in all areas of school
management and teacher development; however, this is not the case.
A Single Method of Doing an Individual Needs Analysis
On the question of how they conducted an individual needs analysis for teachers’
professional development, the principals stated that, in compliance with the IQMS, they
only completed the PGP forms, and then consolidated this information to develop the School
Improvement Plan (SIP) as expressed in the extracts below.
Teachers fill in the Personal Growth Plan forms where they record prioritized areas in need of
development. After the teacher has been observed in class by the DSG, they assist the teacher
to record what they regard as her areas of development. The teacher’s areas of development are
written in assessment criteria as they appear in the IQMS performance standards (P1).
We implement IQMS, which helps us to identify and analyse individual needs at school. At the
first DSG meeting, a teacher and his or her team fill in the PGP forms. My role as the leader
is to motivate and monitor that teachers implement IQMS because it is for their professional
development (P2).
On further probing, the two principals revealed that they did not always complete the
PGP form as this depended on how teachers cooperated each year. It could be deduced that this
haphazard approach arose because they did not see its value and significance since the DBE
seldom provided the training that the teachers had indicated that they needed. They stated that
the DBE tended to focus on training teachers on the implementation of the new curriculum, and
ignored the specific training needs of individual teachers, a situation that thwarted the DBE’s
efforts to improve teacher efficiency.
Lack of Proper Guidelines on Who Should Address the Teachers’ Needs
The main purpose of conducting a TNA is to provide support to teachers on identified

needs. Accordingly, the following question was posed to principals: After collecting information
about the teacher’s needs, what do you do, and why do you think it is crucial to do a needs
analysis? Their responses indicate that there was confusion as to which of the identified teachers’
professional development needs should be addressed at the school, circuit or provincial level. In

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this respect, two principals stated that after teachers had submitted their PGPs, they identified 767
the needs that they could address at school and those that could be addressed at the circuit level
in the SIP as expressed in the excerpts below.
After collecting the teachers’ training needs, the SMT meets, looks at all the teachers’ needs for
the school, and chooses the ones that we might be able to address at school. We then compile the
School Improvement Plan and write all those that we feel may be addressed by the Department
of Education. We still have some challenges as the Department has been busy with curriculum
changes workshops over the past years, and the individual needs of each teacher have not been
attended to (P5).
Once all the teachers have been evaluated, I develop the school improvement plan where all the
information about the teachers’ needs as identified in their Professional Growth Plan is included.
The School Improvement Plan is submitted to the circuit office where they develop the Circuit
Improvement Plan. The only problem is that we keep on going through the same process of writing
SIP yearly, but the Department of Education has never attended to the individual needs of teachers
(P4).
P1 added to the debate as follows:
Teachers have become discouraged in writing these PGPs because they don’t see them being used
to improve their performance. I, as the principal of [the] school, have been writing in my PGP that
I would like to be developed in project management and advanced computer skills, but until now
I have never received any training on these.
Some level of frustration could be deduced from the above narratives premised on the
belief that although the principals conducted a TNA for teachers annually in accordance with
government policy, the follow-through was ineffective or non-existent. This highlights that in
schools, the teachers’ TNA was merely conducted as a routine exercise for policy compliance
without attaching much importance to it.
Personal and Contextual Factors That Hinder Effective Development of Teachers
In response to the question asking them to identify the factors that hindered effective
professional development, the participants identified teacher apathy to new knowledge, negative
attitudes towards work, lack of knowledge, poor implementation of IQMS processes, unhealthy
human relations at school, lack of resources and an unsafe work environment. Their views are
expressed in the following excerpts.
I believe a teacher should always be keen to learn. He or she should know his or her weaknesses
and seek support. A teacher must acquire new information on developments in the area of his
or her specialization like new teaching methods and assessment strategies. As the principal, it
is sometimes difficult to support a teacher who does not see the need for self-development (P2).
A teacher who does not upgrade herself or take responsibility for her development may not be able
to perform well, as there are lots of new developments in education (P5).
What takes place all around us these days requires one to desire to learn out of every situation and
circumstance in order to know what to do at a particular time and improve on what has previously
gone wrong. Some teachers do not do that; instead, they run away from any challenging situation
and the SMT members or other colleagues [then need] to address them (P2).
The above extracts underscore the need for teachers to take control of their self-
development. They can accomplish this by working together with principals, other teachers and
the DBE. Finally, the narratives also express the principals’ frustrations with teachers who do
not see the need for professional development.

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768 Consequences of Lack of Proper Needs Identification and Professional Development
Effective professional development can ideally take place after proper identification of
individual needs. In this sense, principals were asked to state what would happen if teachers
could not receive proper professional development. They all agreed that in such a scenario,
teachers would not perform their duties effectively, leading to some frustration and lack of
self-confidence. In particular, two principals felt that teachers might develop negative attitudes
towards change if their needs were not identified and they were not provided with relevant
professional development. These sentiments are expressed in the excerpts below.
If teachers do not attend professional development [activities] and learn about new changes in the
curriculum, they can have negative attitudes. Some teachers may stick to old methods of teaching
and become reluctant to use the methods that are recommended in the current curriculum (P2).
The result of not providing teachers with development is that, they may underperform and have
negative attitudes towards their work. I find it so challenging to deal with a person who has a
negative attitude because he or she usually opposes any new idea or activity and even influences
others to be on his or her side (P5).
Elaborating on the issue of teachers who had negative attitudes towards work, P3 and
P4 indicated that it was difficult to work with them because they tended to oppose whatever
activity was introduced at school and influenced others not to participate. Notwithstanding this,
it remains the duty of the principal to lead teachers with negative attitudes and persuade them
to see things differently failing which they may strain collegial relations and disturb order at
school. P1 and P2 viewed teacher demotivation to be deleterious and counterproductive in the
following way:
Demotivated teachers need close supervision in order to perform well and some do not even want
to participate in extra-curricular activities. Some complained that there is too much work [and]
that is why they sometimes fail to do other activities (P1).
From my observation in many years as a principal, a demotivated teacher lacks zeal and
knowledge about some issues, but does not necessarily display disrespect like most people who
have a negative attitude (P2).
Essentially, they felt that principals should have a way of dealing with demotivated
teachers, which may include creating a nurturing environment that would enable the SMT
members to provide them with strong support and encouragement. Motivating staff is one
of the key functions of school leaders, and therefore, principals should create a conducive
work environment that elicits and sustains teachers’ interest and commitment to their own
professional development.
Failure to Address Individual Needs of Teachers
To determine whether principals addressed the individual needs of teachers, the following
question was asked: Do you ensure that the individual needs of each teacher are addressed? The
participants’ responses were as follows:
I would say I try, but it is not easy because the Department has always been busy with training
teachers on the implementation of the new curriculum, [and] in that way, other shortcomings
that [an] individual teacher has, have been ignored. When we submit the SIPs, the Department is
supposed to provide workshops to teachers as per their needs, although we are not clear which
ones should be addressed in schools and which ones by the circuit office (P3).
We have managed to address the needs that we see that most teachers are short of. Since there

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have been different curriculum changes, the focus has been on preparing teachers for the 769
implementation of the curriculum. We have programmes like Jika iMfundo [turning education
around] and teachers have been attending workshops on this. It is not easy… to follow up on every
teacher’s individual needs (P5).
Discussion
A central theme that has emerged from this research is that South Africa’s quality of
education is low compared to other developing countries, despite allocating a higher proportion
of its national budget to education than other sub-Saharan Africa countries (Spaull, 2014; Spaull,
2015; van der Berg, 2015). From a rigorous analysis of regional and international assessments,
Spaull (2014) concluded that South Africa has the lowest score of all the developing countries
that participated in TIMSS, and that in the regional Southern and East Africa Consortium for
Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) assessments, its performance was worse than
poorer countries such as Swaziland, Tanzania and Kenya. However, Reddy et al. (2016) noted
that over the years, South Africa’s performance in TIMSS has improved steadily from ‘very
low’ to ‘low’, arguably because it started from a low base which made it possible for the
government’s school improvement efforts to make a difference.
The low achievement level of South African primary school learners is linked to teachers’
insufficient content knowledge, which has been reported to be below the level at which they are
teaching in some cases, particularly in mathematics and science. Spaull (2013) corroborated
that most Grade 6 teachers could not answer mathematics test questions correctly during the
SACMEQ III assessment, where some multiple-choice questions were the same as those for
the Grade 6 learners. Inevitably, this insufficient content knowledge is transferred to learners
because “teachers cannot teach what they do not know...” (Spaull, 2013, p. 27). This could
be a reflection of weak selection mechanisms for teachers entering the teaching profession,
and the comparatively low admission requirements for students enrolling for teacher training
programmes at universities.
The poor quality of South African primary education described above requires school
principals to provide purposeful leadership and professional support to teachers aimed at
improving their content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in order to enhance
the learners’ understanding. As Day and Sammons (2016) asserted, principals play a central
role in school improvement and creating learning and development opportunities for teachers.
To identify teachers’ professional development needs, it is imperative that principals should
conduct a TNA properly and thoroughly. It is also vital that managers should gather as much
information as possible about performance problems that can be addressed through training
(Chiu et al., 1999). However, the research findings indicate that in South African schools, TNA
is conducted in an ad hoc and uncoordinated fashion, usually through IQMS, a performance
appraisal system for teachers. Making training decisions on an ad hoc basis is unproductive,
and this can be changed by applying systematic approaches to TNA (Taylor et al., 2006). In this
research, principals seemed to have a narrow understanding of TNA as they only linked it to
completing IQMS processes. This could be attributed to lack of training on its application and
could explain why they are frustrated in implementing it, as there is no clarity regarding which
teachers’ needs should be addressed by the school and which by the district.
The findings further revealed that principals largely used a single method of conducting
a TNA, namely consolidating PGPs from individual teachers to develop SIPs (Ngema, 2016).
In turn, these are submitted to the circuit and district offices to develop the circuit improvement
plans (CIPs) and district improvement plans respectively. However, the main weakness of this
approach is that trainers do not incorporate teachers’ training needs stated in the PGPs and SIPs
in their training content. Training is often supply-led or trainer-driven and not informed by

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770 teachers’ expressed training needs (Chiu et al, 1999). In this authority-oriented approach, the
content and scope of training are determined by the DBE officials mostly around policy issues,
and not necessarily on matters related to content knowledge or pedagogical practices. This
approach renders the IQMS a routine exercise carried out purely to comply with government
policy and negates its primary role of promoting teacher productivity and accountability needed
to improve institutional efficiency advocated by this research.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The research findings indicate that there are weaknesses and lapses in the manner in
which an individual TNA and PD are conducted for foundation phase teachers in Imfolozi
Circuit in KwaZulu-Natal province. They highlight that teachers only identify their needs
during their IQMS post-evaluation meetings with principals and when they complete their
PGPs individually. Since these are both conducted once at the beginning of the year, there is no
provision for urgent training needs that may crop up during the course of the year. This shows
that, in its current form, the TNA in South African schools is authority-oriented and not trainee-
driven, leading to ineffective in-service training and professional development programmes.
Moreover, in many schools, the IQMS reviews are conducted hastily in one day without giving
due attention to all the critical aspects required for PD of every teacher. Accordingly, the
exercise is rendered ineffective as principals try to squeeze all the IQMS processes required for
every teacher into a single session.
Furthermore, proper conduct of a TNA is hampered by lack of clarity concerning the
PD needs that should be addressed by the DBE, and those that should be addressed by schools.
Another challenge is that the workplace skills plans are compiled by the provincial Department
of Education without proper follow-up on whether all teachers have received PD in the areas
they identified for themselves. In terms of the Skills Development Act (1998), all government
institutions including schools should develop annual workplace skills plans, which capture the
training needs of all employees. Consequently, principals should submit their SIPs to the circuit
office, which then consolidates the training needs of all the schools into a CIP and submits this
to the district office.
Instead of conducting a TNA for teachers once a year to fulfil the DBE’s IQMS
requirements, it is recommended that this should be conducted at least quarterly. This could
help to identify and address the teachers’ emerging training needs more effectively and in time,
especially because teaching is a challenging and dynamic profession that requires continuous
learning to ensure quality teaching. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Education (2007)
stipulates that teachers should take control of their professional development and identify
the areas in which they need to develop, guided by the South African Council of Educators,
the professional body for teachers. Therefore, it is also recommended that teachers should
independently conduct their own needs analysis once a week, and that supervisors should
conduct a TNA for each teacher once a term. Teachers should also keep records of their identified
needs indicating the kind of support received and dates when this took place. This could assist
them to track their own performance and monitor their progress and professional growth.
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Mapheleba Lekhetho Associate Professor, College of Education, University of South Africa,

(Corresponding author) P.O. Box 392, UNISA 0003, Muckleneuk Ridge, Pretoria, Republic of
South Africa.
E-mail: lekhem@unisa.ac.za

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774
INDUCTION OF WOMEN BEGINNER
TEACHERS AT TWO SOUTH AFRICAN
COMMUNITY SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Happy Ngwira
University of South Africa, South Africa
E-mail: ngwira78@live.com
Onoriode Collins Potokri

University of Johannesburg, South Africa
& Barry University Miami, USA
E-mail: cnuvie@gmail.com
Abstract
The quest of beginner teachers becoming experienced teachers remains a major issue within the
educational terrain. Induction experience(s) of beginner teachers particularly women in selected
community secondary schools in South Africa was the focus of this research. In this research, the
problems that women beginner teachers face at some selected schools, as well as the types of induction
programmes used to support them, as they grappled with the problems, were explored. A qualitative
research approach involving semi-structured interviews and non-participant observation was used in
the collection of the requisite data. A sample comprising two community secondary schools and four
women beginner teachers were selected to take part in the research. To make meaning of the data which
were collected, inductive analysis of the data was conducted. Communities of Practice was used as the
theory that underpinned the research findings reported in this paper. Based on the data analysis and the
communities of practice theory that served as the framework, the paper among other findings reports that
induction programmes used in sampled/selected schools were highly ineffective in supporting the women
beginner teachers to overcome the problems revealed. The research contributes to the body of knowledge
on the lived experiences of beginner teachers at the beginning of their teaching career and provides
recommendations on classroom management and dealing with ill-disciplined learners.
Keywords: beginner teacher; community practice; education leadership; teachers’ induction; women
teacher.
Introduction
Community schools are typical examples of township schools in South Africa. UNESCO
(2011) reveals that there are more women teachers at secondary schools in South Africa. Some
of these teachers are beginner teachers who are also known as novice teachers. Beginner
teachers are those teachers who are either participating in programmes of initial teacher
preparation (ITP) or those in their first three years of teaching as qualified teachers (Hobson,
Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009). The primary objective of the study whose findings are
reported here was to investigate how women beginner teachers at two community secondary
schools in Tembisa, South Africa were being inducted in their pursuit of becoming experienced
teachers. By experienced teachers, we mean experienced and professionally qualified teachers
who have been teaching for five years or more. This research sought to ascertain types of
problems women beginner teachers face at community secondary schools and as well as certain
induction programmes used to support women beginner teachers to accomplish objectives of
the study.

Happy NGWIRA, Onoriode Collins POTOKRI. Induction of women beginner teachers at two South African community secondary
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Background 775
The induction of beginner teachers at schools is crucial, particularly because of the

many problems that they encounter daily. According to Steyn and Van Niekerk (2012), the
potential problem areas for beginner teachers include reality shock, inadequate knowledge and
skills base, confusing and vague stakeholder expectations, isolation from adults, classroom
management problems, lack of resources, and increased workload.
An awareness of the problems experienced by beginner teachers and addressing their
needs may help to solve teachers’ attrition problems (Howe, 2006) and ensure quality teaching
in a rapidly changing teaching environment (Steyn, 2004). One way to address the needs of
women beginner teachers is through induction (Dube, 2008; Killeavy, 2006; Wong, 2004).
Induction may be broadly characterised as professional education and development tailored for
teachers in their first and second years of teaching (Olebe, 2005). Induction is vital for women
beginner teachers because, from the time they enter the profession, they assume full-scale and
full-time responsibilities that are similar to those of their more experienced colleagues (Magudu,
2014). These responsibilities often mean that women beginner teachers have to develop their
teaching skills through trial and error (Steyn & Schulze, 2005). Nevertheless, it would appear
that “although the need for help is recognised, formal programmes for the induction of beginner
teachers are not being implemented on a large scale” (Veenman, 1984, p. 165). As Steyn and
Schulze (2005) argue, despite the awareness that beginner teachers experience numerous
problems and require support, the induction of these beginner teachers has not received the
attention it deserves globally.
Scholarship Review
Problems Beginner Teachers Experience
From the first day of teaching, the beginner teacher bears the same responsibilities as
a teacher of 40 years of service (Veenman, 1984). Moreover, “these beginner teachers often
receive the most problematic assignments, the most difficult classes, and the fewest resources”
(Brock & Grady, 2007, p. 3). This has given rise to teaching being criticised as an occupation
that “cannibalises its young” and in which the initiation of new teachers is akin to a “sink or
swim,” “trial by fire” or “boot camp” experience (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).
If support to overcome challenges faced by beginner teachers is not forthcoming, this
may as well lead to problems with morale and premature career changes on the part of the
beginner teachers (Cobbold, 2007). Those beginner teachers who have no career option other
than teaching are often forced to develop a "survival kit" and a set of "coping strategies" to
deal with the problems they encounter (Flores & Ferreira, 2009). Unfortunately, dealing with
problems in this way may not be a solution; instead, it may result in more hardships for beginner
teachers (McCaan & Johannessen, 2004).
Following the problems discussed above, literature reveals that many trained teachers
exit the profession early in their careers (see Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). In other words, these
beginner teachers become dissatisfied with the outcomes of their work and decide that they are
unsuited to teaching and eventually leave the profession (Cooper & Stewart, 2009). It is well
documented that a high percentage of beginner teachers leave the teaching profession within
the first five years of teaching as they grapple with and succumb to the challenges caused by
several stressors (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Cooper & Stewart, 2009).

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776 Induction of Beginner Teachers
Farnsworth and Higham (2012) suggested that induction entails teaching and learning
focused on supporting young people into a profession or trade, or at least giving them a
chance to experience the trade or profession sufficiently to make informed career decisions.
Furthermore, Pare and Le Maistre (2006) reminded us that the task of induction is generally
given to experienced practitioners who supervise and manage the gradual transformation of
beginners into effective professionals. It is therefore vital that teachers especially beginner
teachers are guided and supported through an induction programme which provides them with
opportunities to extend their knowledge and skills (Dube, 2008). An induction programme
“ensures that new teachers have a mentor and a reduced teaching load and they are given time
to observe other teachers, interact with colleagues, and respond to the guidance offered by
the mentor who, in many cases, reviews their practice and recommends strategies to improve
the quality of their classroom interactions” (Howe, 2006, p. 292). The concept of induction
based on reading of the researchers refers to a process whereby beginner teachers acquire the
cultural, social and practical knowledge associated with the teaching profession and the school
community. Steyn and Schulze (2005) described induction as both a period of improvement
and transition and a process during which beginner teachers are supported in developing and
demonstrating competence, particularly during their first year of teaching.
Since teacher quality is the most important factor in the teaching and learning process,
induction must become widely accepted as a critical element in teacher education and development
(Brady, Hebert, Barnish, Kohmstedt, & Welsh, 2011). Following this, the researchers concur
with Killeavy (2006) that induction offers opportunities for new teachers to become habituated
to learning from the beginning and to be afforded opportunities to consult and collaborate with
their colleagues, therefore enabling them to engage collectively in the teaching profession.
With the offerings induction brings to teachers, they can develop and refine skills that are either
lacking or require improvement. However, “a more realistic goal for induction is to provide
the support and assistance necessary to develop the beginner teachers who enter the profession
and to assist them to acquire the requisite abilities and personal attributes to become successful
teachers” (Huling-Austin, 1986, p. 3). Induction at schools brings with it benefits which, among
others, “include attracting better candidates, reduced attrition, improved job satisfaction, and
enhanced professional development” (Howe, 2006: 287).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that informed the research is based on Wenger’s (1998) social
learning theory of communities of practice (CoP). Wenger (1998) defined CoP as a group of
people who are mutually engaged in a joint enterprise and who share a common repertoire –
sets of routines, tools, symbols, stories and other resources for engagement in their work. “In
the school setting, CoP exists at every level from beginner teachers to principals” (Bouchamma
& Michaud, 2011, p. 407). Lave and Wenger (1991) developed the theory of CoP after
conducting a study on situated learning which focused on apprenticeship programmes. “Much
of the learning in apprenticeship programmes happened during informal gatherings where the
participants interacted with each other, shared stories about their experiences and beginners
consulted openly with experts” (Li, Grimshaw, Nielsen, et al., 2009, p. 4).
The theory of CoPs has, in recent times, provided a useful perspective on knowledge
and learning as a growing number of people and organisations in various sectors are focusing
on CoPs as a key to improving their performance. For example, in schools, the application
of CoPs has been primarily in the context of staff development, particularly teacher training
(Bouchamma & Michaud, 2011). Nevertheless, as noted, from the work of Wenger, McDermott

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and Snyder (2002), the success of CoP depends too much on personal passion for coercion to 777
be effective. “As a social theory of learning, CoP must integrate the components necessary to
characterise social participation as a process of learning and of knowing” (Wenger, 1998, p.4).
These components include meaning, community, practice, and identity. CoPs meaning relates
to the acquiring of knowledge through experience (Bouchamma & Michaud, 2011). Therefore,
for any meaning to be achieved in a community, there should be participation (Magudu, 2014).
Therefore, women beginner teachers in a school may make meaning of what happens in their
classrooms by actively participating in activities and by always interacting with their more
experienced colleagues.
Negotiating the meaning of individuals’ experiences of membership in social communities
builds an identity. Identity refers to one’s construction of a trajectory that integrates the past
and the future into the meaning of the present (Jorgensen & Keller, 2008, p.532). Developing
a teaching identity requires that women beginner teachers engage in the practices of the school
in collaboration with other members of the community and to share the common repertoire
(Correa, Martίnez-Arbelaiz & Aberasturi-Apraiz, 2015). The crux of the matter is that, as
beginners participate in the social practices of the community with other members, especially
the elderly or experienced ones, they gradually take on the practices and become part of the
community. Killeavy (2006) reported that when beginner teachers in the school interact with
other teachers to form networks, hear multiple perspectives, receive helpful feedback, and
understand their roles and responsibilities toward the school, as well as toward the profession,
only then it can be said that they function as a community.
Research Approach
The qualitative research approach was used in the collection and analysis of the data.
Within the qualitative approach, a phenomenological case study design was used. This enabled
the researchers to investigate the induction challenges and experiences of women beginner
teachers at the two selected/sampled community secondary schools.
Research Instruments
Semi-structured interviews and observation of participants served as data collection

methods. Interviews provided the researchers with in-depth information on the participants'
experiences and viewpoints regarding the induction of beginner teachers. The observation
technique used was semi-structured. The observation was used because it provided direct
evidence on what leaders including leaders to be like beginner teachers did (see Bush, 2017).
In as far as observation was concerned, researchers made time during the school days with
the permission of the Department of Basic Education and the schools' management as well
as participants to observe the participants in their workplaces. The researchers observed the
following, namely, classroom management, working conditions, the availability of resources,
knowledge of the curriculum and planning and presentation of lessons and, lastly, the support
provided by various role players (principals, mentors and fellow teachers).
Sample/Sampling
A purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants. Four women
beginner teachers (two from each school) from two secondary schools in Tembisa community
or township, South Africa were selected. However, three eventually participated based on the

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778 decline of one teacher who gave no reason. The women beginner teachers were selected based
on their period of employment at their respective schools (ranging from three months to three
years). In this research, both beginner teachers and schools are identified by pseudonyms.
Data Analysis
Obtained data were analysed using inductive data analysis. Inductive analysis is the
process by which qualitative researchers analyse and construct meaning from the data, starting
with specific data and ending with categories and patterns (See McMillan & Schumacher,
2010, p. 367). The inductive process of this research comprised of six steps. The researchers
started the process with the organisation of the collected data which, was made possible through
transcribing of interview data. The second step was basically reading through the data severally.
The researchers did this in order to understand the overall meanings of the responses of
participants. The second step was followed with a detailed analysis process being the third step.
At this point, the researchers arranged collected data into categories. Step 4 was concerned with
development of themes. These themes emerged from the categorises. These themes constituted
the major findings of the study. Following the emergence of the themes, step 5 commenced with
decision on how to present the themes to reflect the findings or research results. The researchers
settled for a narrative format of presentation. At the final step (step 6), the researchers were
concerned about the interpretation of data. The researchers interpreted the data vis – a – vis
the themes in order to capture the essence of the responses obtained from the participants.
The interpretation was based on researchers’ understanding of the research phenomenon given
reviewed literature and the theoretical framework. In all the steps, common issues in order
words, themes that are same as those from interview responses of participants were taken into
consideration.
Research Results
The findings are categorised into two main subheadings, that is, problems women
beginner teachers faced at sampled schools and induction of beginner teachers at sampled
schools.
Problems Women Beginner Teachers Face
The research found that the problems women beginner teachers faced at the sampled
schools included reality shock, overcrowding and learner misbehaviour, dealing with
unsupportive parents and vulnerable learners and inadequate resources.
Reality Shock
When beginner teachers started teaching at the sampled secondary schools, they
experienced many challenges. Given these challenges, their prior expectations about teaching
immediately turned into a reality shock. This was highlighted by the women beginner teachers
who indicated that teaching was not as simple as they had previously believed. “When I was at
school as a child, everyone said that teaching was simple but I now realise that it is not simple
at all. It was kind of a shock for me to see learners talk and behave so badly in my presence”
(Beginner teacher A2). For most beginner teachers, the first six months at the school were
torturous and very difficult to accept. They were deeply shocked by the situation at school. “It
was horrible. I wanted to die. I just wanted to quit. I experienced how brutal this profession
could be and how awful people can be in terms of not supporting you as a new teacher. Some

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teachers are pretty mean, like, they could be very mean. I end up not asking for help. Even 779
Heads of Departments (HoDs) could not assist me when I was facing problems” (Beginner
teacher A1).
Overcrowding and Learner Behaviour
The women beginner teachers in the sample cited overcrowding as one of the major
problems they experienced at the sampled schools. An emotional Beginner teacher A3 had the
following to say about the overcrowding in the classroom:
“I think classroom overcrowding is the biggest challenge in South Africa. I think the Department
of Education is aware that the biggest challenge in ordinary public schools is the large numbers
of learners in the classrooms. For example, now I have 60 learners in Grade 10. You give 60
learners homework, how are you going to mark all of them? Not only that but also managing an
overcrowded classroom is a nightmare. Like, you can’t discipline or manage a class with more
than 60 learners. That’s too much for any teacher to handle”.
During the observation, the challenges these beginner teachers were facing was witnessed.
Apart from the fact that the classrooms were overcrowded, the majority of the learners in these
classrooms were adolescents. From the beginner teachers’ point of views, teaching adolescents
exacerbated the problems of ill behaviour in the classrooms. One teacher commented as follows:
“They are hyper, they have a lot of energy and they make a lot of noise. It is very difficult to
handle adolescent learners in the classroom. They are tough. Even if you give them punishment,
sometimes, it doesn't make any difference. There are some days when you get tired and you just
let it go. You just allow them to do whatever, because disciplining them each day does not produce
the intended results” (Beginner teacher A1).
Undoubtedly, teaching large classes resulted in the beginner teachers experiencing

difficulties in controlling the learners. When the researchers visited Beginner teacher A2’s class
at school X, it was revealed that one of the worst forms of learner misbehaviour with several
learners in the classroom was to show little respect for the teacher. Even in presence of the
researchers, they continued playing and making noise. The best way in which to describe the
lesson was there was no order in the classroom. Learners left and came back into the classroom
as they wished. In trying to exert her authority, the beginner teacher sent five learners out of
the classroom for misbehaving. To amazement of the researchers, the learners walked out of
the classroom appearing to be unconcerned about the punishment. They were in a jovial mood.
They even invited other classmates to join them. While outside, they continued talking to their
friends through the windows. Although the teacher pretended that nothing was happening and
continued teaching, the researchers noticed the anger and frustration building upon her face. In
the end, she became so overwhelmed by the whole ordeal that she lost control of the class and
abruptly stopped teaching, and walked out of the classroom.
Dealing with Unsupportive Parents and Vulnerable Learners
In addition to their difficulties in managing overcrowded classrooms and dealing with

ill-disciplined learners, participants also had to deal with unsupportive parents and vulnerable
learners. It appeared that the parents did not really care about what their children were doing
at schools.
According to the verbatim quote from the interviews, the beginner teachers viewed the
parents as uncooperative when it came to school matters. Not only did the parents refuse to

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780 attend meetings, but it was also very difficult to get hold of them when the need arose. “In most
cases, when the learner has a problem we struggle to get hold of the parent. You give a letter
to the learner to hand it over to the parents, they will never even bother to come and hear what
the problem is” (Beginner teacher A3). Such pleas to the parents clearly signal that the beginner
teachers were aware that they could not solve the learners’ problems on their own and that they
needed to work closely with the parents if they were to succeed.
In addition to the lack of parental support, the beginner teachers also had to deal with the
issue of handling vulnerable learners. Given the high crime and poverty levels in the townships,
it was unavoidable that the two schools sampled may be confronted with the issue of having to
deal with vulnerable learners.
“In township schools, we have learners whose living conditions are not ideal. They come from
poor households. Some are physically and sexually abused by people who must take care of them.
Some of them have children or siblings to take care of. So, even though the person is in the
classroom she is not listening to you because she is worried about what the child is going to eat
or wear” (Beginner teacher A3).
It is very difficult for beginner teachers to deal with vulnerable learners. In the
study findings reported in this paper, participants became emotionally overwhelmed by the
vulnerability of some of the learners they taught. Close to tears, Beginner teacher A2 expressed
her feelings about the vulnerability of the learners in the following way:
“I am an emotional person. So when I see a kid who is struggling like they don’t have food,
clothes and so on, breaks my heart. I look at things that they might be experiencing at home like
physical abuse, sexual abuse, whatever. Like they let you know certain things and you just want
to breakdown and cry. It’s tough to see these kids suffering and you know there is nothing you can
do about it.”
Inadequate resources
During the data collection, the researchers heard and saw how the issue of inadequate
resources at the two schools affected beginner teachers. As a result of inadequate resources in
her classroom, Beginner teacher A1 unsurprisingly expressed her anger as follows:
“Lack of resources drives me crazy because I have to use other means to teach. And I also have
to like pick up equipment from one place to another. That causes things to get broken and lost on
the way. I have a skeleton system in my office and every time I go to the Grade 10 class I have to
carry it with me. After finishing with the lesson I have to take it back to the office because someone
may need it. There is only one skeleton system for all Grade 10s, which is rather bizarre. So, if the
other teacher wants to use it she must wait for me to finish my lesson. What I have discovered is
that resources in lower grades are scarce. We don’t have smart boards like in other grade levels.
It’s really bad to be a new teacher here.”
From observation, resources such as laptops and smart boards were provided only in
higher grades (Grades 11 and 12). Unfortunately, all the sampled participants taught learners in
the lower grades (Grades 8, 9 and 10) which had very few resources.
“As beginner teachers, we are not allowed to teach higher grades like Grade 12. They think we are
not cognitively equipped to teach Grade 12 learners and will make them fail. The disadvantage
of teaching in these lower grades is that resources are not enough to conduct quality teaching”
(Beginner teacher A2).

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Induction of Beginner Teachers at Sampled Schools 781
It is clear from the data collected that there was some form of induction at the two
schools sampled. However, it appeared that this induction was conducted in a rather haphazard
way. The induction programmes involved at sampled schools include orientation workshop,
mentoring and peer support.
Orientation Workshop
It was clear from the interviews conducted with participants that the orientation workshop
played a very important role in supporting the new teachers at the schools. Every participant
had gone through an orientation before they started teaching. The following verbatim quote
attests to this assertion:
“On my first day at school, I reported to the principal's office where I was told what to do. I was
then taken to the HoD who orientated me with school work and showed me the surroundings.
During orientation I was given teaching materials, shown the classrooms, and introduced to the
teaching staff and the learners. In addition, I was shown the staff members on the organogram,
whom I should report to at all times. After that, I was introduced to the learners and I started
teaching. No teacher could help me with new things in the classroom. I have to say that orienta-
tion happened very quickly and with no clear mandate. After introducing me to the learners I was
left alone in the classroom. I did not know what to do as I was still new in the field. Worse more
I could not teach that day because I was still looking for accommodation. No one asked if I had
accommodation and whether I was prepared to teach. It was tough for me” (Beginner teacher A2).
On the first day of her arrival at the school Beginner teacher A3 experienced the following:
“The reception was friendly. The principal introduced me to the staff. I was taken to the HoD who
would assist me with all the things I needed. The HoD took me around the school and gave me
stationary that I would use during teaching. I was then introduced to my class where I commenced
teaching. The whole of this process took half a day. It was difficult for me to teach the first day
because I was not prepared. I have to say that being left alone in the classroom with no assistance
was hectic for me. I was expecting to have a mentor with me for at least a week so that he/she
could show me things, it wasn’t the case. So, I was on my own, figuring out where to begin.”
Mentoring
From observation, there was very little evidence that the participants were being
mentored. Beginner teacher A1 described her mentoring as follows:
“I remember when I came to the school I knew some of the things such as Curriculum Assess-
ment Policy Statements (CAPS), the syllabus and the subject content. Nevertheless, for some of
the things I needed to be mentored by someone. Unfortunately, for me, mentoring was conducted
haphazardly. My HoD cared less about me. When it was time to help me she was busy with her
things. What I can say is that if there was any mentoring, it happened during those first hours of
my arrival.”
The last sentence in the verbatim quote indicates that the mentoring had not lasted for
long. In other words, it had ceased when there was still much the beginner teacher needed to
learn. The researchers think this is the reason why they did not observe any beginner teacher
being assisted by a mentor during visits to the research sites. The researchers opine that they
may have been mentored before their arrival at the sites. However, considering that one of

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782 the beginner teachers had only been at the school for five months, the researchers wonder
if she had developed to a point where she no longer needed the services of the mentor. The
researchers felt, from their interaction with her, that she still needed some assistance if she
were to succeed in teaching. It appeared that some of the beginner teachers and even the
principals confused the class visits meant for performance appraisal with mentoring. The
following comment resonates with this idea:
“As part of mentoring, the HoDs come and visit our classrooms to observe how we teach the
learners. They must visit, particularly when it comes to Integrated Quality Management Systems
(IQMS). I think they must observe us. They write a report and give you feedback. With that feed-
back, you must come up with developmental strategies – how you will develop and how you are
going to improve on some of the things they found deviated” (Beginner teacher A2).
However, according to the researchers’ understanding, this was not mentoring as every
teacher, whether new or established, has to undergo a staff performance appraisal.
This is what Beginner teacher A3 said regarding class visits based on performance appraisal:
“We have IQMS. IQMS is a formal programme which must be done every year if I am not mistak-
en. There is even a timetable. The HoD comes and visits me. He records whatever and tells me to
sign here or sign there. He then tells me about a few things I am doing well, and some that I need
to improve on. That's it and he tells me to complete an IQMS book. After completing the book, I
hand it over to him. So, IQMS to me is like a fruitless exercise. Many people complete the IQMS
book so that they get that yearly 1% pay progression.”
In other words, being visited by the HoD or any other established teacher for appraisal
does not constitute mentoring.
Peer Support
One of the things noticed during the observation was the extent to which the beginner
teachers were helping each other. On many occasions at school Y, the researchers found
participants and other beginner teachers sitting around the table in their office, deliberating on
issues that affected them and discussing how each of them was handling a particular subject
or class. Every time the researchers arrived in that office, they could sense an atmosphere of
collegiality and friendliness. The researchers do not know whether this set up was coincidental
or a deliberate strategy on the part of the school management to ensure that beginner teachers
worked under the same roof. If this was indeed the strategy, then it was working very well.
In interview with sampled beginner teachers, they praised the support they received from
their fellow beginner teachers at the two schools. “We mentor each other as new teachers. Like,
you can see for yourself that there are many new teachers at this school. So we help each other,
especially when we are marking” (Beginner teacher A1). In praising fellow beginner teachers
for their support, Beginner teacher A2 said the following:
“My colleagues – I mean, the beginner teachers. I have a colleague who is teaching Grade 8 and
I am teaching Grade 9. That lady helped me a lot. Another one who helped me with classroom
issues is this guy – the science teacher. He is really good.”
Apart from discussing classroom issues together, some of the beginner teachers had
experienced support through their participation in extracurricular activities. Participating in
activities such as sport, music or any social gathering helped the beginner teachers to move
away from the classroom battles to new arenas where they could refresh themselves.

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“When I arrived here I was a netball coach. It was very nice as I was able to forge relationships 783
with other teachers. As I played netball with the kids, I was able to refresh my mind” (Beginner
teacher A3).
Discussion
Regardless of their energy and excitement, participants had been shocked at the sheer
number of problems they had encountered at the sampled schools. These problems included
reality shock, overcrowding and learner misbehaviour, dealing with unsupportive parents and
vulnerable learners, and inadequate resources. Based on the empirical findings concerning the
literature review and theoretical framework, these problems are discussed as follows:
Reality Shock
It is clear from these findings that, given the many challenges that the participants had
encountered, their prior reasons for and expectations about joining the teaching profession
had been transformed into a reality shock as previous studies of Steyn (2004) and Magudu
(2014) suggest. The participants had, without a doubt, been amazed, that is, shocked at the poor
infrastructure, the misbehaviour of the learners, and even the attitude of some staff members at
the schools. The majority of these beginner teachers had typically spent at least 17 years of their
lives at school studying, and had probably become teachers because they enjoyed learning and
because schools had been comfortable places for them.
Nevertheless, when they had entered this familiar world as teachers, they had been
shocked at the strangeness and discomfort they had experienced. This revelation concurs
with Dube’s (2008) finding that the school, a familiar place for teachers as trainees eventually
becomes strange and a place of discomfort in their early years of teaching. In essence, the
comfort of being a learner at school and the luxury of being a student at university had been
turned upside down and, when they had started actual teaching, they had realised the challenges
that come with being a teacher. According to Sabar (2004), as beginner teachers start with
actual teaching in the field, they begin to realise that the reality of teaching is different from the
theoretical courses learned at the university. In short, the participants were shocked at how their
expectations about teaching during their training were not a true reflection of what is actually
happening at schools.
Before joining the profession, participants had thought that teaching would be relatively
easy with just minor glitches. However, they soon realised, after being in the classroom that
teaching involved much of which they had not been aware. This finding resonates with Steyn
and Schulze’s (2005) study which highlight that beginner teachers at schools are confronted
with the unknown. Participants had been unaware of the bumpy road and the impending
roadblocks they would encounter when they embarked on their teaching journey. Therefore,
they had succumbed to pressure and were considering leaving their respective schools to work
somewhere else. This corroborates with Cooper and Stewart’s (2009) research which shows a
high percentage of beginner teachers leaving the teaching profession within the first five years
of teaching as they grapple with and succumb to the challenges arising from the number of
stressors they encounter.
Overcrowding and Learner Misbehaviour
Participants in this paper viewed overcrowding as the biggest problem facing community
schools. Some of the beginner teachers were teaching up to 60 learners in the classroom which
is not ideal in normal circumstances. The problem with overcrowding was that it did not only

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784 increased the teacher’s workload, but it also often led to learner misbehaviour in the classroom.
According to Steyn and Schulze (2005), most beginner teachers often feel ill-equipped when
faced with classroom realities such as learner misbehaviour. The learner misbehaviour at
the sampled schools was probably such a pressing issue because teachers were dealing with
adolescent learners who were often hyperactive, energetic and noisy. Beginner teacher A1
even admitted that there were some days when she would become so tired of dealing with the
learners that she would just give up on them. Brock and Grady (2007) claimed that when the
enthusiasm and efforts of the beginner teacher are met with disruptive learner behaviour, their
enthusiasm wanes.
Evidently, there is no doubt that overcrowding placed a huge strain on participants given
the difficulties they often faced in managing a large group of learners in the classroom. Mazibuko
(1999) believes that, because of overcrowding, beginner teachers often spend considerable
time dealing with classroom problems, instead of actually teaching. The researchers observed
that overcrowding was resulting in the participants having problems in effectively monitoring
and supervising the learners, both inside and outside of the classroom. This lack of proper
monitoring and supervision then resulted in learners doing as they pleased and, unfortunately;
this usually led to bad behaviour. The time participants spent on solving classroom problems
meant that teaching and learning were negatively affected. During observation at school X,
researchers witnessed a beginner teacher who spent almost half an hour trying to discipline a
group of unruly learners.
Dealing With Unsupportive Parents and Vulnerable Learners
It was found that having to deal with unsupportive parents and vulnerable learners
appeared to be one of the major challenges the participants faced. It was also found that the
majority of the parents at both schools seemed to care very little about their children’s doings
at school. This is consistent with Van Zyl’s (2013) writing which revealed that the majority of
parents had not been involved in anything relating to the formal education of their children.
Regrettably, it would appear that for some reason, most of the problems concerning parents
involved participants. Unlike experienced teachers, beginner teachers struggled to discipline
the learners and thus they often looked to management and parents for help. Unfortunately,
most of the parents seemed to ignore the beginner teachers’ requests.
In addition to the lack of parental support, the participants also experienced problems of
having to deal with vulnerable learners in the schools. Beginner teacher A3’s revelation attests
to this assertion. She notes that some of her learners were physically and sexually abused by
the people who should have been taking care of them while some of them, whatever their ages,
were taking care of their siblings because they were orphans.
Inadequate Resources
It was found that the non-availability of resources was one of the biggest challenges
faced by participants. It was clear from our observation that the two schools lacked an adequate
number of classrooms, laboratories, desks, sports facilities, and other essential resources.
Sedibe (2011) and Potokri (2014) warned that if schools have to function with no or inadequate
resources, there is the likelihood of ineffective teaching and learning, therefore leading to the
poor academic performance of the students. During the interviews, participants had numerous
complaints about the teaching and learning resources at the two schools. They were unhappy
about the lack of apparatus in the laboratories which led to teachers having to scramble around
for the most basic equipment during their teaching. For example, Beginner teacher A1 had
been frustrated to learn that the entire science department had only one skeleton system for

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demonstration purposes in the classrooms. This situation meant that teachers had to postpone 785
lessons because another teacher was using the skeleton system. In general, the participants were
dissatisfied with the failure of the schools to provide them with the most basic resources that
would have made teaching and learning easier.
However, the lack of resources at the sampled schools confirmed what Sedibe (2011)
had found in her study on the “inequality of access to resources in previously disadvantaged
high schools in South Africa”. Sedibe discovered that most of the learners in these schools were
not supplied with free textbooks and other resources from the government, thereby forcing the
teachers to photocopy notes for the learners while some learners even resorted to buying the
textbooks themselves.
Induction Programme
Findings reported in this paper indicated that the induction of participants was not well
organised at both schools and was, in fact, wholly inadequate. It is important to highlight
that, although the support for the participants at sampled schools was not well planned and
coordinated, some programmes had all the characteristics of an induction programme. This was
based on the researchers’ interaction with the participants who had demonstrated that they knew
very little about induction and yet they had been able to tell us about some of the programmes
at the schools that had some characteristics of an induction programme. These programmes or
activities included an orientation workshop, mentoring, and peer support.
Orientation Workshop
All the participants agreed that, on their arrival at the schools, they had gone through an
orientation workshop. When beginner teachers arrived on their first day, they usually reported
to the principal’s office where they were briefed about the school and what was expected from
them as teachers. After the briefing with the principal, the beginner teachers were introduced
to the staff members at the school and then taken to the appropriate HoDs who would, in turn,
orientate them on the school surroundings. The HoDs also provided them with stationery and
introduced then to the relevant classes. This is consistent with one of the principles of CoPs
theory according to which becoming a member of the community of practice requires access
to a wide range of on-going activities, old hands and other members of the community as
well as being provided with information, resources and opportunities for participation (Lave &
Wenger, 1991).
Unless something unusual occurred, the orientation described above usually lasted half
a day. The orientation was short, hurriedly done and with no clear direction. In most cases,
after being introduced to the learners, the participants were left on their own to decide what
they should do in the classroom. Unfortunately, at this point, they were not ready to teach for a
variety of reasons. Participants, although professionally qualified, still required preparation on
the subject content before standing in front of the learners.
Mentoring
Based on the researchers’ observation, there was very little mentoring taking place at the
sampled schools. Even though mentoring is such a very important component of the induction
process, the indications were that it was not having much of an impact on the participants’
professional development. It was understanding of the researchers that the mentors at both
schools were carrying out their duties as they saw fit because there was no guiding policy for
induction or mentoring. There were no clear aims and timeframes for mentoring and as a result,
those appointed to mentor did it in their way.

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786 Furthermore, the participants in this paper thought that mentoring involved the
experienced teacher visiting a beginner teacher in the classroom. However, such visits happened
primarily during the performance appraisal of the beginner teacher using an IQMS tool. During
the performance appraisal, the experienced teacher observed the beginner teacher’s teaching
and other classroom activities. The established teacher was given an IQMS booklet in which
he/she recorded the strengths and weaknesses of the beginner teacher. The experienced teacher
then discussed those areas in which the beginner teacher was performing well and those that
required improvement. This engagement between the established teacher and the beginner
teacher comprised, essentially the work of forming communities of practice (see Wenger, 1998).
Besides, the researchers discovered that the principals were not fully involved in the
induction process of beginner teachers. It appeared that their main function was to welcome
the beginner teachers and then pass the responsibility over to the HoDs. This description is
in line with Wong’s (2004) argument. Wong argued that the role of the principal has been
reduced to that of someone who assigns experienced teachers to beginner teachers and then
never oversees the process to ascertain whether the new teachers are successful and the learners
are achieving. During interview with the participants, they all assumed that HoDs were their
mentors. Nevertheless, this paper found no evidence that the HoDs had undergone mentorship
training and were, therefore, qualified to support participants. For a mentoring programme to be
effective, the mentors must receive training and are released from their regular teaching duties
(Berry, 2001 in Wilkinson, 2009).
Peer Support
Peer support emerged as one of the most common forms of induction at sampled schools.
Since there was no formal induction policy at either of the schools, the beginner teachers tend
to rally behind each other to navigate through their problems. Daily, beginner teachers sat, ate
and planned together. In this way, they were able to discuss and share their experiences as new
teachers at the school. It was for this reason that one of the schools in the sample (school Y) had
designated an office specifically for beginner teachers. This office was an ideal venue for beginner
teachers to relax and refuel after an exhausting period in the classroom. Most importantly, it
was a venue where the participants and other beginner teachers planned and strategized their
next moves. This cooperation between the participants – beginner teachers resonates with CoP
theory in which Wenger et al. (2002) claimed that the members in a community of practice use
each other as sounding boards, build on each other’s ideas, and provide a filtering mechanism
with which to deal with “knowledge overload.” Such collegial sharing simplified the daily
procedures for the beginner teachers and saved them from having to learn strictly by trial and
error (Weasmer & Woods, 2000).
However, regardless of the merits of the collegial sharing between the participants, it is
cautioned that having an office strictly for beginner teachers may be a disadvantage in that the
beginners became separated from their experienced counterparts. Such a separation contradicts
the principle in CoPs theory which recommends that there must be shared participation between
the old and the new members of the community when confronting an issue. Lave and Wenger
(1991) maintain that shared participation represents the stage at which the old and the new, the
known and the unknown, the established and the hopeful, act out their differences and discover
their commonalities, manifest their fear of one another, and come to terms with their need for
one another.

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Conclusions 787
Women beginner teachers faced several challenges at secondary schools given

participants’ experience(s) at the two sampled community secondary schools. These challenges
included reality shock, overcrowding and learner misbehaviour, dealing with unsupportive
parents and vulnerable learners and inadequate resources. However, despite the many
challenges, this paper clearly showed that the induction programmes consisting of orientation
workshop, mentoring, and peer support at sampled schools were highly ineffective to support
women beginner teachers. In other words, these programmes failed to live up to expectation
because the programmes were poorly implemented. The poor implementation of induction
programmes at sampled schools points to issues of leadership at the school particularly on the
part of the principals. Principals' leadership role(s) in the induction of women teachers given
their numbers in schools should, therefore, be explored in future research.
Equipped with findings, the researchers argue that teachers’ attrition/retention at sampled
schools and any other secondary school regardless where it is situated, will experience a problem
if the same induction challenges and experience as participants suffer in sampled schools prevail.
School principals must be involved and committed to induction programmes. By doing so, they
will be able to lead as well monitor the induction process and encourage beginner teachers to
deeply develop their interest for the teaching profession, stay put and grow rather than quit for
other professions as some of the participants herein contemplate. In the light of this, we stress
that the induction of teachers should not be seen as a ‘once-off exercise or practice' as the
narratives of participants in this paper imply but a ‘continuous practice’ otherwise they will fail
in terms of induction expectations as in the case of sampled schools herein.
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789
Received: July 16, 2019 Accepted: November 23, 2019
Happy Ngwira M.Ed., Department of Educational Leadership and Management, University of

South Africa, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa.
E-mail: ngwira78@live.com
Onoriode Collins Potokri PhD, Department of Educational Leadership and Management, University of
(Corresponding author) Johannesburg, South Africa & Educational Leadership and Higher Education
Administration, Barry University Florida, USA.
E-mail: cnuvie@gmail.com
ORCID id: 0000-0002-0850-1761

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790
THE ESTIMATION OF TEACHING
PROFESSION EDUCATION (TPE)
PARTICIPANTS’ ABILITY IN INDONESIA:
AN ASSESSMENT MODEL WITH PARTIAL
SCORING
Lian Gafar Otaya, Badrun Kartowagiran, Heri Retnawati
Yogyakarta State University, IAIN Sultan Amai Gorontalo, Indonesia
E-mail: lian055pasca2016@student.uny.ac.id, lianotaya82@iaingorontalo.ac.id,
kartowagiran@uny.ac.id, heri_retnawati@uny.ac.id
Abstract
The ability of TPE participants in arranging lesson plans is essential to be mastered as an indicator of
pedagogical competence which should be possessed before conducting a teaching process in the class.
This research aimed to analyze the estimation of TPE participants’ ability in composing a lesson plan
which uses the assessment with partial scoring. This research used quantitative descriptive explorative
approach. Data were collected through document study of lesson plan made by TPE participants assessed
by lecturers in a workshop. In the sample were 236 respondents selected by using purposive sampling
technique. The data analysis was performed to estimate participants’ skill using Item Response Theory
through Partial Credit Model (PCM). The estimation result produced the interpretation of items with 5
categories of scoring 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and has 4 thresholds such as the threshold of category 0 to category 1,
category 1 to category 2, category 2 to category 3, and from category 3 to category 4. Besides that the
information function value of the instrument and Standard Error of Measurement based on the analysis
obtained items in the instrument which have higher information function value compared to the mistakes
of the measurement or the estimation of measurement which has relatively small errors, so it can be
stated that learning model is using accurate partial scoring to estimate the ability of TPE participants in
composing lesson plans.
Keywords: teaching profession, partial scoring, item response model, partial credit model.

Introduction
The quality of teachers becomes global attention in every developed country and is
strongly related with the critics and concensus which requires the standard quality of teachers
and how to improve it because it directly has positive effect towards students’ learning result
and the quality of education of a country (Gareis & Grant, 2014; Good, 2008; Goodwin, 2010;
Retnawati, Djidu, Apino, & Anazifa, 2018; Stronge, 2018; Trygstad, Banilower, Smith, &
Nelson, 2014). However, the condition in Indonesia shows disparity between quantity and
quality of teachers with the quality of education. The development and recent condition in
Indonesia is in emergency situation. As stated by Baswedan (2014), based on the mapping
result by the Minister of Education and Culture towards 40.000 schools and in 2012 there were
75% of schools in Indonesia which did not meet the standard of education service. The result
of teacher competency test in 2012 toward 460.000 teachers only achieved an average value
of 44.5 from the standard expected which is 70. The mapping of the access and the quality of
education in 2013 and 2014 conducted by The Learning Curve-Pearson shows that Indonesia is

Lian Gafar OTAYA, Badrun KARTOWAGIRAN, Heri RETNAWATI. The estimation of teaching profession education (TPE) participants’
ability in Indonesia: An assessment model with partial scoring
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included to the countries with low performances. The mapping of the quality of high education 791
by 21 universities in 2013 showed that the position of Indonesia is 49 of 50 countries. Besides
that, physical abuse in educational environment always becomes the news, moreover the sexual
abuse often occurs in school environment. Bhakti and Maryani (2017) revealed data of teacher
competency test in 2015 towards 2.430.427 of teachers in Indonesia which nationally has not
reached the average target 53,05 of 55 obtained from average professional ability 54,77 and the
pedagogical competency average value is 49.84. There are 7 provinces which reach national
average scores, those provinces are Special Region of Yogyakarta (62.48), Central Java (59.10),
DKI Jakarta (58.44), East Java (56.73), Bali (56.13), Bangka Belitung (55.13), and West Java
(55.05) which averagely only reach the score 41.96 for the province outside Java.
The other problems faced by Indonesia are the disparity between quantity and quality
of teachers previewed by the qualification of education and educator certificate, one of them
as stated by Fahdini, Mulyadi, Suhandani, and Julia (2014) where certified teachers should
improve the self-quality and there is no difference before and after certification. Mangkunegara
and Puspitasari (2015) stated that there is no appropriate academic qualification of teachers
with the subject in the class. Krisna (2017) stated that there is the inequality of the distribution
of teachers in the regions causing many schools lack of qualified teachers especially in the rural
areas. Based on the survey of Program for international student assessment (PISA) in 2015
announced in 6 December 2016, Indonesia is in the position of 64 from 72 surveyed countries.
Therefore, the survey conducted by Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
and Trend in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) also do not significantly
improve the position of Indonesia. Besides that, every moral deviation among students,
teachers who are considered to be less professional in teaching (Antoro, 2017). Data shows the
problems in education become very fundamental and urgent to be seriously handled, because
it has positive and significant correlation with the problems faced by the teachers in Indonesia.
Many policies had been taken by government in improving qualification of teachers
and stabilizing the competency of pre-service teachers in Indonesia. The assessment and the
development of teachers’ carrier in Indonesia are also included as the essential components in
the continual development of profession (Chang et al., 2013). The government of Indonesia has
issued various policies about the constitution in order to improve the competency of teachers
and pre-service teachers in Indonesia through the teaching profession education (TPE). The
program is urgently needed in preparing professional teachers and also is a strategy in education
system which can improve teachers’ performance. This program is also the only way to develop
teacher profession, so their performance can be better in improving students’ achievement
(Hotimah & Suyanto, 2017; Mizell, 2010).
The implementation of teaching profession education (TPE) in Indonesia implements a
consecutive model in accordance with Constitution Number 20 Year 2003 regarding national
education system and the regulation of government number 74 year 2008 about teacher and it is
reinforced in Constitution Number 12 Year 2012 about high level education. TPE is conducted
referring to the Regulation of Ministry of National Education Number 8 Year 2009 about
education program of pre-service teacher where recently that regulation has been changed into
the Regulation of Ministry of Education and Culture Number 87 Year 2013 as a strong legal
protection in improving the quality of teachers in Indonesia. In the Regulation of Minister
of Education and Culture Number 87 Year 2013 article 1 (2), it is mentioned that “Teacher
Profession Education Program which is further called as TPE program is an educational
program conducted to prepare the graduates of bachelor degree in education program and non-
education program who have potency to be good teachers in all levels of education”.
The commitment of government is shown by the reissuing of the policy through the
Regulation of Minister of Research, Technology, and High-Level Education Number 55 Year
2017 regarding education standard of the teacher. In that regulation, Chapter I article 1 (5) it

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792 is mentioned that: “Teaching Profession Education Program which is furthermore called as
TPE. TPE is an education program conducted after bachelor’s degree or applied by a bachelor
to obtain educator certificate in all levels of education”. It emphasizes that to be a teacher, a
graduate of a bachelor program should join TPE program, and after passing the program he/
she will be given educator certificate and will become a teacher. It means that, teacher is a
profession which requires special requirements.
TPE in Indonesia is also a response of government towards the national needs of teacher
which focuses on the deep mastery towards the field taught, knowledge and pedagogical skill,
and also has social skill and good personality, so that in TPE develops four basic competencies
which should be possessed and mastered by professional teachers, those competencies are:
pedagogic competency through learning activity, social competency and personality through
dormitory activity and professional competency through field teaching practice (Hotimah &
Suyanto, 2017; Wahyudin, 2016). Therefore, to be a professional teacher, it is essential to join
TPE program and put teacher training institution in Indonesia as an institution which is most
responsible in the realization.
TPE program is conducted by teaching training universities which meet the requirements
proposed by the Minister of Research, Technology, and High Education in Indonesia. The
requirements which should be fulfilled by teaching training universities are the following:
the accreditation of study program at least should be B, the commitment of teaching training
universities, the quality of supporting facilities, dormitory facility, having the improvement
and the development of instructional activities, partnership program with the partner school
with the accreditation at least B and meet the qualification to conduct field practice. It shows
that teaching training universities which conduct TPE in Indonesia should meet the equal
quality standard of education in realizing the competence achievements of TPE participants
which describe the knowledge, skill, and behavior in conducting the professional duty as a
teacher with some qualifications required in the form of teachers’ competences. Those four
teacher competences are: pedagogical competence, personal competence, social competence,
and professional competence. From those competences, one of them is strongly related to
teacher profession. The main aspect mostly concerned is the learning process and pedagogical
competence especially in composing lesson plans. The success of learning process depends on
the lesson plans as the guidance, so the ability of TPE participants in composing lesson plans
should be estimated.
Estimating the ability of TPE participants in composing lesson plans is essential to be
conducted starting from formulating competence indicator and learning output, organizing
learning materials, process, source, media, assessment, and learning evaluation and implementing
Techno-Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) principle, as an effort to improve the quality
of learning process and the TPE participants’ mastery of pedagogical competences as a teacher.
In estimating that ability, the high accuracy is totally needed to avoid the risk or the error in the
measurement. The aspects that should be noticed are such as the components measured in the
lesson plan and also the scoring model used to give accurate and credible results. According
to the theory of the classic scoring measurement, it is usually used based on some steps and
the score per item of participants is obtained by summing the score in each step (Istiyono,
Mardapi, & Suparno, 2014a; Retnawati, 2011). This assumption is developed in the theory
of item response which states that an item should follow the pattern of partial credit and it is
expected to have higher ability (Istiyono, Mardapi, & Suparno, 2014b; Widhiarso, 2010). Based
on that assumption, it estimates participants’ ability in composing lesson plans which can use
partial scoring.
Partial scoring is a model which is simple and easy to use. Partial scoring shows the steps
to correctly accomplish steps of the component and each step that is done correctly is given the
score 1 and that is done incorrectly is given the score 0, for example: true-false, yes-no, do-not

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do an activity, there is-none and others (Retnawati, 2016; Safaruddin, Anisa, & Saleh, 2018). 793
Based on the characteristics of the partial scoring, the question that arises as the main problem
in this study is whether this scoring model can provide the estimated results of item parameter
and the ability of participants to prepare learning plans according to the components that must
be assessed, so that the accuracy of the scoring model can be known in estimating the ability of
TPE participants to follow up on improvements.
Research Problem
Some studies have been conducted related to the implementation of TPE in Indonesia,
one of them like what was conducted by Hidayah (2013) at Semarang State University who
found that the implementation of this program has given good output for the participants.
Therefore, a research conducted by Basri (2015) revealed that this program totally needs to be
previewed and really reach the goals targeted by participants. From a research conducted by
Indriyani and Ismandari (2015) at Yogyakarta State University that involved 255 students, it
is found that most of the students (50.20%) hesitate toward their participation in this program,
therefore by the evaluation or the assessment of this program there are 48.23% of students who
hesitate. A research conducted by Ningsih, Fatchan, and Susilo (2016) in the implementation
of program of TPE SM3T of geography teachers in Semarang State University shows that the
difference of learning device discussed in the workshop and there are some participants who
should have remedial because have low scores. This research was also reinforced by Setiajid,
Susanti, and Ngabiyanto (2018) who state that the perfection of the management of quality of
service should be done to measure the achievement.
The research previously conducted showed that TPE program is an activity which really
depends to various internal component systems. It is reinforced by Zamakhsari (2009) who
stated that the achievement of TPE program is strongly determined by many components
such as: student admission system, curriculum, learning process, assessment, and the quality
guarantee of that program. From those aspects, there is one aspect which is essential and
urgent in affecting TPE program in every teacher training university in Indonesia. That is the
assessment model which can reveal the mastery of students’ competence and after joining the
program, although there is no specific research about the development of assessment model
in TPE program in Indonesia including in estimating students’ ability to arrange learning plan
as one output of pedagogic competency which should be possessed by participants before the
learning process in class. Therefore, this research is very important, urgent, and interesting to
be learned, because one of the characteristics of this scoring based on the approach of item
response theory polytomus model is the higher score which shows the bigger ability than
the lower category score because the score obtained ranges from only 0 – 1, which possibly
causes someone to gain the lowest and the highest score. In addition, every stage has different
difficulty level and every stage is scored 1, because it has same difficulty level. Otherwise,
the stage which cannot be conducted is scored 0. Therefore, the scores obtained are collected
based on the response in every stage, so it is possible to describe the stages mastered by TPE
participants. The stages measured from TPE participants are usually correct in a certain stage,
but they are incorrect in the next stage or others. Therefore, partial scoring is an option which
has opportunity to provide information about the ability of TPE participants. The higher the
parameter of TPE participants’ ability, the bigger the chance of the participant in correctly doing
each stage in the items assessed in the lesson plan.

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794 Research Focus
The research was to describe the estimation of TPE participants’ ability in composing a
lesson plan which uses the assessment with partial scoring. The estimation was conducted using
the approach of item response theory to find the position of TPE participants in composing
lesson plan based on the ability scale, so the ability of participants was known and can be
compared among them especially in the scoring based on theta scale.
Design
The research was an explorative descriptive research which was the result of Research
and Development (R & D). This research described the result of TPE participants’ ability in
composing lesson plan in a workshop, field teaching practice and performance test based on
the data of the assessment from the supervisor and the examiners. Data were collected from
December 2018 until February 2019 and the analysis was conducted from March until April
2019.
Population and Sample
The population in this research was all subsidized Pre-service TPE and TPE
Participants in the 2018/2019 academic year held by Yogyakarta State University, Gorontalo
State University, and Alauddin Islamic State University. The sample of this research was 236
participants selected using a purposive sampling technique based on some considerations of the
representatives as the participants. The sample was selected which corresponded to the number
of participants in each study program in the implementation of Subsidized Pre-Service TPE and
TPE in Yogyakarta State University, Gorontalo State University, and Alauddin Islamic State
University in academic year 2018/2019. In this research, there were 48 Subsidized Pre-Service
TPE participants at Yogyakarta State University in some study programs such as Primary
Education Study Program, Mathematics Education, English Education, and Automotive
Engineering Education involving 21 field supervisors as assessors in 13 schools that are
locations of the field teaching practice namely: SDN 1 Jarakan, SDN Giwangan Yogyakarta,
SDN Bantul Timur, SDN Percobaan 2, SMPN 1 Yogyakarta, SMPN 6 Yogyakarta, SMAN 1
Yogyakarta, SMAN 2 Yogyakarta, SMAN 6 Yogyakarta, SMKN 2 Depok, SMKN 2 Yogyakarta
and SMKN 3 Yogyakarta.
Furthermore, the 85 subsidized pre-service TPE participants at Gorontalo State University
in English Education Study Program, and TPE participants in Primary Education Study
Program, English Education, and Physical Education, Health and Sports whose assessments
were conducted when TPE participants carried out performance test Practices involving 10
examiners as assessors at the school under the supervision of Gorontalo State University namely
SDN 84 Kota Tengah, SDN 85 Kota Tengah, Laboratory School of Gorontalo State University,
SDN 30 Kota Selatan, SDN 29 Kota Selatan, SMPN 1 Gorontalo, SMPN 2 Gorontalo and
SMAN 3 Gorontalo. For TPE participants at Alauddin Islamic State University, there were
103 TPE participants with study programs / subjects including: Fikih, Qur’an Hadith, Morals,
Arabic, Islamic Cultural History and Teachers of Madrasah Ibtidaiyah whose assessments
were carried out when TPE participants conducted workshop and the field teaching practice
involving 15 workshop lecturers / field advisers on field teaching practice in MIN 1 Makassar,
MI Madani Alauddin Pao-Pao, MI Ash-Shalihin, MTs Guppi Samata, MTs Madani Alauddin
Pao-Pao, MA Guppi Samata, MI Ash-Shalihin, MAS Nadhlatul Wathan.

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Instrument and Procedures 795
Data were collected using the documentation technique through analysis of the document
of lesson plan that TPE participants had compiled during the workshop, field teaching practice
and performance test. The instrument used in this research assessed 4 indicators that were
described into 25 items that were assessed in detail as follows: the formulation of indicators of
achievement of competencies and learning outcomes consisted of 6 items, organizing materials,
methods, media and learning resources also consisted of 6 items, organizing processes, learning
evaluation and evaluation assessed 6 items, and the implementation of the principles of techno
pedagogical content knowledge which assessed 7 items. The distribution of items based on the
assessed indicators is presented in Figure 1:
Figure 1. The distribution of item indicator of lesson plan assessment.

Explanation :
IRPP : Lesson Plan
PIPKC : The Formulation of the indicator of competency achievement and learning
achievement
PMMMS : The organizing of material, method, media and learning source
PPPEP : The organizing of process, assessment, and learning evaluation
PTPCK : The implementation of techno pedagogical content knowledge principle

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796 The instruments used in this research were accurate and reliable. It was proved by the
content validity of seven expert judgment results from the analysis using the Aiken’s V table
with a p-value of .05 for the five categories obtained by the Aiken index V = .75, meaning that
each item was valid if it meets the required Aiken index ie > .75 (Aiken, 1985). The results of
the analysis in general show that all items were valid as presented in Table 1:
Table 1. The categorization of content validity instrument of 25 items.
Table Aiken V
Indicator
Valid (> 0.75) Invalid (< .75)
PIPCK A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 -
PMMMS B7, B8, B9, B10,B11, B12 -
PPPEP C13,C14, C15, C16, C17, C18 -
PTPCK D19, D20, D21, D22, D23, D24 D25 -
Total / % 25/100% 0 / 0%
Furthermore, to see the consistency or reliability assessment of seven expert judgments,

reliability estimation using inter-rater reliability techniques obtained reliability coefficient of
.84, the instrument was reliable if the coefficient exceeds the criteria ≥ .70 (Gronlund & Linn,
1965; Nunnally, 1994). It generally shows that all items in the instrument are trusted and can be
used in the data collection process.
Data Analysis
The data analysis in this research used the approach of item response theory polytomus
model using partial credit model (PCM) with the help of the R Program Software with syntax
extended Rasch Modeling (eRM). As stated by Retnawati (2014) The category score on PCM
shows the number of steps to complete the item correctly. Higher category scores indicate
greater ability than lower category scores. In PCM, if an item has two categories, then equation
2 becomes the Rasch model equation. As a result of this, PCM can be applied to polytomous and
dichotomous items. The equation above, can be described based on the number of categories
in the item, so that the Rasch model equation is used to analyze the response of items with 4
choices, then obtained categories (j) of 4 (j = 0, 1, 2, 3) equations of probability each individual
in the category response function (CRF) is realized in the following equation.

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797
Furthermore, to determine the accuracy of this scoring in estimating the ability of TPE
participants to use the value of the information function (item information function) and standard
error of estimation (Standard Error Measurement, SEM). According to Retnawati (2014) in
item response theory, the value of information function is a method to explain the strength
of an item in a test set, the selection of test items, and comparison of several test kits that can
express the strength or contribution of studied items in revealing latent trait measured with
these instruments and can be known which items are compatible with the model. That the value
of information functions has an inverse relationship with the Standard Error of Measurement
(SEM), the greater the value of information, the SEM will be smaller or vice versa (Hambleton,
Swaminathan, & Rogers, 1991; Retnawati, 2014). If the value of the information function is
known, then directly SEM can be obtained using the formula.
Research Results
Estimating the ability of TPE participants in preparing learning plans by assessment using
a partial scoring model requires a number of stages that must be met according to the component
being assessed. At each of these stages the participants’ mastery is assessed in meeting the
criteria for each stage of the preparation of the learning plan. A partial scoring in the assessment
application on the observed aspect is given a score for each step taken even if it does not do all
of the steps or may not be sequential but carried out. Partial scoring indicates the number of
steps to complete the steps of the component being assessed and this is a characteristic of the
partial scoring model. Assessment with partial scoring in this study was conducted by lecturers
on TPE participants during workshops / workshops and the implementation of field experience
practices in schools by filling in the learning plan assessment instrument sheet and scoring the
indicator points / aspects assessed by circling the numbers on score column (score 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
or score 4). Each score has criteria according to the assessment rubric prepared, namely score 0
= no visible descriptors, score 1 = one descriptor visible, score 2 = two descriptors visible, score
3 = three descriptors appear, and score 4 = four descriptors appear.
The response items of the participants in this study were analyzed using the PCM
model which assumes that the item difficulty level parameter is the only item characteristic
that influences the participants’ ability to prepare lesson plans. Based on the results of the
PCM model analysis with the help of the R Syntax Extended Rasch Modeling (eRm) Package

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798 Program to the responses of 236 TPE Program participants from the results of an assessment
of learning plans comprising 25 items, resulting in an estimated difficulty level of items or a
threshold of more than one. Items with 5 scoring categories in this study: 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 have
4 thresholds, namely threshold from category 0 to category 1, from category 1 to category 2,
from category 2 to category 3, and from category 3 to category 4, because in general items with
n categories have (n-1) thresholds. The following results indicate the level of difficulty for items
as shown in Table 2:
Table 2. The prediction of threshold using PCM model.
Item Location Threshold ᵟ1 Threshold ᵟ2 Threshold ᵟ3 Threshold ᵟ4

A1 0.36 -0.79 -0.24 0.85 1.66
A2 0.51 -0.60 -0.37 0.92 2.12
A3 0.15 -1.82 -0.05 0.59 1.92
A4 0.26 -1.41 -0.06 1.02 1.53
A5 0.38 -1.54 0.04 0.70 2,32
A6 0.36 -1.35 0.12 0.56 2.12
B7 0.37 -1.12 0.28 0.29 2.04
B8 0.37 -1.17 -0.18 1.00 1.83
B9 0.36 -1.30 0.20 0.54 2.00
B10 0.47 -0.94 -0.08 0.71 2.22
B11 0.36 -0.67 -0.42 0.76 1.79
B12 0.45 -1.09 0.14 0.97 1.78
C13 0.58 -0.93 0.06 1.08 2.13
C14 0.50 -1.33 0.16 0.83 2.34
C15 0.53 -0.96 0.01 0.94 2.12
C16 0.44 -1.64 0.23 0.78 2.39
C17 0.47 -1.24 0.05 1.28 1.81
C18 0.43 -0.97 0.31 0.61 1.79
D19 0.71 -0.36 0.51 0.91 1.78
D20 0.51 -1.01 -0.05 1.09 2.03
D21 0.76 -0.19 0.29 1.08 1.86
D22 0.55 -0.86 0.06 1.09 1.92
D23 0.81 -0.03 0.31 0.83 2.12
D24 0.69 -0.29 0.15 0.84 2.07
D25 0.56 -0.73 0.41 0.82 1.75
Table 2 obtained information that the location parameters of each item varied from
0.15 to 0.81. In addition, in the threshold parameter sebanyaki there are four groups or four
intersections. This is a parameter for the level of difficulty participants get a certain score when
responding to item i. Judging from the chance of achieving the score, the threshold parameter
coefficient ᵟi for each category is different. The higher the achievement category, the higher the
threshold coefficient ᵟi. When viewed at the level of difficulty, the items obtained varying levels
of difficulty found in each item and in each category. The findings showed that there are four
categories or four intersections which are the level of difficulty. The research findings showed

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that the easiest category is on the ability scale of -2.06 (category 1 on item 2) while the most 799
difficult category is on the ability scale of 3.0 (category 4 on item 15). This shows that the level
of difficulty in the assessment instrument of the learning plan implementation moves in the
range of abilities. Another thing that can be explained based on the results of item analysis with
the Partial Credit Model is the Item characteristic curve (ICC) which explains the relationship
of the ability of TPE participants to an underlying latent item and tool. ICC is described to make
it easier to understand the relationship between each threshold ᵟi which is the level of difficulty
with the ability of participants to reach a certain score or category. Following is the description
of two examples of item characteristic curve namely item 1 (A1) and item 10 (B10) comprising
25 item instruments of assessment of lesson plan in the partial scoring in the Figure 2:
Figure 2. Item characteristic curve, ICC Item A1 and Item B10.
Figure 2 if related to the results of item calibration in Table 1, it can be explained that
basically item 1 (A1) has a location parameter of 0.47 with a threshold ᵟ1 of -0.79, threshold ᵟ2
of -0.24, threshold ᵟ3 of 0.85, and threshold ᵟ4 which is 1.66. Graphically the threshold ᵟi can
be interpreted as the intersection of the curves of each category. From this figure, it can be
explained that to reach category 2 or to get a score of 2 on item 1 (A1), the required ability ()is
around -0.24 to 0.85. Furthermore, in item 10 (B10) if related to the results of the caliber items
in table 1, it can be explained that basically this item 10 has a location parameter of 0.47 with
a threshold parameter threshold ᵟ1 of -0.94, threshold ᵟ2 of -0,08, threshold ᵟ3 of 0,71, and also
threshold ᵟ4 which is 2.22. Graphically the threshold ᵟi can be interpreted as the intersection
of the curves of each category. From this figure, it can be explained that in order to reach
category 2 or to get a score of 2 on item 10 (B10), the required ability () is around -0.08 to
0.71. In addition to the item characteristic curve, the other thing that can be explained from
the quality of the partial scoring lesson assessment instrument for the lecturer evaluator is the
value of the instrument’s information function. The information function basically shows the
extent to which the instrument that has been developed can provide maximum information if it
is imposed on certain capabilities. The following is the value of the information function (NIF)
assessment instrument for implementing a partial scoring of lesson plan (RPP) for lecturer
assessors that is linked to the Standard Error of Measurement (SEM) in Figure 3:

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800
Figure 3. The relation between information function and standard error of

measurement.
Figure 3 presents the information function relationship and SEM from the accumulation
of 25 instrument items assessing the ability of TPE participants to prepare a lesson plan
wherein the curve for the information function is indicated by a curved line going up and the
opposite SEM. The two graphics of this function converge on a capability scale of -3 and 1.9.
Between those two abilities, the instrument has a higher information value compared to the
measurement error. Conversely, when the capability scale is less than -3 and more than 1.9,
then this instrument has a measurement error that is greater than the information it provides.
Another thing that can be explained is the value of the instrument information function of 17.8
on the ability scale () -0.6. The value of the information function has an inverse relationship
with SEM. Therefore, the greater the information value, the smaller SEM will be or vice versa.
Based on this opinion, it can be explained that by knowing the value of the information function
of 17.8, the SEM coefficient is obtained at 0.23. This means that the items in the instrument
have a higher information function value compared to the measurement error.
Discussion
Many new measurement theories have developed over the past decade that can provide
detailed information about testing latent attributes or abilities that a person has and are relevant
for assessing complex assessments and for evaluating the accuracy of the resulting score
(Templin & Hoffman, 2013). In the measurement theory that developed at this time there are
two methods of estimation namely the classical test theory and item response theory (modern
theory) or more popularly known as the Item Response Theory (IRT). This method assumes
that latent variables are represented by a unidimensional continuum and can provide precise
and detailed information about latent attributes or abilities that a person has and can equalize
scores on tests (de Ayala, 2009; Hu, Qin, Sullivan, & Templin, 2017; Sinharay & Haberman,
2014).
Scoring in the IRT model, there are two models, namely the dichotomy and the political
model. In the politomus model, each scoring model is used to determine the level or category
achieved by participants based on the responses given and can be categorized into nominal
and ordinal item response models depending on the characteristic assumptions about the data
(Retnawati, 2014). The model is very dependent on the characteristics of the parameters and the
suitability of the model used, because all response scoring models on the politomus are based

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on the assumption that the response to an item depends on the ability of test takers measured 801
using a unidimensional scale (Retnawati, 2014; Retnawati & Munadi, 2013). The politomus
scoring models often used are partial credit model (PCM), generalized partial credit model
(GPCM), and graded response model (GRM). Therefore, to find the accuracy of the assessment
model in estimating the ability of TPE participants in preparing a learning implementation
plan in this study, it was analyzed by PCM using two parameters namely the value of the
information function and the estimated standard error. Given the PCM model is a scoring model
that evaluates responses on a step-by-step basis. So that, in one PCM scoring process, a number
of categories are obtained. Besides that, the threshold for achieving a higher category in scoring
this model is not always greater than the previous threshold.
The findings were obtained that the ability of TPE participants in composing a learning
implementation plan that was assessed using partial scoring with a rating scale of 0, 1, 2, 3,
and 4. The finding of this research was the empirical assessment using a partial scoring of the
ability of TPE participants in preparing learning plans which showed that the ability of TPE
participants was dominated by the ability () from 1 to 3. The finding was related to the finding of
the research conducted by Retnawati and Munadi (2013 ) which stated the ideal ability parameter
was at least 1 or more. It shows that the ability of TPE participants in preparing learning plans
are showing good results. In addition, this assessment model had adequate information value
and relatively small measurement errors, so that it is accurate in estimating the ability of TPE
participants. This finding is in line with the opinion of Retnawati (2014) that the information
function has a relationship with latent trait or ability to be measured. This opinion is related to
the empirical finding of this study, so it can be explained that the assessment model with partial
scoring shows the point of the maximum information function at a higher ability (positive theta).
It also means that a partial scoring model is more suitable for TPE participants with high ability,
because it will provide maximum information if it is imposed on highly capable participants.
This is also supported by measurement error (Standard Error of Measurement) which shows
a relatively small value or inversely proportional to the value of the information function, so
that it shows the measurement error in the assessment model with an accurate partial scoring in
estimating the ability of TPE participants to prepare a learning implementation plan.
The finding of this research is related to theoretical concepts and a variety of relevant
research studies, it can be explained that the TPE assessment instrument which is suspended
with a partial scoring can be used to measure the ability of TPE participants in preparing
learning implementation plans. Through the partial scoring, this assessment instrument can
be used to differentiate and classify the achievement of TPE participants’ mastery in preparing
learning implementation plans based on their respective abilities. For example, in reaching
high category in an item, high ability is totally needed to achieve it. The results of this study
clearly indicate the level of difficulty in each category for all items that assess the ability of
TPE participants to develop lesson plans. This is in line with the view of Masters and Wright
(1997) that the scoring partial credit model is designed to understand the various abilities of
participants and distinguish or group participants according to their level of response to items.
The results of this research are also related to the view of Verhelst and Verstralen (2008) that
item parameters in the partial credit model are interpreted as difficulties in each of the steps that
must be completed. The higher the step, the more step or greater ability is needed to achieve it.
This means that through the partial credit model used in the TPE assessment model instrument,
the assessor can clearly distinguish and classify the capabilities of TPE participants based on
their responses at each stage assessed.
This opinion is also supported by Retnawati (2014) who explained that the category
score on the partial credit model shows the number of steps to complete the item correctly.
Considering that in this study there are four categories, it can be explained that there are four
steps in each item to achieve the highest score. Furthermore, Retnawati explained that a higher

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802 category score requires greater ability to achieve it, and vice versa on a low category score only
requires a low ability to also achieve it. If an item follows the partial credit model, then a higher
individual ability is expected to have a higher score than an individual who has a low ability.
Therefore, when interpreting the test information function, it is very important to
remember the reciprocal relationship between the value of information and the variability of the
estimated ability. Baker and Kim (2017) translated information values into standard estimation
errors. One thing to note is the square root reciprocity of test information values. Likewise as
stated by Hambleton and Swaminathan (1985), one of the most important factors of the test
information function is the contribution of each item to the total test information. It is in line
with Partchev (2004) who stated if the greater the function information of a test, the smaller
the measurement error standard. The greater the information function of a test, the more trusted
in measuring the actual test takers’ competence. Therefore, the size of the test information
function value greatly affects the standard measurement error in estimating the ability of TPE
participants with the use of a partial scoring model, because it increasingly provides information
on the model chosen in explaining the ability level of TPE participants.
Based on the findings of the information function value and error shows that the value
of the information function is very important in estimating the ability of TPE participants in
preparing learning plans that are able to provide accurate information on the estimation of the
ability of TPE participants followed by the smaller default errors in estimating the ability of
TPE participants. This research value information item serves to provide information on the
estimation of the ability of TPE participants in accordance with the assessment model chosen
by using partial scoring.

Based on the findings of this research one can indicate that the assessment model
with partial scoring accurately estimates the ability of TPE participants in preparing learning
implementation plans. These findings can be input for the implementation of follow-up related
to the shortcomings and / or weaknesses of TPE participants who are assessed as an effort to
improve their ability to prepare learning plans, for example in the assessment of the organizing
component of the material. The information is obtained that the material was not written in
the form of appropriate points with the formulation of the learning objectives, the material
does not contain a brief description of facts, concepts, principles, relevant procedures, and the
presentation of the material is not carried out sequentially and systematically. Such information
can be input for TPE participants who are assessed to improve it by suggesting that it will improve
according to the information obtained. Likewise, for the assessment of other components, the
follow-up improvement effort is carried out based on information obtained from the results of
the assessment in which parts or stages of each phase, the aspects are judged to be invisible or
not conducted by TPE participants in preparing learning implementation plans. Considering
that each component assessed in estimating the achievement of TPE participants in preparing a
learning implementation plan has a series of stages and a score should be given at each of these
stages, so that if the TPE participants’ ability is assessed by a partial scoring, the assessment
should not only pay attention to the final results, but pay attention to all stages. The stages
are to get the mastery achievement of TPE participants in preparing comprehensive learning
implementation plans. Besides, the reality on the ground shows that most participant responses
are partially correct, true in some steps, but wrong in other steps. For this kind of response,
partial scoring is a scoring model that is able to give a description of the limits partially correct
in estimating the ability of TPE participants to prepare a learning implementation plan, because
this scoring is built with two parameters, namely the ability and level of difficulty of the item
and does not require greater threshold from one category to the next. Therefore, it can be

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concluded that the assessment model with partial scoring accurately estimates the ability of 803
TPE participants in preparing learning implementation plans.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express great appreciation and the deepest gratitude also
would go to all parties involved in this research, especially the participating field supervisors
as assessors, Teacher Profession Education Program in the Yogyakarta State University
(UNY), Gorontalo State University (UNG), and Islamic State University of Alauddin Makassar
(UINAM), Indonesia.
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Lian Gafar Otaya M.Pd., Student, Doctor Program in Research and Evaluation Education Graduate
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Lecturer, Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teaching Training, IAIN Sultan Amai Gorontalo,
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ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4357-2132
Badrun Kartowagiran PhD, Professor, Graduate School of Yogyakarta State University, Jl. Colombo
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ORCID ID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8536-5417
Heri Retnawati PhD, Professor, Mathematics Departement, Mathematics and Science Faculty,
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ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1792-5873

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806
MULTIVOCAL DIDACTIC MODELLING:
COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH REGARDING
TEACHING AND CO-ASSESSMENT IN
SWEDISH PRESCHOOLS
Ann-Christine Vallberg Roth, Ylva Holmberg, Camilla Löf, Catrin Stensson
Malmö University, Sweden
E-mail: Ann-Christine.Vallberg-Roth@mau.se, Ylva.Holmberg@mau.se,
Camilla.Lof@mau.se, Catrin.Stensson@mau.se
Abstract
In Swedish preschools teachers seem to struggle with the concept of “teaching” in their day-to-day
practices. A three-year collaborative research project involving preschool teachers, managers and
researchers therefore aimed to describe and further develop knowledge about what could characterize
teaching and co-assessment based on scientific grounds and proven experience. The research was
carried out in between 93 and 137 preschools/or preschool departments in ten municipalities in Sweden
between 2016 and 2017. The method was based on a praxiographic approach where preschool teachers
tested four different theory-informed teaching arrangements. The material consisted of about 895 co-
plans, 740 co-evaluations and 110 hours of video. Analysis was based on a didactic premise and can
be methodologically described in terms of abductive analysis. The analysis was merged and tested in a
communicable entity through the “multivocal didactic modelling” concept. The results indicated that
teaching is modelled through co-assessment. Multivocal traces related to didactic questions and didactic
levels emerge from theory-informed teaching arrangements. The research stands to make a highly
significant contribution to knowledge development concerning teaching and co-assessment in preschool.
Theory-informed teaching arrangements, with integrated didactic models, have been tried and shown to
support teachers in conducting teaching that is based on scientific grounds and proven experience. The
concept “multivocal didactic modelling” paves the way for alternative (meta)theoretical trajectories
for critical reflection and for more cohesive and finely tuned teaching. In conclusion, the contribution to
the development of knowledge can be described in terms of theory-informed practical development and
practically grounded conceptual development.
Keywords: co-assessment, didactic models, multivocal didactic modelling, preschool education, Swedish
preschools, teaching arrangements.

Introduction
This three-year experimental collaborative research project aims to address the

challenges, opportunities and circumstances faced by today’s preschool in relation to the higher
ambitions of the preschool mission (see for example, OECD, The Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2017; Skolinspektionen [Swedish School Inspectorate], 2018).
The research stems from the questions raised by participants concerning teaching, as related
to co-assessment in the preschool (Vallberg Roth, 2016). Co-assessment includes at least two
individuals/agents (see section “Co-assessment”). The co-assessment may include co-planning
of teaching arrangements, co-action and feedback in teaching, as well as co-evaluation of
teaching arrangements (cf. Allal, 2013; Thornberg & Jönsson, 2015).

Ann-Christine VALLBERG ROTH, Ylva HOLMBERG, Camilla LÖF, Catrin STENSSON. Multivocal didactic modelling: Collaborative
research regarding teaching and co-assessment in Swedish preschools
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There is an urgent need to clarify what could characterize preschool teaching in Sweden 807
(Skolinspektionen, 2018). Preschool is a firmly established practice in Sweden that serves 85
per cent of all children aged 1–5 and 95 per cent of 4- and 5-year-olds (Skolverket [Swedish
National Agency for Education], 2019). Swedish preschool has been a separate school form
since 2011, is included in the educational system, and conforms to the Education Act. In the latest
revision of the curriculum (SKOLFS, Statutes of the Swedish National Agency for Education,
2018:50, Curriculum for preschool, revised 2018), the mission of teaching is enhanced. The
preschool curriculum is characterized by set objectives, which means that the objectives have a
predetermined trajectory, but no specified endpoints or knowledge requirements at the individual
level. According to the Education Act, teaching in preschool is defined as goal-directed actions
led by preschool teachers that direct children’s attention to stimulating “development and
learning through the acquisition and progression of knowledge and values” (SFS 2010:800,
Chapter 1, Section 3). Teaching is included in education, which “should always be founded on
a scientific basis and proven experience in terms of both content and work methods” (SKOLFS
2018:50, Curriculum for preschool, revised 2018, p. 11).
Swedish preschool is aligned with a Nordic tradition based on welfare-state ambitions that
are highly ranked in international comparisons (OECD, 2017). Nordic preschools have similar
systems of management by objectives, so it is more relevant to refer to, translate, and employ
results from Nordic than non-Nordic research when examining Swedish preschools. However,
research into teaching in preschool contexts in other countries adds important perspectives.
Background and Identified Research Problem
“Didactics” can be understood as the overall knowledge base for teaching and learning
(see section “Didactics as the underlying premise of the research”). However, prior didactic
preschool research in Sweden and the Nordic countries has focused more on learning than
teaching (Vallberg Roth, 2018), although some studies have focused on teaching (see
for example Björklund, Magnusson, & Palmér, 2018; Doverborg, Pramling, & Pramling
Samuelsson, 2013; Hammer, 2012; Pramling & Wallerstedt, 2019; Rosenqvist, 2000; Sæbbe
& Pramling Samuelsson, 2017; Sheridan & Williams, 2018). The content of teaching and
learning in preschool varies depending on the underlying theoretical perspective and gateways
used (Vallberg Roth, 2018). For example, some sociocultural perspectives focus on “situated
learning”. Variation theory in “Learning studies” focuses on intentional learning. Other
examples include pragmatic perspectives focusing on “reflective learning”. There are also post-
constructionist and post-humanist gateways that focus on “rhizomatic learning”. In this way,
a form of “learnification of didactics” (Vallberg Roth, 2018) emerges. The learnification of
didactics can be linked to Biesta’s (2017) concept of “learnification,” which pertains to the
changing use of language towards “learning” and “learners” instead of teaching.
Critical didactics (see section “Teaching-oriented and Critical-reflective Didactics”) and
didactic levels (Kansanen, 1993) are not prominent in Nordic and non-Nordic preschool studies
(Vallberg Roth, 2018). Moreover, there is a lack of long-term comprehensive studies focused
on teaching at the Swedish preschool level conducted in collaboration with preschool teachers,
managers and researchers. This three-year collaborative research project aims, therefore,
to address the challenges, opportunities, and circumstances faced by today’s preschool in
relation to the higher ambitions of the preschool mission (see for example, OECD, 2017;
Skolinspektionen, 2018).
According to an analysis of studies concerning assessment and documentation within
the preschool, with a focus on Swedish and Nordic research (Vallberg Roth, 2017), assessment
research is still a relatively young and as yet undeveloped field. The field of documentation
and especially research on pedagogical documentation holds a significantly stronger position

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808 (cf. e.g., Alasuutari, Markström, & Vallberg Roth, 2014; Elfström Pettersson, 2017; Johansson,
2016; Lenz Taguchi, 2012; Lindgren, 2016). Assessment forms are characterized as focusing
more on activity level in Nordic studies (cf. Bennett, 2010; OECD, 2013). In non-Nordic
research, assessment methods may focus more on learning outcomes at the individual level
and on standardized and graded assessment methods (e.g., Bennett, 2010; Ishimine & Tayler,
2014; OECD, 2013). Research on co-assessment in schools (Allal, 2013; Thornberg & Jönsson,
2015) showed that co-assessment can serve as a tool for collaborative learning, but its potential
depends on several inter-related factors, such as how often it is carried out and from what point
of departure (see section “Co-assessment”).
In the collaborative research at hand, different (meta)theoretical gateways were integrated
when participants tested various theory-informed teaching arrangements (see section “Theory-
informed Teaching Arrangement”). Opportunities to shift the focus from learning to teaching
were created by introducing didactics (didactic questions) and co-assessment (assessment
theory) into all teaching arrangements.
Research Focus: Aim and Research Questions
The aim of this collaborative research project involving preschool teachers, managers
and researchers was to describe and further develop knowledge about what could characterize
teaching and co-assessment based on scientific grounds and proven experience. This was carried
out in between 93 and 137 preschools/or preschool departments located in ten municipalities
in Sweden. The following research questions framed the overarching direction of the research:
1) What could characterize teaching and co-assessment in theory-informed
teaching arrangements as expressed in texts and documented co-actions by
participants?
2) What traces of didactic questions and didactic levels can be inferred from
texts and documented co-actions by participants?
In addition, the research specifically aimed to test the “multivocal didactic modelling”
concept (see section “Multivocal Didactic Modelling: Concept-testing Focus”).
General Background
The method was based on a qualitative design of collaborative research. The research
was
large-scale (see Table 1) in the sense that it was run for three years and included in
between 93 and 137 preschools/or preschool departments in ten Swedish municipalities. The
method design was based on a praxiographic approach where preschool teachers tested four
different theory-informed teaching arrangements, between 2016 and 2017. The approach also
considered triangulation, abductive analysis and research ethics.
The material collected comprises about 895 co-plans, 740 co-evaluations and 110 hours
of video. The analysis was based on a didactic premise and can be methodologically described
in terms of abductive analysis. The data is presented in a material overview (Table 1).
Research Design
In terms of methodology, the research design was influenced by praxiography (Bueger,

2011, 2014; Mol, 2002). In collaboration research, praxiography refers to the analysis of
registered practice. The praxiographic research process can be described as a process “in

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turning implicit knowledge into explicit. This implies a high degree of interpretation” (Bueger, 809
2011, p. 6). “The overall orientation of praxiography is to reconstruct meaning” (Bueger, 2011,
p. 4). One way for praxiographers to turn implicit knowledge into explicit is to try, by using
observations, speech and documents, to identify “moments in which participants themselves
tend to articulate implicit meaning” (Bueger, 2011, p. 6). In general, the collaboration research
at hand has made multivocal didactic modelling explicit. Altogether the chosen methodological
approach can be described in terms of a “praxiographic collaborative method” that involves
the abductive analysis of parallel and investigative series of theoretically informed teaching
methods based on a didactic approach.
Theoretical Approach: Didactics as the Underlying Premise of the Research
This research was based on an underlying premise of didactics. The “didaktik” premise
derived from the continental and Northern European didaktik tradition (cf. Gundem &
Hopmann, 1998; Hopmann, 2007). Didactics focuses on the teacher–child–content relation – in
other words, a theory of teaching (e.g., Bengtsson, 1997; Brante, 2016; Comenius 1657/1989;
Uljens, 1997). ‘The word “didactics” may be explained as “the art of pointing out something to
someone” (Doverborg, Pramling, & Pramling Samuelsson, 2013, p. 7).
Teaching-oriented and Critical-reflective Didactics
This research described teaching-oriented didactics, which may be viewed as an

alternative to “learnified” didactics (Vallberg Roth, 2018). A focus on learning is not solely
problematic; on the contrary, learning-oriented studies can contribute valuable knowledge
about learning among children in various situations and relationships both inside and outside
educational institutions. Studies on learning do not need to focus on the relationship between
someone who teaches something to someone else, but may instead concentrate on learning and
those who learn through environments and relationships (cf. Biesta, 2017). Without belittling
the values of such studies, it is important to emphasize the need for alternatives to learning-
focused research and learnified didactics. Alternatives may entail studies taking a perspective
from more teaching-oriented didactics.
There are many different approaches in the didactic landscape (Kroksmark, 2007). The
collaborative research is guided by critical-reflective didactics (cf. Biesta, 2011; Broström,
2012; Klafki, 1997; Uljens, 1997). Didactics shares a link with education as “a process in which
the child is ‘shaped’ through education for the encounter with an unknown future” (Brante,
2016, p. 57). Critical-reflective didactics can be based on reflection regarding alternatives to
what is taken for granted in relation to an uncertain future. In concrete terms, this means that in
the research question we have replaced “should” with “could”. In didactic questions, “should”
pertains more to traditional normative didactics (Uljens, 1997), whereas “could” is associated
with critical didactics. “Could” ensures that there might be alternatives to the choices made,
without claiming to have definitively established “what should be taught” or “what characterizes
teaching”, but that we instead emphasize ‘what could characterize’. So, in this collaborative
research, teaching-oriented didactics is guided by critical-reflective didactics.
Didactic Levels: Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Didactics
Brante (2016) addressed the theoretical and practical aspects of didactics. Didactics is
a field of science, multidisciplinary in nature, that relates to multiple scientific foundations.
The practical side of didactics relates to proven experience. The didactics in the collaborative
research was characterized by multivocality regarding both scientific grounds and proven

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810 experience. The concept concerns multivocality on didactic levels (Vallberg Roth, 2018), at the
action, theoretical and metatheoretical levels (Kansanen, 1993). In the collaborative research
the action level related to traces in co-planning, teaching and co-evaluation, all linked to policy
documents. The theoretical level referred to traces in which participants based their teaching
practices on scientific grounds and related them to theoretical gateways and concepts. This
occurred when testing teaching arrangements that were didactically, variation-theory, post-
structurally and pragmatically informed. The metatheoretical level pertained to traces in which
participants immersed and positioned themselves in the theoretical gateways on a metatheoretical
level that concerns ontology and epistemology. Depending on the premise and gateway, the
implications for the meaning of teaching and assessment may vary. The metatheoretical level
may shift between social-constructionist foundations with associated phenomenological and
phenomenographic approaches, post-constructionism and realism (Vallberg Roth, 2017, 2018).
The research at hand focuses on the action level and the theoretical level.
Key Concepts
Teaching and co-assessment rest on scientific grounds and proven experience. Proven
experience can be
something more than experience even if it is long. It has been tested. This requires that it
be documented or communicated in some way so that it can be shared with others. It must also
be peer-reviewed based on criteria that are relevant from the standpoint of experience and the
contents of the activity. It should also be tested according to ethical principles: all experience is
not benign and thereby worthy of emulation. (RFR, 2012/2013: 19–20)
In the co-assessment process, experiences were shared, communicated, documented, and

subjected to critical reflection during the three-year research (see Vallberg Roth, Holmberg,
Löf, Palla, & Stensson, 2019). In the following, the key concepts “theory-informed teaching
arrangement”, “co-assessment” and “multivocal didactic modelling” are described (see also
Figure 1).
Theory-informed teaching arrangement. This refers to the testing by participants in
the collaborative research of various educational arrangements that are linked to different
theories. In this research, the theory-informed arrangements related to theories that participants
addressed in descriptions of what might characterize teaching at research start in January 2016
(Vallberg Roth, 2018). Theories that participants explicitly addressed were didactics, variation
theory, post-constructionism and pragmatic perspective. The research involved testing theory-
informed teaching arrangements that consistently combined didactics and assessment theory
with learning-oriented theories, such as variation theory (intentional learning), with reference
to Marton (2015) and Ljung-Djärf and Holmqvist Olander (2013). In addition, didactics and
assessment theory are linked to post-structural gateways (rhizomatic learning), with reference
to Palmer (2010), as well as to pragmatic perspectives (reflective learning), with reference to
Dewey (1916/1966) and Hedefalk (2014).
Co-assessment. In summary, co-assessment may include intertwined interpretational
approaches such as co-interpretation of objectives, co-planning of teaching arrangements,
co-action and feedback (cf. Hattie & Timperley, 2007) in the implementation of teaching, as
well as co-evaluation and follow-up of teaching arrangements (cf. Allal, 2013; Thornberg &
Jönsson, 2015). Co-assessment includes at least two actors, such as teacher–child, or child–
teacher–material, or teacher–manager–document. Actors refer to people, artefacts, and matter
of various types in action. Action refers to something that is being carried out – being active.
The term “co-action” as it pertains to teaching (cf. Gjems, 2011; Lenz Taguchi, 2012; Uljens,
1997) entails an action between at least two actors. The concept of co-action may include both

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interactions between humans, and intra-actions between the human and the non-human material 811
(cf. Lenz Taguchi, 2012). Co-actions were registered in video documentation. In this research
“co” especially included those participating teachers/educators and children who had given their
consent to the research (see section “Research Ethics Guidelines”). Co-assessment provided
support to allow practice during the three-year research period to lead to proven experience,
with an aspiration towards reasonable equivalence and scientifically based approaches in the
pedagogical processes of preschools.
Co-assessment may be defined according to the explanation by Osberg and Biesta (2010):
Moreover, engagement in such judgements should not be seen as something that is done
from the ‘outside’ – teachers judging students; parents judging children – but should rather be seen
as a collaborative process, as something that all who are engaged in the activity should take part in
and should do so continuously. It is this continual engagement in judgement (not the arrival at an
end point) that makes the educational process educational. (p. 604)
Didactic modelling. This involves working systemically with didactic models in teaching
practices (Ingerman & Wickman, 2015). Didactic models are a central part of didactics and
refer to theoretical tools that teachers can use in their teaching. Didactic models can be used
both as tools for teaching and as analytical instruments for research purposes (e.g., Uljens,
1997). Didactic modelling may entail the development of didactic knowledge by teachers in
collaboration with researchers (Ingerman & Wickman, 2015). Examples of fundamental didactic
models are didactic questions and what is known as the didactic triangle, which encompasses
teacher, child and content in different combinations (see e.g., Rosenqvist, 2000; Uljens, 1997).
Another example of a didactic model is, as previously mentioned, the didactic levels (Kansanen,
1993). In the preschool, formulating and testing didactic models for the care, development,
and learning relationship in a broad teaching context may also be involved (Vallberg Roth
& Holmberg, 2019). Ingerman and Wickman (2015) referred to the interplay between theory
and practice as “didactic modelling.” This research explores and makes explicit the processes
involved in didactic modelling.
In the collaborative research didactic modelling specifically refers to how teachers,
based on theory-informed arrangements or models for teaching, develop connections between
co-planning, teaching and co-evaluation (cf. Ingerman & Wickman, 2015). For the purposes of
this research, teaching was modelled through co-assessment, which in part is rooted in science
and in part leads to proven experience.
Multivocal Didactic Modelling: Concept-testing Focus
Collective analysis in relation to the overarching questions produces a result that can be
communicated as a whole through the concept “multivocal didactic modelling”. The concept
can capture, consolidate and provide alternative tools for critical reflection in teaching and co-
assessment in relation to the development and learning of each child.
Researchers hold that “no theory can actually encompass the teaching situation as a
whole” (Arfwedson, 1998, p. 131). This constitutes a basic assumption in the research at hand,
and for this reason, several theories are included. The term “multivocal” refers to multiple voices
in many parts, which can be translated into multiple perspectives and a variety of approaches.
The Norwegian linguist Dysthe (1993) launched “the multivocal classroom” concept, largely
inspired by the work of Russian philosopher and literary theorist Bakhtin and his colleagues
(e.g. Bakhtin & Medvedev, 1978). Sociolinguistic and sociocultural premises are prominent in
the multivocal classroom. Multivocal teaching and co-assessment was inspired by Dysthe, even
as a more expansive approach intended to encompass several scientific grounds was tested (see

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812 section “Triangulation” and Vallberg Roth, 2018). Multivocality and variation in the theory-
informed alternatives for teaching and learning can also be interpreted as being more beneficial
for democracy and sustainability than exclusively unilateral choices (cf. e.g., Gerholm et al.,
2018).
In summary, multivocal didactic modelling can be tested as a tool for critical reflection,
which may include the perspectives (versions) of various actors, diverse scientific grounds and
proven experience. Everyone involved in the collaborative research may, given their diverse
backgrounds and experiences, be viewed as knowledge carriers, knowledge users and potential
knowledge developers. Moreover, the multivocal didactic modelling concept can be tested in its
encounter with individual children and groups of children in co-action to uncover knowledge
and values in spontaneous and planned teaching sessions with various contents where teaching,
learning and care are intertwined in various ways – not assuming that “one size fits all” (Vallberg
Roth, 2018). The key concepts are illustrated in relation to the aim and research questions in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Key concepts in relation to the aim and research questions.

*The concept “Theory-informed teaching arrangements”, including “co-assessment”, is related
to the aim and primarily research question 1.
** The concept “Didactics”, including “didactic questions” and “didactic levels”, is related to
the aim and primarily research question 2.
***The term “Multivocal didactic modelling” is related to the aim and research questions 1
and 2.
Broken lines in the figure indicate permeability and overlapping relationships between aim,
questions and concepts (see section “Research Focus: Aim and Research Questions”).
Triangulation
A basic assumption in the collaborative research was that “no theory can actually
encompass the teaching situation as a whole” (Arfwedson, 1998, p. 131). For this reason, the
research was based on several theoretical perspectives. Triangulation can serve as support to
strengthen variation since the same phenomenon can be investigated using various types of
data, theoretical perspectives and researchers/actors in the research process (cf. Larsson, 2009).
The goal is not to provide “a more valid singular truth, but to open up a more complex, in-depth,
but still thoroughly partial, understanding of the issue” (Tracy, 2010, p. 844).

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In this collaborative research, triangulation was accomplished mainly through data (“word 813
data” and “audio-visual data” were generated), theoretical gateways (didactics, variation theory,
post-structural gateways and pragmatic perspective) and the use of a qualitative approach by
the researchers/participants in the collaborative research. Depending on level of credibility,
“Multivocal research includes multiple and varied voices in the qualitative report and analysis”
(Tracy, 2010, p. 844).
The theoretical perspectives were in part selected, as previously mentioned, because
traces of them could be found in the results from the questionnaire that participants answered
at research start in 2016 (Vallberg Roth, 2018). In part, they were selected because they
were positioned relatively far from each other regarding focus and direction: from didactics
(knowledge base for teaching, including assessment) across variation theory (intentional
learning, perceptions), and post-structural arrangements (rhizomatic learning, transdisciplinary
constructions), to pragmatics (focused on values, actions and reflective learning1). Aided by
proper selection from the various theoretical perspectives, theoretical triangulation could be
achieved. This approach clears the path for variation and multivocality at the action level as
well as the (meta)theoretical level (Kansanen, 1993).
Didactics and various areas of content in teaching were also varied, with examples from
the cultural arena, including music and language, as well as from mathematics and science
(including social and environmental sustainability).
Sample Selection
The participants learned about each theory-informed arrangement at specific input

occasions. The number of participants at the occasions were 240, including 175 preschool
teachers, 55 preschool managers and 10 administrative directors. The municipalities/responsible
school authorities appointed the participants at the specific input occasions. In all, 5,236
individuals consented to participate in the research, including 4,365 guardians/children, 806
preschool teachers/educators and 65 managers (see section “Research Ethics Considerations”).
Procedures: Knowledge in Collaboration
During the research, knowledge was developed through collaboration among participants
(cf. Enthoven & de Bruijn, 2010). Each participating municipality/responsible school authority
participated through one or more development teams that included preschool managers and
preschool teachers. They ran and tested teaching arrangements within the preschool. In addition,
the responsible school authority appointed one or more local process managers to support the
participants. Their primary task was to lead and run the developmental processes locally within
the municipality/responsible authority. The process managers were either preschool teachers or
managers.
Input to the theory-informed teaching arrangements occurred once each term when
the arrangements were introduced. The participants learned about each theory-informed
arrangement on specific input occasions, namely lectures by researchers associated with
each theory-informed teaching arrangement, as well as to workshops with theory-informed
discussions. Workshops were also held, during which participating preschool teachers and
managers generated inter-municipal co-plans that were followed up through inter-municipal co-
evaluations after the arrangements had been carried out (see Table 1). All participants also had
access to reference material describing the theory-informed arrangements with links to relevant
1 See Burman (2014), who points to “learning by reflective experience”, where the word experience
can express that this involves experiencing a situation and not just carrying out an action, which the word doing
in “learning by doing” could suggest.

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814 references (Vallberg Roth, 2016). Based on input, the participants then tested the theory-
informed teaching arrangements in the municipalities without the presence of the researchers
in the preschools.
Didactically informed teaching arrangements were introduced in the spring term of 2016
and the variation-theory-informed teaching arrangement was introduced in the autumn term of
2016. The post-structurally informed teaching arrangement was introduced in the spring term
of 2017 and the pragmatically informed teaching arrangement was introduced in the autumn
term of 2017.
For the purposes of the research, collaboration means in part that participants initiated
questions about teaching and co-assessment, and in part that they generated material.
Furthermore, collaboration also entailed analysis in which the teaching arrangements and
material were repeatedly discussed with the process leaders (three times each term), as well as
communicated with other participants during national seminars once each term.
The Researcher’s Role: Collaboration in the Research Group
The research group, consisting of four researchers, met continuously (approximately

once every fourteen days) to work on the analysis and the theory-informed arrangements.
Regarding the material from the theory-informed arrangements, one or two researchers had
responsibility for the analysis of each arrangement. Regarding trustworthiness and for more
nuanced analyses (cf. Tracy, 2010) meetings were arranged where a researcher other than those
who performed the analysis read the presented interpretation (see Table 2) and commented on
the written analysis. The analysis was also discussed more thoroughly during specific research
and writing weeks. In the research group, the scientific leader had the ultimate responsibility
for the analysis.
Material Overview
An overview is presented in Table 1. The total document frequencies include co-plans,

pre/post-assessments (in variation theory arrangements), video photo/documentation and co-
evaluations (2,259 documents and 478,685 words).

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Table 1. Material overview for collaborative research 2016–2018. 815
Arrangement Video/doc.
Co-planning Co-evaluation Total
Implementation
1 Didactically
informed
arrangement
C1 104 video/docs. 542 docs.
C1* 104 docs. C2 89 video/docs. C1 91docs. About 63 hrs.
Spring term 2016
C2** 73 docs. C2 81docs. About 80,000
Cycle 1 Cycle 2
About 63 video hours words
122 depts/
preschools***
2 Variation-theory- C1 120 docs. C1 84 docs.

informed C2 101docs. C2 82 docs.
C1 127 video/docs.
arrangement 939 docs.
C2 96 video/docs.
Pre-assessment at Post-assessment at About 34 hrs.
Autumn term 2016 individual level: individual level: About 214,000
About 34 video hours
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 C1 96 docs. C1 69 docs. words
137 depts/ preschools C2 92 docs. C2 72 docs.
68 video/docs.
3 Post-structurally
informed
about 10 video hours 277 docs.
arrangement
About 10 hrs.
93 docs. 42 photos/docs: 74 docs. About 74,000
Spring term 2017
words
93 depts/ preschools
Video: 64
4 Pragmatically about 5 video hours
informed arrangement 302 docs.
Photos/ About 5 hrs.
Autumn term 2017 117 docs. documentation: 87 docs. About 75,000
120 depts/ preschools 34 words
5 Municipalities’
selected Municipality/ Municipality/
Presentations by 45 docs.
arrangements preschool preschool co-
municipality About 16,685
co-planning 27 evaluations 18
words
2018
42 docs.
Arrangement 1. 20 - Arrangement 1. 22 39 docs.
Intra-municipality Arrangement 2. 18 - Arrangement 2. 21 31 docs.
level – **** Arrangement 3. 14 - Arrangement 3. 17 42 docs.
2016–2018 Arrangement 4. 21 - Arrangement 4. 21 About 19,000
words
548 video/docs. 2,259 docs.
About 110 video hours About 110 hrs.
Total 896 docs. 739 docs.
76 photos/docs. About 478,685
words
*C1 refers to Cycle 1. A “cycle” includes co-planning of teaching, implementation of teaching (e.g., video) and
co-evaluation of teaching.
**C2 refers to Cycle 2
*** dept/preschool refers to material generated at department level/preschool level
**** The intermunicipal level refers to co-planning and co-evaluation generated once each term in intermunicipal
groups consisting of preschool teachers, preschool managers/acting preschool managers and process managers,
as well as a steering group with representatives from the administrative level.1

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816 Data Analysis
Analysis of the material can be methodologically described in terms of abductive

analysis (Peirce, 1903/1990; Tavory & Timmermans, 2014), alternating between theory-loaded
empiricism and empirically loaded theory, “where both are gradually reinterpreted in light of
each other” (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2008, p. 57). The purpose of the analysis was to identify
traces and patterns in “word data” and “audio-visual data” (cf. Silverman, 2011) relating to the
aim of and questions posed by the research. Didactic questions serve as both practical tools and
as a basis for analytical questions. In the context of this research, such questions focus on what
(content), how (teaching actions), who/whom (actor/actors), where (space/place), when (time)
and why (goal and motivation).
For the empirically based analysis a thorough examination of the material was conducted:
the material was read, listened to and viewed several times and some of the audio-visual data
was transcribed (cf. Duranti, 1997), while also highlighting prominent words in relation to
didactic questions (Vallberg Roth et al., 2019). In a theory-based analytical path empirical traces
were related to prior research and concepts associated with the theory-informed arrangements
and Kansanen’s (1993) didactic levels (see Table 2 and “Research Results”). The theory-
based analysis culminated in a concept-testing focus (see “Discussion”) in which the results
were consolidated into a communicable whole where the research questions were tested and
answered through the concept of “multivocal didactic modelling” (Vallberg Roth, 2018).
In the analysis the term “trace” has been used instead of, for example, “category”. Trace
is a term that from an analytical standpoint may be consistent with various scientific grounds
and perspectives that shift between qualitative and post-qualitative approaches (Vallberg Roth,
2018). The term “category” may misdirect thoughts to something more rigid with sharply
defined limits (cf. Palmer, 2010). Traces can be associated with both fixed and temporary
determinations and constructions that can be related to various scientific grounds and can be
capable of capturing the variation in the material. Traces may represent themes or patterns in
the data but may also be “units at a lower abstraction level” in the analysis, such as words in
sentences and numbers related to the didactic questions in the material (see Table 2 and Table
3). Abductive moments in the analysis can involve suddenly seeing an alternative, discovering a
previously undiscovered possibility: “Reality is not simply ‘what is here-and-now’/…/but also
includes what potentially can be achieved – and which in the moment merely reflects a vague
possibility” (Peirce, 1903/1990, p. 31). In this research, concepts were tested in relation to
traces in the material that were revealed as possibilities by the analysis (see “Research Results”
and Table 3). The analytical process is further described in Table 2.

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Table 2. Analytical process. 817
Analytical path 1 – close processing of the material in Table 1

1) A thorough analysis of the word-data and audio-visual
data was conducted: 1) See Table 1 and transcribed examples in the result
The material was read, listened to and viewed several section marked “Excerpt from video transcript, 2016,
times and some of the audio-visual data was transcribed 2017”.
(cf. Duranti, 1997).
Analytical path 2 – didactic questions in focus – see Table 2
2a) Traces were interpreted in “word data” and “audio-
visual data” in relation to didactic questions. Action level
(Kansanen, 1993) is in the foreground and related to co- 2a-b) See Table 2 and the result section.
planning, teaching and co-evaluation. Results are based on the didactic questions
2b) Traces at an action level were related to concepts at regarding action level and theoretical level.
a theoretical level associated with the theory-informed
arrangements.
Analytical path 3 – didactic models in focus – see discussion and conclusion
3) See the sections “Discussion” and “Conclusion” related
3) Cohesive analysis was performed in light of didactic
to the didactic models. The concept “Multivocal didactic
models, including didactic questions and Kansanen’s
modelling” was analyzed and discussed in relation to
(1993) didactic levels, resulting in a conceptualising focus.
didactic questions and didactic levels.
Research Ethics Considerations
The research complies with the research ethics guidelines of the Swedish Research
Council (2017). This means that all participants were informed and asked for their consent
according to the information requirement. All participation was completely voluntary and could
have been discontinued at any time without any explanation, in accordance with the consent
requirement.
The research was conducted using recorded activities such as notes, video and audio
recordings. Professionals who worked in the preschools conducted and recorded the activities.
Recorded data were treated confidentially and stored on a platform that was accessible to the
researchers. One participant per preschool/department was appointed to enter the material on
the platform. The appointed participants only had access to the material that they personally
entered.
With respect to the use requirement, the generated data were only used for research
purposes and reported by researchers in such a way that individuals could not be identified
by third parties. All data production was encoded based on a system using a code key that
was locked in the department archives for storage, in accordance with the confidentiality
requirement. All consent forms were also stored in a locked filing cabinet. Young children
participated in the research and consent from their guardians was required. The researchers had
special responsibility to ensure the privacy of the children. Ethics questions were subject to
continual discussion during the research.
Research Results
Didactically Informed Arrangements
Didactic what-question: The didactically informed teaching arrangements focused on

the subject of music. For the purposes of the “what” question, music emerged as science in

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818 concepts like “crescendo” and “accelerando”, as arts in “sensory experiences of listening and
feeling music”, and as crafts in for example “playing instruments” (from co-planning, 2016).
Various dimensions of music, such as acoustic, emotional, existential, bodily/kinaesthetic
and structural, were also revealed. In particular, the structural dimension emerged and more
specifically, dynamics and tempo: “What (content) Dynamic (loud and soft)” and “Endeavour
to: Develop the children’s ability to distinguish between different tempos by giving them three
changes of tempo” (from co-planning, 2016).
Didactic how-question: A trace of the “how” question could be seen in the three forms
of activities – “song”, “movement” and “instrumental performance” (from co-planning, 2016).
Moreover, teaching was preferentially carried out as teacher-led co-action: “We are the ones
who have decided the pace of the activity/…/. The teacher has led, and the children have
followed” (from co-assessment, 2016).
Feedback was either group-oriented or individual-oriented but was preferably group-
oriented. An example of group-oriented feedback is: “Now we have clapped at just the right
tempo” (excerpt from video transcript, 2016). Feedback is a tool that can be used to direct and
maintain attention in teaching as a goal-oriented process. In research, various forms of feedback
are described in terms of “feed up”, “feed back” and “feed forward”. There are traces in the
material that derive from these forms of feedback. An example of feed up may be: “Today we
will learn a new word – dynamics” (excerpt from video transcript, 2016). Feedback can be
exemplified by “Just look how clever you’ve been! We have played the drum and listened to
loud and soft and remembered that this is called dynamics when we change it this way” (excerpt
from video transcript, 2016). Feedback can also be communicated through body language;
examples include thumbs up, nodding and applauding. Feed forward can be exemplified by a
preschool teacher who uses exaggerated slow movements to inspire, demonstrate and challenge
children to clap: “Do you have long arms? Then stretch your arms out and we will clap” (excerpt
from video transcript, 2016). The material also contained examples of children as sources of
feedback. One example is when children played their instruments and one child conducted,
while the other children showed their appreciation by spontaneously clapping their hands.
In addition, the assessment-theory-based concept “feedback” was tested in combination
with traces of “rap”, which led to feedback as represented by “feed – rap”, or “rap feedback”.
One example relates to the chosen content dimension “tempo”: “Today I am going to teach you
about something called ‘tempo’. Different tempos when we sing”. In the example, the preschool
teacher “rapped” her feedback and her reply in time to the clapping of the children: “Okay…
one more time…the crow likes to clap at just the right tempo” (excerpt from video transcript,
2016).
Didactic who/whom-, where- and when-questions: For the “who/whom” question, four
to eight children and one preschool teacher were usually included in the teaching, although as
many as nine preschool teachers/educators and 30 children could be involved. Regarding the
“where” question, teaching was usually conducted indoors with participants sitting on the floor
in a circle. However, teaching sessions were also undertaken while moving between rooms and
this too could characterize teaching outdoors. With regard to the “when” question, teaching and
video time varied from 1 to 30 minutes, but teaching sessions were typically 6 to 15 minutes
long. Teaching was primarily conducted in the morning.
Didactic why-question: Reference was usually made to the interests, creativity and
learning of the child. Usually an objective was formulated that pertained to the Swedish
curriculum area “2.2 Development and learning” (from co-planning, 2016). The result of the
didactic questions in the didactically informed teaching method is summarised in Table 3.

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Variation-theory-informed Arrangement 819
Didactic what-question: Concerning the “what” question, the focus was predominantly
on mathematics and language, as well as some elements of science in the variation-theory-
informed teaching arrangement. Arithmetic and geometry were at the forefront (from co-
planning, 2016). One example of arithmetic was: “I have observed the children’s interest
in counting and how they are familiar with the first numbers” (co-planning, 2016). In the
following geometry was focused: “Place squares in contrast to circles. Place squares in contrast
to rectangles” (from co-planning, 2016). From the standpoint of variation theory, learning is
viewed as the ability to distinguish between various aspects of a learning object. A “learning
object” refers to the defined content and knowledge that the learner can develop, and the idea
is to distinguish more and more aspects of a phenomenon. Variation is a necessary condition
in order for the learner to perceive a true aspect of the learning object. The preschool teachers
used different models to vary the content, such as “contrast” (e.g., “the colour blue in contrast
with the colour red”, excerpt from video transcript, 2016), “generalization” (e.g., positional
words “in front of” and “behind” in various contexts, excerpt from video transcript, 2016), and
“fusion”. Fusion means that several aspects vary simultaneously, such as “circles in different
colours, sizes and materials” (excerpt from video transcript, 2016).
Didactic how-question: In terms of the “how” question, teaching was conducted
predominantly as teacher-led co-action, but also alternated between teacher-led and child-led
co-action in which the teacher led first and later switched roles, allowing the children to lead,
ask questions and provide feedback to the teacher’s answers. In the teacher-led co-action the
teacher pointed to the shapes on the table and said: “Rectangle, circle and square; now I am
going to blindfold you and then place a shape in front of you on the table and you will then
describe what shape you are holding. Is that OK?” The children nodded their heads and the
teaching continued. After a while the children suggested that the teacher and children should
switch roles. Then the preschool teacher was blindfolded, and the children selected a block for
the teacher to feel. One child asked: “How many sides?” The preschool teacher felt, counted
and said: “four”. Another child asked: “Are they the same or different?” The teacher answered:
“OK, I am going to feel it like this, I believe there are two short and two long sides.” The
child asked more about the sides: “So are they the same or different?” The teacher answered:
“Different.” The child provided feedback: “Right!” (excerpt from video transcript, 2016). In
this example the children also played the role of providing feedback.
Feedback was either group-oriented or individual-oriented, but through pre- and post-
assessment it was predominantly individual-oriented. In the assessment, critical aspects
were identified, as in this example: “The children appear to have problems explaining how
to distinguish between the square and the rectangle /…/. Critical aspect: Mix up the concept
corner/sides/edges” (from co-evaluations, 2016).
Moreover, the variation-theory-based concept “critical aspect” was tested in combination
with the assessment-theory-based concept “feedback”. This combination led to feedback focused
on critical aspects, which can be formulated in terms of “feed – critical aspects”. One example
of feedback regarding critical aspects can be seen in the learning object “letters-numbers.”
Children and teachers co-acted with a piece of material consisting of letters and numbers and
the children sorted the symbols into different piles. For example, upper-case letter E ended up
in the pile of numbers. The teaching was then directed towards feedback concerning the critical
aspect that became apparent in the teaching situation – the similarity between symbols such as
the number 3 and the capital letter E. Different interpretations of the number 3, as the letter E
and a symbol that may resemble an ear, became apparent in the child’s reply:

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820 a child points at the letter E and says: “That’s a three”. The teacher responds: “Is that a 3?”,
whereupon the child says: “It looks like a three, it really does” and the teacher provides feedback
confirmation: “Well, it does look like a three, it really does.” The child turns to the numbers and
looks for and finds a three and says: “Now it almost looks like an ear.” The teacher places the
number three and the letter E side by side and says: “You said that this one looks like a three and
that one too” and the teacher points to a card with the number three and a card with the letter E.
The child responds by taking the two cards with the three and the E and says: “Both are threes.
The teacher turns to the child and provides challenging feedback: “What letter is at the beginning
of your name?” The child replies: “E”. The teacher continues: “What does an E look like?” and
the child responds by leaning forward and pointing to the letter E. The teacher: “If you write your
name then you use...” and the child fills in: “Letters”. The teacher responds with a challenge by
pointing to the letter E and asking: “So is this the number 3 or the letter E?” (Excerpt from video
transcript, 2016.)
Another trace that can be found in the “how” question is the use of a “guessing element”,
which can be interpreted as a didactic component that can be viewed as a playful way to be
“on the path” towards a goal to be strived for. In one example, a preschool teacher observed
the children’s creation of meaning concerning size and weight and challenged the children by
asking them to line up six globe-shaped objects of different sizes, arranging them from heaviest
to lightest. The preschool teacher asked: “Which one do you think is the lightest and which
one do you think is the heaviest?” The children responded with lively discussion during which
they tested the objects by holding them and guessing their weight and placing them in line. In
other words, the dimension of play can be inferred when the children use their imaginations and
conduct a thinking experiment, or a thinking game, in which they guess the weight of the object.
Guessing can also be viewed as an everyday equivalent to more scientifically formulating
hypotheses that can later be tested. The teacher provided feedback, wrote down the order that
the children and the teacher arrived at by guessing, and then asked: “Should we try to find out
whether this is correct now?”
Didactic who/whom, where- and when-questions: The “who/whom” question principally
concerned three children and preschool teachers/educators in the teaching situations. Teaching
in relation to the “where” question was mainly conducted indoors, while varying formations of
the group around tables or on the floor. However, there are also examples of outdoor teaching
and of teaching that transitions from outdoor to indoor spaces. Concerning the “when” question,
teaching and video time both varied, but in general were somewhat shorter than in the first
arrangement – 3–7 minutes is typical. Overall, video time varied between 27 seconds and 36
minutes and was carried out both before and after lunch.
Didactic why-question: Concerning the “why” question, 1–2 objectives were formulated
that were linked to the interests of the children and in which the focus was on intentional
learning and “changed know-how.” The objectives were preferentially set with reference to
the Swedish preschool curriculum area “2.2 Development and learning” (from co-planning/
preparation, 2017). The result of the didactic questions in the teaching method informed by
variation theory is summarised in Table 3.
Post-structurally Informed Arrangements
Didactic what-question: In the post-structurally informed arrangement the “what”

question predominantly focused on transdisciplinary content, with elements of mathematics-
music-images-language-movement-nature-technology/ICT and values. Specific examples of
transdisciplinary content are: “Ladybug music”, “Songmatics”, “Music-dance-mathematics,”
“Butterfly project,” “Math-music,” “Robot-music,” “Tango-image”, “Receipt-music” and
“Jungle sea”. A prominent example would be “Rhythmatics” (from co-planning and co-

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assessments, 2017). An example in which the concept “transdisciplinary” was mentioned is: 821
“We created ‘Song mathematics’. It feels natural to work with transdisciplinary learning” (from
co-evaluation, 2017). The material in the collaborative research describes the post-structurally
informed arrangement using terms such as “here and now”, “no right or wrong” (from co-
evaluations, 2017). One example in terms of “Songmatics” is presented here:
Co-planning/preparation together with the children: The song ‘an egg, a rooster and a
hen’ with lots of text, many pictures and a fast tempo is greatly appreciated by the children /…/
When the preschool teacher presented all of the pictures with numbers on the back, the children’s
attention was focused on the numbers; there were so many pictures in this song (18). We put them
in the order that the text showed, which clarified the structure of the song in words and sentences.
This resulted in many lines. We discovered that one picture was missing, there was an empty space
where the picture of ‘pop’ was to be, for which reason the numbers (count) were also missing.
(From co-planning/preparation, 2017.)
Co-evaluation/reflection together with the children: In conversation with the children
the preschool teacher illustrated the link between different types of content and described
their discoveries in words. “You are making comparisons, you are discovering similarities and
differences, you are seeing relationships. This is mathematics! You have also organized the pictures
based on numbers; this is also mathematics. We have read and built sentences; this is language. We
have sung at different tempos; this is music, etc. (From co-evaluation/post-work, 2017.)
Didactic how-question: In the “how” question, a project-oriented working method

emerged with a variety of co-actions, though child-guided co-actions were more frequent than
in previous arrangements. This can be expressed as: “We teachers have been able to monitor
the interests of the children and the children have guided us teachers to their interests and
approaches” and “We have quite simply observed the flow of ideas in the children at the best
point in time and seen the results of how a project evolves when educators do not lead” (from
co-assessments, 2017).
The previous arrangements focused on teaching about content in the world. In the post-
structurally informed arrangement, this changes so that traces of teaching with the world also
emerge. Within this context, characteristic traces for the structure were captured in the evolved
concepts “co-led action” and “feed with”, which emphasize that feedback and response also
occur from the material aspects of the ongoing events of the teaching. In co-led action, the
actors may appear as alternating between main actors and co-actors, who can co-lead the action
by triggering conversation, questions and responses. One example is co-led actions involving
children, magazines and teachers, in which photos in the magazines triggered conversations
about cookies and tractors (excerpt from video transcript, 2017). The material things as active
could be expressed as: “One cornerstone in post-constructionist theory is that things are viewed
as active in and of themselves” (from co-planning, 2017).
Moreover, teaching occurred through “feed with” in actions involving children, teachers
and tablets. One example of “feed with” took place between a tablet showing hits and responses
following the teacher’s search. A child leant over the tablet, which had then become the main
actor, and asked what the tablet said, at the same time that the teacher slid a finger over the
tablet and read aloud: “The Ghostbuster Machine” (excerpt from video transcript, 2017). So, in
addition to “feed up”, “feed back” and “feed forward,” the material also provided examples of
the concept of “feed with” as a potential actor, providing feedback and guiding the directions
of events.
Didactic who/whom-, where- and when-questions: The “who/whom” question principally
concerned three children, but the spread varied between one and nine children, and in one case
as many as 70 children were mentioned. Usually one or two “educators” were present, but as
many as four could be involved. Moreover, materials were considered to be co-actors. The

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822 documentation and interpretation portrayed the children as being more involved. One example
of this is: “Throughout the process we have involved the children in the documentation, and they
have participated in choosing what images are to be visibly documented” (from co-evaluation/
post-work, 2017). Regarding the “where” question, teaching was carried out “anywhere”, both
indoors and outdoors, and “at any time”, both morning and afternoon. Concerning the “when”
question, teaching and video time varied between 22 seconds and 35 minutes, with 3–7 and
7–9 minutes being quite typical. The total number of video events, put together from any given
project, was usually just over one hour (68 minutes).
Didactic why-question: Concerning the “why” question, several objectives were
formulated that were linked to the interests-events of the children, with an emphasis on non-
linear learning and knowledge creation: “We think and practise continually in the rhizomatic
approach and try to see various curriculum objectives that are intertwined” (from co-evaluation,
2017). The objectives were preferentially set with reference to the Swedish preschool
curriculum area “2.2 Development and learning”, “2.1 Norms and values” and “2.3 Influence
of the child”, as well as to the section on the environment in the curriculum (from co-planning/
preparation, 2017). There are also interpretations of the objectives that make reference to “how
the curriculum objectives are integrated with each other” (from co-planning/preparation, 2017).
In this approach, a goal-relational interpretation becomes apparent, which entails a non-linear
interpretation of objectives that falls within the framework of the linear, predetermined direction
of objectives. Objectives can be shaped through interaction during teaching, which can be
expressed as “the objectives being developed during the teaching work and not right at the start”
(from co-evaluation/post-work, 2017). Evidence of objectives being changed after the fact are
clear in the following example: “For a teacher, being able to change one’s objectives after the
fact and to have partial goals” (from co-planning/preparation, 2017). Another example of non-
linear interpretation of objectives that falls within the framework of the linear, predetermined
direction of objectives, is the following:
In preschool, this view implies that the goal is not for staff to decide in advance exactly
what knowledge is to be gained from the children’s exploration. Granted, of course, there are
always overall goals to strive towards in any teaching activity. All pedagogical activities have
goals and in pedagogical work with the children it is important to define a direction. This will take
different forms depending on the particular children and adults participating, how the pedagogical
environment is arranged and how the relational interactions develop. (From co-planning/
preparation, 2017)
The result of the didactic questions in the post structurally informed teaching approach
is summarised in Table 3.
Pragmatically Informed Arrangement
Didactic what-question: The “what” question focused on values, especially on

democracy and influence in the pragmatically informed arrangement. It is more strongly
oriented towards social sustainability than towards the environment or financial sustainability
(from co-planning and co-evaluations, 2017). Nevertheless, a multivocality emerged in which
social versus financial and/or environmental aspects interacted, as exemplified in the context of
“Food Waste”: “Our cook has pointed out that food waste at lunch has increased, especially on
those days when ‘popular’ food is served/…/. The children do not appear to see any relationship
between how much food they want to take at the buffet and how much food they want to eat”
(from co-planning, 2017). The chosen content focused on “the correlation between food that
is taken, food that is eaten and food that is left” (from co-planning, 2017). Additional traces
of multivocality emerged through interactions involving various actors, such as teachers and

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children, parents and chefs, as well as resulting from integrative knowledge content moving 823
within and between various value levels, such as societal, private and/or existential.
Didactic how-question: In the “how” question, teacher-led co-action emerged.
Furthermore, normative and pluralistic teaching principles were cited more frequently than those
that were fact-based. In fact-based teaching, teachers teach relevant facts; for example, teaching
about “the organs of the human body” (excerpt from video transcript, 2017). Under normative
teaching principles, the concern of teachers is to teach correct behaviour, such as how to treat
one another, “not hurt anyone”, and “to listen to” and “respect one another” (excerpt from video
transcript, 2017). Under pluralistic teaching principles, the teacher arranges teaching situations
in which the children can reflect on various ways to think and act. One example is teaching
about “the proper place for toys”, where the children may voice their opinions and listen to the
opinions of their peers and then participate in a democratic decision on what to do (excerpt from
video transcript, 2017).
Feedback in this arrangement was oriented towards both the group and the individual,
as in this example:
The video begins with pictures of food. Next comes a sequence with videotaped photos of the
plates of five children with food before and after they finished eating. By the photo of one child
a caption says: “… I left food!” Then we are channelled into the teaching moment during lunch
when the teacher asks a question to focus the children’s attention on the relationship between
how much food the children take and how much they eat. The preschool teacher says: “Listen,
children, do you know what I wonder?” The children answer: “No.” The preschool teacher says:
“How do we know how much food to take?” One child says: “You have to ask your tummy.” The
conversation continues. (Excerpt from video transcript, 2017.)
In another video sequence the children and preschool teacher are sitting in a ring on a
mattress in a gathering room. They discuss the photos that the children took of their plates when
they took food and when they finished eating. Different ways of thinking and acting are discussed,
partly taking too much food or taking just enough food, partly leaving food on the plate or finishing
eating the food. It turns out that it is difficult to know what is just enough and one child says that
she needs to think about this more at home. The child says: “I’m going to think about this at
home.” The preschool teacher says: “If you are going to think about this at home, maybe you can
tell me if you come up with something smart.” (Excerpt from video transcript, 2017.)
The current research combines pragmatic perspectives with didactics and assessment
theory. This combination leads to the alternative concept of “feed transaction”, which refers
to feedback for change that is expressed as action resulting from the critical ability to act.
One example would be children who at first become sad and cry when other children say that
they created something ugly. And after teaching, with a focus on questions such as: “Who
decides what is pretty and what is ugly?” and “Does everyone like the same things?”, signs of
transaction were discerned. One child approached a boat that another child was creating from
cardboard and said, “That’s really ugly” and laughed. The child building the boat then looked
at the child who was laughing and said: “Yeah, we don’t think the same thing” (excerpt from
video transcript, 2017). From the concept of “feed transaction”, alternative components also
emerged as “multimodal feedback” through narrative, questioning and visualizing indicators.
Multimodal feedback can be viewed as emerging in relation to the toddlers in the following
statement: “The children are one year old, so when I talk about discussion I’m not referring
to verbal communication, but rather to gestures, facial expressions, sounds and occasional
words from the children that the teacher attempts to interpret and put into words” (from co-
evaluation, 2017). Through multivocal co-action, teachers seemed to make the contents living,
understandable, visible and conversational.

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824 Didactic who/whom-, where- and when-questions: There are many examples of “value
didacticized” teaching in which the values on which the group of children focused were linked
to the “who/whom”, “where” and “when” questions. “The children are involved in problem-
solving in which we decide on common rules and options” (from co-evaluation, 2017). With
the “who question” it can be a matter of “who rules” and alternative rules based on questions
in the teaching, such as: Who may or may not participate in the game? Who is the focus of the
activity and who decides? We can also discern traces in the material of a value-didacticised
“where question”, that can involve “where rules” and alternatives to the rules discussed in the
children group - in other words, “site rules” for where things should or may be and places and
where activities should or may occur can be focused on in the teaching. Moreover, there are also
traces of a didacticised “when question” in the teaching of “time rules”, and alternatives to the
rules are then discussed in the teaching group, which might involve a focus on speaking time,
favourite bike-riding time and tablet time, for example. It is also important to note here that
unique children need different amounts of time, as is made clear by the following statement:
“The children have different ways of learning and need different amounts of time” (from co-
evaluation, 2017).
Didactic why-question: The objectives were preferentially set with reference to
the Swedish preschool curriculum areas “2.2 Development and learning”, “2.1 Norms and
values” and “2.3 Influence of the child” (from co-planning/preparation, 2017). The teaching
arrangement was based on identifying “gaps”, defined as problematic situations, such as “food
waste”, “what is pretty and what is ugly” and “who may participate in the play”. The “why”
question alternated between explicit value gaps and fact-oriented gaps. In the following the gap
about “food waste” turned out in a new gap when the child said that the food was gone and not
left on the plate when the child “scraped it down into the bucket”:
Three of five children had eaten all their food; two had left food on the plate. The children said:
“Yes, I remember now when I thought about it a little.” – “I thought a little, it was just enough.”
– “I thought when I stood there with the plates.” – “First I took that much. Then I left a little …
THEN… GONE… Because I scraped it into the bucket.” – “I took too many carrots.” – “I took
just enough, because I only took this much, and my tummy wanted this much.” – “No, you left
some on the plate,” said one friend. – “Yes, but then I scraped it down into the bucket, and then it
was gone!” (New GAP!;-). (From co-evaluation, 2017.)
Table 3 summarizes the different theory-informed arrangements described above.

Characteristic traces are used as examples and the traces shown in bold print are the most
striking.

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Table 3. Examples of traces from theory-informed teaching arrangements 825

2016–2017.
Arrangement What How Who/whom* Where When Why

**Lpfö
1 Didactically
Teacher-led co- Teacher (1–9 Objective 2.2
informed
Music as science, action primarily 1) Primarily Primarily a.m. 1 within-musical
arrangement
art, crafts indoors 1–30 min. objectives
Feedback-group- Children (2–30,
Dimensions of individual primarily 4–8) Often in circle Primarily Children’s
music on floor 6–15 min. interests
Spring term 2016
“Feed – rap” Creativity-
learning
**Lpfö
Teacher-led – and
Learning object
Objective 2.2
2 Variation- child-led co-action Teachers (1–4,
a.m.–p.m. 1–2 objectives
theory-informed Focus on math & Guessing is “being primarily 2) Indoors-also
27 sec.– Children’s
arrangement language – on the way” outdoors
36 min. interests
elements of nature Children (1–9,
Feedback- primarily 3) At table – on
Primarily Intentional
Autumn term 2016 Content as contrastindividual-group floor
3–7 min. learning
generalization “Feed –critical
–changed
& fusion aspects”
know-how
Children (1–9 Children’s
& up to 70, interests-
3 Post- Child-guided co-
Trans disciplinary primarily 3) events
structurally action and a.m.–p.m.
content with Non-linear
informed “co-led action” “at any time”
elements of: “Educator” Indoors- learning know/
arrangement 22 sec.–35
mathematics- (1–4, primarily outdoors create
Project-oriented min– 68 min.
music-image- 1–2), several
language- co-actors “anywhere” Several
Feedback Primarily
movement-nature- integrated
group-individual- 1–3 & 7–9
technology/ICT Children objectives
Spring term 2017 material min.
values involved in all **Lpfö, 2.2,
“Feed with”
interpretations/ environment,
doc. 2.1 & 2.3
Children –
(1–56,
primarily 2–5) Transitions
**Lpfö
Teacher-led co- Indoors-
4 Pragmatically Before, during Objectives 2.1.,
Focus on values action Teachers – outdoors
informed and after lunch 2.2 & 2.3
Fact-based, (primarily 1–2
arrangement 36 sec.–31 1–10 objectives
Democracy normative & –sometimes
min.
pluralistic “all”) Everyday
Primarily Reflective
Social, situations
1–5 min. learning
environmental Feedback –
& financial group-individual: Several co-
Autumn term 2017 Value-oriented
sustainability “Feed – actors
“Time rules” & fact-oriented
transaction”
gaps
“Place rules”
“Who/whom
rules”
* Number in parentheses
**Lpfö refers to Curriculum for the Preschool, SKOLFS 1998:16

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826 Discussion
The discussion addresses multivocality (cf. Dysthe, 1993) in teaching arrangements in

connection to the research questions about what could characterize teaching and co-assessment
in preschool, with a focus on didactic questions and didactic levels. Didactic modelling refers
to how teachers, based on theory-informed arrangements or models for teaching, develop
connections between co-planning, teaching and co-evaluation (cf. Ingerman, & Wickman,
2015). For the purposes of this research, teaching was modelled through co-assessment.
The two didactic models – didactic questions (e.g., Uljens, 1997) and didactic levels
(Kansanen, 1993) – emerge in covariation in the summary discussion below, which sums up the
major findings from the didactic questions in the four theory-informed teaching arrangements
(see Table 3) in relation to the concept of multivocal didactic modelling (for more information
see Vallberg Roth et al., 2019). In previous research, the concept of multivocality has not been
systematically linked to didactic questions and didactic levels. The combination of the concepts
of “multivocality” and “didactic modelling” constitutes the main research contribution of this
article.
Didactic “What” Question: Multivocal Modelling of Content
Collectively, the “what” question contains both knowledge and values. The areas of
content concerned a multivocal approach including music, language, mathematics, nature,
technology/ICT, images, movement and values. Overall, the contents were organized in
different ways depending on which theory-informed arrangement was tested. A multivocal
organization was thereby created from content, or in other words, a multivocal modelling
emerged in response to the “what” question. In the didactically informed teaching arrangement,
“content-related dimensions” (structural dimensions in music such as dynamics, tempo, etc.,
see Holmberg, 2014; Holmberg, & Vallberg Roth, 2018) and “content-related aspects” (science,
arts and crafts) emerged (cf. Nielsen, 2006). In the variation theory arrangement, content of
limited and intended “learning objects” (e.g., letters-numbers, patterns, size and weight) was
organized and such content may be modelled as contrast, generalization and fusion in teaching
(cf. Marton, 2015). The contents of the post-structurally informed arrangement may be modelled
into “transdisciplinary intertwining” projects/themes, e.g., “Math-music” and “Songmatics”
(cf. Palmer, 2010). Values, such as democracy, influence, and sustainability, emerged as focused
content in the pragmatically informed teaching arrangement (cf. Hedefalk, 2014). Even if values
were woven into all arrangements, values such as “integrative knowledge content” (cf. Löf,
2014, 2018) in social versus environmental and financial aspects (for example, in the content
“Food Waste”) were modelled at the forefront in the pragmatically informed arrangement.
The traces of the organized content in each theory-informed arrangement are similar to earlier
research (cf. Hedefalk, 2014; Marton, 2015; Nielsen, 2006; Palmer, 2010). The current research
adds the combination and the multivocal modelling in relation to the content (Vallberg Roth et
al., 2019).
Didactic “How” Question: Multivocal Modelling of Teaching Actions
The “how” question focused on teaching actions that may vary between the theory-
informed arrangements, so a multivocal modelling of teaching actions emerged. Child-guided
co-actions have greater influence in the post-structurally informed arrangement, whereas teacher-
led co-actions are more prominent in didactic, variation theory and pragmatically informed
arrangements. Specific traces of co-action such as “teacher and child-led co-action” emerged

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in variation theory arrangements. In addition, “co-led action”, involving children, teachers and 827
the material as actors, could be discerned in post-structurally informed arrangements. Teacher-
led co-actions according to pluralistic and normative principles, and to some extent fact-based
principles, were apparent in the pragmatically informed arrangement.
Multivocal modelling of feedback also emerged in the theory-informed arrangements.
Teachers, children and the material appeared as actors that could provide feedback. In the didactic
“how” question, feedback was both group-oriented and individual-oriented in all arrangements,
but it was, for example, more group-oriented in the didactically informed arrangement and
more individually oriented in the variation-theory-informed arrangement. Traces of “feed up”,
“feed back” and “feed forward” (cf. Hattie, & Timperley, 2007) emerged. Traces of other types
of feedback may also be seen as examples of the proven experience. “Rap” feedback in terms
of “feed – rap” was emphasized in the didactically informed arrangement, while feedback on
critical aspects, or “feed – critical aspects”, was emphasized in the variation-theory-informed
arrangement. In the post-structurally informed arrangement, feedback involving groups,
individuals and material became evident in terms of “feed with”. Moreover, in the pragmatically
informed arrangement, traces also emerged of what may be designated as “feed transaction” –
feedback on change that is evident in action, in the form of critical ability to act. The research
at hand adds the combination and the multivocal modelling of teaching actions (Vallberg Roth
et al., 2019).
Didactic Who/whom Question: Multivocal Modelling in Relation to Actors
The “who/whom” question encompassed a total of 1–70 children and 1–9 preschool
teachers/educators. Both preschool teachers and educators were included, usually one or two of
them in each arrangement. Teaching groups of 3–5 children recurred in all arrangements. Larger
groups of children were more common in the didactically informed arrangement and smaller
groups of children were more common in the variation-theory-informed arrangement. From a
wider perspective, examples of various teaching constellations were found in all arrangements,
including one child, children in pairs, large and small teaching groups. Occasionally all
children in the preschool were mentioned, i.e., 70 children in the post-structurally informed
arrangement. This arrangement also placed greater emphasis on participation by children in all
work and documentation. Other actors were also sometimes included, such as guardians and
student teachers. The greatest number of actors were mentioned in the pragmatically informed
arrangement, including cook, interpreter, puppet and stomach. For example, one teacher asked:
“How do we know how much food to take?” “You have to ask your tummy,” replied one child.
Then, in contrast to previous arrangements, we also detected traces of the “value didacticized”
“who” question addressed in the group of children. It may concern “who rules” and options
based on questions in the teaching such as: “Who may participate in the play?” The current
research adds the multivocal modelling in relation to actors in the teaching arrangements
(Vallberg Roth et al., 2019).
Didactic “Where” Question: Multivocal Modelling in Relation to Space and Locations
In the “where” question, teaching occurred either indoors or outdoors. However, in

general indoor teaching was more common than outdoor teaching in all arrangements, though
with some variation; the post-structurally informed arrangement also stated that teaching could
be carried out “anywhere”. The pragmatically informed arrangement emphasized spontaneous
teaching in everyday situations, during transitions and in interspaces. Here traces of a value
didacticized “where” question that may pertain to “where rules” and alternatives were also

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828 found in the group of children. In other words, the focus of teaching may include “place rules”
for where things should or may be placed and where activities should or may occur. The
research at hand adds the multivocal modelling in relation to space and locations in the teaching
arrangements (Vallberg Roth et al., 2019).
Didactic “When” Question: Multivocal Modelling in Relation to Time
Concerning the “when” question, preschool teaching was conducted for about 20+
seconds to 36 minutes in the second arrangement and up to 68 minutes as spliced teaching
events in the third arrangement. Taking all arrangements into account, the most frequently
occurring videotaped teaching time ranged between 3 and 7 minutes. The first arrangement was
more frequently associated with longer video time and included the most extensive material,
with a total of 63 video hours. Moreover, the fourth arrangement also contained traces of the
didacticized “when” question in teaching, including “time rules” and options that focused on
speaking time, favourite cycle time and educational tablet time. The material also showed that
individual children needed different amounts of time: “The children have different ways of
learning, take different amounts of time.” The current research adds the multivocal modelling
in relation to time in the teaching arrangements (Vallberg Roth et al., 2019).
Multivocal Modelling in Relation to the Didactic “Why” Question
The “why” question was generally linked to curriculum objectives in all arrangements.
In the first two arrangements, 1–2 objectives stood out, while the third and fourth arrangements
had multiple objectives, with examples of up to as many as ten. Different goal areas were
involved, and the first two arrangements primarily referred to “2.2 Development and learning”
in the curriculum (SKOLFS 1998:16, pp. 9-10). The fourth arrangement emphasized areas
concerning norms, values and influence (sections 2.1. and 2.3 in the curriculum). The third
arrangement focused on several goal areas such as development and learning, and norms and
values, as well as on formulations about the environment.
In the didactically informed arrangement, the “why” question was also linked to the
interests and creativity of the children. Intentional learning and changed know-how figured
prominently in the variation-theory-informed arrangement. The interests of the children and
events combined with non-linear learning and knowledge formation were emphasized in the
post-structurally informed arrangement. In the pragmatically informed arrangement, the “why”
question was linked to reflective learning regarding both value-oriented and fact-oriented gaps.
The current research adds the multivocal modelling in relation to the didactic why-question in
the teaching arrangements (Vallberg Roth et al., 2019).
Methodological and Analytical Reflection
For the theory-informed teaching arrangements the participants in the collaborative

research chose what material should be included on the intended platform. Consequently, there
may have been a positive bias in the sense that participants only chose to include those co-plans,
videos and co-evaluations that they wished to share. In this sense, there may have been teaching
material to which the researchers had no access and that may have deviated from the analysed
material. Based on the aim and research questions, it should be emphasized in this context
that the results only present a picture of what “could” characterize teaching in the preschool.
The outcome is related to participation and circumstances that emerged in the research and
development programme.

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Trustworthiness and Situated Generalization 829
In summary, the degree of trustworthiness and generalizability can be interpreted as high

based on the triangulation and that the collaborative research was carried out in ten municipalities,
including 5,236 consenting participants. Regarding generalization, an argument can be made
for the logic of situated generalization, according to which the results provide alternative
perspectives and concepts rather than a single truth (Larsson, 2009). In this approach the reader
interprets the extent to which the results can provide guidance in similar cases, situations and
contexts outside the study. The generalization is situated in the sense that it cannot be predicted
and instead occurs through recognition – that is, when the reader recognizes identified teaching
and co-assessing traces described in the paper and uses the results and concepts as tools in
practice (cf. Larsson, 2009).
The aim has been achieved and the research questions answered in full through the
concept of “multivocal didactic modelling”. Modelling refers to how preschool teachers, based
on theory-informed arrangements (i.e., models for teaching) develop connections between co-
planning, teaching and co-evaluation. Teaching is modelled through co-assessment. Multivocal
traces related to didactic questions and didactic levels emerge from the theory-informed
teaching arrangements.
The research stands to make a highly significant contribution to knowledge development
concerning teaching and co-assessment in Swedish preschools. Theory-informed teaching
arrangements, with integrated didactic models, have been tried and shown to give teachers
support in conducting teaching that is based on scientific grounds and proven experience.
The concept “multivocal didactic modelling” can pave the way for several alternative (meta)
theoretical trajectories for critical reflection and for more cohesive and finely tuned teaching.
The contribution to the development of knowledge can be described in terms of theory-informed
practical development and practically grounded conceptual development. The concept of
“multivocal didactic modelling” needs to be further tested and studied.
Knowledge Contribution and Implications
Theory-informed teaching arrangements have been tried and shown to be feasible and
useful. This has opened the door to varied didactic modelling in relation to different fields of
knowledge and values. For example, when preschool teachers prioritize values and sustainability,
they can choose to test a pragmatically informed teaching arrangement. When preschool
teachers choose to work with limited and intended learning objects, for the purpose of focusing
attention on established knowledge and monitoring the change in knowledge of each child, they
can try a variation-theory-informed arrangement. Furthermore, when preschool teachers work
with creativity and non-linear learning, and transdisciplinary content with integrated goal areas,
a post-structurally informed teaching arrangement can be put to the test. Didactic questions
and co-assessment can be tried in all teaching arrangements as a tool to increase the potential
for equivalence and to make the opportunities in life available to all children. The knowledge
contribution may advantageously be used in early childhood teacher education.
As a professional, it is desirable to make teaching choices and assessments based on a
variety of theories in order to capture experience and knowledge in their various complex forms.
A basic assumption in the collaborative research was that no theory could actually encompass
the teaching situation as a whole. Remaining open to trying more than just one theoretical
approach reduces the risk of being swayed into single-track and one-sided tendencies.

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830 Acknowledgements
This research was carried out within the framework of a research and development
programme and it presents the comprehensive results of the research portion of the programme.
The programme is a collaborative initiative involving ten municipalities and the independent
Institute for Innovation Research and Development in School and Preschool (Ifous), as well as
Malmö University (Mau). “Proper English” translated the article.
The research was co-funded by Malmö University and the ten municipalities (no grant
numbers): Bjuv, Landskrona, Lidingö, Strängnäs, Svedala, Trelleborg, Uppsala, Vaxholm,
Åstorp and Österåker. The research group would like to thank everyone who participated with
material and input into analyses and discussions.
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834 Endnotes
1 Limitations on material: For reasons related to limited space, this article only presents results
from material generated pertaining to the four theory-informed teaching arrangements at preschools/
departments between 2016 and 2017. The article does not include inter-municipal co-plans and co-
evaluations, or material from the municipalities’ own selected theory-informed teaching arrangements
from 2018.
Ann-Christine Vallberg Roth Professor of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö
(Corresponding author) University, SE-205 06 Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: Ann-Christine.Vallberg-Roth@mau.se
Website: http://www.mau.se
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-4521-1528
Ylva Holmberg PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö University, SE-
205 06 Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: Ylva.Holmberg@mau.se
Camilla Löf PhD, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö University, SE-
205 06 Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: Camilla-.Lof@mau.se
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7953-3111
Catrin Stensson PhD Student, Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö University, SE-205 06
Malmö, Sweden.
E-mail: Catrin.Stensson@mau.se
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7134-1916

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Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019

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Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 77, No. 6, 2019

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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 77, No.

Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd.

SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE PREPARATION: A COMPREHENSIVE INTRODUCTION

TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT:

SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS’ MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE: REFLECTIONS

IMPROVING THE SELF-AWARENESS CAPACITY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

LEARNERS’ VIEWS ON ASYMPTOTES OF A HYPERBOLA AND EXPONENTIAL

EXPLORING THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COOPERATIVE LEARNING

PRINCIPALS’ ROLE IN MANAGING TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

INDUCTION OF WOMEN BEGINNER TEACHERS AT TWO SOUTH AFRICAN

THE ESTIMATION OF TEACHING PROFESSION EDUCATION (TPE) PARTICIPANTS’

MULTIVOCAL DIDACTIC MODELLING: COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH REGARDING

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 835

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

• What is the problem?

Thus, three main stages can be identified (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Three main stages of the introduction.

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690 Table 1. The examples of problem description.

A typical example. The

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Unacceptable features Acceptable features

It is commonly accepted that writing an accurate introduction section of the article is

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692 Table 3. The examples of starting the introduction.

The introduction is started

The introduction starts using a very

The beginning of the introduction

Inappropriate first paragraph of the

A scientific article is most frequently a strictly structured document, although it

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

• attract reader’s/user’s attention;

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Received: October 10, 2019 Accepted: December 02, 2019

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.688 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS 695

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT: A CASE

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This qualitative case study approach explores a group of teachers’ understanding of

Data Collection and Analysis Procedure

Semi-structured interviews were conducted based on an interview protocol. The

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Data analysis of the teachers’ understanding of portfolio assessment revealed the

Students Work Collection

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In summary it can be concluded that both Patrick and Aruna understood

Feedback and Improvement Tools

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Teaching, Learning and Grading Tools

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Observation Results 701

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https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.695 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Conclusion and Implications

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Received: May 01, 2019 Accepted: November 05, 2019

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/19.77.695 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

SOUTH AFRICAN TEACHERS’ 705

This research documents the experiences and breakthroughs of Mathematics teachers

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Theory of Peer Observation Process