CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Pesticides are playing important role in agriculture and public health. They make an

important role by increasing the production of food and fiber and improving human health by

reducing the rate of vector-borne diseases (Blindauer, K. M. et al., 1999). In addition to crop

damage induced by pests, these pests that cause adverse effects on human health and

domestic animals produce the toxic metabolites. In this respect, according to The Pesticide

Manual about 812 active ingredients “pesticides” were registered until year 2000 (Tomlin,

C., 2000). Today’s more than 10,400 pesticides are approved worldwide (Tomlin, C. D. S.,

2015). It has been reported that the consumption of pesticides accounts two million tons

every year worldwide (De, A., et al., 2014). However, the word “pesticides” represented

numerous types of pesticides (e.g., insecticides, herbicides, bactericides, nematicides,

acaricides, fungicides, molluscicides, and rodenticides); each is active against specific pests

(e.g., insect, weed, bacteria, nematode, fungi, snail, and rat).

Insecticides contain two types; the first is synthetic insecticides assigned to groups

based on the mode of toxic action, such as groups of organochlorines, organophosphates,

carbamates, and pyrethroids insecticides; the second is natural insecticides such as

azadirachtin, rotenone, spinosad, and abamectin. The extensive and long-term application of

synthetic insecticides has resulted in accumulating their residues in food, milk, water, soil,

and other environmental components. It causes adverse health effects to human and

ecosystems. Previous studies showed that synthetic insecticides such as malathion,

methomyl, chlorpyrifos, pirimiphos-methyl, dimethoate, and β-cyfluthrin caused oxidative

stress and liver and kidney damage in experimental animals (Akhgari, M., et al., 2003; Soni,

1
I., et al., 2011). It caused biochemical and hormonal alteration in sprayers of cotton fields

(Abbassy, M. A., et al., 2014).

Garlic is easy to grow and requires very little space in your garden. It is a member of

the allium family and is an ancient bulbous vegetable. Garlic grows from individual cloves

broken off from a whole bulb. Each clove will multiply in the ground, forming a new bulb

that consists of 5-10 cloves. Garlic makes a great organic pesticide. Not only should you

plant it among your other crops (either veggies or ornamental), you can use it to make a foliar

spray and apply directly to leaves, especially lettuces. This garlic spray works as a repellent,

sending most pests scurrying away in a hurry.

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) is a tall, perennial grass in a class of about 45

species of grasses native to the tropical and sub-tropical climates of Asia, Australia and

Africa. India is the highest producer of lemongrass (producing over 2 million pounds per

year), where it is cultivated along the mountain range of the Western Ghats and beside the

foothills of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim in the Himalayan mountains. Lemongrass is ideal

for pest control due to its antifungal and antimicrobial properties. This means that it

effectively blocks the spread of fungi and microorganisms carried by pests in the home. In

addition to this, many insects are repelled by the citral content in lemongrass.

Pomelo, scientifically termed Citrus maxima or Citrus grandis, goes by several

vernacular names such as “Chakotra” in Hindi, “Karuna” in Sanskrit, “Batabilebu” in

Bengali, “Pamparapanasa” in Telugu and “Bambilimaas” in Tamil. It is the largest fruit

amongst all others in the citrus variety belonging to the Rutaceae family. It is native to

countries in South and South-East Asia namely Malaysia, Thailand, China, India and Sri

Lanka and also sprouts in wild regions in the islands of Fiji and Hawaii. The pomelo plants

have uniquely wing-like leaves that are in prominent green colour. Flowers are bright white

2
with five petals and a distinct pleasant fragrance; thus, their extracts are used in making

perfumes. Citrus fruits contain limonene, found in the rind. Oil extracted from the peels

contains the limonene, making it the main component in citrus oils. Limonene is a natural

insect repellent. Citrus peels contain the extra pest killer linalool, also obtained by extracting

oil from the rind. Pests hate limonene and linalool and will avoid areas treated with them.

While it may not kill adult fleas, limonene does paralyze them. A good washing will destroy

the unsuspecting fleas.

As a result, the researcher will make a study entitled, “Efficacy of an Organic

Insecticidal Spray with the Use of Extracts from Garlic Bulbs (Allium sativum) Lemon Grass

(Cymbopogon citratus) and Pomelo Leaves (Citrus maxima) against Aphids” in order to

reduce aphids, and get rid of them by not using any chemical.

B. Statement of the Problem

This study aims to develop, and to test the efficacy of an organic insecticidal spray out

of extracts from garlic bulb, lemongrass, and pomelo leaves.

Specifically, it will try to aim the certain objectives, and answer the subsequent

questions:

1. To propose an alternative insecticide for consumers.

2. To test and discover its quality of eliminating cockroaches.

3. Aims to produce insecticide out of lemongrass oil

3. Is the organic insecticidal spray feasible compared to a chemical insecticidal

spray?

3
 4. To test what will do the best; all amounts of ingredient are equal, greater

amount of chili ex

C. Hypothesis of the Study

“If the amount of insecticide sprayed on plants increases, then their contamination
decreases.”

Ha: An increase in the amount of insecticides given to plants will decrease their
contamination.

Ho: An increase in the amount of insecticides given to plants will not decrease their
contamination.

D. Significance of the Study

The study will be undertaken to find out the efficacy of a developed organic

insecticidal spray made out of extracts from garlic bulbs, lemongrass, and pomelo leaves

against Aphids. The future findings of this study will redound to the benefit of society

considering that agriculture plays a very important role on the community.

Benefiting the study are the various sectors as follows:

The Community

The main purpose of this study is to create an insecticidal spray out of natural

ingredients that can help every household lessen the insects (especially Aphids) in

their home. Hence, this will benefit people who can’t afford expensive insecticides.

The Researchers

4
 This study will benefit the researchers on answering their questions, and

discovering new things that will help them.

The Future Researchers

Being a novice for this kind of topic is very challenging for the upcoming

researchers. So, this will be an instrument that will be a basis, and will guide and

navigate them in discovering credible, reliable, and tantamount factors that are known

as indispensable data for further understanding on the topic. Indeed, this research is

going to be the chief source of enlightenment that they will surely need in their future

studies.

E. Scope and Limitations

Our proposal covers the process of how improvised insecticide can really eliminate

household insects especially Aphids. It also covers the aspect of how can materials from

nature be an effective source for us to make an efficient insecticide. It will be conducted at

San Nicolas National High School, San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte. The researchers will make use

of garlic bulbs, lemongrass, and pomelo leaves as the main ingredient, and possible sources

of raw material, and organic ingredients for the making of organic insecticidal spray. there is

a time limitation that is expected due to the deadline, the study and the experimentation will

be undertaken at San Nicolas National High School, San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte.

F. Definition of terms:

To facilitate the understanding of this study, different terms are defined herein.

Efficacy. The ability to produce a desired or intended result.

5
 Organic Insecticide. A type of insecticide that is made out of organic and raw

materials, and it is used to fight the contamination of insects on plants.

Aphids. A type of soft-bodied insect that use their piercing sucking mouthparts to

feed on plant sap. They usually occur in colonies on the undersides of tender terminal growth.

Heavily-infested leaves can wilt or turn yellow because of excessive sap removal. 

Garlic. A species of bulbous flowering plant in the onion genus Allium. It grows up to

1.2 m in height. Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While

sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is

propagated asexually, by planting individual cloves in the ground.

Lemongrass. It is also called citronella, is a tall, stalky plant. It has a fresh, lemony

aroma and a citrus flavor. Lemongrass grow to about 2 meters (6+1⁄2 feet) and have magenta-

colored base stems. These species are used for the production of citronella oil, which is used

in soaps, as an insect repellent (especially mosquitoes and houseflies) in insect sprays and

candles, and in aromatherapy. The principal chemical constituents of

citronella, geraniol and citronellol, are antiseptics, hence their use in household disinfectants

and soaps. Besides oil production, citronella grass is also used for culinary purposes, as a

flavoring.

Pomelo leaves. It is the medium sized tree and largest among all species of Citrus

bearing large leaves, fruits and flowers. Though pomelos are often confused with grape fruits

but it is easily distinguished with their thicker rinds, larger size and mind or sweet flavor. It is

the cold intolerant species of citrus which grows up to 15 meters tall with a rounded crown.

The tree bears oblong to elliptic leaves measuring 4 to 8 inches long having winged petioles.

Fruits and flowers are borne singly and grown in 2 to 20 clusters. 

6
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter primarily presents the different researchers and other literatures from

foreign researchers, which have significant bearings on the variables included in the research.

It focuses on several aspects that will help in familiarizing information that are relevant and

similar to the present study. The literatures of this study came from books, journals, articles,

electronic materials such as PDF or E-Book, and other existing theses and dissertations, that

are believed to be useful and significant in the advancement of awareness concerning the

study.

Related Literature

Insects are now the largest group of animals (Tsakas 2010). Moreover, owing in large

part to their staggering diversity, insects are in more different places in the world than

virtually any other organism. There are insects in habitats ranging from the high Arctic to

tropical rainforests to petroleum pools to glaciers to mines a mile below the surface to caves

to sea (Resh & Cardé, 2003). Currently, there are more than a million described species and it

is assumed that is only a small percentage of this large group of animals. Only few species of

insects live in seawater, whereas ca. 100,000 species (especially larvae) in habit freshwater

after their secondary aquatic adaptation. The insects can to adapt the life in the water or on

the water surface (Chapman, 2013). On land, insects are present in all biotopes: in the

mountains, caves, hot springs, polar zones. The greatest biodiversity of insects are found in

warm climates. The warm climatic conditions favor the development of biodiversity, such as

7
environmental conditions and food availability (Resh & Cardé, 2003; Chapman, 2013).

Biological adaptation of insects allows them to adjust to specific environment and survive in

almost all climate zones. Some species can even fall into a state of diapause as a way to

survive adverse conditions. Such insects exhibit high fertility, large populations reaching a

million or a billion individuals, and ability to feed on everything that contains organic matter

(from wood to blood). For some species as little as one ingredient is enough to survive, e.g.,

wine barrel sediment rich in acidic potassium bitrate (cream of tartar). Insects’ life span

varies between species: mayflies live for one day, queen of bees for 10 years, and termites

can live up to 50 years (Stepnowski & Golebiowski, 2016).

Insects play a very important role in biocenosis, interaction of insects with other

species in the environment is beneficial for participating parties. Moreover, insects also take

part inhuman life, health, and the economy. Unfortunately, that role instead of being

beneficial is harmful. Insects can be parasites, human pathogens and carry diseases. They’re

involved in transmission of malaria, yellow fever, typhus, plague, dengue, various forms of

encephalitis, relapsing fever, river blindness, filariasis, sleeping sickness, and innumerable

other debilitating or even fatal diseases, not just in warmer climes (Resh & Cardé, 2009).

Harmful insects, in various developmental stages such as larvae or adults, attack different

parts of plants: roots, stems, leaves. If plant is attack by harmful insects usually this plant die

(Chapman, 2013).

Effective control measures must be based on a clear understanding of the bionomics

and behavior of the target species. Effective vector and pest control also requires careful

training, supervision of control operations and periodic evaluation of the impact of the control

measures on the targeted vectors or pests and on disease incidence or prevalence. Chemical

measures should be considered only as a complementary addition to basic sanitation, as far as

possible. In selecting a pesticide and the appropriate formulation, consideration should be

8
given to its biological effectiveness (including residual activity where appropriate) against the

pest concerned, the susceptibility of the target organism, the methods of application, its safety

to humans, its toxicity to nontarget organisms. In addition, the extensive use of chemical

pesticides, which allowed farmers a better pest control and more effective producing food

(Meissle et al., 2010). One of the most known diseases carried by insects in tropical countries

is malaria. Its epidemic is associated with the mass occurrence of mosquito (Anopheles

maculipennis). Even though in moderate climates mosquitoes aren't responsible for carrying

malaria, these insects cause inconvenience, especially female mosquitoes that bite causing

skin itching (Gliniewicz et al., 2003). The spread of yellow fever and dengue as the vector

mosquito Aedes aegypti dispersed throughout the tropics, and of malaria to Brazil with the

introduction of its vector Anopheles gambiae, are notable examples of human diseases

vectored by introduced insects (Simberlof, 2009). Another harmful and troublesome insect

particularly in the warmer seasons is a fly, especially housefly. The house fly, Musca

domestica, is a well-known cosmopolitan pest of both farm and home. This species is always

found in association with humans or the activities of humans. This insect sits on food, faeces,

and carrion, which makes it great candidate for spreading diseases and parasites. Housefly

carries pathogenic bacteria, dysentery, paratyphoid fever, anthrax, and different forms of

invasive parasites (e.g., eggs of threadworms). The house fly has a complete metamorphosis

with distinct egg, larval or maggot, pupal and adult stages. The house fly overwinters in

either the larval or pupal stage under manure piles or in other protected locations. Warm

summer conditions are generally optimum for the development of the house fly, and it can

complete its life cycle in as little as seven to ten days. Fly also spreads agents that cause

conjunctivitis. It is also an intermediate host for the larvae of some tapeworms (Sanchez-

Arroyo and Capinera, 2014). Blue bottle fly (Calliphora womitoria) with a characteristic blue

color and a green fly (Lucilla sericata) (WHO, 2008) are typical insects on farms and meat

9
processing plants. Flies such as Drosophila melanogaster, Drosophila funebris occur mainly

where fruits, juices, and jams ferment. Flies carry mold, bacteria, and are particularly

dangerous when their development is carried in the faeces (WHO, 2008).

Aphid, (family Aphididae), also called plant louse, greenfly, or ant cow, any of a

group of sap-sucking, soft-bodied insects (order Homoptera) that are about the size of a

pinhead, most species of which have a pair of tubelike projections (cornicles) on the

abdomen. Aphids can be serious plant pests and may stunt plant growth, produce plant galls,

transmit plant virus diseases, and cause the deformation of leaves, buds, and flowers

(www.britannica.com). Aphids, also known as Plant Lice or Green Flies, infest both gardens

and landscapes (www.saferbrand.com). More than 4,000 species of aphids have been

described, some 250 of which are pests of crops and ornamental plants). The Aphid life cycle

is between 1 week and 40 days; however, since they can reproduce very quickly, plants can

become infested quite rapidly (www.saferbrand.com).

Adult aphids have antennae, although they may or may not have wings. Even if they

don’t have wings initially, aphids can develop wings when their host plant becomes too

populated so they can move on to begin a new colony. They also have a proboscis, which

looks like a long beak and functions similar to a straw. This is what the aphids and other true

bugs use to suck the liquid from the plants. They live on plants, especially on the new plant

growth and buds, and the eggs can survive the winter. Although aphids live in colonies, they

will move to other plants when their host plant is dying or overpopulated

(www.saferbrand.com). Aphid damage is among the most serious of agricultural and

horticultural problems (www.sciencedirect.com). Aphids produce a sweet, sticky excretion

known as honeydew, and if you notice a substance on your plants that feels sticky, it may

10
mean aphids are living on the plant. When aphids devour the liquids from the plants, they

also become carriers of any viruses the host plant may have. When the aphid moves to a

different plant to begin a new colony, these viruses can be transmitted from one plant to

another by the aphid. It only takes one aphid to transmit a virus to a plant, and the viruses can

even be more detrimental than the aphids themselves. Plants may stop growing or have

yellowing leaves. This can occur on any plant such as tomatoes, pumpkins, zucchini, beans,

and more. Once the plant stops growing or its leaves begin to yellow, its yield won’t be as

high. Like the name suggests, the rose aphid is particularly attracted to roses. Without aphid

control on roses, they reproduce at a rapid rate and can cause bloom deformities as well as a

reduction in the number and quality of blooms. Tomato plants are attractive to the potato and

green peach aphids. While the plants can withstand a relatively high number of aphids before

beginning to show symptoms, getting rid of aphids will protect the plant from withering

leaves and a reduced tomato crop (www.saferbrand.com)

Safeguarding crop productivity by protecting crops from pest attacks entails the wide

use of plant protection products that provide a quick, easy and cheap solution. Modern

agricultural lands are often subject to intensified use, characterized by increased field sizes,

decreased crop diversity and reduced availability of semi-natural habitats. Moreover, they are

subject to high inputs of agrochemicals, mainly Plant Protection Products (PPPs) (Hahn et al.,

2015), used to safeguard agricultural production from pests (Sciarra et al., 2015). Globally,

agricultural producers apply approximately 3 million tons of pesticides per annum, worth

around USD 40 billion (Popp et al., 2012); insecticide use reached 12.2 billion in 2015, and

the market is projected to reach more than16.4 billion by 2019 (AAVV, 2015). Insecticides

are commonly used to protect against insects in households, restaurants, hospitals, farms,

forest plantations, etc. These substances protect from the harmful insect-borne diseases,

insects pests in warehouses, and agricultural and forest pests (Cardoso and Alves, 2012).

11
 An insecticide, which is a pesticide, is defined as "any chemical used to prevent,

destroy, repel, or mitigate pests," and as such, they have the potential to be "harmful to

people, animals, or the environment." And of course, not all insects are harmful. Applying

insecticides indiscriminately, especially harsh pesticides that affect even the beneficial

insects, can have a detrimental effect on your local garden ecosystem (www.treehugger.com).

Insecticides are found almost everywhere, and this contamination puts the environment and

non-target organisms, ranging from beneficial soil microorganisms, to insects, fishes and

birds, at increased risk (Aktar et al., 2009). The use of insecticides in agriculture is well

documented as one cause of pollinator declines, especially when spraying times coincide with

flowering times (Nicholls & Altieri, 2013).

Methods of insects’ pests control Different procedures and methods can be used to control

harmful organisms.

1) Physical methods: According to their mode of action, physical control methods can be

active or passive. The level of efficacy of active methods is proportional to both intensity of

the energy and duration of its application to the target. Active methods include thermal shock

(heat, cold), electromagnetic radiations (microwaves, radio frequencies, infrared, ionizing

radiations, UV and visible light), mechanical shock and pneumatic (blowing or vacuum).

Passive methods do not require further energy to achieve desired effect. Examples are traps,

airtight or hermetic storage, barriers of various kinds and trenches (Vincent et al., 2009).

2) Biological methods: their goal is to reduce the population of the pest below the economic

threshold. Examples would be: introduction of nonnative, natural enemy of pests into the

environment: use of pathogens including bacteria, viruses and fungi that would infect pests.

Other insect can also be used against insects’ pest (Stepnowski & Golebiowski, 2016).

12
3) Chemical methods: associated with the use of chemicals that affect particular insects.

These compounds may be of natural origin, e.g., attractants, repellents, antifeedants,

pheromones, and hormones: synthetic origin, and/or combination of natural and synthetic

compounds. Chemical compounds and mixed compounds of synthetic and natural origin are

called pesticides. Chemical measures should be considered only as a complementary. In

selecting a pesticide and the appropriate formulation, consideration should be given to its

biological effectiveness (including residual activity where appropriate) against the pest

concerned, the susceptibility of the target organism, the methods of application, its safety to

humans, its toxicity to non-target organisms (WHO, 2006; WHO, 2012).

Going organic also helps you have more holistic gardening experience

(www.lovethegarden.com). Organic garden pest control is on the minds of many gardeners

these days. Natural home pesticides are not only easy to make, they are cheaper and safer

than many products you can buy on store shelves. Let’s take a look at some natural insect

repellents you can make for the garden (www.gardeningknowhow.htm). The term “organic”

has a specific legal definition when it is used to refer to pesticides, food, animal feed, or fiber

crops. The legal definition is drawn from the Organic Food Production Act of 1990, which

established national standards for use of the term. An organic pesticide must be produced

from materials on the National List of Allowed Synthetic Substances, or come from all-

natural substances that are not prohibited. (www.agresearch.montana.edu) While cost is often

a key criticism of organic and natural methods, and it is true that alternative treatments can

often cost more and maybe less readily available for farmers, the same is not true for home

gardeners or allotment holders (www.lovethegarden.com).

13
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the study is to examine the effects of the development of an

Insecticidal spray against Aphids. To address this gap, an experimentation will be done.

The primary components of this chapter will include descriptions of the research

design, research materials, and the procedure methods that will be used in the study.

Additionally, threats to validity will be considered for the study, and ethical procedures will

be discussed.

A. Research Design:

The study will examine the relationship between variables. Specifically, the effects of the

development of an organic insecticidal spray with the use of extracts from Garlic bulbs

(Allium sativum) Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), and Pomelo leaves (Citrus maxima)

against Aphids. The design will be a quantitative study.

The Completely Randomized Design (CRD) will be used as an arrangement of the

replication and randomization of treatments. Subjects will be randomly assigned into two

groups: group of Aphids with treatment (Group 1) and group of Aphids without treatment

(Group 2). This quantitative study will consider correlations between the two groups of

Aphids regard to the efficacy of the develop development of an organic insecticidal spray

14
with the use of extracts from Garlic bulbs (Allium sativum) Lemongrass (Cymbopogon

citratus), and Pomelo leaves.

There is expected to be a resource constraint consistent with the design choice since the

sample population will consist of Aphids, a common insect that can be found on plants.

However, there is a time limitation that is expected due to the deadline. The target population

is made up of Aphids that can be found in different types of vegetable plants. The following

steps will be used to come up with the research.

Identifying the problem

Gathering the Data

Formulate Hypothesis

Testing the Hypothesis

Analyze and Interpret the Data

15
 Formulating a Conclusion

B. Research Materials:

In order for us to develop an organic insecticidal spray, we will be needing; a lemongrass,

garlic bulbs, and pomelo leaves as the main ingredient. Water, to help add more consistency

of the liquid mixture. A blender, to crash all ingredients. Strainer, to separate the mixture

from the unwanted particles. Lastly, a spray bottle that can squirt or spray the liquid mixture.

C. Procedure Method:

To develop an anti-aphid’s insecticidal spray, these are the steps that we must follow;

First, prepare all main ingredients such as Garlic bulbs, Lemongrass, and Pomelo leaves.

After preparing all the ingredients, peel off the Garlic bulbs then minced them afterward.

Next, cut the Lemongrass into fine pieces, the same goes for the pomelo leaves.

After cutting and mincing the ingredients, put all of them in the blender, and then put

a cup of water also. Continue to blend until all the ingredients dissolve and meet the desired

consistency. After blending, use a strainer to filter the liquid mixture from the unwanted

material or particles. Finally, put the final insecticide into a clean spray bottle.

16
 REFERENCES:

Aktar, M. D. W., and Sengupta, D., and Chowdhury, A. (2009). Review article–Impact of

Pesticides use in Agriculture: Their Benefits and Hazards. Interdisc.Toxicol. 2, 1–12

Arroyo, H., & Capinera, JL. (2014). House fly, Musca domestica Linnaeus (Insecta: Diptera:

Muscidae), IFAS Extension University of Florida.

Blindauer, K. M., Jackson, R. J., M., Pertowski, M., & Rubin, C. 1999. “Environmental

pesticide illness and injury: The need for a national surveillance system,” Journal of

Environmental Health, vol. 61, no. 10, p. 9,

Chapman, RF. (2013). The Insects. Cambridge University Press.

17
Gliniewicz, A., Sawicka, B., & Czajka, E. (2003). Occurrence of Insect Pests in Hospitals in

Poland. Assessment of Possible risk and Ccontrol Methods. Epidemiol. Rev. 57: 329-334,

2003.

Markham, D. (2021) 8 Natural and Homemade Insecticides: You’re your Garden Without

Killing Earth. Retrieved from https://www.treehugger.com/natural-homemade-insecticides-

save-your-garden-without-killing-earth-4858819

Meissle, M., Mouron, P., Musa, T., Bigler, F., Pons, X., Vasileiadis, V., et al. (2010). Pests,

Pesticide use and Alternative options in European Maize Production: Current Status and

Future Prospects. J. Appl. Entomol. 134: 357-375.

Nicholls, C. I., & Altieri, M. A. (2013). Plant biodiversity enhances bees and other insect

pollinators in agroecosystems. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 33, 257–274.

Resh, V.H., & Cardé, R.T. (2003). Encyclopedia of insects.

18
Riddiford, LM. Molting (2009). Encyclopedia of insects, 2nd ed.

Sciarra, D., Foderà, I., & Ceriani, N. (2015). Stop Pesticides: Analysis of Pesticide Residues

in Food and Good Agricultural Practices - Legambiente Dossier. Press Office: Legambiente.

Simberlof, D. (2009). Introduced insects. Encyclopedia of insects, 2nd ed.,

Stepnowski, P., & Golebiowski, M. (2016). The use of insecticides to control insect pests.

University of Gdansk.

Tomlin, C. 2000. The Pesticide Manual, British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, Surrey,

UK, 12th edition.

Tomlin, C. D. S. 2015. The Pesticide Manual, The British Crop Protection Council, London,

UK, 17th edition.

Tsakas, S., & Marmaras, VJ. (2010). Insect immunity and its signalling: an overview. Inv.

Surv. J. 7: 228-238.

World Health Organization. (2006). Pesticides and their application, for the control of

vectors and pests of public health importance. Sixth edition. Retrieved from

19
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/69795/1

/WHO_CDS_NTD_WHOPES_GCDPP_2006.1 _eng.pdf - available 13.06.2016.

World Health Organization. (2008). Urban Pests and their Public Health Significance: A

CIEH summary. Retrieved from http://www.urbanpestsbook.com/downloads/WH

O_Report_Summary.pdf - available 14.06.2016.

World Health Organization. (2012). Handbook for Integrated Vector Management.

20
Cochran, D. G. 1982. “Cockroaches,” Technical Report, World Health Organization, Geneva,

Switzerland.

Brenner, R. J., Rust, M. K. Owens, J. M. & Reierson, D. A. 1995. “Economics and medical

importance of German cockroaches,” in Understanding and Controlling the German

Cockroach, , Eds., pp. 77–92, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA.

Baumholtz, M. A., Parish, L. C., Witkowski, J. A., & Nutting, W. B. 1997. “The medical

importance of cockroaches,” International Journal of Dermatology, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 90–96.

Fathpour, H., Emtiazi G., & Ghasemi, E. 2003. “Cockroaches as reservoirs and vectors of

drug resistant Salmonella spp.,” Iranian Biomedical Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 35–38.

21
Saichua, P., Pinmai, K., Somrithipol, S., & Tor-Udom, S. 2008. “Isolation of medically

important fungi from cockroaches trapped at Thammasat Chalermprakiat

Hospital,” Thammasat Medical Journal, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 345–351.

Tatfeng, Y. M. M. U. Usuanlele, A. Orukpe et al., “Mechanical transmission of pathogenic

organisms: the role of cockroaches,” Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, vol. 42, no. 4, pp.

129–134.

Pai, H. H., Chen, W. C., & Peng, C. F. 2004. “Cockroaches as potential vectors of

nosocomial infections,” Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, vol. 25, no. 11, pp.

979–984,

Devi, S. J. N., & Murray, C. J. 1991. “Cockroaches (Blatta and Periplaneta species) as

reservoirs of drug-resistant salmonellas,” Epidemiology and Infection, vol. 107, no. 2, pp.

357–361.

Pai, H. H., Chen, W. C., & Peng, C. F. 2005. “Isolation of bacteria with antibiotic resistance

from household cockroaches (Periplaneta americana and Blattella germanica),” Acta

Tropica, vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 259–265.

22