IMMUNOCHEMISTRY 1• Bone Marrow manufactures the billions

of WBC needed by the body every day.  Some

0• Immunochemistry is a branch of
newly produced WBC remain in the bone
chemistry that involves the study of the
marrow to Mature and Specialize, while others
reactions and components on the immune
travel to the Thymus to Mature.
system.
2• Lymph Nodes Filter Pathogens from the
1• Immunology = study of structure and
Lymph and expose them to White Blood Cells
function of the immune system
3• The Spleen, a fist-sized organ located
2• Immune system- cells, tissues, and
behind the stomach, Filters Pathogens from the
molecules that mediate resistance to infections
Blood.  It is stocked with WBC that respond to
• Latin Word immunis=“exempt”
the trapped pathogens.

4• The tonsils-trap germs (bacteria and

Immune Response viruses) which you may breathe in. Proteins
called antibodies produced by the immune cells
0• Primary immune response in the tonsils help to kill germs and help to
0– Launches a response to invading prevent throat and lung infections
pathogens 5• Adenoids- help to defend the body
1• Secondary immune response from infection. They trap bacteria and viruses
which you breathe in through your nose. They
1– T-cells and B-cells produce antibodies to contain cells and antibodies of the immune
find antigens system to help prevent throat and lung
2– Faster response the second time infections.
around

IMMUNE RESPONSE
Immunochemistry IMMUNOCHEMISTRY
3• Immune Response: 0• Immunity:
0– Third line of defense. 0– “Free from burden”.
1– Involves production of antibodies and 1– Ability of an organism to recognize and
generation of specialized lymphocytes against defend itself specific pathogens or antigens
specific antigens
2– *
0• The Immune Response involves several
organs, as well as White Blood Cells in the Blood 1• Antigen
and Lymph. These include the BONE MARROW, 3– Molecules from a pathogen or foreign
THYMUS, LYMPH NODES, TONSILS, ADENOIDS, organism that “provoke a specific immune
AND SPLEEN. response”.
0• Each organ of the immune system plays
a different role in defending the body against 2• Pathogen
pathogens.
4– infectious agent is a biological agent
that causes disease or illness to its host.

Mechanism of Innate Immunity

10• Third line of defense

IMMUNITY
0– Uses SPECIFIC antibodies that are made
3• State or quality of being immune. to FIGHT specific PATHOGENS

4• Resistance exhibited by the host against 1– CELLS: T-Cells,B Cells, Antibodies

any foreign antigen and towards injury caused
2– Killer T Cell seeks out specific pathogens
by microorganisms and their products.
3– Helper T Cell activates b cells
5• 2 types
4– B Cells creates antibodies that fight
5– Innate or Native Immunity
specific pathogen/antigen
6– Acquired or Adaptive Immunity
5– Memory B Cells remembers the
The Immune System is the Third Line of Defense PATHOGEN so if it tries to attack again, they will
Against Infection remeber them.

Video on Non specific Defense Mechanism First line of defense

6• First Defense Epithelial surfaces:

0– https://www.youtube.com/watch? A. Skin:
v=dVN4cGLzfDQ
6– provides mechanical barrier to
microorganisms 

7• Second Defense 7– provides bactericidal secretions

1– https://www.youtube.com/watch? 8– the resident bacterial flora of skin and

v=Z5DTL72CClM mucous surfaces prevent colonization by
pathogen

9– alteration of normal flora may lead to

Mechanism of Innate Immunity
invasion by extraneous microbes and cause
8• First Line of Defense serious diseases.e.g,clostridial enterocolitis
following oral antibiotics.
2– Epithelial surfaces

9• Second Line of Defense

B. Respiratory tract:
3– Inflammation
3– respiratory tract is lined by moist
4– Fever musous surfaces which act as trapping
5– Acute phase proteins mechanism.
4– inhaled particles are arrested in nasal 7– Occurs as a result of tissue injury,
passage on moist mucous membrane surfaces. initiated by entry of pathogens. 

5– the hair like cilia propels the particles
towards pharynx and are swallowed or coughed
out. • some particles which manage to reach
alveoli are ingested by phagocytes
8– Leads to vasodilation,increased vascular
permeability and cellular infiltration
9– Due to increased vascular permeability,
plasma pours out and dilutes the toxic products
present.

C. Intestinal tract: 10– Fibrin barrier is laid to wall off the site
of infection
6– saliva present in mouth inhibits many
microorganisms. Inflammatory Response

7– acidic ph of gastric juices destroys the 6• 2 Main Players

swallowed bacteria if any.
11– Histamine
8– normal flora of intestine prevent
7• Dilates blood vessels
colonization of pathogens.
8• Increase capillary permeability

9• Results is redness, heat and sweling

D. Conjunctiva
10• Heat- unfavorable to microorganisms.
9– Tears flush away bacteria and other
dust particles 11• Mobilizes WBC (monocytes)
10– lysozyme present in tears has 12• Raises metabolic rate of surrounding
bactericidal action. cells

12– Complement
E. Genitourinary tract: 13• Chemotaxis agent
11– Urine eliminate bacteria from urethra 14• Recruits WBC on the injured site
by its flushing action. A
Inflammatory Response
12– cidic ph of vaginal secretion of female
due to fermentation of glycogen by lactobacilus 11• Starts with the release of histamine and
makes vagina free from microorganisms. other chemicals

13– In males, semen is believed to have 12• Ends with WBC cleaning up the debris
some antibacterial substance. 13• *
Second line of defense Mechanism of Innate Immunity
A. Inflammation: B. Fever:
6– An important non-specific defense 14– Rise in temperature following infection
mechanism is natural defense mechanism.

15– Destroys the infecting organism

16– Stimulates the production of interferon, 0• Obtained in the course of daily life
which help in recovery from viral infections .
-Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Mechanism of Innate Immunity
-Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
C. Acute phase proteins
21• Artificially Acquired Immunity
17– after injury ,there is sudden increase or
2• Obtained by receiving a vaccine or
decrease in plasma concentration of certain
immune serum
proteins, collectively called Acute phase
proteins -Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
18– E.g. C reactive protein (CRP),Mannose -Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
binding proteins etc.

19– They activate the alternative pathway

of complement Naturally Acquired Immunity

20– Prevent tissue injury and promote 3• Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
repair of inflammatory lesions 1• Antigens or pathogens enters the body
B. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY naturally

14• also known as adaptive immunity 2• Body generates an immune response to

antigen
15• Immunity that an organism develop
during lifetime 3• Immunity may be lifelong (Chickenpox,
mumps) or temporary (influenza or intestinal
16• 2 types: infections)
21– natural active immunity

22– artificial active immunity Naturally Acquired Immunity

A. Innate or Native Immunity B. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
17• Resistance possessed by an individual 4• Antibodies pass from mother to fetus
by birth via placenta or breastfeeding (Colustrum)
18• Provides first line of defense against 5• No immune response to antigen
infection
6• Immunity is usually short-lived (weeks
19• 3 Levels to months)
23– Species immunity 7• Protection until the child’s immune
system is developed
24– Racial immunity

25– Individual immunity

Artificially Acquired Immunity
TYPES of ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
4• Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
20• Naturally Acquired Immunity
5• Antigens are introduced in vaccines 22• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
(immunization) yFc18Hxdgk

6• Bodies the immune response to

antigens

7• Immunity can be life long (Oral Polio

Vaccine) or temporary (tetanus toxoid)

Artificially Acquired Immunity

B. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity

8• Preformed antibodies (antiserum) are

introduced into the body by injection

9• Immunity is short-lived (Half life-three

weeks)

13– Snake antivenom injections

- Immunoglobulins (Hepa B)

15• Host immune system does not respond

to antigens

IMMUNOLOGY- Innate Immunity and Adaptive

Immunity

Antigens: HLA typing Also called as non – specfic immunity

Free radical and Antioxidants
The defense system which is present
Electrophoresis
from the time of birth
Introduction
It prevents the harmful materials from
Immune response is how our body entering the body
recognizes and defends itself against bacteria,
Examples: cough reflex, enzymes in
viruses and other substances that appears
tears and skin secretions.
foreign and harmful.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
The immune system protects the body
from possibly harmful substances by Immunity that develops with exposure
recognizing and responding to such substances to various antigens.
called Antigens.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY

This is due to the antibodies that are

INNATE IMMUNITY produced in a body other than our own.
 Infants have passive immunity as they
are born with antibodies that are transferred
from the mother through placenta.
This antibodies disappears between 6 to
12 months of age.
Passive Immunity (Cont…)
It is also due to immunization e.g.
Tetanus antitoxins.
ANTIGENS: HLA TYPING
Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing
is a method to determine how closely the
tissues of one person match the tissues of
another person.
Human leukocyte antigens are proteins
you inherit from your parents.
ANTIGENS: HLA TYPING
it is important in bone marrow
transplants to know how closely the HLA type of
the transplant recipient matches the HLA type
of the donor.
What are HLA Antibodies?
Before transplants, patients are tested
for HLA antibodies.
HLA antibodies are proteins that may
be present in the patient’s blood and could
interfere with the success of the transplant.
ANTIGENS: HLA TYPING
If the donor is not an absolutely perfect
match, the patient’s HLA antibodies may attack
the donated cells and make the patient’s body
reject the transplant.
What is HLA matching?
Please watch
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=YVer3lUv6HQ
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
Immunoglobulins include a diverse
group of proteins (Globulins), which have
antibody activity.
They are synthesized and secreted by B
Cells in response to invasion of an antigens.
They are glycoproteins and found in
serum and some tissue fluids.
It constitute approximately about 20 %
of total plasma proteins.
STRUCTURE OF IMMUNOGLOBULIN
It is a ‘Y’ shaped molecules, having two
arms and a stem.
It has four polypeptide chains.
Two of these chains are large subunits
called H Chains.
The other two are small subunits called
L Chains. 
All the four chains are joined by –S-S-
Linkages.
Structure of Immunoglobulin (Cont...)
An enzyme called pepsin can hydrolyse
the immunoglobulin into three fragments.
These are called Fab fragments and Fc
fragments.
Both the arms are linked to the stem by
a flexible region, which is called as hinge region.
MECHANISM OF ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
Antibody, also called immunoglobulin,
a protective protein produced by the immune
system in response to the presence of a
foreign substance, called an antigen.
Our body produces different number
of antibodies to counteract the effects of
different antigens. This is called as antibody
diversity.
Various antibodies are produced by
recombination of a limited number of a
gene segments to produce a vast number of
antibodies.
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSIFICATIONS
There are 5 classes of immunoglobulins
Ig G,
Ig A,
Ig M,
Ig E.
Ig D
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Ig G
◦ Major immunoglobulin
◦ Produced by Plasma Cells
◦ 70 – 75 % of Total immunoglobulin is Ig
G. in serum.
◦ Evenly distributed betweeen
Intravascular and Extravascular Pools.
◦ Produced in response to most of
bacteria and virus.
◦ It binds to macrophages and
Neutrophills and promotes phagocytosis.
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Ig A
◦ Present in 15 – 20 % of total serum
◦ It is called as “Secretory Ig A” since it is
present in some secretions like Milk, Saliva and
Colostrum etc.
◦ S Ig A provides defense against virus
and bacteria.
◦ Deficiency of Ig A causes infection in
sinus and Respiratory tract
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Ig M
◦ 5 – 10 % present in serum
◦ It is the first immunoglobulin, which is
synthesized by cells on the entry of antigens
into the host.
◦ It is also called as first line of defense.
◦ It is only Immunoglobulin the neonates
normally synthesized.
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Ig D
◦ < than 1 % of immunoglobulin is Ig D in
serum.
◦ Major component of surface membrane
of many B – cells.
Ig E
◦ Present in very small amount in blood.
◦ It is found on the surface membrane of
the basophills and mast cells.
◦ It protects the host against parasites
and allergic diseases such as Hay Fever and
Asthma.
QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
ELECTROPHORESIS
◦ In this technique Agarose gel is
prepared containing a predetermined
concentration of the antibody.
◦ The gel is allowed to solidified and the
wells are cut in it.  These wells are filled with
antigen and electric current is passed.  Protein
migrates to various position, precipitin arc are
developed and identified.
QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
ELISA
◦ Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay
◦ It is a technique where an enzyme is
linked to the antibody.
◦ Antigen is attached to the solid surface
on the ELISA plate, there after enzyme linked
antibodies are added and allowed to binds to
the antigen.
◦ Excess of the antibody is removed by
washing and the substrate is added, which is
converted to the products, that can be
quantified.
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 
Oxygen is very essential for life, about
90 % of it is used by oxidative Phosphorylation.
Free Radicals – Small fraction of the
oxygen is inherently converted into toxic forms
such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide.
These are highly reactive forms of oxygen and
are referred to as free radicals.
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS  antioxidant. It is a potent singlet oxygen
Oxygen undergoes reduction and firstly
forms superoxide and yields hydrogen per oxide
on further reduction.
Hydrogen peroxide on further
reduction forms Hydroxyl Radical.
While the end product of complete
reduction of oxygen is water.  O2 (O2 - ) H2 O2
OH - H2O
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 
Free radicals have many implications in
many pathological reactions including
reperfusion injury, Cancer, Inflammatory
diseases and aging.
ANTIOXIDANTS  Free radicals are
removed from the cell by detoxification by
several compounds (enzymes and vitamins),
which are called antioxidants and provides
protection against oxidative damage.
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 
ENZYMES – there are several enzymes
that acts as an antioxidants and detoxify free
radicals, e.g. Catalase. Etc.
Antioxidant Vitamins – Vitamin A and
Carotenoids, Vitamin C and Vitamin E are called
antioxdants vitamins since they detoxify free
radicals and provide defense against oxidative
damage
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 
Vitamin – C: also known as ascorbic
acid acts as a chain breaking antioxidants in the
aqueous phase. It also has a role in the
reduction and recycling of vitamin – E.
Vitamin – E: (α and γ tocopherols) acts
as a chain breaking antioxidants in the lipid
phase.
Vitamin – A: It is a lipophilic
scavenger and prtects agains t damage , from
sunlight in retina and skin
FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS 
Consumption of foods, rich in Vitamin
C. A and E and β - Carotene has been shown to
reduce the risk of certain types of cancers and
decrease the frequency of certain other chronic 1– Plasma concentrations of ions or
health problems. nutrients

REFERENCE 2– Neurons and mental activity

• Kalaivanisathishr , (2016). 3– Environmental changes, E.g. Change in

Immunochemistry light or temperature.

• https://www.slideshare.net/Kalaivanisa EFFECT OF HORMONES 

thishr/immunochemistry-61418947

BIOCHEMISTRY OF HORMONES

HORMONES
8• Hormones have the following effects on
the body:

1• The word hormone is derived from a 4– Stimulation or inhibition of growth

Greek word “Hormacin” which means to
5– Mood swings
“Excite”.
6– Activation or inhibition of the immune
2• Hormones are strictly speaking
system • Regulation of metabolism
stimulating substances and act as body
catalysts. 7– Preparation of the body for fighting,
fleeing, mating, and other activities
3• The hormones catalyse and control
diverse metabolic processes, despite their 8– Control of the reproductive cycle
varying actions and different specifities
depending on the target organ. EFFECT OF HORMONES 

HORMONE SECRETION 9• Hormones have the following effects on

the body:
4• Hormones in animals are often
transported in the blood. 9– Preparation of the body for a new
phase of life, such as puberty, parenting, and
5• Endocrine hormone molecules are menopause
secreted (released) directly into the
bloodstream, 10– Hunger cravings

6• Exocrine hormones (ecto-hormones) 11– Hormone may also regulate the

are secreted directly into a duct, and from the production and release of other hormones.
duct they either flow into the bloodstream or 12– Hormone signals control the internal
they flow from cell to cell by diffusion environment of the body through homeostasis.
HORMONE SECRETION CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
7• Hormone secretion can be stimulated
and inhibited by:
0• 1. PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS
0– Other hormones (stimulating or
releasing hormones) 0– Peptide and protein hormones are
products of translation.
1– Peptide hormones are synthesized in 1. Change the permeability of cell membrane.
endoplasmic reticulum, transferred to the Golgi
2. Accelerate the penetration of substrates,
and packaged into secretory vesicles for export
enzymes, coenzymes into the cell and out of
2– including hormones secreted by the cell.
anterior and posterior pituitary gland, the
3. Acting on the allosteric centers, affect the
pancreas (insulin and glucagon), the parathyroid
activity of enzymes (Hormones penetrating
gland (parathyroid hormone).
membranes).
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
4. Affect the activity of enzymes through the
messengers (cAMP). (Hormones that can not
penetrate the membrane).
2. AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
5. Act on the genetic apparatus of the cell
1• There are two groups of hormones
(nucleus, DNA) and promote the synthesis of
derived from the amino acid, tyrosine: ·
enzymes (Steroid and thyroid hormones).
0– hormones (ending in ‘-ine’) are derived
FACTORS REGULATING HORMONE ACTION S
from tyrosine and tryptophan and include
epinephrine and norepinephrine (produced by 2• Action of a hormone at a target organ is
the adrenal medulla).. regulated by four factors:

1– Two other amino acids are used for

synthesis of hormones: ·
3• Rate of synthesis and secretion: The
8• Tryptophan is the precursor to hormone is stored in the endocrine glands.
serotonin and the pineal hormone melatonin. ·
4• In some cases, specific transport
9• Glutamic acid is converted to systems in plasma.
histamine.
5• Hormone-specific receptors in target
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES cell membranes which differ from tissue to
tissue.

6• Ultimate degradation of the hormones

3. STEROIDS
usually by the liver or kidneys.
10• Steroids are lipids and, more
Endocrine and exocrine glnads
specifically, derivatives of cholesterol.
7• Unlike exocrine glands(sweat, salivary),
11• (ending in ‘-ol’ or ‘-one’) include
endocrine glands secrete their respective
estradiol, testosterone, aldosterone, and
substances directly into the bloodstream rather
cortisol.
than through a duct.
12• Steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex
8• These endocrine glands belong to the
(cortisol and aldosterone), the ovaries (estrogen
body’s control system and they produce
and progesterone), the testes (testosterone),
hormones which help to regulate the functions
and the placenta (estrogen and progesterone).
of cells and tissues.
FINAL EFFECTS OF HORMONES ACTION
9• Some glands are specific to either male 16• CHEMISTRY:
(testes) or female (ovaries)
3– The naturally occurring estrogens in
ENDOCRINE GLANDS humans are: • β-Estradiol • Estrone • Estriol

HORMONES

EXOCRINE GLANDS 12• EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE

(AMINO ACID DERIVATIVE)

5– They are the hormones secreted from

HORMONES
adrenal gland from adrenal medulla.

6– They help in fight and flight responses.

10• GLUCAGON (PROTEIN HORMONE)

2– Glucagon is a hormone produced by α-

13• CHEMISTRY:
cells of islets of Langerhans of pancreas and is
an important hormone involved in: 7– The naturally occurring forms are
levorotatory.
10• Rapid mobilization of hepatic glycogen
to give glucose by glucogenolysis • 8– They don’t have –COOH (CARBOXYLIC)
group.
11• To a lesser extent FA from adipose
tissue. Thus, it act as a hormone required to 9– They act as neurotransmitters. •
mobilise metabolic substrates from storage
10– They are stored in the form of granules.
depots.
SIMILARITIES & DISSIMILARITIES OF HORMONES
12• CHEMISTRY:
& ENZYMES SIMILARITIES
0– Glucagon has been purified and
14•
crystallized from pancreatic extracts and also
the hormone has been synthesized. It is a 15• SIMILARITIES: •
polypeptide containing 29 amino acids.
11– Both act as body catalysts.
HORMONES
12– Both are required only in small
11• ESTROGEN (STEROID HORMONE) quantities.
3– Estrogen are hormones capable of 13– Both are not used up during the
producing certain biological effects. reaction
4– They include: 16• DISSIMILARITIES:
13• Growth of female genetic organs 14– Hormones are produced in an organ
other than that in which they ultimately
14• The appearance of female secondary
perform their action.
sex characteristics
15– They are secreted in blood prior to use.
15• Growth of the mammary duct system
•
and numerous other phenomena which vary
some what in different species.
16– Structurally they are not only proteins.
Few hormones are protein in nature, few are Cells in the brain
small peptides. Some are derived from amino
acids while some are steroids in nature.
0• most common brain cells are neurons
IMPORTANCE OF HORMONES and non-neuron cells called glia.

17• simulation of growth, 1• Glia

18• control of cell’s life span, control of 0– “glia” is Latin for “glue.
immune system,
1– participate in brain signaling
19• metabolism regulation,
2– necessary for the healthy function of
20• control of phases of life, neurons.

21• self preservation reactions, sexual
functions, reproductive cycle.
22• Hormones are chemical messengers in
the body which control certain processes in the
body, such as reproduction and homeostasis
Mental activity and Mental Illness
3– Unlike neurons, glial cells cannot fire
action potentials to communicate messages,
but that does not mean they are inactive.
4– Glia cells helps the neurons to
strengthen the messages that are passed
between them.

Cells in the brain

The Brain
13• Neurons
Functions of the Brain
4– are the cells in the brain that send and
receive electrical and chemical signals.
0• Monitor external world
5– building blocks of the brain, and
1• Monitor composition of body fluids transmit information to other neurons, muscles,
and tissues throughout the body.
2• Regulate skeletal muscle contractions
internal organs 6– allows to think, feel, move, and
comprehend
3• Initiate/regulate basic drives
Neurons
4• Conscious sensation
NEURONS
5• Memory
14• Neurons communicate via both
6• Mood electrical signals and chemical signals.
7• Thought 7– The electrical signals are action
8• Regulate sleep cycle potentials, which transmit the information from
one of a neuron to the other;
9• Language
8– the chemical signals are 20• The target can be another nerve cell, or
neurotransmitters, which transmit the a muscle cell, or a gland cell. They are chemicals
information from one neuron to the next. made by the nerve cell specifically to transmit
the message
ACTION POTENTIAL
Neurotransmitters
15• An action potential occurs when a
neuron sends information down an axon, away
from the cell body.
5• Excitatory neurotransmitters
16• Neuroscientists use other words, such encourage a target cell to take action.
as a "spike" or an "impulse" for the action
6• Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease
potential.
the chances of the target cell taking action. In
17• The action potential is an explosion of some cases, these neurotransmitters have a
electrical activity that is created by a relaxation-like effect.
depolarizing current.
7• Modulatory neurotransmitters can
VIDEO: ACTION POTENTIAL send messages to many neurons at the same
time. They also communicate with other
18• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
neurotransmitters.
v=iBDXOt_uHTQ

Fuels and energy metabolism in the brain

VIDEO: Activities of Neurons
2• Glucose is virtually the sole fuel for the
human brain, except during prolonged 21• https://www.youtube.com/embed/Xfea
starvation. MbTKdV8?modestbranding=1

3• It consumes about 120 g daily, which NEUROTRANSMITTERS

corresponds to an energy input of about 420
22• Acetylcholine
kcal (1760 kJ), accounting for some 60% of the
utilization of glucose by the whole body in the 9– triggers muscle contractions, stimulates
resting state. some hormones, and controls the heartbeat.
4• estimates suggest from 60% to 70%, is 10– plays an important role in brain
used to power transport mechanisms that function and memory
maintain the Na+-K+ membrane potential
required for the transmission of the nerve 11– an excitatory neurotransmitter.
impulses. NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Mental illness: BioChemical Cause 8• Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitters 5– Low levels of acetylcholine are linked
19• are chemical messengers that transmit with issues with memory and thinking, such as
a message from a nerve cell across the synapse those that affect people with Alzheimer’s
to a target cell. disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s
chorea
6– Having high levels of acetylcholine can 4▪ low levels of GABA can cause anxiety,
cause irritability, and restlessness. Anxiety disorders
and schizoprenia
0• depression
5▪ Increase levels of GABA reduces anxiety
1• too much muscle contraction. This can
lead to seizures, spasms, and other health NEUROTRANSMITTERS
issues.
0▪ Serotonin
7– People must get enough choline from
1▪ inhibitory neurotransmitter.
their diets to produce adequate levels of
acetylcholine. 2▪ happiness hormone.

3▪ helps regulate mood, appetite, blood

clotting, sleep, and the body’s circadian rhythm.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
4▪ Increase level- anxiety states
0▪ Dopamine
5▪ Decrease level-depression, low self-
1▪ for memory, learning, behavior, and
esteem, obsessive thoughts, compulsive
movement coordination.
behavior, impulsiveness and aggressiveness.
2▪ a pleasure or reward neurotransmitter.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
3▪ The brain releases dopamine during
4▪ Serotonin
pleasurable activities.
0▪ Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
or SSRIs, can relieve depression by increasing
0▪ Dopamine serotonin levels in the brain

0▪ Dopamine is also responsible for muscle 1▪ Some evidence indicates that people
movement. can increase serotonin naturally through:

1▪ A dopamine deficiency can cause 2▪ being exposed to bright light,

especially sunlight
0▪ Parkinson’s disease and depression
5▪ vigorous exercise
1▪ slow reaction time and anhedonia
(unwillingness to do anything) NEUROTRANSMITTERS

2▪ The body needs certain amino acids to 6▪ Noradrenalin/norepinephrine

produce dopamine, and amino acids are found
3▪ primary neurotransmitter in the
in protein-rich foods.
sympathetic nervous system
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
4▪ it works on the activity of various
1▪ Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) organs in the body to control blood pressure,
heart rate, liver function and many other
2▪ a mood regulator
functions.
3▪ has an inhibitory action, which stops
5▪ prolongs the ability to stay focused on
neurons from becoming overexcited
everything, staying alert.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
7▪ Noradrenalin/norepinephrine
6▪ primary neurotransmitter in the
sympathetic nervous system
7▪ it works on the activity of various
organs in the body to control blood pressure,
heart rate, liver function and many other
functions.
3● spectrophotometry, immunoassays, and
electrophoresis
Clinical Chemistry
4● systematic study of biochemical
processes associated with health & disease &
the measurement of constituents in body fluids
or to facilitate diagnosis of disease.
Specimens tested in clinical analysis

8▪ prolongs the ability to stay focused on 5● Serum-most common specimen tested.

everything, staying alert.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
8▪ Noradrenalin/norepinephrine
9▪ increase level –mania, anxiety states ,
schizoprenia
10▪ Decrease level-depression
9• A balance of neurotransmitters is
necessary to prevent certain health conditions,
such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer’s
disease, and Parkinson’s disease.
it is obtained by centrifugation of coagulated
blood
6● Plasma-is obtained by centrifugation of
uncoagulated blood.
7● Urine-usually require a 24-hour urine
collection.
8● Cerebrospinal spinal fluid (CSF)-usually
analyzed in clinical chemistry to identify or rule
out meningitis.
Key parameters tested and their significance
9● Carbohydrates-help in the diagnosis of
endocrinological disorders such as
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and diabetes.

10• Health conditions that result from an
imbalance of neurotransmitters often require
treatment from a professional. See a doctor
regularly to discuss physical and mental health
concerns.
Clinical Chemistry
10● Lipids-Lipid levels can help diagnose
liver and heart disease in humans.
11● Enzymes-can indicate problems with
the particular organ.
12● Hormones-increase or decrease in
hormone levels can signal hyperactive or
hypoactive glands respectively.

0● refers to the biochemical analysis of

body fluids.
Key parameters tested and their significance
1● It uses chemical reactions to determine
13● Proteins-can be indicative of nutritional
the levels of various chemical compounds in
and metabolic disorders and some forms of
bodily fluids.
cancer
2● used to detect and quantify different
compounds in blood and urine
14● Electrolytes-can help diagnose some
kidney and metabolic disorders.

15● Metabolites- assess the functioning of

certain organs.

Purposes

16● Confirming or rejecting a diagnosis

17● Providing guidelines in patient

management

18● Establishing a prognosis

19● Detecting disease through case finding

20● Monitoring follow-up therapy