R - Farsi - SourceSara3

www.SourceSara.
com ‫ آﻣﻮزش ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ‬- ‫ﺳﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮرس ﺳﺮا‬
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‫‪www.SourceSara.com‬‬ ‫ﺳﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮرس ﺳﺮا ‪ -‬آﻣﻮزش ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ‬
www.SourceSara.com ‫ آﻣﻮزش ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ‬- ‫ﺳﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮرس ﺳﺮا‬
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r t U i
1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vW pw= pYi

1 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Ok t t 11
1 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |U w x = Q = Q } v t v @ u @R = J 21
3 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R Q ?Y Q Q= i=s v v R ] 31
3 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . x_i=L =} Q
QO < W= uO m h L w P CUQyi 'O =H}= 131
4 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . .. R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 231
5 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . ......R QO =yxO=O 331
7 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . R = = =
u @ R QO xO t | yxO=O 431
7 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . . . p= =
} i R= yxO=O u v= N O w 531
7 . . . . . . . . . . .. . read.table O w
u v= N Q wDUO 1531
9 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . scan O w
u v= N Q wDUO 2531
9 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... . . . p= = } i |wQ yxO=O uDWwv 631
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... ........ = yxO=O O}rwD 731
10 . . . . . . . . . . .. =yxO=O R= s_vt = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 1731
11 . . . . . . . . . . .=
yxO=O R= |iO=YD = x =@
| y r vO O =H}= 2731
11 . . . . . . . . . . .. ..................... = =D =
yxO=O Q N U 41
11 . . . . . . . . . . .. .................. = Q yQ=O @ 141
hr=
12 . . . . . . . . . .. . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1141
14 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 241
18 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . | l =D = O =W
W } Q N U x y t 1241
19 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. =}rt T Q=
u C a w } D t 2241
20 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .......... w = Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = 341
20 . . . . . . . . . .. . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O X= N = w 1341
21 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O O = =H}= 2341
22 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . factor() ` = @ D 441
22 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . |= Q = C w w v tR | U | y }O H t 541
23 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = C Qy y U i 641
24 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . CUQyi O=H}= 1641
25 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R = = u @R @ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 51
25 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Q \ W 151
26 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xkr L 251
27 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. `w @= D 351
28 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . |Q =}DN= =@
w |Q H= u t oQ = w 1351
29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2351
29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3351
30 . . . . . . . . . .Q =
@Q m x W O h} QaD Qorta l} CN=U 4351
32 Q=Owtv sUQ swO pYi

32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... |Q=O wtv `@=wD 12
34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . curve() ` = @ D 112
36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212
37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo = CtUk

| y 312
37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xLiY l} |wQ Q=O wtv OvJ 412
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u tR y = s |m}i=Qo xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 512
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... | =
HQ N | y = s}_vD 612
42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u} = K] } B U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 712
52 p=tDL= w Q=t swU pYi
52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13
52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113
53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | =Y O | =tD = ` w
iO D O= a= w r L= | y } R D 213
55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q wDU} s= o y 1213
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56 . . . ...... . . . . . . = Q =tD | =o ` =
p t v p L= r J @ D 2213
58 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

' i= o @= D 3213
59 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 4213
60 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` =t o p L= r J @ D 5213
62 . . . ...... ................ | iO =YD |Q}oxvwtv 313
64 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . =tD ` = l p L= @ D } | y = QDt=Q=B Q

OQw @ 413
65 . . . ...... ................. =
|Q t | yVwQ = 513
65 . . . ...... . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513
68 uw}UQoQ |=ypOt sQ=yJ pYi
68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |] w} N u Q =
U oQ | yp tO 14
68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... wQ =C w w p t i | y }O H t 114
69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... = O `w |R Up t @= D 214
74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O X}NW
p t D 1214
75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =v}t xr =
u ]= Y i 2214
77 `H=Qt
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‫‪www.SourceSara.com‬‬ ‫ﺳﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮرس ﺳﺮا ‪ -‬آﻣﻮزش ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ‬
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version 2.6.2 (2008-02-08)

version 2.7.0 (2008-04-22)
version 2.7.1 (2008-06-23)
version 2.7.2 (2008-08-25)
version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20)
version 2.8.1 (2008-12-22)
version 2.9.0 (2009-04-17)
version 2.9.1 (2009-06-26)
version 2.9.2 (2009-08-24)
version 2.10.0 (2009-10-26)
version 2.10.1 (2009-12-14)
version 2.11.0 (2010-04-22)
version 2.11.1 (2010-05-31)
1. Windows 2. Unix 3. Linux 4. Macintosh
3 R |U w x = Q
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version 2.12.0 (2010-10-15)

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x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 1

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> n { 15
<
" O}vR@ =Q Enter O}r m w xO wtv A}=D =Q nx m CU= |i=m O}vm xOy=Wt =Q n Okt O}y=wN@ Qo =
Q=
> n
1] 15
xm CW=O xHwD O}=@ =t= "Owtv xO =iDU= R}v = Qorta R= |U} wvxt=vQ@ =
| yu @ R = Q}=U Ovv=t u= D w |t uO=O C@Uv |= @ Q xD@r=
O
" W Oy=wN =
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> n { 15 <
> n
1] 15
"OQ= o P |t Cw =iD R
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u @R
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1] 1
%R= CUDQ=@a C}=U |v=Wv "O Q}o Q=Qk =tW T QDUO QOO
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u= "6
> X
1] 10
"O=O C@Uv |W l} x@ =Q CQ a =@ l} w |t
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> n { 10+2 <
> n
1] 12
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> (10+2) 5
1] 60
Ctqa =@ =Q Q m= xt=O= R =
u @ R '| Oa@ = Q]U =}
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download qkDU O = OvDU}, t } @ w R
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1] "numeric"
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1] 1
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1] "character"
1] "logical"
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nQ @ hw L Q =@ O}=@ ,=tDL TRUE xS=w xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
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7. This is Not Notepad 8. attribute
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1] Inf
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1] Inf
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1] 0
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1] NaN
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> x { "This is a test."

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> x
1] "This is a test."
xDWQ pN=O QO Qo = u wvm = "CU= quotes wO CQ Y w x@ pY=L 'O}vm pta quotes wO =} w l} =@ xJ xm O}vm xHwD
w
'O W xO =iDU= quotes l } R= Qo = =t= O w
'OQ= v O Hw |rmWt quotes wO R= xO =iDU= w
CQ Y QO ' CW=O OwHw hQ wDU=B
"O}}=tv xO =iDU= n R= O}=@ w O}|t V}B =]N
> x { "Ali's apple"

<
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
> x { 'Ali 's apple'
< n
> x
1] "Ali's apple"
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv pQDvm =Q |Q =Wa= s=kQ= O= OaD w |t
u= D digits QwDUO =@
> print(1/1:5, digits=2)

1] 1.00 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20
= u}=
Q m Q O =@ wDUO Qy
|= @ " W v Q QO =yv s}_vD Q
|= @ |R v =} Qo}O xm Owtv u}at |rm Qw]x@ =Q Q =Wa= =
sQ kQ= O= OaD w |t xD@r=
u= D
w |t
"O W xO =iDU= options ` = @ D R=
> options(digits = 3)
> print(1/1:5)
1] 1.000 0.500 0.333 0.250 0.200
A J = |W l} R= V}@ xm O}W=@ p}=t xJv=vJ w Ovm|t =
A J =Q |W l} \ki print() ` = @ D xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD ,=vt
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv xO =iDU= cat() ` = @ D R= O}=@ OO o Q
9. Not Available 10. not a number
7 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> x { 1:10 <
> cat('x=', x, '\n')

x= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
=
A J = H O Q]U wO QO O= a= w O x= CtUk xm O}y=wN@ Qo = "OQwNv sy x@ > =
| H xm CU= u}= Q \
|= @ ' n' CtU k
"O}vm pta Q} R CQ Y w x@ O}=@ OvwW
> x { 1:10<
> cat('x=', '\n', x, '\n')

x=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R u=@ R QO xO=t |=yxO=O 4

3
1
Ovv=t "OwW|t xO=iDU= u R= R}v Q=DWwv u}= QO xm CU= xOW xO=O Q=Qk =yp=Ft QO xO=iDU= |=Q@ xO=t xO=O |O=OaD R = u @ R QO
"Ci=} R Q QO }R Q wDUO R= xO =iDU= =@ =Q =yu pt=m CUQyi u=wD|t xD@r= ::: w trees Nile LakeHuron iris cars
' ' ' '
> data()
O w Q
" v= N= i =Q u x= Qty =
| yxO=O u= D w |t Q} R QwDUO =@ 'OW xO =iDU= package l } R= Qo = ,=vt
> library(gstat)
"O wtv x_Lqt Q} R QwDUO \UwD =Q gstat xDU @ QO GQ Ovt =
| yxO=O CUQyi w |t uwvm =
u= D
> data(package="gstat")
x_ q QL wD = meuse.alt x
t } R C=Q UO @ =Q w Q =
@ \ @ t | yxO=O 'x W O CUQyi |=yxO=O |t=U= u=}t R= u= D w |t p=Ft u= wva x@
wtv
"O
> data(meuse.alt)
> meuse.alt
p}=i R= =yxO=O uOv=wN 5

3
1
"O wtv xO =iDU= VwQ wO R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= Q O w |t p}=i

|= @ " v= N |wQ R= =Q text |vDt =
| yxO=O R u @R =
read.table uOv=wN QwDUO 1 5 3 1
s v = x@ |=xWwB QO w cw }=QO QO , qFt w OW=@ data.txt |r = = Qo = "CU=

} i s v read.table() ` = @ D xO =iDU= w
OQ t Q wDUO u}rw=
" Ovm|t pta Q} R CQ Y w x@ uOv=wN QwDUO x=ov 'OW=@ xOW xQ}NP test
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt")
<
|= @ Q windows p = sDU} x | w
t a C O XNW /
U QO m DQ Y QO ' U= x W t =@ p}=i TQO =} w Q}Ut xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
=F
p t u wvm = Q
"O m xO =iDU= nn wO R= O}=@ O}vm xO =iDU= n O =tv R= O}y=wN@ xJ=vJ "OO oQ |t xO =iDU= n O =tv R= Q m= u}=
w |t |U} wvR=@ Q}N=
"O W w x
CQ Y @ q @ =
> mydata { read.table("c: test data.txt")

< nn nn
w x CU= s=v
Q ] @ " |=Q=O u Q}eDt Qy xm OwW|t p}mWD mydata = x@ =yxO=O
s v R= |rwOH l} w
j i Q wDUO |= H=Q =@
w mydata$V1, mydata$V2, = w x = x | yCQ Y @ yu @ |UQDUO w O W V1, V2,
w |t xO}t=v Q V} Z i B
read.table wD O = | mydata, 1], mydata, 2],

Q UO " W @ t w mydata"V1"], mydata"V2"], = ::: }
"O wtv xO=iDU= u R= OQ t w ?UL w |t xm CU=

u= D |Q =}DN= C Y =} wYN pt=W
"CU= xOW xQ}NP data.txt Q } R CQ Y w x@ |r}=i "O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
Author: John Davis

Date: 18-05-2007
Some comments...
Col1, Col2, Col3, Col4
23, 45, A, John
34, 41, B, Jimmy
12, 99, B, Patrick
"O W w |t xOv=wN=Qi R =
u @ R QO q L =
> mydata { read.table("c:/test/data.txt",skip=3,sep=",",header=T)

<
> mydata
w Q sep = w
p o }w Ov | w@ C
u t oQ w =L} w w Q x p =
m t Q aQ] x skip = w read.table() ` =
U= C D \ @ t m } i pw= U U R= u t oQ @ D QO
TRUE hiN x T =Hv C |k]v w

t m x header = w
}= QO w Q = O =t |
U= P =
t ` v R=u} m u t oQ x Nq @ w } v t h L =Q yxO=O @
" O}vm xHwD |HwQN x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t ^iL =Q =yxO=O |t=U= u}=Q@=v@ 'xOW Qm P CU=
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4

1 23 45 A John
2 34 41 B Jimmy
3 12 99 B Patrick
p t =F x@ "O wtv P =
|Q= os v =Q =yu w |t OW=@v x=wNrO s=v
u= D |=Q=O =} w OvW=@ s=v Ok=i Q_v w =
OQ t | yxO=O | y = Or}i Qo =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x { 1:3
<
> names(x)
NULL
> names(x) { c("a", "b", "c") <
> x
a b c
1 2 3
> names(x)
1] "a" "b" "c"
> names(x) { NULL <
> x
9 R |U w x = Q} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
1] 1 2 3
"O Ww |t s=Hv= dimnames() QwDUO \UwD Q=m u}= "OvDUy |Q= os v P = p@=k =Q =yQ]U w =yuwDU '=yT} QD=t Q
|= @
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
> rownames(x) { c("a","b") <
> colnames(x) { c("c","d")

<
> x
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
> dimnames(x)
1]]
1] "a" "b"
2]]
1] "c" "d"
"CWwv u= Dw |t R}v Q} R CQ Y w x@ w
=Q j i OQ t w xD@r=
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(c("a","b"), c("c","d"))

<
c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
"O}vm xHwD OW Oy=wN ?UJQ@ wO |=Q=O xm w =F x@
j i p t "O wtv x}=Q= =Q ?UJQ@ R= K]U wO u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO |DL
> x { matrix(1:4, 2)
<
dimnames(x) { list(rows = c("a","b"), cols = c("c","d"))

<
cols
rows c d
a 1 3
b 2 4
scan uOv=wN QwDUO 2 5 3 1
=t}kDUt R}v Q@ Q=m xr}Uw x@ Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= "Ovm|t

, xO=iDU= scan() s v = x@ | DQ u}}=B K]U `@=D R= read.table ` = @ D
pmW "O Ww |t xO=iDU= O

u R= ' UQ|tv Q_v x@ ?U=vt read.table OQmrta xm = =
C kw= R= |=xQ B QO w O W x v= N= i w O w Q
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ u |twtta
> scan(x, le=" ")
p}=i |wQ =yxO=O uDWwv 6

3
1
"OU} wv|t p}=i |wQ =Q =yxO=O write.table wDUO

Q
> write.table(x, le=" ")

OvwW|t xQ}NP u QO =yxO=O xm CU= |r}=i s=v le=" " QO w O W x w Q}NP CU= Q=Qk xm CU= |}=yxO=O x u QO xm
"O Q}o|t Q=Qk
=yxO=O O}rwD 7
3
1
" OvW=@|t Q} R KQW x@ xm 'OvDUy O}rwD p@=k CQ Y wO w x@ =yxO=O
=yxO=O R= s_vt |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 1 7 3 1
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q 30 = 1D =
| yxO=O , qFt 'K}LY O
O= a= R= s_vt xr=@vO
> x { 1:30
<
"OQ=O C} wrw= O
|O a | y = Qorta u}@ QO ' : Qorta "CU= QYva 30 = @ |= }=Qx l} j i Qw wDUO xH}Dv
> 1:10-1
1] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
> 1:(10-1)
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
=F
%p t u= wva x@ "Ovm O}rwD =Q |k}kL O
O= a= R= |= r vO x =@ Ov=wD|t seq() ` = @ D
> seq(1, 5, 0.5)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
u}vJsy "OyO|t u=Wv =Q V}=Ri= u= R}t OOa u}twU w xr=@vO xtD=N OOa u}twO 'xr=@vO `w W O aQ O u}rw= '`@=D u}= QO
"CWwv w |t
u= D
> seq(from=1, to=5, length=9)

1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
"CU= xOW s}UkD |w =Ut CtUk 9 x 5 = 1 u}
@ D @ xrY=i =Hv}= QO
"OQw QO xr=@vO l} CQ Y w x@ w O=O Q= k Q sy Q=vm =Q Q_v w

OQ t O= a= u= D O w |t c() ` =
@ D =@
> c(1, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0)
1] 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
= w
pw= u t oQ QY=va Q=QmD O=OaD = w
u u t oQ u}twO Q
w Q=O @ u u t oQ = w u}rw= xm w
OQ=O O Hw rep() u= wva CLD | Qo}O `@=D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU=
> rep(1:4, 4)
1] 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Qy Cr=L u}= QO " CU= = w
pw= u t oQ Q=O @ Q QY=va O= OaD =@ Q@=Q@ u QY=va OaD xm OW=@
O= Q=O @ Q Ov=wD|t R}v = w
swO u t oQ
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "Ovm|t u}at =Q pw= u t oQ= w QY=va Q=QmD O=OaD = w
'swO u t oQ Q=O @ Q QYva
> rep(1:4, c(2,2,2,2))

1] 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
" O}vm xHwD rep() ` = @ D R= Q} R =
xO U p t =F x@
> rep(' ', 3)

1] " " " " "

"
=yxO=O R= |iO=YD |=yxr=@vO O=H}= 2 7 3 1
pt=W R = Q| Q
u @ R "OO o t m P xQ @= u}= QO | QYDNt KQW u}=Q@=v@ "CU= O}rwD p@=k =
|Q t | y } R D = ` w \UwD xr=@vO `wv u}=
rfunc(n, p1, p2, ) ::: CQ Y w x@ `@=wD u}= |twta pmW "CU= p=tDL= |r=oJ w sQH `@=wD R= |= x_Lqt p@=k O=OaD
O}rwD CU= Q=Qk xm CU= O
|O= a= O= OaD n=yu QO " CU= xOW PN= |iO=YD |=vat x@ random r xS=w R= h L Q xm CU=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t u=Wv =Q `@=D | y = QDt=Q B = Q =k p1, p2,
}O t Q
hw L "O W w
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
" CU= xOW O}rwD l} Q=}at h=QLv= w QiY u}ov=}t O =D
OQ= v U= p t v = Q |iO=YD OOa l} =Hv}= QO
=yxO=O Q=DN=U 41
wtv
"O |Q= Oyov Q} R =
| yCQ Y w x@ =Q =yxO=O u= Dw |t R =
u @ R QO
(vector) Q=O @Q
(matrix) T Q = } D t
(array) x }=Q
(data frame) w
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O= =
(time series) | = Q
v tR | U | yxO=O =
(list) C U Qyi
"O Ww |t xDN=OQB =yu R= l} Qy |= RHt KQW x@ uwvm =
=yQ=OQ@ 1
4
1
'OvDUy u=Um} `wv =@ xO=O OvJ pt=W xm CU= |D}OwHwt Q OvDUy =yQ=OQ@
Q=O @ " ' R =
u @ R QO =yxO=O Q=DN=U u} QDxO=U
p =kt x@ "CN=U Q
=Q Q=O @ c() ` = =
@ D @ u= D w |t OW x_Lqt R}v ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty "OvW=@|t ::: w |k]vt ,=t=tD =} O = =tD
w O a ,t
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x - c(10,5,3,6)
<
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
=} w
> y { c(x, 0.55, x, x)

<
> y
1] 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 0.55 10.00 5.00 3.00 6.00 10.00 5.00 3.00
13] 6.00
=yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C=@U=Lt 1 1 4 1
"Ovm|t `@ Qt =Q x Q QYva Qy
Q=O @ xx =F
p t |= @ "O W Q w |t s=Hv= VQYva Qy |wQ ,qwtat |OOa |=yQ=OQ@ |wQ C=@U=Lt
> x
1] 10 5 3 6
> z {x x <
> z
1] 100 25 9 36
"Owtv p=ta= x Q
Q=O @ |wQ =Q s}DQ=or `@=D ,qFt "O=O QF= Q=O @Q l} QY=va |wQ =Q `@=wD u= Dw |t
> log(x)
1] 2.302585 1.609438 1.098612 1.791759
=F
p t "O W w QD|vqw] Q
Q=O @ xR= v= O x@ =D OO oQ |t Q=QmD QOkv QDx=Dwm Q OvW=@v u=Um} pw]
Q=O @ ' Q
|=Q=O Q=O @ wO xm |Dr=L QO
" } O Q}o Q_v O l}

QO =Q O a Q
w Q=O @ xO U =
> sqrt(x) + 2
1] 5.162278 4.236068 3.732051 4.449490
w | `t 2 O =
"O W t H Q QYv Q TB
O a Q x
@ Q=O @ a y U w OO o Q w
Q=O @ p ] xR= v= O x@ =D CU= xOW Q=QmD Q=@ Q=yJ 2 O =Hv}=
O a QO
"OvW=@ Q=O @ Q Ovwrta wO Qy xm xm O}vm xHwD |r=Ft x@ uwvm =
> x { c(1,2,3,4)
<
> y { c(1,2,3,4,5,6)
<
> z {x y <
Warning message:
In x y : longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length

> z
1] 1 4 9 16 5 12
Q=OQ@ Q} R O=H}=
"O wtv O=H}= Q Q

=Q Q=O @ } R l} w |t
u= D w
CQ Y wO x@
=F
p t " O}vm XNWt w
=Q O W ? =NDv= O}=@ xm Q =v
| Y a xQ =tW
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> x c(2,4)]
1] 11 15
"Owtv P
h L =Q sRq Q}e QY=va u= Dw |t QY=va xQ =tW |ivt O
O= a= R= xO =iDU= =@
> x { c(3,11,8,15,12)
<
> x -c(2,3)]
1] 3 15 12
" O}vm xHwD w |t s=Hv=
'O W u |wQ C =}rta u=wva x@ xm w x@ "CU=
|OQ= t Zw Qit Q} R w x
CQ Y @ x Q=O @Q
> x { c(1,3,6,10,15)
<
> x 1]
1] 1
> x 5]
1] 15
> length(x)
1] 5
> dim(x)
NULL
> nrow(x)
NULL
> ncol(x)
NULL
O= Q | wD
} @ 'OO o Q l xx
v U Q=O @ } m O}y=wN@ Qo = "CU}v O=a@= |=Q=O T} QD=t h qN Q@ Q O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
Q=O @ '
" O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )

m= O x@ "Owtv h} QaD T} QD=t l} w x
CQ Y @ =Q u
> x { as.matrix(x)
<
> dim(x)
1] 5 1
u =W NA C q = =
v Rt a @ yu =
u @ R QO CQ Y w u}= QO "OvW=@ xOW Owkit |}=yxO=O =} xO=O xm CU= umtt =yxO=O |QU QO
xU =Hv}= QO "O wtv xaH=Qt u=@ R | =tvy=Q x@ O}=@ xm 'CU= Cw =iDt =y NA w
OQ t QO R`w @= D pta |x wLv "OvwW|t xO=O
"OO o Q |t Qm P p=Ft wva x@ `@=D

u=
"Ovm|t pkDvt | U Q QN x@ =Q NA =

| yxO=O order() ` = @ D 1
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> order(x)
1] 1 3 2 5 4
> x order(x)]
1] 1 2 20 22 NA
"Ovm|t P w x w
h L O N @O N =Q NA =
| yxO=O sort() ` = @ D 2
> x - c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> sort(x)
1] 1 2 20 22
"O=O s na.rm=T |D
=Hv=QU =Q Q=m UO CQ Y w x@ O}=@ w Ovm|tv pta jwi `@=D wO R= l}I}y pFt mean() ` = @ D 3
> x { c(1, 20, 2, NA, 22)

<
> mean(x)
1] NA
> mean(x, na.rm=T)

1] 11.25
"Owtv xO =iDU= R}v Q} R pL x=Q R= u= Dw |t xD@r=
> x { c(1,2,NA,3,4)
<
> y { x !is.na(x)]
<
> mean(y)
1] 2.5
cumsum() `@=D
i `t H Q@=Q@ u i
QYva u}t= w CU= |OwQw | yxO=O= x}rw= Q=O @Q Q@=Q@ u p ] w xm Ovm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=O @ Q cumsum() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= =

|OwQw | yxO=O pw= QYva
> cumsum(rep(2,10))
1] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
=yT} QD=t 2
4
1
uDN=U Q CU= u=Um}

|= @ " = w
| yxO=O ` v |=Q=O T} QD=t l} QY=va s=tD Q=O @Q Ovv=t "CU= Q=O @Q \U@ T} QD=t `k=w QO
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv h} QaD uwDU w Q]U c() ` =@ D QY=va Q CU= |i=m T} QD=t
|= @
> A - matrix(c(1,2,3,4), nr=2, nc=2)

<
> A
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 3
2,] 2 4
=F w | =iD Ai,j]
%p t "O W t xO U= R= ' O}vm =O}B CUO T} QD=t R= x}QO l} x@ xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> A 1,2]
1] 3
%p t "=F Ci=} CUO T} QD=t R= |v}at |vwDU =} Q]U x@ u= D w |t
> A ,1]
1] 1 2
> A 2,]
1] 2 4
Q} R w x xH}Dv OwW
CQ Y @ xO =iDU= dim() u w}Uv=t}O `@=D R= Qo = w CU}v x}=Q l} A,1] w |t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty
O W
" CU=
> dim(A ,1])

NULL
"O}vm xHwD O}OH OQ@ Q=m =@ p@k p=Ft x@ "OO Qov P
h L x}=Q C}Y=N =D Owtv xO =iDU= drop = x@ |v=twoQ
s v w |t =t=
R= u= D
> A ,1,drop=F]
15 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
,1]
1,] 1
2,] 2
> dim(A ,1,drop=F])
1] 2 1
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvwW|t xQ}NP R = T Q = Q =v
Z i Q V}B |vwDU CQ Y @ w x u @ R QO } D t Y a xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
> xx { matrix(1:6,ncol=3) # Equivalently, enter matrix(1:6,nrow=2)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
"O}v x w Q
m H D=F x wt =iD byrow=T
}R p t @ "O =@
v xO O = O = Q] pm x O Q}
U= CQ a R= } @ W @ | U W @ u W x NP |x wLv xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3, byrow=T)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
" O}vm xHwD Q} R x}=QQ} R x@ uwvm =
> B { matrix(1:6, nr=2)

<
> B
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 3 5
2,] 2 4 6
> B ,2:3]
,1] ,2]
1,] 3 5
2,] 4 6
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O}vm =iDU=
xO as.vector ` = @ D R= O}QO Q
Q=O @ CQ Y w x@ T} QD=t l} xm O}y=wN@ Qo =
> xx { matrix(1:6, ncol=3)

<
> xx
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 2 3
2,] 4 5 6
> x { as.vector(xx)
<
> x
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6
CQ Yw dim() w}U =t ` = \ w =
u v }O @ D U D Q m u}= "O=O Q}}eD O
=Q O= a= R= | U Q l} pmW u= D w |t xvwoJ xm O}vm xHwD uwvm =
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O Q}o|t
> x { 1:24
<
> dim(x) { c(2,12)

<
> x
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5] ,6] ,7] ,8] ,9] ,10] ,11] ,12]
1,] 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
2,] 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L
> x { 1:24
<
> dim(x) { c(3,4,2)

<
> x
,,1
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 1 4 7 10
2,] 2 5 8 11
3,] 3 6 9 12
,,2
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]

1,] 13 16 19 22
2,] 14 17 20 23
3,] 15 18 21 24
Ctqa OQ@ Q=m =F
pw= p t " yOO |t u=Wv =Q <- Ctqa w = Ctqa OQ@ Q=m Cw =iD xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft wO x@ uwvm =
"OO o Q |t xH=wt =]N =@ xm 'CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ QO |w =UD
> matrix(a = 10, 5, 5)

Error in matrix(a = 10, 5, 5) : unused argument(s) (a = 10)
"CU= T} QD=t u=twoQ QO <- Ctqa OQ@ Q=m swO p t=F
> matrix(a < { 10, 5, 5)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4] ,5]
1,] 10 10 10 10 10
2,] 10 10 10 10 10
3,] 10 10 10 10 10
4,] 10 10 10 10 10
5,] 10 10 10 10 10
"CW=O R}v =RHt Qw]x@ =Q a Q=Okt w |t xD@r= "OyO|t u=Wv
u= D =Q 5 5 T Q=
} D t l} xm
> a
1] 10
x@ "Ov}=tv pYDt Qo}Om} x@ uwDU =} w Q]U ?UL Q@ =Q T} QD=t wO =} w x}=Q wO Ovv=wD|t cbind() rbind() ` w
w @= D
O Q}o@ Q_v
" } QO =Q T} QD=t u}rw= p=Ft u= wva
17 R |U w x = Q} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> m1 { matrix(1, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ p=Ft T} QD=t u}twO
> m2 { matrix(2, nr=2, nc=2)

<
> m2
,1] ,2]
1,] 2 2
2,] 2 2
"CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ xH}Dv x=ov w |t p=ta=
'O W m1, m2 | y= T} QD=t |wQ rbind ` = @ D u wvm =
> rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 1 1
2,] 1 1
3,] 2 2
4,] 2 2
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w x@ xH}Dv x=ov w |t p=ta=
'O W m1, m2 | y= T} QD=t |wQ cbind ` = @ D Qo =
> cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 1 1 2 2
2,] 1 1 2 2
wLv "CU}v |U} wvxt=vQ@ x@ =}
|R v w O wtv p=ta= uwDU w Q]U =} w Q]U 'u wDU apply() ` = =
|wQ =Q `@=D l} u= Dw |t @ D @
'1 Q]U xOvyOu=Wv MARGIN ' T} QD=t X u QO xm 'CU= apply(X, MARGIN, FUN,...) w x |r CQ Y @ m
=F x@ "CU= `@=D
p t |Q =}DN= =
| yu t oQ = w ... Q
w OO o p =ta= CU= Q x C |a = FUN c(1,2) Q =
Q= k m U= @ D wD
' wO y } w 2 u U
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x { rnorm(10, -5, 0.1)

<
> y { rnorm(10, 5, 2)
<
> X { cbind(x, y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.027833 4.617558
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.1023305 1.8215198
=F wv x apply() ` =
u |wQ p t u= a @ @ D " CU= uwDU xU pt=W w |t xO}t=v
w O W trees x w
m OQ=O O Hw |=xO=O ' R =
u @ R QO
Q |t p=ta=
"OO o
> apply(trees, 2, sum)

Girth Height Volume
410.7 2356.0 935.3
"O wtv pta Q} R w

CQ Y wO x@ w |t 'O}vm x@U=Lt
u= D =Q Height u wDU l} `tH ,qFt \ki xm O}y=wN@ Qo = uwvm =
> sum(trees ,2])

1] 2356
=} w
> sum(trees$Height)
1] 2356
xO=iD w |t trees =
U= u= D v | yxO=O u wDU s=v R= \ki ::: w u}ov=}t '`tH x@U=Lt Q
|= @ j i CQ Y wO w w Qy QO x Nq @Q = =t=
O}v=wN|t =Qi Qwm Pt `@=D =@ =Q xO=O s v == OD@= "O wtv xO =iDU= u= Dw |t attach() = x@
s v R =
u @ R QO |a@=D R= Q m = u}= Q
|= @ "O wtv
"O=O s =Hv= w
=Q j i C =}rta =yuwDU s=v =@ u= D w |t TBU w
> attach(trees)
> sum(Height)
1] 2356
"O wtv xO =iDU= names() ` = @ D R= u= D w |t trees | yxO=O = xawtHt pN=O QO =yQ}eDt |t=U= w O= OaD R= ` q]= |= @ Q
> names(trees)
1] "Girth" "Height" "Volume"
`@=D =
| yu t oQ = w x@ p=Ft u= wva x@ "OyO u=Wv =tW x@ =Q `@=D l} =
| yu t oQ = w Ov=wD|t args() ` = R @ D =
u @ R QO %xHwD
" O}vm xHwD apply()

> args(apply)
function (X, MARGIN, FUN, ...)
NULL
|W l} Q=DN=U xOy=Wt 1 2 4 1
R= str ` = =
@ D s v "O W w |t xO}t=v str() x m O wtv xO=iDU= |a@=D R= u= Dw |t args() names() ` w
w @= D Q@ xw qaR = u @ R QO
: : : w `@=wD '=yQ}eDt '=yxO=O R= sa= |W Qy Q=DN=U Ov=wD|t `@=D u}= Q |t |W=v Q=DN=U
"OO o | =vat x@ structure xtr m
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO u=Wv =Q
> str(trees)
'data.frame': 31 obs. of 3 variables:
$ Girth : num 8.3 8.6 8.8 10.5 10.7 10.8 11 11 11.1 11.2 ...
$ Height: num 70 65 63 72 81 83 66 75 80 75 ...
$ Volume: num 10.3 10.3 10.2 16.4 18.8 19.7 15.6 18.2 22.6 19.9 ...
O =Wt
x y =Q Q}eDt Qy =
| yxO=O R= |DtUk =
w yxO=O O= OaD '=yxO=O `wv u= D w |t =yQ}eDt |t=U= OaD Q@
w O= xw qa =Hv}= QO
"Owtv
"O}vm x=ov Q
'Gw N `@=D |va} q() ` = =D =
@ D Q N U x@ p=Ft wva x@ =}
u= w
19 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> str(q)
function (save = "default", status = 0, runLast = TRUE)
u C=}rta w T} QD=t 2 2 4 1
"O}vm xHwD m1, m2 T Q = Q p = x

} D t wO ? Y L =F Q
@ p t |= @ "O W w |t xO=iDU= %*% Qorta R= T} QD=t Q
wO ? |= @ Q
> rbind(m1,m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 2 4 4
2,] 2 2 4 4
3,] 4 4 8 8
4,] 4 4 8 8
=} w
> cbind(m1, m2) %*% rbind(m1, m2)

,1] ,2]
1,] 10 10
2,] 10 10
l} uDN=U =} w | Q]k = x
| y }QO Q}}eD =} QNDU=
w G= |= @ Q diag() ` = Q |t pY=L
@ D "OO o t() ` =@ D \UwD x}=Q l} xO=yv=QD
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ | Q]k T} QD=t
> diag(m1)
1] 1 1
> diag(rbind(m1, m2) %*% cbind(m1, m2))
1] 2 2 8 8
> diag(m1) { 10 <
> m1
,1] ,2]
1,] 10 1
2,] 1 10
> diag(3)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 1 0 0
2,] 0 1 0
3,] 0 0 1
> v { c(10, 20, 30)
<
> diag(v)
,1] ,2] ,3]
1,] 10 0 0
2,] 0 20 0
3,] 0 0 30
"O wtv O=H}= u}}=B ErFt T} QD=t =} = ErFt T} QD=t
w q @ 'u | y = T}Ov= w T} QD=t l} uwDU w Q]U R= xO =iDU= =@ w |t
u= D
> A { matrix(1:9, nc=3)

<
> A row(A) col(A)] { 0

> <
> A
,1] ,2] ,3]

1,] 1 4 7
2,] 0 5 8
3,] 0 0 9
T wma Q solve()
t |= @ Q wDUO 'u =v}tQDO x@U=Lt Q
|= @ det() Q wDUO "OQ=O |U} QD=t C U =@ =Lt |=Q@ |Y=N `@=wD R =
u @R
"OwQ |t Q=mx@ xS} w =

| yQ=O @ w Q Q}O=kt uOQw CUO@ Q
|= @ eigen() QwDUO w T} QD=t uO wtv
11 Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O 3
4
1
w CU= hrDNt =
| yxO=O ` v w =@ =
| yu wDU w
|=Q=O Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O " = = CU= T} QD=t \U@ =yxO=O `wv u}= `k=w QO
=
| yxO=O OvtR=}v R = =
u @ R QO |Q t | yp=wQ = QFm = '`k=w QO " W @O = |t R QO p}rLD w x} RHD =
QO yxO=O Q N U =D = u} QD?U=vt
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm = "CU= CUO u}= R= |OwQw
> mtcars
mpg cyl disp hp drat wt qsec vs am gear carb
Mazda RX4 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.620 16.46 0 1 4 4
Mazda RX4 Wag 21.0 6 160.0 110 3.90 2.875 17.02 0 1 4 4
Datsun 710 22.8 4 108.0 93 3.85 2.320 18.61 1 1 4 1
Hornet 4 Drive 21.4 6 258.0 110 3.08 3.215 19.44 1 0 3 1
Hornet Sportabout 18.7 8 360.0 175 3.15 3.440 17.02 0 0 3 2
x OvyOV}=tv =yuwDU w wQO N w l} xOv}=tv Q]U Qy q=@ O
pw H QO " CU= hrDNt = w
| ywQO N C a = q]= pt=W =yxO=O u}=
O
" yO |t u=Wv wQ =
=Q Q D= @ Q m O a O carb Q}eD t p t=F u}= QO " CU= =yQ}eDt
pN=O "CU= Q=O @Q l} u u wDU Qy "CU= 12 xOQDUo xLiY l} pFt w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = xm O}vm QwYD O}v=wD|t =tW
s =tD "OvDUy uwo =vwo =
| y` v w =@ |}=yxO=O |=Q=O Cw =iDt =
| yQ=O @ |wQ Q Qyx@ =t= "OvQ=O u=Um} `wv QY=va s=tD Q=O @ Q Qy
" OvW=@|t Q@=Q@ pw] =D =
|=Q=O Q N U u}= QO =yQ=OQ@
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O X=wN 1 3 4 1
s v = C}Y=N =
w yu wDU |t=U= pt=W |t=U= C}Y=N "OvW=@ =yQ]U s=v w |t=U= w
X= N |=Q=O Ovv=wD|t =yxO=O `wv u}=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OvW=@|t =yQ]U |t=U= V}=tv =yQ]U
> rownames(mtcars) 1:5]

1] "Mazda RX4" "Mazda RX4 Wag" "Datsun 710"
4] "Hornet 4 Drive" "Hornet Sportabout"
=} w
> names(mtcars)
1] "mpg" "cyl" "disp" "hp" "drat" "wt" "qsec" "vs" "am" "gear"
11] "carb"
11. data frame 12. spreadsheet
21 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
Q=O?wJQ=J |=yxO=O O=H}= 2 3 4 1
Qo}O VwQ " CU= p}=i l} j} Q] R= =yxO=O uOv=wN =yu R= |m} w

"OQ=O O Hw |irDNt =
| yx=Q =yxO=O `wv u}= O=H}= |= @ Q
"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OW=@|t data.frame() ` = @ D R= xO=iDU=
> my.logical { sample(c(T,F), size = 5, replace = T)

<
> my.numeric { rnorm(5)

<
> my.df { data.frame(my.logical,my.numeric)

<
> my.df
my.logical my.numeric
1 FALSE -0.05643126
2 FALSE 0.21557811
3 FALSE -0.04023551
4 TRUE -0.50746280
5 FALSE -1.63608548
=} w
> test - matrix(rnorm(21),7,3)

<
> test - data.frame(test)

<
> test
X1 X2 X3
1 -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
2 -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
3 -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
4 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
5 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
6 -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
7 -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
"O}vm xO =iDU= = =F
q @ p t QO |t=U= C}Y=N R= u wvm =
> names(test)
1] "X1" "X2" "X3"
"O}yO Q=Qk w
=Q O N x= X1, X2, X3 = wD | = = w w x R
wNrO |t=U= O}v=wD|t =tW "CU= xO}t=v =Q yu U t U= Q mO N CQ Y @ =
u @R
> names(test) { c("Price", "Length", "Income")

<
> row.names(test) { c("Ali","Abas","Hamid","Saeed","Amir","Mehdi","Majid")

<
> test
Price Length Income
Ali -0.9247492 0.18698082 -1.39943435
Abas -0.6256957 0.86310566 0.91401401
Hamid -0.3338215 -0.74399557 0.08866272
Saeed 0.7411739 -0.61656031 0.18208417
Amir 0.3436381 -0.64038437 -0.76397593
Mehdi -1.0379184 -0.49068270 0.21339323
Majid -0.5624376 -0.01380767 -1.69015277
u u =mt= w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = =@ xm O=O s =Hv= =yT} QD=t =@ u= D w |t =Q |Dw=iDt C =}rta OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]u=ty
"Owtv xO =iDU= as.matrix() ` = @ D R= u= Dw |t 'T} QD=t x@ w =
Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = p}O@D Q
|= @ "OQ= v O Hw O w
V}=Q} w =Q =yv swRr CQwY QO w 'Owtv x_Lqt xOQDUo xLiY l} CQwY x@ =Q Q=O?wJQ=J =
| yxO=O u= D w |t R =
u @ R QO
"O Ww |t xO =iDU= edit() = x() ` w} w @= D R= Q m = u}= Q

|= @ "O m Q
factor() `@=D 4
4
1
=yQ}eDt u}= "OvyO|t u=Wv factor = R @ =

u @ R QO =Q =yv xm OvwW|t u=}@ |= r x wkt =} |=xDUO CQ Y w x@ =yQ}eDt R= |a@
"?DQt w ?DQt Q}e %OvwW|t u=}@ w
CQ Y wO x@
Qo = =t= "OvDUy ?DQt Q}e QwDm =i xm ::: w |UQ x =
'|= U t ' |vW ,qFt 'O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q =yl =N w
`= v= p t u==F wva x@
Q}N= CtUk QO O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]v=ty "CU= ?DQt QwDm =i u}= 'O}vm s}UkD | k w |r}N w | k ' w h}a x@ =yl =N
" O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@ uwvm =
| y )
m O w
"OQ= v O Hw pw= VN@ QO xm OwW|t T =UL= |a}@] ?}DQD l}
> soil.types { c("clay","loam","sand","loam","clay")

<
> soil.types { factor(soil.types)

<
> soil.types
1] clay loam sand loam clay
Levels: clay loam sand
?DQt CQwY x@ xm O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ q=L "CU= xO=O u =Wv =Q l N = K]U xU =} w l N ` v = w xU levels CtU k QO
" CU=
> soil.degrees { c("weak","average","stronge","weak","stronge")

<
> soil.degrees { ordered(soil.degrees,levels=c("weak","average","stronge"))

<
> soil.degrees
1] weak average stronge weak stronge
Levels: weak average stronge
< <
"O=O u =Wv R}v O

|O a CQ Y w x@ =yv u= D w |t xm "OyO|t u=Wv =Q K w]U ?}DQD QN Q]U
> soil.numeric { as.double(soil.degrees)

<
> soil.numeric
1] 1 2 3 1 3
|v=tR |QU |=yC}OwHwt 5

4
1
w
"OQ=O O Hw =yu QO xirw-t wO "OO o Q |t O=H}= ts() ` = @ D =@ |v=tR =
| y| U < Q |W R =
u @ R QO
O
" yO |t p}mWD =Q =RHt |v=tR Q
| U l} uwDU Qy xm CU= O =
|O a | yxO=O R= |U} QD=t =} Q =
Q=O @ ' yxO=O
" CU= |N} Q=D |w =Ut pY=wi '=yxO=O M} Q=D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ uwvm =
> my.ts - ts(matrix(rnorm(30), ncol = 2), start = c(1987), freq = 12)

<
> my.ts
Series 1 Series 2
Jan 1987 -0.39579521 -0.9026295
Feb 1987 -0.36649473 0.2915367
Mar 1987 -0.40674973 -1.8566028
Apr 1987 0.32428545 -0.3488452
May 1987 0.55310221 -1.6910047
Jun 1987 -1.03032817 1.3434787
Jul 1987 0.70500090 1.4546442
Aug 1987 -1.47332244 1.6205861
Sep 1987 0.58314662 0.6378932
Oct 1987 1.55713060 -1.9681021
Nov 1987 0.74596283 0.8186411
Dec 1987 0.16404647 -1.1321248
Jan 1988 -0.03516499 -0.1627264
Feb 1988 -0.18482688 -1.2735001
Mar 1988 -1.16434845 -1.0717075
13 =yCUQyi 6
4
1
=D =
|Q N U Qy w `wv Qy pt=W xm OW=@ |D}OwHwt Ov=wD|t CUQyi l} QYva Qy =t= "CU= Q=O @Q x}@W CUQyi =} w CU}r
=yxO=O hrDNt = =D =
| yQ N U |= @ u= D Q w |t u}=Q@=v@ 'OW=@ | Qo}O CUQyi pt=W Ov=wD|t OwN CUQyi l} xH}Dv QO " CU=
|HwQN C}OwHwt "OwQ |t Q=mx@ R =
u @ R QO |Q t= |HwQN = Q =@ = CUQyi =}
| yp=wQ |= @ , r e w CU}r "O wtv xO =iDU= u R=
O = |t xQ}e
" W @ O
w x W |v}@V}B Q}O=kt '=yxOv=t}k=@ '=yQDt=Q=B Q
OQw @ R= |= a x wtHt pt=W ,=@r=e
" CU= uw}UQoQ Q
|= @ C =a@ Qt pk=OL `@=D sQi u} QDxO=U xm 'O}vm xHwD lst() ` = @ D |HwQN x@ p=Ft |= @ Q
> x { 1:5
<
> y { x + rnorm(5,0,0.25)
<
> z { lst(x,y)
<
> z
Intercept X
-0.1150539 0.9848682
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268
1] TRUE
?}W Q=OQ@ u xirw-t u}rw= xm CU= CUQyi l} u}= "CU= xOW xO=O C@Uv z x lst(x,y) |
@ Q
Hw N Q= Okt p=Ft u}= QO
Q
R= Z a R= =} xm OyO|t u=Wv OL=w pw] =@ swU Q CU=yxOv=t}k=@
Q=O @ " R= |Q=O @ swO Q xirw-t "CU= <= O@t R= Z a w Q
#Q}N =} CU= xOW xO =iDU= <= O@t
% CU= QNDU= p@=k hrDNt
G= =
| yVwQ x@ CUQyi l} QY=va
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q z xi w
r -t u}rw= z1]] %xirw-t xQ =tW
"CU= xDiQ Q=mx@ s=v CtUk QO xm OyO|t u=Wv =Q z R= |= xirw-t $ z name %xirw-t s=v
13. Lists
"CiQo xQy@ $ zr R= u= D w |t $ z residuals | =H@ ,qFt "Owtv xO =iDU= R}v u QYDNt w |t s=v
R= u= D Q =x Q
uO @ Q m @ |= @
> test { z$r <
> test
1] 0.259665308 -0.339443370 -0.001599916 -0.017131291 0.098509268
> z$r 4] # fourth element of the residuals
1] -0.01713129
CUQyi O=H}= 1 6 4 1
= = w
| yu t oQ CUQyi = xirw-t
| y |= wDLt w CUQyi | y= xirw-t |t=U= "O wtv xO =iDU= list() ` =@ D R= O}=@ CUQyi O=H}= Q
|= @
"OvDUy CU}r `@=D
> x1 { 1:5 <
> x2 { c(T,T,F,F,T)
<
> y { list(numbers = x1, wrong = x2)

<
> y
$numbers
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$wrong
1] TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE
x@ Q C R =
D t " | l
U= Cu @R <Q CW } u U=Q h ] w U= xirw-t s=v $ Qorta AJ CtU O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
C y xi w wrong |k]v |
" U= swO =
r -t t < =F
W q @ p t QO " CU= CU=Q x@ AJ R= =yu uDiQo Q=Qk ?}DQD x@ xirw-t
> y 2]]
"O=O Q}}eD =Q CUQyi |t=U= u= D w |t "Ovm G= QNDU= =Q CUQyi = xirw-t |t=U= Ov=wD|t
| y names() ` = @ D
> names(y)
1] "numbers" "wrong"
> names(y) { c("lots", "valid")
<
> names(y)
1] "lots" "valid"
R
"Ow i= | Qo}O = xirw-t
| y u= Dw |t |r@k CUQyi x@
> y 3]] { 1:30 <
> y$test { "hello" <
> y
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$ valid
3]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
25 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
26] 26 27 28 29 30
$ test
1] "hello"
"O}vm xHwD xWwQm wO w xWwQm l} u}@ Cw =iD x@ uwvm =
> y 1]
$lots
1] 1 2 3 4 5
> y 1]]
1] 1 2 3 4 5
xWwQm wO R= xm |t=ovy =t= "CU= CUQyi l} OwN OO o Q |t pY=L xm |= xirw-t w |t
'O W xO =iDU= xWwQm l} R= |Dkw
O |t CUO@ xirw-t OwN \ki OwW|t
" } xO =iDU=
R u=@ R =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 51
|va} "O wtv =QH= w CWwv u QO =Q |=xO U C=Q = wDUO u= D w |t xm CU= u}= OwN x@=Wt =
| yQ= i=s vR Q Q@ R =
u @R | D @ QQ
Q Q
O= i= |= @ =Q |U} wvxt=vQ@ xm CU= S
|=x } w C Y =} wYN |=Q=O =t= 'CU= QDDUt u QO |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R l} | y = |oS} w
= |t QDu=U XYNDtQ}e
"OR U
"CU}v C u @R= u}t=Qi x@ Cy=@W |@ xm CU= |rQDvm Q=DN=U |=Q=O R= =

yu @ R Q}=U Ovv=t
\QW 1
5
1
| Qo}O C=Q wDUO 'O wWv Q=QkQ@ Q

\ W u}= Qo = Q Q Q |]QW xm OwW =QH= O}=@ QwDUO l} |Dkw `k=wt
w OO o Q= k @ =
R= |=xQ B QO
" O}vm xHwD \ W Q Q wDUO |twta pmW x@ "OW Oy=wN =QH=
if (logical exp.)
{
then do this
}
else
{
do this }
w |t
"O W =
A J T Q
h L w O W w |t GwR s}UkD xOv=t|k=@ 'OW=@ GwR x Q}eD t Q= Okt Qo = Q} R p=Ft QO
> x {8 <
if (x %% 2 == 0) print("T")
1] "T"
x ` = |r Q
@ @ D w | =W ifelse() ` =
m K W "O W t xO=O u v @ D CQ Yw x@ xm Owtv xO=iDU= |y=Dwm |rw =Q=m QwDUO R= u= Dw |t =Hv}= QO
" CU= Q} R CQ Y w
ifelse(test, yes, no)

= = w
% yu t oQ
"CU= |k]vt =@ l}
CQ a %test
w |t =QH=
"O W yes x =ov w CUQO |k]vt
'O @ CQ a =@ Qo = yes
%
"OO o Q |t =QH= no x=ov w CUQO=v |k]vt

'O @ CQ a=@ Qo = no %
> x { c(2:-2)
<
> sqrt(ifelse(x = 0, x, NA))

>
1] 1.414 1.000 0.000 NA NA
xkrL 2
5
1
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ u |rm QwDUO w |t Q=QmD Q=@ u}OvJ xm CU= |D=}rta
"O W |= @Q xkrL
for (i in start:nish)
execute task
> y { vector(mode = "numeric")

<
> for (i 1:10) f
+ y i] { i < g
> y
1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CW=O wD QO wD = xkrL
| y w |t
u= D
> z - matrix(2, 4)
<
for(i in 1:2) f
+ for(j in 1:4) z i,j] - i+j < g
> z
,1] ,2] ,3] ,4]
1,] 2 3 4 5
2,] 3 4 5 6
u}= "Owtv xO =iDU= x}=Q |=Q m Q = =}U@ C}Y=N R= w O wtv w
|Q=OO N xkrL Q Q =x
w \ W uO @ Q m @ R= O}=@ 'OQ=O u =mt= xm =Hv =D =t=
" yOO |t CUO@ =Q 10 = 1 u}
D @ GwR O= a= O Q} R p=Ft "OW=@|t xkrL |awv utDt OwN C}Y=N
> x { c(1:10)
<
> y { x x %% 2 == 0]
<
> y
1] 2 4 6 8 10
apply(X, Margin, Function) CQ Y w x@ QwDUO xwLv "Ovm|t sm Q=}U@ =Q xkrL R= xO=iDU= swRr apply Q}_v |a@=wD
= pt Function OvDU c(1,2)
} w a w y wO Qy =} w (2) = yu wDU ' (1) =y Q]U Margin w CU= T Q= X
} D t u QO " CU=
"O Ww |t p=ta= =yxO=O |wQ xm CU= |a@=D
27 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R= =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> x { rnorm(10,-5,0.1)
<
> y { rnorm(10,5,2)
<
> X { cbind(x,y)
<
> apply(X, 2, mean)

x y
-5.022379 4.021949
> apply(X, 2, sd)
x y
0.07029347 1.73544377
`@=wD 3
5
1
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ `@=D l} uDWwv |twta QwDUO "OyO|t s=Hv= =Q |Y=N xi}_w xm CU= xt=vQ@ R= VN@ l} `@=D
functionName { function(arg1, arg2,

< ) f
do this g
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q EQ e w =F}i x}k xm CU= |a@=D Q} R p=Ft
> hypot - function(a, b) sqrt(a^2 + b^2)

<
> hypot(3,4)
1] 5
" CU= xHwD QwNQO Q} R w
OQ= t j i w xt=vQ@ QO
"O Ww |t xDN=U 3, 4 O
O= a= =@ a, b |D w
k t | y = Q}eDt
" }O |t CUO@ 5 O a O sqrt(a^2 + b^2) x@ U =Lt =@
w |t
"O W h L P a, b C w k t h} QaD 'OW s=tD x@U=Lt |Dkw
"Ovm|t x@U=Lt =Q =yxO=O Q=}at h=QLv= w u}ov=}t xm O} Q}o@ Q_v QO =Q Q} R `@=D %p=Ft
> mystats { function(x)

<
+ f
+ mymean { mean(x)<
+ mysd { sd(x)<
+ c(mean=mymean,sd=mysd)
+ g
"OO oQ |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW xO=O j i w `@=D x@ Q} R =

| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data <- c(1,2,3,4,5)

> mystats(my_data)
mean sd
3.000000 1.581139
w |t xDiQo Q=mx@
"O W R =
u @ R QO list() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ `@=D u}ty
> mystats { function (x)

<
+ f
+ myinput { x <
+ mymean { mean(x) <
+ mysd { sd(x) <
+ list(data = myinput, mean = mymean, sd = mysd)

+ g
Q |t xH}Dv Q} R Q}O=kt OwW

"OO o xO=O j iw `@=D x@ Q} R =
| yxO=O Qo =
> my_data <- c(1,2,3,4,5)

> mystats(my_data)
$data
1] 1 2 3 4 5
$mean
1] 3
$sd
1] 1.581139
|Q=}DN= w |Q=@H= u=twoQ 1 3 5 1
"CU= |Q=}DN= l} s=Om =@ = w

w |Q H= u t oQ s= m O xm Ovm|t u}at `@=D h} QaD 'OwW|t xOv=wN=Qi R =
u @ R QO `@=D l} |Dkw
=Q 2 Q V}B Q=Okt
Z i w CU= |Q =}DN= k = w
u t oQ w OyO|t =]N `@=D OW=@v Qo = w CU= =@
|Q H= x = w
u t oQ Q} R p=Ft QO
"OQ=O
> power { function(x, k=2)

< f
+ x^k
+ g
> power(5)
1] 25
> power()
Error in power() : element 1 is empty
the part of the args list of '^' being evaluated was:
(x, k)
"O wtv u}at =Q |Dw=iDt Q=Okt k = w
u t oQ |= @ u= D Q w |t =t=
> power(5,3)
1] 125
29 R |U w x = Q
} v t v @ u @R = =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
: : : u=twoQ 2 3 5 1
|mJwm `@=D O}y=wN|t O}vm Q

Z i "O W xO w =iDU= Qo}O `@=D x@ `@=D l} =
| yu t oQ p = w =kDv= Q Ov=wD|t x]kv xU u=twoQ
|= @
"Ovm sUQ xup = 0 D R= =Q T wv}U `@=D xm O}U} wv@
> plotsin - function(xup=2 pi,...)

<
+ f
+ x - seq(0, xup, l=100)

<
+ plot(x, sin(x), type="l",...)

+ g
> plotsin(col="red")
Q w@Ht xm O
u uw @ O } B Q P |t =Q Q}=U w xlab lwd col Q}_ plot ` =
' ' v @ D QO u= D w |t xm =Q |v=twoQ Qy plotsin ` = @ D
" O}vm XNWt plotsin ` = @ D QO =Q u xm O}W=@
|rLt |=yQ}eDt 3 3 5 1
<<- |v=yH =Q u CL=QY x@ xm u}= Qot 'CU= |rLt Q}eDt u O}}=tv ? wUvt =Q |Q= Okt | Q}eDt x@ Qo = `@=D pN=O QO
`@=D Qo = ,=vt w |tv u} Ro}=H Vt=vsy Q}eDt

"O W |wQ VQ= Okt `@=D R= GQ N ' = |rLt Q}eDt Qo}O CQ a =@ x@ "O}vm h} QaD
O =
" W @ ? =UDv= l} `@=D QwDUO u} QN xm u Qot OwQ |t u}@ R= u Q= Okt O@=} xtD=N
Q}eDt QO | Q}F-=D `@=D Q
|= H= "OO oQ |t 3QQ x @= @ Q= Okt `@=D pN=O QO "O Q}o|t QiY Q=Okt x Q}eD OD@= 'Q} R p=Ft
t = QO
"OQ= oP |tv |vwQ}@ |v=yH
> x {0 <
> functionx - function()

< f
+x {3 <
+ g
> functionx()
> x
1] 0
"O W w |t h} QaD |v=yH CQ Y w x@ q=@ p=Ft uwvm =
> x {0 <
> functionx - function()

< f
+x {3 <<
+ g
> functionx()
> x
1] 3
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ '`@=D l} |DL 'OW=@ |W Qy Ov=wD|t `@=D u=twoQ
> test { function(n, fun)

<
+ f
+ u { runif(n)
<
+ fun(u)
+ g
> test(3,sin)
1] 0.7537332 0.8033265 0.3290288
Q@ Q=m xOW h} QaD Qorta l} CN=U 4 3 5 1
OQmrta x@ p=Ft Q
`w W R= p@k "O Ww |t xO =iDU= & Ctqa = u}=
R= Q m Q CN=U
|= @ " =Q Q_v w Qorta
OQ t R =
w |t
u= D u @ R QO
"O}vm xHwD setdi() union() ` w

w @= D
> x { c(1,2,5)
<
> y { c(5,1,8,9)
<
> union(x,y)
1] 1 2 5 8 9
> setdi(x,y)
1] 2
> setdi(y,x)
1] 8 9
" Ovm|t x@U=Lt uQ =kDt w
CQ Y x@ =Q xawtHt wO h qDN= xm OwW|t xDN=U | Qorta uwvm =
> sdf%" { function(a,b)

"% < f
+ sdfxy { setdi(x,y)
<
+ sdfyx { setdi(y,x)
<
+ union(sdfxy,sdfyx)
+ g
> x %sdf% y
1] 2 8 9
u =Wv =Q wO Qy Q=m xwLv Q} R p=Ft '15 |DWoR=@ VwQ w
14 Q=QmD VwQ " CU= swUQt OQm} wQ wO ,q wtat C=@U=Lt |=Q@ %p=Ft
O
" yO |t u=Wv z 0
> Q = Q
|= @ =Q p t v p =tDL= OOa x@U=Lt Q} R pwtQi "OyO|t
1 1 X1 ( 1)n 2n+1
( ) = 2 + ; z
2 n=0 !2n (2 + 1)
z p
n n
"CU= Q} R MQW x@ u | y m = O xm OwW|t p=@vO Q=QmD VwQ pw=
> Phi1 { function(z)

< f
sum = z
nfac = 1
for (n in 1:30) f
nfac = n nfac
sum = sum + (-1)^n z ^ (2 n + 1) / (nfac 2^n (2 n + 1))

g
0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
> Phi1(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
"O W w |t x_Lqt Q} R QO |DWoR=@ VwQ x@ q=@ xr=Ut
14. iteration 15. recursion
31 R |U w x = Q =
} v t v @ u @R =@ |}=vW 1 pYi
> Phi2 { function(z)

<
n2p1 = 1 mult = -z^2/2

term = z sum = term
for (n in 1:30) f
n2p1 = n2p1 + 2
term = term mult / n

sum = sum + term / n2p1

g
0.5 + sum / sqrt(2 pi)
> Phi2(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
swO pYi
Q=O wt s v UQ
C=Q wDUO 'O}vm x_Lqt =Q =yu R= |WN@ O}v=wD@ xm u}= Q

|= @ "O wtv sUQ =Q |Dw=iDt =
| yQ=O wtv R =
w |t
u= D u @ R QO
"CU= OwHwt =yQ=Owtv sUQ Q `@=D xvwo

|= @ wO R =
u @ R QO " O}vm A}=D R QO =Q demo(persp) = } w demo(graphics)
"Ov}=tv O=H}= OO
=Q | } H Q=O wtv Ovv=wD|t xm 1 q=@ K]U `@=wD
" Ov}=Ri=}@ OwHwt Q=O wtv x@ =Q | Y aQ =v Ovv=wD|t xm 2 u}}=B K]U `@=wD
O
" W Oy=wN x}=Q= =yu R= |O= OaD ' R =
u @ R QO Q=O wtv sUQ C=Q wDUO =@ |}=vW Q
|= @
|Q=Owtv `@=wD 12
plot() ` =@ D 'OQ=O s}UQD QO |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m xm |a@=D "OOQo|t x_Lqt |Q=Owtv |q=@ K]U `@=wD R= |O=OaD CtUk u}= QO
"O wtv sUQ Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} u= Dw |t Q
|Q=O @ |xO=O wO R= xO =iDU= =@ Q} R p=Ft QO " CU=
> x { rnorm(50)
<
> y { rnorm(50)
<
> plot(x,y)
1. high-level plotting functions 2. low-level plotting functions
32
33 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
u= wva l} w |t 'O}vm xi==

u= D =Q Q} R u}}=B K]U QwDUO Qo = xm "OO oQ |t pY=L Q} R pmW w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= R= TB
2
1
0
y
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1
Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %12 pmW
"CW=O pmW Q
|= @
> title("Figure 1")

=@ '=Q =ypmW Qo}O w w |t =t= "CU=
`= v= u= D |= x]kv Z i Q V}B w x O
CQ Y @ x W s}UQD pmW 'O}vm|t x_Lqt xm Qw]u=ty
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = s}UQD
| y w =yO)m x@ w Q}=U
OQ= t Q
|= @ u wvm = "CW=O plot() ` =@ D QO type C} =
Y N R= xO =iDU=
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y) text(-0.5,20,"without type")
> plot(x,y, type='b') text(-0.5,20,"type='b'")
" CU= q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H=Q xH}Dv 32 pmW
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='c') text(-0.5,20,"type='c'")
> plot(x,y, type='h') text(-0.5,20,"type='h'")
" CU= q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H=Q xH}Dv 42 pmW
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='l') text(-0.5,20,"type='l'")
> plot(x,y, type='o') text(-0.5,20,"type='o'")
Figure 1
2
1
0
y
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1
u= wva =@ Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %22 pmW
" CU= q=@ = O

| y )
m |= H= Q xH}Dv 52 pmW
> x { seq(-5,5,1)
<
> y { x^2
<
> par(mfrow=c(1,2))
> plot(x,y, type='s') text(-0.5,20,"type='s'")
> plot(x,y, type='S') text(-0.5,20,"type='S'")
" CU= q=@ = O
| y )
m |= H= Q xH}Dv 62 pmW
curve() `@=D 1
1
2
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ u |rm pmW "O}=tv sUQ u}at xrY=i l} |wQ =Q xDUw}B `@=wD Ov=wD|t R =
u @R `@=D u}=
curve(expr, from, to, add = FALSE, ...)

= = w
% yu t oQ K W Q
"CU= xOW xDWwv x ?U L Q@ xm |DQ=@a expr %
"OO o Q sUQ u |wQ O}=@ `@=D xm CU= |=xvt=O from, to

%
"O Ww |t xi== Q=L pmW x@ `@=D pmW OW=@ TRUE

Qo = w CU= |k]v addt %
"O}vm sUQ 2 =0
D R= =Q T wv}U `@=D Q=O wtv %p=Ft
> curve(sin(x), from=0, to=2 pi)
O
" yO |t u=Wv =Q u 72 pmW
"O}vm sUQ 3 = -3
D O =D
R= =Q OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D Q=O wtv %p=Ft
> curve(dnorm(x), from=-3, to=3)

35 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
25
25
without type type=’b’
20
20
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
type='b' = @ Q=O wtv V}=tv %32 pmW

25
25
type=’c’ type=’h’
20
20
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
type='h' type='c' =
w @ Q=Owtv V}=tv %42 pmW
O
" yO|t u=Wv =Q u 82 pmW
Q} R = O x@
| y )
m Q |t xi==
"OO o Q wDU}y x@ CU= xOW x}yD
u s= o curve() ` = @ D \UwD xm p=tQv p=tDL= `@=D =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
"O}vm xHwD
> set.seed(1)
> x { rnorm(10000)
<
> x x -3.5 | x 3.5] { NA

< > <
> hist(x, freq=F, breaks=30)

> curve(dnorm(x), -3.5, 3.5, add=T)
O
" yO|t u=Wv =Q u 92 pmW
25
25
type=’l’ type=’o’
20
20
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
type='o' type='l' = w @ Q=O wtv V}=tv %52 pmW

25
25
type=’s’ type=’S’
20
20
15
15
y
y
10
10
5
5
0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
type='S' type='s' = w @ Q=O wtv V}=tv %62 pmW
|Q=t |Q=Owtv `@=wD 2

1
2
"OQ=O |v=w=Qi OQ@ Q=m xm 'O wtv =iDU=

xO |Q t Q=O= wtv `@=wD w |t
R= u= D R =
u @ R QO
"Ovm|t O=H}= s=QowDU}y `@=D u}= hist(x)

%
Q =y
"OQ=O Q= k x QwLt = Q
|wQ p t v | yl = OvJ xm "Ovm|t O=H}= QwLt wO |wQ =Q =ylOvJ `@=D u}= %qqnorm(x)
"Ovm|t sUQ y ?U L Q@ =Q x lOvJ `@=D u}= %qqplot(x,y)
O =tv|t O=H}=
" } =Q box & whisker Q=O wtv `@=D u}= %boxplot(x)
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rt(100, df=3)

<
37 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
1.0
0.5
sin(x)
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
sin( ) ` =
x @ D V}=tv %72 pmW
> par(mfrow=c(2,2))
> hist(x, col=2)
> qqnorm(x)
> qqplot(x,y)
> boxplot(x, col="green")
s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo |=yCtUk 3

1
2
xr}Uwx@ OwN x@ wv x@ R}v x}L=v u}= w CU= xOW x]=L= Q=Owtv x}L=v \UwD xm s}UQD x}L=v "CU= x}L=v xU pt=W Q=Owtv l}
s}]vD oma QD = =@ |HQ=N |W=wL "OyO|t u=Wv |@ wNx@
t=Q B =Q ?r]t u}= Q} R pmW "CU= xO}OQo x]=L= x}W=L Q=yJ
s}_vD mar QD t=Q B= =@ CU= xO wtv x]=L= =Q s}UQD x}L=v xm |W=wL "CU= QiY Q@=Q@ =yu Z i Q V}B Q}O=kt xm OO o Q |t
"O Ww |t
xLiY l} |wQ Q=Owtv OvJ 4

1
2
multiframe xS=w hiNt mf Q

"O=O Q= k =Q Q=O wtv OvJ xLiY l} |wQ u=wD|t mfcol = mfrow = QD = =iD =
}w | y t=Q B R= xO U= @
O w |t s}_vD Q} R KQW x@ QDt=Q=B

" v W wO Qy " Ovv | =}
m wD col Q] row C
t u @ =Q u U w U w U=
par(mfrow=c(r,k))
par(mfcol=c(r,k))
|m}i=Qo QDt=Q=B "OyO|t u=Wv Q |t sUQ
=Q OO o Q=O wtv u QO xm |=xLiY =
| yu wDU O=OaD k w =yQ]U O=OaD r u QO xm
"CU= |vwDU u=tO}J Qov=}@ mfcol w |Q]U u=tO}J Qov=}@ mfrow
O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= layout() ` = @ D ' Ovm|t s}_vD pmW xLiY |wQ =Q =yQ=Owtv u=tO}J xm Q h]avt
| D VwQ
u}twO w OyO|t X =YDN= OwN x@ =Q xLiY |q @= pt=m xiYv Q=O wtv u}rw= "Ov=xOW s}UQD xLiY l} QO Q=O wtv xU xm
" v O Q}o|t =
| H xLiY u}}=B CtUk QO l QDWt Qw]x@ Q=O wtv u}twU w
0.4
0.3
dnorm(x)
0.2
0.1
0.0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
O =D
OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D V}=tv %82 pmW
> layout(matrix(c(1,2,1,3),2,2))
> plot(rnorm(100), type="l")
> hist(rnorm(100))
> qqnorm(runif(100))
u}= QO "O wtv x}=Q= =Q |QDW}@ = =F
| yp t u= D layout() ` = Q
w |t w |t xH}Dv Q} R pmW
@ D |= @ "O W w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= =@
x@ O
=Q x W O =H}= | Ov@s}UkD w |t
u= D layout.show() ` = = =vt @ D @ , w OO oQ |t XNWt QDy@ |Ov@s}UkD xwLv =yp=Ft
" CW=Po V}=tv
%1 p t=F
> layout(matrix(1:4, 2, 2)) 1 3
> layout.show(4)
2 4
%2 p t=F
1 4
> layout(matrix(1:6, 3, 2))

> layout.show(6) 2 5
3 6
%3 p t=F
39 Q=O wtv sUQ 2 pYi
Histogram of x
0.4
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
u x@ w Q
\ @ t s= o Q wDU}y O =D
w OQ= v U= p t v = Q `@=D V}=tv %92 pmW
1 3 5
> layout(matrix(1:6, 2, 3))
> layout.show(6)
2 4 6
=F
%4 p t
1
> layout(matrix(c(1:3, 3), 2, 2))
> layout.show(3) 3
=F
%5 p t
> m { matrix(1:4, 2, 2)
<
> layout(m, widths=c(1, 3), 1 3
+ heights=c(3, 1))
>layout.show(4)
2 4
u=tRsy |m}i=Qo xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 5

1
2
x QHvB u}rw= R = w |t xO=iDU=

u @ R "O W windows() ` = @ D R= Q m= u}= |=Q@ "CW=O sy =@ ,=t=wD u= Dw |t =Q |m}i=Qo xQHvB OvJ
w
O W xO wWo xQHvB l} O}=@ |Oa@ Q=Owtv |=Q@ =yDvt "Ovm|t R=@ hist() = plot() pF
} w t |D=QwDUO =@ OwNx@OwN =Q |m}i=Qo
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OwQ |t CUO R= |r@k wtv xvQow
Q=O
Histogram of x Normal Q−Q Plot
20
2
Sample Quantiles
15
1
Frequency
0
10
−1
5
−2
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x Theoretical Quantiles
2
5
1
0
y
−1
−5
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
|Q t Q=O = wtv OvJ V}=tv %102 pmW
Outer margin 3
Outer margin 4
Outer margin 2
Plot region
Figure region
Outer margin 1
Q=O wtv | y = VN@ V}=tv %112 pmW
> x { rnorm(50)
<
> y { rnorm(50)
<
> hist(x)
> windows()
> plot(x,y)
|HQ=N |=ys}_vD 6
1
2
plot(x,y, col=2) =F
p t |= @ " yO Q O |t u=Wv =Q =yQ=Owtv R= QD|} RH w QDW}@ | y= QDt=Q=B 'Q} R CUQyi
Q u}}aD
"O m =Q Q=O wtv \ w]N Ct=N w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D %lwd
QDm =Q=m =} O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt
w O a "O m Q u}}aD =Q =Q Q=O wtv QO xO =iDU= OQ t \ w w]N `wv u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %lty
lty="dashed" =F Q O =
p t |= @ " W @
2
1
rnorm(100)
0
−1
−2
−3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Index
Histogram of rnorm(100) Normal Q−Q Plot
1.0
25
0.8
20
Sample Quantiles
Frequency
0.6
15
0.4
10
0.2
5
0.0
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −2 −1 0 1 2
rnorm(100) Theoretical Quantiles
|Q t Q=O= wtv OvJ V}=tv %122 pmW
col = =F Q O = QDm =Q=m =}

p t |= @ " W @ w O a O Ov=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= Q=Okt "O mQ u}}aD Q=O wtv nvQ w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D % col
col.lab = R= yQ wLt u} w=va nvQ Q}}eD Q
|= @ ' col.sub col.main wv Q
w R= u= a } R w u= wva nvQ Q}}eD Q
|= @ " "red"
w |
"O W =iD col.axis
t xO U= R= =yQwLt nvQ Q}}eD Q Q
|= @ x Nq @ w =
"Ovm|t u}at =Q Q=O wtv | y = xDWwv *srk QDt=Q=B u}= O

|O a Q= Okt font %
"O Ww p}O@D `@ Qt x@ xQ}=O xv=Wv ,qFt "O wtv u}at =Q Q=O wtv | y v= x =Wv w |t QDt=Q B
u= D = u = %pch
}= @
u}= 'q=@ K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ B QO= xD@r= "O mQ XNWt =Q C =YDNt |=yQwLt |t=U= u=wD|t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ %xlab, ylab
"O W w |t s=Hv= OwNx@OwN pta
R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= |= @ "O Q wtv u}}aD =Q y x w | yQ = wLt QFm =OL w pk=OL Q}O=kt u= D w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@ % xlim, ylim
high w pk=OL Q=Okt low u QO xm 'Owtv xO =iDU= ylim=c(low,high) xlim=c(low,high) w C=Q wDUO
" yOO |t u=Wv =Q QFm =OL Q=Okt
w cex.main R= O}vm R
nQ @ =Q u= wva O O}y=wN@ Qo =
xR= v= "O wtv QDoQR@ =Q Q=O wtv uwDt w y v= x =Wv w |t QDt=Q=B u}= =@
u= D %cex
"CiQo ltm u= D w |t cex.lab R= =yQwLt |t=U= uO wtv QDoQR@ Q O}vm
|= @ " xO =iDU= cex.sub R= u= wvaQ} R |= @ Q
QY=va pt=W |= v x =Wv =} w uDt 'x]kv Qy xm |Q ] @ w x OvwW s}_vD Q

|Q=O @ CQ Y @ w x Ovv=wD|t |m}i=Qo = QDt=Q=B
| y R= |=xQ B =
"O wtv pta u= D w |t R}v xv=o =OH CQ Y @ w x =t= "OO oQ |t Q
Q=O @
u}}=B K]U `@=wD R= |=xQ=B 7

1
2
u}}=B K]U `@=wD \UwD Q=m u}= "O}vm xi== u x@ w

=Q OQ= t R= |a@ xm O}y=wN|t TBU 'O}vm|t O=H}= Q=O wtv l} =tW
"CU= Q}PBu=mt=
\w]N uOwRi=
x@ Q
=Q |OwQw Q=O @ \ =kv lines() ` = @ D "O W w |t xO =iDU= OwHwt Q=O wtv x@ \ w]N R
uOw i= |= @Q abline() lines() ` w w @= D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Ovm|t s}UQD =Q u}at <=O@t R= Z a wQ ?}W =@ CU=Q \ w]N abline() ` = Ov | p s
@ D " m t Yw y
> plot(c(-2,2),c(-2,2))
> lines(c(0,2), c(0,2), col="red")
> abline(a=1, b=2, lty=2) # adds the line y = a + bx
> abline(v=1, lty=3, col="blue", lwd=3)
|k \ h QD = =
i= N t=Q B wt \ v QD = = abline() ` =
@ w |O a O | N t=Q B @ @ D QO " } t CUO@ Q} R Q=O wtv w
j i C=Q wDUO Q
|= H= =@
2
1
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
CU=Q \N OvJ V}=tv %132 pmW
"OO oQ |t sUQ
p@k C=Q wDUO x@ p=Ft u= wva x@ "OwQ |t Q=mx@ \N xa]k w u =m}B s}UQD |= @ Q ?}DQD x@ segments() arrows() ` w
w @= D
"O W w |t xi== Q} R wDUO

C=Q
> arrows(
+ c(0,0,0),
+ c(1,1,1),
+ c(0,0.5,1),
+ c(1.2,1.5,1.7),
+ length = 0.1)
43 Q=Owtv sUQ 2 pYi
2
1
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
u=m}B OvJ V}=tv %142 pmW
=yxv=Wv w \=kv uOwRi=
" Ovm|t xi== |r@k Q=O wtv x@ =Q |]=kv Q} R = O O R |t OwHwt

| y )
m " }= i= Q=O wtv x@ =Q |i== xv=Wv w \ =kv points() ` = @ D
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=3, col="blue")

> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch=4, cex=3, lwd=2)
> points(rnorm(4), rnorm(4), pch="K", col="green")
" yOO |t u=Wv Q
=Q O=O Q= k xO =iDU= w
OQ t u= D w |t xm |}=yxv=Wv R= |DUQyi Q} R xt=vQ@
> plot(0:10, 0:10, type="n", xlab="", ylab="")

> k { -1 <
> for (i in c(2,5,8)) f
+ for (j in 0:9) f
+ k - k+1 <
+ points(i, j, pch=k, cex=2) g
+ g
"OO oQ |t O=H}= 162 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ Q

|= H= =@
uDt w u=wva uOwRi=
= O Ov}=tv|t xi== =Q |vwDt s}UQD x}L=v QO \ki OwHwt Q=Owtv x@

| y )
m " text() mtext() legend() title() ` w
w ' ' @= D
" Ovm|t xi== |r@k Q=O wtv x@ =Q |vwDt Q} R
> title(main="My title", sub="My subtitle")

> text(0,0, "some text")
> text(1,1, "Angular text", srt=45)
2
1 K
KK
c(−2, 2)
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
x]kv OvJ V}=tv %152 pmW

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
=yxv=Wv V}=tv %162 pmW

"Ovm|t xi== OwHwt Q=O wtv |W=wL R= |m} x@ =Q Q_v w uDt 3

OQ t mtext() ` = @ D
mtext("Text in the margin", side=4)

O Q = = wL 3 O A wL 2 O
O a x Nq @ w q @ Q t O a ' J Q t O a ' u}}=B QwLt u |= @ Q 1 O
O a " Ovm|t u}}aD =Q Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt :side
" Ovm|t XNWt =Q CU=Q QwLt 4
" CU= 0 u Z i Q V}B "Ovm|t u}at Q_v w
OQ t Q wLt R= =Q xDWwv xrY=i :line
O
" yO |t u=Wv j i w \N |wQ =Q xDWwv C =YDN :at t
C=Q wDUO "O}vm xO expression() ` = O}U wv

=iDU= @ D R= } @ =Q |v=vw} | =@ir= = =
w xO U | yp t i Q=O w Q wtv l} |wQ O}y=wN@ Qo =
"O}vm A}=D =Q demo(plotmath) wD R \}L Q UO ' t QO yu = pt=m CUQyi uDi=} |=Q@ "CU= LATEX C=Q wDUO x}@W u
"O W w |t xi== p@k Q=O wtv x@ xm 'O}vm xHwD Q} R | y )
m = O x@ uwvm =
> text(-1,1.5,
+ expression(
+ paste(
+ frac(1, sigma sqrt(2 pi)),
+ " ",
+ plain(e)^frac(-(x-mu)^2, 2 sigma^2))),
+ cex = 1.2)
=yQwLt pQDvm
"OO o Q |t O=H}= =yZQiV}B R= xO =iDU= =@ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt |=y?UJQ@ w =yQwLt 'O}vm|t O=H}= =Q |Q=O wtv =tW |Dkw
p t =F x@ "OvwW|t hPL =y QwLt axes = F R= xO =iDU= =@ ,qFt "Owtv pQDvm |m}i=Qo |=yQDt=Q=B =@ u=wD|t =Q C=t}_vD u}=
"O}vm xHwD Q} R
> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
"O Ww |tv sUQ OwNx@OwN =yQwLt

> plot(x,y, axes=F)
"O Ww |t OQ=w |DUO Qw]x@ =yQwLt
> axis(side=1)
> axis(side=2)
Q = = Q 3
x Nq @ w q @ |= @ O
O a ' AJ CtU |= @ Q 2 O
O a ' u}}=B Q
|= @ 1 O
O a " yO O |t u=Wv =Q Q wLt sUQ pLt side = w
u t oQ
"O}vm xHwD Q} R |=yOm x@ "Owtv sUQ =Q y x w | yQ= wLt pLt u=wD|t pos = w
u t oQ R= xO =iDU= =@ "CU=Q CtU |=Q@ 4 O
O a
> < { rnorm(100)

> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

> axis(side=1, pos=0)
Q |t XNWt
"OO o labels at w =
| yu t oQ = w =@ =yu |wQ =y?UJQ@ w =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk pLt
x W O XNWt u=mt QO =yl}D s}qa uDiQo Q=Qk

3. marginal text
My title
t
ex
t
ar
1
l
gu
An
KK K
c(−2, 2)
some text
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
uDt OvJ V}=tv %172 pmW
My title
2
t
ex
rt
1
la
gu
An
Text in the margin
KK K
c(−2, 2)
some text
0
−1
K
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
x}W=L |wQ uDt V}=tv %182 pmW

47 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
My title
2
1 −(x−μ)2
e 2σ2
σ 2π
t
ex
t
ar
1
l
gu
K
An
K
Text in the margin

c(−2, 2)
some text
0
K
−1
−2
−2 −1 0 1 2
c(−2, 2)
My subtitle
Q=O wtv |wQ p t i w Q V}=tv %192 pmW

2
1
y
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
−2
=yQwLt pLt Q}}eD V}=tv %202 pmW

> x { rnorm(100)
<
> y { rnorm(100)
<
> plot(x,y, axes=F)

2.0
1.2
0.4
−0.4
y
−1.2
−2.0
−2.0000000 −0.8571429 0.2857143 1.4285714
QwLt |wQ =yl}D pLt V}=tv %212 pmW
=yl}D s}qa = ?UJQ@ uDiQo Q=Qk

|wQ y
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
> xtickplaces { 1:20<
> ytickplaces { seq(-2,2,l=6)

<
> xlabels { paste("day", 1:20, sep=" ")

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels)

> axis(side=2, at=ytickplaces)
s=tD O}y=wN@ Qo = "OvQ}o|t Q=Qk sy |wQ =yu xm u}= Q
|= @ "O W w |tv xO=O V}=tv OwHwt = ?UJQ@ s=tD
| y R =
u @ R QO
" CU= Q}PBu=mt= cex.axis QD t=Q B= =@ Q=m u}= Q lJwm =yQDm =Q=m
"OO o xR= v= O O}=@ OvwW xO=O u =Wv =yQwLt |wQ =yu
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
> xtickplaces { 1:20<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

w Q} x C
u t= B m O =iD box() = x |a =
U= x W xO U= =F u
s v O}v x w labels at
@ @ D R= p t }= QO " m H D w C=Q wDUO R= | Qo}O p=Ft x@
"Ovm|t sUQ Cw =iDt p=mW= x@ |QO m= pmW
49 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 4 day 7 day 10 day 13 day 16 day 19
QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %222 pmW

2.0
1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
lJwm O =@ QwLt
xR= v= |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %232 pmW
> plot(1:7, abs(rnorm(7)), type = 'h', axes = FALSE)

> axis(1, at = 1:7, labels = letters 1:7])
> box(lty = 'dotdash')
abs(rnorm(7))
a b c d e f g
1:7
Q
h L CQ Y w x@ QwLt |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %242 pmW
Cr=L "Ovm|t XNWt =Q l}D Ctqa xR= v=O QDt=Q=B u}= "CU= tck Owtv xO =iDU= u R= u= Dw |t xm | Qo}O O}it QDt=Q=B
"Ovm|t sUQ =Q Q=O wtv xm@W \N `k=w QO xm CU= tck=1 O
u | L
> x { 1:20
<
> y { rnorm(20)
<
> plot(x,y,axes=F)
> xtickplaces { 1:20
<

<

<
> axis(side=1, at=xtickplaces, labels=xlabels, cex.axis=0.5)

> axis(side=1, at=c(5,10,15,20,25), labels=rep("",5), tck=1, lty=2)
Q wLt wO Q O} wN Q
y y= @ wt =iD log="y" = log="x"
o = "O v xO U=w | y = x |tD =o = } R= u= D t } w }Q r | yQ wLt sUQ |= @Q
O}v =iD log="xy" " m xO U= w
R= O W |tD} Q=or
51 wtv sUQ
Q=O 2 pYi
1.2
0.4
y
−0.4
−1.2
day 1 day 3 day 5 day 7 day 9 day 11 day 13 day 15 day 17 day 19
lJwm O =@ QwLt
xR= v= |wQ =y?UJQ@ pLt V}=tv %252 pmW
swU pYi
p =tD L= w Q t =
p@=k O=OaD =yu Q@ qa "CU=
xw = = O
|Q t |R Up t w yxO=O = p}rLD =
'|Q t C U =@ =Lt |= @ Q `@=D =
|O } R O= OaD pt=W R =
u @R
O
" W Oy=wN EL@ =yu R= |Ow OLt O= OaD |wQ =Hv}= QO "OQ=O O Hw w =ypackage QO `@=D |=x_Lqt
|Q=t x}=B `@=wD 13
O=} R |Q@ Q=m =@ `@=wD 1

1
3
O = |t
" W @ Q Q=
u=w= i O @ m |=Q=O Q} R CUQyi "CU= O=} R Q=}U@ R =
u @ R QO `@=wD CUQyi
O
" yO |t sum(x)
=Q xQ Y a `=v wtHt %
" yOO | x Q =v |atH `t %cumsum(x)

t =Q Y a D H
O |
" yO x Q =v Q p = %prod(x)
t =Q Y a ? Y L
O |" yO x Q =v QF O %max(x)
t =Q Y a m= L
O |
" yO x Q =v p O %min(x)
t =Q Y a k= L
O
" yO |t =Q x QYv u QD R T O %which.max(x)
a } oQ @ } v=
52
53 p =tDL= w Q t= 3 pYi
" yOO which.min(x)

|t =Q x QYv a u} QDmJwm T}Ov= %
C c(min(x), max(x)) =a ` = u %range(x)

" U= pO t @ D }=
O | x Q =v Oa %length(x) " yO t =Q Y a O= D
O | x Q =v u}o =} %mean(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v x =} %median(x) " yO t =Q Y a v t
O | x Q =v T = %var(x) " yO t =Q Y a v } Q=w
O | x Q =v =}a QL %sd(x) " yO t =Q Y a Q t h= v=
O = T Q = l x Q Ov | x@ =L
" W @ } D t |oDU@t T Q = %cor(x)
} o= ' m t U t =Q y } D t
O | C O y x u} |] |oDU@t ? Q
" yO t U @ %cor(x,y)w @ =Q N y }
C | x
" Q | wm w
U= wO %chisq.test(x)N VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
C h Q}t
" U= Q wtr x
v Q | wm w
U=(hw o %ks.test(x) m VwQ @ VR= @ } v u tR
C x wt = l Q C wD t w " %t.test(x)
U= v v wO } } |= @ vO U= u tR
C y x T= QQ w %var.test(x,y)
" U= w v } Q=w | @= @ u tR
|iO=YD O=Oa= w |r=tDL= |=y`} RwD 2

1
3
"OvDUy Q} R CQ Y w x@ xm 'CU= Cw =iDt pmW Q=yJ |=Q=O `@=D Qy "CU= xOW xDW=Po R =
u @ R QO |r=tDL= `@=wD QDW}@
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v QO =Q `@=D Z a ' Q dfunc(x, ) QwDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv x x]k v =D =Q |atHD p=tDL= Q=Okt ' pfunc(x, ) QwDUO
O
" yO |t u=Wv 0 < p < 1 |=R= x@ =Q `@=D l OvJ Q=Okt qfunc(p, ) QwDUO
"Ovm|t |R U = x}@W =Q `@=D R= |iO=YD xvwtv 'rfunc(x, ) QwDUO
Q@ Q=m w CU= Z i Q V}B CQ Y w x@ =yQDt=Q=B xm 'OyO|t u =Wv =Q |r=tDL= `@=wD R= | U Q l} CUQyi 13 pw H QO O
O =tv |WQ=iU
" } OQ t w ?UL =Q =yu Ov=wD|t
"O}vm xHwD CU= p=tQv p=tDL= `@=D |=Q=O xm |iO=YD OOa w
OQ t QO Q} R p=Ft x@
> rnorm(1)
1] 1.358007
| U Q =@ xm Q |t O=H}= |iO=YD
'OO o O OO
O= a= R= | } H | U Q l} O}vm|t =QH= =Q |iO=YD O
O= a= Q_v OQ t w `@=D xm Q=@ Qy
Q
= H= Qy QO x=ov 'O}vm xO =iDU= |iO=YD O=Oa= `@=D Q
|= H= R= p@k set.seed() Q wDUO R= Qo = uwvm = "CU= Cw =iDt u}W}B
"CU= K}LY OOa l} Q}N= `@=D u=twoQ w O
"O @ x W O}rwD ,q@k xm Ci=} O}y=wN =Q | U u Q =ty
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ `} RwD l} F X (x) = Pr(X x ) |atH D p =tDL= uOQw CUO@ |= @ Q
u `@=wD = = ` w
w |Q t | y } R D %13 pw H O
`} RwD O)m =yQDt=Q=B package

Z i Q V}B
beta beta shape1, shape2 -, - stat
binomial binom size, prob -, - stat
Cauchy chauchy location, scale 0, 1 stat

2 chisq df, ncp -, 0 stat
Dirichlet dirichlet alpha - MCMCpack
exponential exp rate 1 stat
F f df1, df2, ncp -, -, - stat
gamma gamma shape, rate, scale -, 1, 1/rate stat
geometric geom prob - stat
Generalized Extreme Value gev xi,mu,sigma -, -, - evir
Generalized Pareto gpd xi,mu,beta -, -, - evir
hypergeometric hyper m, n, k -, -, - stat
Inverse Gamma invgamma shape,rate -, - MCMCpack
Inverse Wishart iwish v, S -, - MCMCpack
logistic logis location, scale 0, 1 stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multinomial multinom size, prob -, - stat
lognormal lnorm meanlog, sdlog 0, 1 stat
Multivariate Normal mvnorm mean,sigma -, - mvtnorm
Multivariate-t mvt sigma,df -, - mvtnorm
negative binomial nbinom size, prob, mu -, -, - stat
nomal norm mean, sd 0,1 stat
Poisson pois lambda - stat
'Student' (t) t df, ncp -, 0 stat
Weibull weibull shape, scale -, 1 stat
uniform unif min, max 0,1 stat
Wilcoxon wilcoxon m, n -, - stat
Wishart wish v, S -, - MCMCpack
C R = w |r" xDU = x = w_v (
U= u @R O N Y= y } w } B Q t
55 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
> pnorm(1.96)
1] 0.9750021
"OQw CUO@ R}v =Q 1 ;F X (x) = Pr(X > x ) p =tDL= |i== u=mt= l} =@ w |t uwvm =
u= D
> pnorm(1.96, lower.tail=F)

1] 0.02499790
w
u tR |v=QL@ Q}O=kt |=Q@ ,qFt "OQ}o|t Q=Qk xO=iDU= w =
OQ t |Q t u tR QO w P-value = } w |v=QL@ Q}O=kt uOQw CUO@ |=Q@
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ & 5 Q
|= @ p t v = Q `} RwD xiQ] wO
> qnorm(0.025)
1] -1.959964
> qnorm(0.975)
1] 1.959964
% @ = CU= Q@=Q@ df=1 = 2 = 3 84 @ : w
u tR |= @ Q P-value Q= Okt
> 1-pchisq(3.84, 1)
1] 0.05004352
" O}vm ? =UL f(4,43) ` = @ D QO =Q 3.6 O a O P-value Q=Okt "O}vm xHwD Qo}O p=Ft l} x@
> 1-pf(3.6,4,43)
1] 0.01284459
w
u J OO oQ| %5
t OQ w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U |= @Q =t= "CU= u R= QDoQR@ =Q} R OwW|tv OQ % 1 w
uO @ Q=O |vat K]U Q
|= @
w Q
"O W ? wO QO O}=@ P-value O @ w xiQ] wO u tRw Qo = xm OwWv w Q CU=
V t= i " u R= QDmJwm
> 1-pt(2.8,21)
1] 0.005364828
> 2 (1-pt(2.8,21))

1] 0.01072966
" O}vm x@U=Lt =Q u | yl = OvJ O}v=wD|t O}W=@ xDW=O =Q uO @ Q=O w |vat K]U Qo = uwvm =
> alpha - c(0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.001)

<
> qnorm(1-alpha/2)
1] 1.644854 1.959964 2.575829 3.290527
s=QowDU}y 1 2 1 3
%CU= Q} R KQW x@ u Qt=Qo xm "CU= |iwQat Q=O wtv Q wDU}y p=tDL=

's= o =
w Q t QO
hist(x,breaks="Sturges",prob=FALSE)
O=H}= =Q |@U=vt=v pmW Ov=wD|t sm |r}N =} O=} R |r}N =yxDUO O= OaD "OyO|t u=Wv =Q =yxDUO O= OaD breaks = w
u t oQ
"CU= Q} R pmW x@ u x]@=Q xm Ovm|t xO =iDU= Sturges w Q

p t i R= R =
u @R Z i Q V}B w
CQ Y QO " Ovm
dlog2 ( ) + 1 n e
T U= = Q@ xm Freedman-Diaconis (FD) w Q pFt 'Ovm|t u}at =Q xDUO |=vyB xm OQ=O OwHw R}v |Qo}O |=yVwQ
p t i
"CU= Q} R pmW x@ u x]@=Q Q

"OQ=O Q= k iqr |mQ=J u}@ xOw OLt
2 iqr
n
; 31
"CU= xOW O=yvW}B Scott \ w

U D w CU= Q} R pwtQi u | =v@t xm w
OQ=O O Hw R}v | Qo}O pwtQi
35 : sn
; 31
" CU= Q=}at h= QLv= s u QO xm

=F
p t u= wvax@ "O}vm xO =iDU= nclass=num. of class = w
u t oQ R= O}v=wD|t OW=@ =tW Q=}DN= q =
QO , t m p QDvm O}y=wN@ Qo =
" Ovm|t O=H}= xDUO 20 Q_ w
v OQ t s= o Q wDU}y |= @nclass=20
Q
QO =yCL=Ut `wtHt xm Q |t s}_vD
OO o x w x pmW
|= v o @ w O W w |t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi prob=T = } w freq=F wD Q UO QO
w
"O W OL=w Q@=Q@ s=QowDU}y
p=tQv p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 2 2 1 3
%O W w |t u=}@ Q} R w x
CQ Y @ p t v p = Q =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D
) = 1 ; 22
(x;)2
(
2
f x p e

"O}vm xHwD Q} R pmW x@ u |atHD `@=D w p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D V}=tv Q

|= @
X { seq(-4,4,0.1)
<
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(X,dnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="f(x)", main="PDF's Normal")
plot(X,pnorm(X),type='l',xlab="x", ylab="F(x)", main="CDF's Normal")
w O wtv |R U= x}@W =Q Q mw Pt `@=D = Q |iO=YD
'p t v O
O= a= =@ u= D w |t uwvm = Q |t pY=L Q} R pmW
"OO o =
'q @ | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
"O m Q xU}=kt | Q_v `@=D =@ =Q u
set.seed(5)
Y { rnorm(2000) # 2000 from Normal(mu = 0, sigma=1)
<
O w |t
" v W h LP 4 R= QDoQR@ w -4 R= QDmJwm O
O= a= Q} R QwDUO QO
Y Y -4 | Y 4] { NA
< > <
x { seq(-4, 4, .1)
<
"O wtv sUQ pmW l} QO =Q |r=oJ `@=D w s= oQ wDU}y u=wD@ =D OwW|t p=aiQ}e |v=w=Qi Q} R QwDUO QO
hist(Y, breaks="FD", xlim=c(-4,4), freq=FALSE, main="")

title("Histogram of Normal distribution")
lines(x, dnorm(x), lwd=2)
57 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
PDF’s Normal CDF’s Normal
0.4
1.0
0.8
0.3
0.6
F(x)
0.2
f(x)
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
−4 −2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2 4
x x
= Q |atHD
p t v w p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D =
| yQ=O wtv V}=tv %13 pmW
Histogram of Normal distribution

0.4
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
−4 −2 0 2 4
| Q_v p=tDL= `@=D Q wDU}y

w s= o | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %23 pmW
qqplot() w qqline() 'qqnorm() |m}i=Qo `@=wD 3 2 1 3
=Q CU=Q \N l} x=ov 'OvW=@ p=tQv =yxO=O Qo = "O=O u =Wv qqnorm() ` = = @ D @ =Q xO=O | U Q l} w = Q

uO @ p t v u= D w |t
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OwQ|t Q=mx@ xU}=kt |=Q@ xm OwW|t p = qqline() ` =
Y L @ D R= CU=Q \N s}UQD "OvyO|t V}=tv
x { runif(200)
<
y { rnorm(200)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,1))
qqnorm(x,main="")
title("Q-Q for uniform Dis.")
qqline(x, col="red")
qqnorm(y, main="")
title("Q-Q for normal Dis.")
qqline(y, col="red")
Q−Q for uniform Dis.

Sample Quantiles
0.8
0.4
0.0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
Q−Q for normal Dis.

Sample Quantiles
2
1
−1 0
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Theoretical Quantiles
= Q
p t v w CN=wvm} p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D = Q
wO p t v | yl = OvJ =
u}= s=Hv= Q O O
|= @ # v=x W `} RwD l} Q
R= | U wO u}= =} xm Owtv KQ]t =Q p= U w u}= w |t 'O}W=@ xDW=O
u= D xO=O | U wOQ Qo =
x =ov 'OvyO@ =Q CU=Q \N l} p}mWD \=kv Qo = wtv sUQ =@
Q=O "OQ=O O Hw w qqplot() w
CQ Y x@ |a@=D R = =
u @ R QO Q m
pw= `@ Q R=Ut}v \N u}= "Owtv xO =iDU= CU=Q \N l} R= u= Dw |t R}v xU}=kt Q CU= pw@k p@=k
|= @ " l QDWt `} RwD Z iQ
"OO oQ |t pY=L abline(0,1) ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ xm CU=
x { rnorm(500)
<
y { rnorm(500)
<
qqplot(x,y)
abline(0,1, col="blue", lwd=2)
59 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
3
2
1
y
0
−1
−2
−3
−2 −1 0 1 2
Q
xO=O | U wO | yl = OvJ Q=O wtv V}=tv %43 pmW
ecdf() `@=D 4 2 1 3
x O}t=v ecdf() x w
m OQ=O O Hw |a@=D =t= "O m Q s}UQD w x@U=Lt =Q |atHD `} RwD `@=D w |t "OW x_Lqt ,q@k xm Qw]v=ty
u= D
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "OyO|t CUO@ =Q |@ QHD |atHD `} RwD w O W w |t
> x { rnorm(10)
<
> plot(ecdf(x))
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ pmW 's}UQD R= TB
ecdf(x)
1.0
0.8
0.6
Fn(x)
0.4
0.2
0.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
|@ QHD |atHD `} RwD Q=O wtv V}=tv %53 pmW
O
" yO |t u=Wv |Q_v w |@ QHD Cr=L QO =Q p w@} w |atHD p=tDL= `} RwD xm O}vm xHwD 63 Q=O wtv w =yO)m x@ uwvm =
> x { seq(0,2,0.1)
<
> plot(x, pweibull(x,scale=1,shape=2),type="l", main="ECDF and Weibull CDF")

> x.teo { rweibull(n=200,shape=2, scale=1)
<
> plot(ecdf(x.teo), add=TRUE)

ECDF and
Weibull CDF
1.0
0.8
pweibull(x, scale = 1, shape = 2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
|@ QHD |atHD `} RwD Q=O wtv V}=tv %63 pmW
=t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D 5 2 1 3
"O W w h}aD =t=o `@=D xm CU= sRq = OD@= 'p =tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= u=}@ R= p@k
Z1
;( ) = x
;1 e;x dx > 0
0
"O wtv u=}@ Q} R CQ Yw x@ =Q =t=o p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D w |t TBU

u= D
8
>
< ;(1 ) ;1 ; x x e x 0
( )=>
:0
f x
x < 0
O =
' W @ =1 Q=Okt Qo = w |t xO}t=v
"O W scale
T =}kt QDt=Q=B
w shape pm W QDt=Q=B QDt=Q=B wO |=Q=O `@=D u}=
"O Ww |t p}O@D |}=tv `} RwD x@ `@=D u}=
" CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ p=tDL= |r=oJ `@=D u}= =
| yQw =DWo
X =
2 2
X=
61 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
O |t CUO@ Q} R \@=wQ
" } w
j i CqO =at pL R=
2

=
X
X 2
X
=
X
"O}vm xHwD `} RwD u}= w
OQ t QO R =
| yp t =F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,10, length=100)
<
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=1,scale=1), type='l',xlab="x",
ylab="Prob", main="Shape 1")
Shape 1 Shape 2
1.0
0.3
0.8
0.6
0.2
Prob
Prob
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
Shape 5 Shape 10
0.20
0.12
0.15
0.08
0.10
Prob
Prob
0.04
0.05
0.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x x
hrDNt | y = shape = @ =t=o `} RwD =

"O}vm xHwD scale QD =

t=Q B p t=F x@ uwvm =
x { seq(0,30,length=100)
<
plot(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=1), type='l', xlab="x",

ylab="f(x)", main="Gamma pdf's")
lines(x,dgamma(x,shape=2,scale=2), lty=2)
legend(x=20,y=.35,paste("Scale=",c(1,2,4,8)), lty=1:4)
Gamma pdf’s
Scale= 1
Scale= 2
Scale= 4
0.3
Scale= 8
0.2
f(x)
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
hrDNt | y = scale = @ =t=o `} RwD =

" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O=O VR= @ =Q Q =t=o `} RwD 'Q_v w =

OQ t | yxO=O | U Q l} Q@ u= D w |t
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

points(X, rep(0,n))
uO=O u =Wv wLv xm
|x Cw =iD u}= =@ Owtv Q=QmD =
=Q q @ p t u= D =F w |t xD@r= w |t pY=L Q} R pmW
"O W w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
O =
" W @ |Q wLt = l}D
| y CQ Y w x@ p@k p=Ft |@ QHD =
| yxO=O
X { c(4.75, 3.4, 1.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2.4, 5.8, 2.6, 2.4, 5.25)
<
n { length(X)
<
alpha { (mean(X)/sd(X))^2
<
theta { var(X)/mean(X)
<
x { seq(0, 8, length=200)
<
plot(x, dgamma(x,shape=alpha,scale=theta), type='l', ylab="f(x)")

rug(X, ticksize = 0.03, side = 1, lwd = 2)
w |t pY=L Q} R pmW
"O W w
j i | y ) = O
m |= H= Q =@
|iO=YD |Q}oxvwtv 3
1
3
=
u @R \UwD u=wD|t =Q xU}m l} R= A D w xU uO}Wm w 100 = 1 D O
R= O= a= |iO=YD ?=NDv= Ovv=t |r=tDL= =
xO U | y @ = x QHD
"CU= Q} R |rm CQ Y w x@ sample() ` = @ D "O wtv |R U= x}@W R
63 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @Q V}=tv %93 pmW

0.30
0.25
0.20
f(x)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
l}D w
CQ Y x@ |@ QHD =kv
\ xO=O | UQ l} Q@ =t=o `@=D Q V}=tv
VR= @ %103 pmW
sample(x, size, replace = FALSE, prob = NULL)

'u QO xm
O = QDm =Q=m =}
" W @ w O a O Ov=wD|t xm CU= Q_v w
OQ t Q=O @ % x Q
Q
"OO o ? =NDv= O}=@ xm |O= Oa size
D %
Q
"OO o s =Hv= |Q= Po}=H =@ =} w |Q= Po}=H O
uw @ | Q}oxvwtv replace
%
O O
" y @ uRw =yxvwtv ? =NDv= x@ Ov=wD|t xm CU= |Q =}DN= Q=O @ % Q prob
%=yp=Ft
100 = 1 D R= hO =YD x@ OOa l} ? =NDv=
> sample(1:100, 1)
1] 19
T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, replace = T)

1] 5 4 3 5 4 6 1 5 2 4
|w =Ut=v Cq =tDL= =@ T D = l} Q=@ 10 =Q
? D B
> sample(1:6, 10, c(0.6,0.4,0.1,0.05,0.03,0.02), replace = T)

1] 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3
"O}v =ND
m ? Po = O
v= |Q= =Y x Qy 6 wv
} H uw @ w hO w Qy 3
D @ x t u m = "OQ=O O Hw OQR x t w |@ xQyt 4 R Q
' t k x Qyt 8 |= xU}m QO
> urn { c(rep("red", 8), rep("blue", 4), rep("yellow", 3))

<
> sample(urn, 6, replace = F)

1] "red" "yellow" "blue" "red" "red" "red"
p=tDL= `@=D l} |=yQDt=Q=B OQwQ@ 4

1
3
VwQ Ovv=t |}=yVwQ R= "O wtv Q

OQw @ =Q p =tDL= `@=D l} = QDt=Q=B
| y u= Dw |t hrDNt =
| yVwQ x@ O}v=O|t xm Qw]u=ty
"Owtv =
xQ W= =yv x@ Q =
w O @ s v u= D w |t 1 |}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ w =yQw=DWo
OQw @ Q |}=tvDUQO QFm =OL VwQ x@ =Q p =tDL= `@=D = QDt=Q=B xm
| y OQ=O O Hw w MASS wv u= a CLD |= xDU@ R =
u @ R QO
CU= Q=Qk xm |}=yxO=O pw= 'CU= |QwQ u=twoQ wO |=Q=O xm CU= OwH w tdistr()
t s v = x@ |a@=D xDU@ u}= QO "Ovm|t
"O Q}o Q=Qk uW}Dwm pN=O QO O}=@ xm Q_v w
OQ t p =tDL= `@=D swO w O@=} VR= @Q |a@=D =yv Q@
`@=D Z iQ =@ uwvm = w |t O}rwD XNWt
"O W | y = QDt=Q=B =@ =t=o `} RwD =@ |iO=YD O
O= a= | U Q l} =OD@= =Hv}= QO %p=Ft
Q |t
"OO o OQw @ ' Q CU=xDi=} Q w Pt
VR= @ Q m =
| yxO=O Q@ xm =t=o p=tDL= `@=D = QDt=Q=B ,=OOHt =t=o p=tDL=
| y
library("MASS")
set.seed(1)
random { rgamma(500,8.5,2.5)
<
para { tdistr(random,"gamma") print(para)

<
para { unlist(para)
<
x { seq(1,10,0.1)
<
y { dgamma(x,8.5,2.5)
<
1. Maximum Likelihood
65 p=tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
plot(x,y,type="l")
lines(x,dgamma(x,para 1],para 2]),lty=2)
legend(7.0,0.30,legend=c("exact", "ML"), lty=c(1,2), bg="gray90")
w |t pY=L
"O W 113 pmW q=@ xt=vQ@ |= H=Q =@
0.3
exact
ML
0.2
y
0.1
0.0
2 4 6 8 10
O Q
x W OQw @ | y= QDt=Q=B =@ xO=O | U Q l} Q@ =t=o `@=D VR= @ Q V}=tv %113 pmW
|Q=t |=yVwQ 5
1
3
"OO oQ |t O}m =D =yu u} QDQwyWt |wQ =Hv}= QO " CU= Q w

Z i u tR w |Q t | yVwQ u @ = = = R}t R =
u @R
t xiQ] wO w l} uwtR 1 5 1 3
"O W t =tD | =o ` = = =Hv = Q C t.test() w w u

w |t uwtR p L= r J @ D @ }= QO yZ i " U= u tR ` v }= |= @ Q |rY= `@=D
t.test(x, y = NULL, alternative = c("two.sided", "less", "greater"), mu = 0,

paired = FALSE, var.equal = FALSE, conf.level = 0.95)
%u QO xm
" CU= OwHwt =
xO U u tR w l} x=ov 'O wWv xO=O yQ o= " OvDUy O x,y
|O a | yQ=O @ % = Q
w "greater" "two.sided"
' u Z i Q V}B "OO o Q |t u=}@ =yQDm =Q=m R= |= xDWQ \UwD u} Ro}=H Q alternative
Z i %
" O}vm xO =iDU= | Q}oQ=mx@ |= @ Q R}v u pw= hw L R= Q O} w | =t "less"

v= D t W "
xDW=O OwHw xvwtv wO Qo = 'Ovm|t u=}@ =Q =yu}ov=}t h qDN= =} OyO|t u=Wv =Q u}ov=}t CUQO Q=Ok x tO mu m |O a %
" CU= QiY Q@=Q@ Z i Q V}B "OW=@

" O}W=@ xDW=O |}=DwO uwtR O}y=wN@ Qo = CU= |k]vt xv=Wv %paired
"CU= F u Z i Q V}B w OvQ@=Q@ sy =@ =yTv=} Q=w OW=@ T CUQO Qo = "CU= |k]vt Q}eDt % var.equal
u} Ro}=H Z iQ ?UL Q@ u}ov=}t |= xrY=i Q
OQw @ |= @ & Q 95 Z i Q V}B u=v}t]= K]U % conf.level
" O}vm uwtR =Q mu=70 Qi Y Z i Q trees =
| yxO=O QO %1 p=Ft
> data(trees)
> t.test(trees$Height, mu = 70)
One Sample t-test
data: trees$Height
t = 5.2429, df = 30, p-value = 1.173e-05
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 70
95 percent condence interval:
73.6628 78.3372
sample estimates:
mean of x
76
"O W w |t OQ QiY Z i Q u}=Q@=v@
xDU=m =yu hQYt R= =} xm CU= u}= w
p= U u wvm = "OO oQ |t xi== w
wQO N CNwU x@ |vOwRi= l} O}vm Z iQ %2 p=Ft
p}=t mpg Q}eD t " Ovm|tv xO=iDU= u R= Qo}O |wQO N w VW w Ovm|t xO =iDU= u R= wQO Nw VW Q=m u}= Q
|= @ #O Ww |t
"CU= Q} R CQ Y @w x xm 'CU= xOW |Q}oxR=Ov= ur=o Q@
Car 1 2 3 4 5 6
mpg w/ additive 24.6 18.9 27.3 25.2 22.0 30.9
mpg w/o additive 23.8 17.7 26.6 25.1 21.6 29.6
> add { c(24.6, 18.9, 27.3, 25.2, 22.0, 30.9)
<
> noadd { c(23.8, 17.7, 26.6, 25.1, 21.6, 29.6)

<
> t.test(add, noadd, paired=T, alt = "greater")

Paired t-test
data: add and noadd
t = 3.9994, df = 5, p-value = 0.005165
alternative hypothesis: true dierence in means is greater than 0
0.3721225 Inf
sample estimates:
mean of the dierences
0.75
w ks.test ` = "O tR @ D =@ Q
=Q |Q=O @ |xO=O l} w |t
u= D
> x { runif(100)
<
> out { ks.test(x, "pnorm")

<
> out
One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x
67 p =tDL= =
w Q t 3 pYi
D = 0.5007, p-value 2.2e-16 <
alternative hypothesis: two-sided

wt =iD k-s "O v xO U= w
u tR R= u= Dw |t R}v OvW=@ xOW PN= `} RwD l} Q
R= |Q=O @ |xO=O wO Qo =
> x1 { rnorm(100)
<
> x2 { rnorm(100)
<
> ks.test(x1, x2)

Two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: x1 and x2
D = 0.08, p-value = 0.9062
Q p = Q G =D
"OO o Y L w
}R = Q = 300
} v w O W ? D B Q @ = l} xm O}vm
T D Q O}}=tQi xHwD |N `@ Qt uwtR
Z i " R= p t=F l} x@ uwvm =
T D= xHw 1 2 3 4 5 6
|v=w=Qi 43 49 56 45 66 41
`@ Qt uwtR = u}= Q CU= 1 = xHw Qy uOt p=tDL= |va} "CU= Q |@ = u}= xm CU= u}= w wvm =
R= Q m |= @ #
6 T D h ] T D p= U u
"O}vm xHwD Q} R = O x@
| y )
m w |t
"O W =iDU= |N
xO
> counts { c(43, 49, 56, 45, 66, 41)

<
> probs { rep(1/6, 6)

<
> chisq.test(counts, p = probs)

Chi-squared test for given probabilities
data: counts
X-squared = 8.96, df = 5, p-value = 0.1107
w |t w Q |@ Q u}=Q@=v@ "CU= 1 0 1107 x w |t x_Lqt
"O W OQ uO @ h ] Z i
6 > : m O W
sQ=yJ pYi
u w} Q U oQ | yp t = O
lm, pF t |a@=wD uOv=wN=Qi j} Q] R= =ypOt u}= ,=twta "CU= |Q=t |=ypOt Q Q
VR= @ |= @ |O } R | y = = u}DwQ |=Q=O R =
u @R
"CU= Q} R w
CQ Y x@ Q =
VR= @ |Q t p t O l} |rm pmW "Ovvm|t pta glm,
respose ~ expression
|]N uw}UQoQ |=ypOt 14
pwtQi |=yC}OwHwt 1
1
4
O
" yO |t Q Q} R
VR= @ CQ Yw x@ =Q |]N pOt l} R =
u @R
y = 0+ 1 1+

x +
x p p+"
`} RwD =@ =
|=Q=O , r e " |va} =]N xrtH "OyO|t u=Wv =Q u w}UQoQ ?}=Q w <=O@t R= Z a
Q =( 0 1

p ) xm
"CU=
2
" Tv=} Q=w w QiY u}ov=}t =@ p=tQv
wtv
"O =iDU= Q} R pwtQi
xO w lm() ` = @ D R= xO =iDU= =@ u= D w |t 'Q}eDt wO =@ uw}UQoQ |= @ Q
y ~ x1+x2
68
69 uw}UQoQ | yp t= O 4 pYi
"CU= y = 0+ 1 1+ 2 2+

x
x " p t i w Q xrRvt x@ w
j i CQ a =@ xm
P
h L <= O@t R= Z aQ O}U} wv@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ =Q j i w x]@=Q =t= "O W w |t <=O@t R= Z a Q pt=W R =
u @ R 'Z i Q V}B Qw] x@
"OO o Q |t
y ~ -1+x1+x2
xHwD Q} R =
| yp t =F x@ "OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ QO |Y=N |v=at |=Q=O *,-,^,\,: | y = Qorta xm O}W=@ xDW=O xHwD
"O}vm
y ~ x1+x2+x1:x2
" CU= y = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + 12 1 2 +

x
x
x x " p t i w Q xrRvt x@ w
j i CQ a =@ xm
"Ovm|t O=H}= ?}DQD x@ =Q |} wOwO w xv=o} | y = xrtH ^ Qorta R= xO =iDU=
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2
"CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x2:x3+x1:x3
P O@
h L =Q <= Q -1 O x_ q q@ x w
t R= Z a W L t, k m Q ]u =ty "Ovm|t hPL uw}UQoQ xrO=at R= =Q |DqtH =} w xrtH - Qorta
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "O wtv
y ~ (x1+x2+x1:x2)^2 - x2:x3
"CU= Q} R x]@=Q pO =at q=@ pwtQi
y ~ x1+x2+x3+x1:x2+x1:x3
" O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "Ovm|t Q=QmD Q}eDt Q
|= @ =Q |@} Q I `= @ D
y ~ I(x1+x2)
qFt "Ovm Q}}eD pOt
, QO x2 Q}eD t O}y=wN@ Qo = ,=vt "CU= y = 0 + ( 1 + 2) +

x x " p t i w Q xrRvt x@ jwi CQ a =@ xm
O Q
" }=xO m x =@DW= O}vm pta Q} R CQ Y w x@ Qo = w
"O W ? wO QO Q
y ~ x1+2*x2
"O wtv pta O}=@ Q} R CQ Y w x@ ?r]t uOW CUQO |= @Q
y ~ x1+I(2*x2)
" CU= Q} R KQW x@ R =
u @ R QO u p t i x w Q =ov 'OW=@ y = 0+ 1 + 2 2

x
x CQ Y @ w x Q_v w
OQ t p t O Qo =
y ~ poly(x, 2)
Q
% } R CQ Y @ w x xv w
y ~ x+x2^2
|R=UpOt `@=wD 2
1
4
p}rLD Q
w VR= @ |= q@ =
|O } R `@=wD "OQ=O =yQ}eDt u}@ |]N \@=wQ =}
u @ |= @ Q |a}Uw OQ@ Q=m |]N u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O
"CU= Q} R KQW x@ =yu = = w
| yu t oQQ R= |=xQ B = xm CU= lm() = u}=
Q m Q |rY= `@=D
|= @ "OQ=O O Hww |]N uw}UQoQ
lm(formula, data, weights, subset, na.action)

"O}vm xHwD Q} R =
| yxO=O x@
gene1 gene2
-1.06 -1.08
-0.81 -1.02
-0.48 -0.39
-0.42 -0.48
-0.30 -0.58
-0.35 -0.24
-0.31 -0.05
-0.18 -0.33
-0.20 0.51
-0.11 -0.53
-0.09 -0.47
0.16 0.10
0.45 0.39
0.53 0.11
0.67 0.52
0.80 0.34
0.87 1.08
0.92 1.21
=Q u x@ w Q w
\ @ t u tR w |oDU@ty ?} Q =OD@= xm "CU= xOW xQ}NP gen_reg.txt = x@ |r}=i
s v w
QO j i | yxO=O =
" Ovm|t |UQQ@ =Q =yu x@ w Q w O w
\ @ t OQ= t x v= N =Q u Q} R | y ) = O
m "O wtv O}y=wN x_Lqt
> x - read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt",header=T)
<
> cor.test(x$gene1, x$gene2)
Pearson's product-moment correlation

data: x$gene1 and x$gene2
t = 7.5105, df = 16, p-value = 1.246e-06
alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
0.7071560 0.9556856
sample estimates:
cor
0.8826268
71 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
Q} R pwtQi =@ uw}UQoQ pOt uwvm =

gene2 = 0 + 1 gene1 +

"
Q |t p=ta= =yxO=O
"OO o |wQ
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(gene2~gene1, data=x)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = gene2 ~ gene1, data = x)
Coecients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
" CWwv R}v sy Q} R w x
CQ Y @ u= D w |t =
=Q q @ | y )
m = O
> x { read.table("F:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)

<
> m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)

<
> m.reg
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Coecients:
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05541 0.97070
"O}vm xHwD Q} R O
pw H x@ uw}UQoQ x@ w Q
\ @ t | y = |HwQN uDi=} Q
|= @
Expression Description
coef(obj) regression coecients
resid(obj) residuals
tted(obj) tted values
summary(obj) analysis summary
predict(obj,newdata=ndat) predict for new data
deviance(obj) residual sum of squares
C m.reg =t obj
" U= u y R= Q w_vt w
j i p t QO =F
" O}Wm =Q xDi=} Q \N
VR= @ w O wtv sUQ =Q Vvm =QB Q=O wtv w |t uwvm =
u= D
> plot(x$gene1, x$gene2)

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
wtv
"O xO =iDU= R}v Q} R C=QwDUO w |t xDi=}
R= u= D VR= @ Q \N sUQ Q
|= @ "O W w |t pY=L Q} R pmW Q} R = O
| y )
m |= H= Q =@

1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
xDi=} VR= @ Q \N w Vv+m =QB Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %14 pmW
> abline(m.reg)
"Owtv sUQ w |t R}v
u= D = O =t}k=@ 'xDi=}
=Q yx v VR= @ Q \N w |@ QHD \=kv Q@ xw qa xm O}vm|t x_Lqt =Q |rmW Q} R wvm =
QO u

> lines(x$gene1, tted(m.reg))
> segments(x$gene1, tted(m.reg), x$gene1, x$gene2, lty=2)
1.0
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
=yxOv=t}k=@ w uw}UQoQ wtv l} V}=tv

Q=O %24 pmW
O =D
w OQ= v U= | =]N 'tQ }O=kt Q}_v xDi=} Q
VR= @ p t R= O |i== = q]=
C a =
R= |=xQ B uOQw CUO@ Q
|= @ summary() ` = @ D
"O}vm xHwD Q} R p=Ft x@ "CU= O}it =yQDt=Q=B u}@ |oDU@ty
> summary(m.reg)
73 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
Call:
lm(formula = x$gene2 ~ x$gene1)
Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-0.3812 -0.2196 -0.0084 0.1492 0.7595
Coecients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr( t ) >j j
(Intercept) -0.05541 0.07330 -0.756 0.461

x$gene1 0.97070 0.12925 7.511 1.25e-06 ***
|
Signif. codes: 0 `***' 0.001 `**' 0.01 `*' 0.05 `.' 0.1 ` ' 1
Residual standard error: 0.311 on 16 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.779, Adjusted R-squared: 0.7652
F-statistic: 56.41 on 1 and 16 DF, p-value: 1.246e-06
"O wtv x@U=Lt =Q u w}UQoQ xrO=at ?}=Q |= xrY=i Q
OQw @ u= D w |t connt() ` = @ D =@
> coef(m.reg)
(Intercept) gene1
-0.05540906 0.97070027
> connt(m.reg)
2.5% 97.5%
(Intercept) -0.2107882 0.09997012
gene1 0.6967126 1.24468796
"C Q Qy w | predict.lm() ` =
i o x @ u= D t = u Q @ D R= Q m }= |= @ "O wtv OQwQ@ uw}UQoQ xrO=at R= xO=iDU= =@ =Q |O}OH Q}O=kt u=wD|t
"O=O CUO@ =Q |= xrY=i Q sy
OQw @ w |= x]kv Q
OQw @ Q= Okt sy CQ Yw u}= QO
> predict.lm(m.reg, newdata=data.frame(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
C O O O =W
U @ x W x y = x =t x =y
t | y xr =
s Q
D |=R=x]k = y =t =o wW =iD newdata
@ v |= Y i OQw @ w |= v | y s D x v 'O v xO U= R= Qo =
" }O |t
"Owtv pta R}v Q} R w
CQ Y x@ w |t O}OH Q}O=kt
u= D |= @ Q
> predict(m.reg, list(gene1=c(0.1,0.2)), int="conf")

t lwr upr
1 0.04166097 -0.11587731 0.1991993
2 0.13873100 -0.02557153 0.3030335
pOt X}NWD 1 2 1 4
"Owtv =
xQ W= Q} R w x@
OQ= t w |t p=Ft
u= D Q
|= @ "O Q}o|t Q=Qk xO =iDU= w
OQ t ' X}NWD QDW}@ p}rLD Q O
|= @ x t CUO@ pOt
# OvDUy p=tQv =yxOv=t}k=@ =}
# OvDUy |]N uw}UQoQ | y = Q}eDt w MU=B u}@ x]@=Q =}
#OQ=O O Hw C B w Q Q}O=kt =}
" Ovm|t pQDvm =Q =yxOv=t}k=@ p=tQv `} RwD k-s w

u tR
> res { resid(m.reg)

<
> ks.test(res, "pnorm", mean=mean(res), sd=sd(res))

One-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
data: res
D = 0.1553, p-value = 0.7217
"OO oQ |t Qy=_ Q=O wtv Q=yJ 'O} Qw=}@ |r@k | y )
m = O xr=@vO QO =Q Q} R C=QwDUO Qo =
> par(mfrow=c(2,2))
> plot(m.reg)
Residuals vs Fitted Normal Q−Q

0.8
9 9
Standardized residuals
2
0.4
18 18
Residuals
1
0.0
0
−0.4
−1
16
16
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 −2 −1 0 1 2
Fitted values Theoretical Quantiles
Scale−Location Residuals vs Leverage

3
9
1.5
9
1
16 18 0.5
18
1.0
1
0
0.5
−1
Cook’s distance16
0.0
0.5
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Fitted values Leverage
=yxOv=t}k=@ x@ w Q
\ @ t | yQ=O = wtv V}=tv %34 pmW
%R= CUDQ=@a Q=O wtv Q=yJ u}=
O w
=Q | vwQ O N R= w O Q}o Q=Qk y=0 \ N p L w O}=@ pY=L pmW %xDi=} VR= @ Q Q}O=kt ?UL Q@ =yxOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt
O O
" y v u =Wv
75 u w}UQoQ =
| yp t O 4 pYi
Q=O wtv xm CU= |vat u}O@ 'OvwW s}kDUt \N l} V}=tv x@ l}ORv xOv=t}k=@ \ =kv Qo = = Q
%p t v qqplot Q=O wtv
" Ovm|t |w Q}B p=tQv `} RwD R= x v O =t}k=@
u} QDoQR@ 'Ovr@ \ =kv "OyO|t u=Wv O O =D

=Q x W OQ= v U= | yx v = O =t}k=@ swO xW} Q Q=O wtv u}= %scale-location Q=O wtv
"OvDUy xOv=t}k=@ Q}O=kt
xm 'OyO|t u=Wv =Q OvQ=O =

|O } R Q}F-=D u w}UQoQ \N |wQ xm =Q |]=kv Q=O wtv u}= %Cook's distance Q=O wtv
"OO o Q |krD R}v C B \Q =kv wvax@ Ov=wD|t

u=
"Owtv =iDU= Q} R QwDUO

xO w |t 'QDW}@
R= u= D =
| yQ=O wtv |DL w |O= Qiv= CQ Y w x@ q=@ =
| yQ=O wtv sUQ |= @ Q
plot(m.reg, which = 1)
w | =iD 2 O
"O W t xO U= O a R= 1 O
O a | =H@ Q}N= Om QO qqplot Q=Owtv s}UQD Q Ovm|t sUQ
|= @ " =Q pmW u}rw= xm
plot(m.reg, which = 2)
"CiQ V}B R}v 6 O =D
O a u= D w |t =yQ=Owtv sUQ |= @ Q
u=v}t]= xrY=i 2 2 1 4
"O wtv xO =iDU= Q} R | y )= O

m R= u= D w |t u=v}t]= xrY=i O=H}= |= @ Q
x { read.table("E:/R_les/data/gen_reg.txt", header=T)
<
m.reg { lm(x$gene2~x$gene1)
<
new { data.frame(x$gene1 { sort(x$gene1))

< <
pred.w.clim = predict(m.reg, newdata=new, interval="condence",level=0.95)

plot(x$gene2~x$gene1, pch=20)
abline(m.reg, col="blue")
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim ,2],col="red", lty=2)
lines(x$gene1,pred.w.clim ,3],col="red", lty=2)
pred = predict(m.reg, interval="condence") print(pred)
pred1 = predict(m.reg, interval="condence") ,1,drop=F] print(pred1)
legend(-1, 1.2,
c("obs. data", "predict", "Lower b.", "Upper b."),
pch=c(20,NA,NA,NA), lty=c(0,1,2,2), lwd=c(0,1,1,1),
col=c("black","blue","red","red"))
O |t CUO@ Q} R
" } Q=O wtv w
j i | y )
m |= H= = O Q =@
u QDtm Q=Okt "O W w |t xO}t=v 1 AIC xm Owtv xO =iDU= |= x]@= R= u= D w |t xDi=} Q
VR= @ | yp t = O u}@ xU}=kt |= @ Q
xU pt=W xm u x yO =Wt Q CU= OwHwt
|= @ " R w
O N QO xm OwW|t xO =iDU= trees |=xO=O R= p t |= @ " =F Q CU= QD?U=vt
" O}vm =QH= =Q Q} R QwDUO xm CU= |i=m CU= uwDU
> trees
=@ O}v=wD|t xm OO o Q |t x@U=Lt AIC x] = @ l} Qy Q
|= @ w O W w |t xDiQo Q_v QO trees =
| yxO=O |= @ p t wO u Q O wvm =
" O}vm xU}=kt =Q =yu sy
1. Akaike's An Information Criterion
obs. data
1.0
predict
Lower b.
Upper b.
0.5
x$gene2
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5
x$gene1
&95 u =v}tY= xrY=i =@ uw}UQoQ Q=O wtv l} V}=tv %44 pmW
> lm1 { lm(Volume ~ Height Girth, data=trees)

<
> AIC(lm1)
1] 155.4692
> lm2 { lm(Volume ~ Height + Girth, data=trees)
<
> AIC(lm2)
1] 176.9100
77 `H=Qt
`H=Qt
1] Crawley, Micheal J., (2007) The R Book, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 942p.
2] Longhow Lam, (2008) An introduction to R, Business & Decision Amsterdam,
212p.
3] Maindonald J. H., (2008) Using R for Data Analysis and Graphics Introduction,
Code and Commentary, Centre for Mathematics and Its Applications, Australian
National University., 96p.
4] Paradis E., (2005) R for Beginners, Institut des Sciences de l' Evolution Universite
Montpellier II France, 76p.
5] Rossiter D. G., (2007) Introduction to the R Project for Statistical Computing for
use at ITC, International Institute for Geo-information Science & Earth Observation
Enschede (NL), 143p.
6] Seefeld, K., Linder, E., (2007) Statistics Using R with Biological Examples, Uni-
versity of New Hampshire, Durham, NH Department of Mathematics & Statistics,
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7] Verzani John simpleR - Using R for Introductory Statistics, 114p.

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com ‫ آﻣﻮزش ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﻪ ﻧﻮﯾﺴﯽ‬- ‫ﺳﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮرس ﺳﺮا‬

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

1 R |U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =@ |}=vW pw= pYi

4 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . .. R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 231

5 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . ......R QO =yxO=O 331

9 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... . . . p= = } i |wQ yxO=O uDWwv 631

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... ........ = yxO=O O}rwD 731

11 . . . . . . . . . . .. .................. = Q yQ=O @ 141

12 . . . . . . . . . .. . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1141

14 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 241

20 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .......... w = Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = 341

24 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . CUQyi O=H}= 1641

25 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R = = u @R @ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 51

29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2351

29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3351

32 Q=Owtv sUQ swO pYi

36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s}UQD xLiY uwo =vwo = CtUk

37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xLiY l} |wQ Q=O wtv OvJ 412

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u tR y = s |m}i=Qo xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 512

42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u} = K] } B U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 712

52 p=tDL= w Q=t swU pYi

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

58 . . . qqplot() w qqline() qqnorm() |m} Q ` w

59 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 4213

60 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` =t o p L= r J @ D 5213

62 . . . ...... ................ | iO =YD |Q}oxvwtv 313

64 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . =tD ` = l p L= @ D } | y = QDt=Q=B Q

65 . . . ...... . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513

68 uw}UQoQ |=ypOt sQ=yJ pYi

|U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =QJ 21

1390 ' |vWwOv|wUwt 2

"O}W=@ xDW=O | QDW}@ pQDvm OwN |HwQN |wQ O}y=wN@ Qo =

" CU= Q} R KQW x@ u=@ R u}= uU=Lt

" CU= |@ wN |rN=O | =tvy=Q |=Q=O R u @R =

"CU= |o}i=Qo x_Lqt p@=k | y = C}r@=k |=Q=O R u @R =

" CU= S-plus *

| y = package w CU= |v=w=Qi |Q t= xDN=UV}B `@=wD |=Q=O w CU= =

"CN=U =Q Q@ Q=m Q_v OQ t w `@=wD u= D w |t |oO=U x@ u=@ R u}= QO

"O wtv xO=iDU= u R= R \}L t QO w CN=U package u= D w |t R =

version 2.6.2 (2008-02-08)

version 2.12.0 (2010-10-15)

"Ovm|tv |v=@}DWB =Q u |Q =HD sDU}U l}

"CNwt =Q u u}t=Qi O}=@ 'u =@ |U} wvxt=vQ@ w xO =iDU= |= @ Q

Q=Ri=sQv ?Yv RQ] 31

"O W w |t ?Yv u |wQ |r=wDt l}rm Q=@ wO =@ w xO wtv 5 Owrv=O R C= R-2.7.0-win32.exe | Q

x_i=L QO <=}W= uOQm hPL w CUQyi 'O=H}= 1

x@ "Owtv xO=iDU= R= QDmJwm w =yvt | y = Ctqa R= u= D w |t Q=m u}= |=Q@ w

1390 ' |vWwOv|wUwt 4

> n { 10+2 <

xO =iDU= QoW}=Q} w l} R= xm CU= ?U=vt w CU= xOvvmxDUN C=Q wDUO lDlD Q

> source("le name")

"Owtv xQ W== XEmacs RWinEdt w

OwN@OwN x=ov 'OR =OY u pN=O =Q R R Q

"O wtv =QH= =Q x W O xDWwv = O

QwBU=@a O}yW jQ@ w ? CavY x=oWv=O

4 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . .. R = = u @R | y QoW}=Q} w 231

5 . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... . . ......R QO =yxO=O 331

9 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... . . . p= = } i |wQ yxO=O uDWwv 631

10 . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... ........ = yxO=O O}rwD 731

11 . . . . . . . . . . .. .................. = Q yQ=O @ 141

12 . . . . . . . . . .. . =yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C U =@ =Lt 1141

14 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ............... =yT} QD=t 241

20 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .......... w = Q=O? JQ J | yxO=O = 341

24 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . CUQyi O=H}= 1641

25 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .R = = u @R @ |U} wvxt=vQ@ 51

29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... : : : u t oQ = w 2351

29 . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . |rL t | y = Q}eDt 3351

36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... = wt ` w |Q t |Q=O v @= D 212

37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xLiY l} |wQ Q=O wtv OvJ 412

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u tR y = s |m}i=Qo xQHvB OvJ O=H}= 512

42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u} = K] } B U `@=wD R= |=xQ B = 712

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ |Q t= x}=B `@=wD 13

52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ = Q = =`w O }R | @Q m @ @= D 113

59 . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ecdf() ` = @ D 4213

60 . . . ...... . . . . . . = = =tD | =o ` =t o p L= r J @ D 5213

62 . . . ...... ................ | iO =YD |Q}oxvwtv 313

65 . . . ...... . . . . . . txQ l w i ] wO w } u tR 1513

|U} wvxt=vQ@ u=@ R =QJ 21

Q=Ri=sQv ?Yv RQ] 31

> source("le name")

> mode(A) mode(compar) mode(z)

R u=@ R QO xO=t |=yxO=O 4

read.table wD O = | mydata, 1], mydata, 2],

> scan(x, le=" ")

> write.table(x, le=" ")

=yxO=O Q=DN=U 41

=yQ=OQ@ |wQ |=} Q C=@U=Lt 1 1 4 1