1m detecting nomiteral meanings including metaphor, setcasm ani humeur 1B encoding social variables tke deference, coutosy or csrespoct Mostot the time these processes are happering atlighring speed and without vis exercising any conscious canel aver them. fs as natural as walking eating and breathing, We tend to become aware of language use only ender certain ‘ereumstances when old age,an acedent or iiness begins ta hampe our ability to communicate; when a misunderstanding occurs; or when we are confronted with Inaiials who speak deren rom us na diflerentaalect, a foregn accent or nether language completa). The rest of this general lack of awareness of language is twofold: we tend to equate language wit thought sf because we cant see the jin botween them, and we identify languages wth the groups who speak them, because thats whats mostly vsbeto us. Is as though language has Sunder a spell making ts use almost ibe, tke telepathy, and throwing tothe {oce its physical manifestations, the actual speech pales which identty pecpla stone of u'r one af thar al, 2008), This lack of awareness of he dua biological ar social nature of anguage has important consequences for bath ordinary language users an the apped ingusts ‘whose obits to help them fing solutions to language problems. Ou inabity to [reakthe spelolanguage~ to urate socal rapping at one end and unvel itfom thought atthe other~ means that some language problems qo nrecegrized and othrs are rendered intractable. To undorstand why, we need to acknowledge ‘8 setes of dead ends inthe mapping of language and applied ings. 4.2 TEN WAYS WE'RE LED ASTRAY IN. LANGUAGE AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS ‘Tote theory of language, capturing ‘common sense bella, is anetural con sequence of the ‘Language Spl! we mentioned inthe previous section. All communities and cuitues have deeply held bales about the nature of language andlanguages, hich applied inquistsigrove at the pe But research ingustics and lied ilds allows us to bing new perspectives on the practical problems facing language user, which we must also bo aware off we are otto be led astray by tempting, but misleading courses of bei and practice. Semelines the ‘most lel path othe straightas-ooking route does lead to new tent, but latimately sends us round in clas or soon cries up altogethar. Hor ae ou op ‘9 'dead end’ Although you might have your daub right now espesaly youre ‘ew to linguistics), well ry to convince you, as we map plied inguites in the chapters to come, that these dead ends are not the way to go. DEAD END 1: PEOPLE THINK IN LANGUAGE Inthe previous section, we noted that people commonly ienkiy language wih thought ise delevng that we"tink’in language. Fyouhave ever sted anctner language, youmay rca your teacher taling youto ty to think in Ferch’or even harder ~"y nat to thinkin English’ or whatever st language(s) you acquired aswrRooucTiON aninfant. Mostcognitvely aiented ingusts (ng. Jackendoff, 1999; Pinker, 1994) argue that humans thinkin noninguiste format (Prker cals it mentalese) which we map automaticaly and without conscious contol nto the stuctres of particular languages Ike Engish or Freach We then use these structures, ether incurheaes to regulate our thoughts conscously (Inner speech), crn the external rmodalties of speech, witing or sig, for communication with others. You nay have had the experience of dreaming ina language youre learning, nd perhaps youcan sven recall dreamed conversations ini Again hough these impressions can se0m ery vii they are not evidence that we thinkin language. We can wrap our thought in language, and this is clearly how we co-construct many of our beats _bout the world with ore speakers, as psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky (1966) have pointed out But this doesn't mean that language an thought are the same thing ‘Because we are so caught up inthe spel of language the only way to realy appreciate this points to consider other mental phenomena which weuse thought to make or manipulate, but which dont require language. Take, fr example the «ames Bond mavie theme: you can think’ In your head, but not with words or "ymax. And hin’ about how you would get ram where you are now tothe coset bathroom: you dort need words in onde o plan your route Final, ok at Figure 1.2, Youll se’ a white tangle above a black-edged tangle and thee sold back ‘cles Butnene ofthese objects arp actualy thee: you think them into exstence, sand, agin, te languages you know ae not involved, iga-12_ The Karin Tangle ope! usin Source: Wieedia Commars) Inthe course ofthe book wellencounte plenty of angle practical evidence forthe limites value of equating thought with language, including frm applies linguists Asal: tragtn bose rome ekg dae enone ed Inner speoeh = spansCchitsrectea speech no cling soy senecegoara inrmopuction 1 recoarchin bingualam demonstrates that biinguas do nathave we Separate ss of thoughts fo the two lanquages they speak; im research in language pathology ehows case after case of speakers with Impaired language but perfectly ntact thoughts and thinking procesees. ‘Anaher major plece of evidence comes from children thought equals language, this seems to imply that bafore they acquire language chien cat hk. they cat hin then how on earth do they do the foaming? This leads us to our next dda en DEAD END 2: CHILDREN ARE TAUGHT THEIR FIRST LANGUAGE(S) "Most people don't think much or at all abouthow they came tobe uet language users When asked hey wl often mention being taught theirparens (especialy ‘mothers artrough ear echooing, and/or wil assure that hey mst the acuts ‘round them. Chicrer, to ther great amusement often do imitate ads and often we desert And parents and teachers do teach us some of the words we come to know, But he eudence from fst anguage acquisition studies dosen't support, the claim that insructon and imitation are the ony or even the mest important stialegies involved in soquring ou fist language(s). Iittionscrucialy important {orcertan aspecs of language development especial atthe lve ct ts pysies! ‘manifestations (speech sounds, word forms, intonation contours hardshapes and ‘movements in sign tc), but imitation cant explain how those symbolic devices came to represent tearing and socal functions in the childs mind And neither can it eypain why children ty out grammar they havent heard Wom ads, tke “Thats she's Mom'or*What do you thnk what's in thal box? (Poster-Coher, 1998), ‘An unexpected research nding for most noninguists isthe steorinsgnt= ‘cance of expt oarrecton of nonadut, non-conventional forms like those. Ways ‘of corectng children and the importance of doing so vary culty, butts quite lear that expt attempts to get i to say the adult farm don't werk Children can beberate, sometimes, to reproduce the parently dested fom, but ey sek ith thei preferred phrasing uni their emerging grammar fits adult conventions ‘Astor, ltough ehild-dlrected speech pays animportantrole nlanguage development in most cultures, a grest doa ofthe language input chidren receve ‘comes from conversations not aressed to them and without any instructional intent by parents and caretakers. Chien build thor fist language mentally, by taking sense of (ane wth) the language theyre exposed to, which salmast never ‘sccompanied by explicit explanations af its structure. Tarai a great deal of evidence fractal period during which your brain is ‘tologlealy rea’ for learning your frst lanquago(s) Even though talk of @ ‘grammar gene wildy inaccurate, we know that language daveloprent and use are bologically constrained, and indeed some elements ofthe neual structures impicatd ike the protein FOXP2 (see Fique 13), re boing tudedia eberatories und the word loser o every experiance though ings have shown that people who don' get exposed to sufficient amounts of contextualized input (tak "uated in conte) before a certain ago (around puber), doit end up attainingierroouction 18 12 ropesanaton of he ste ofFOXP2 olin inpcated in the dev ‘pment anduse of huran language (Source: RCE Potin Data Bak) ‘he fll spectrum ofnguistic sources. Tis has happened, fr example in cases of chien who are deaf but are mistakenly thought fo be mental retarded, and are rot exposed to ign language's not surprising, then that chiren tan to got closer to natwe-like competence in a second language than adult L? learners. ‘These facts do at mean, however, thal alder people cannot learn additional languages, Researchers looking the ferences between chldand adit eames hve found unique advantages in each group, Chidren ara abla to hear salient iforencesin fom better than ageing ear (an evident advantagein wordearring), ‘5 wal ac baneting from factors including more time inthe second language infrmal, non-school contexts. But adult learners have diferent advantages that ‘make them good languaga leamer, oo. They have the advantage of a ly formed fest language to draw on ane make compisons with as well s more developed cognitive ystems and socal compotencios. {In most contemporary socletes, much of adults more advanced secaization comes tough the educational procass of cous Itis schooling, therefore which develops access to print though consoled tracy abil as wel s familiarizing pupils with strategies for studying, both of which can be eiical for adational language development is important ta be aware of how inextricably linked the three concepts have become in tha modern imagination. Roughly the sing ot assumptions goes a flows: languages asthe are wien constitute thir most full form tracy isthe prtuct of inttutionaizod education, only the educated re fully competentin the languages they use; ‘uneducated parents are bad mode's and teachers for het chien. ‘The social consequences ofthis maintream set of beliefs are grievous for ind ‘dual and groups We turn now tothe deac-end boli which es at the begining of his unproductive way of thinkingDEAD END 3: WRITTEN LANGUAGE IS SUPERIOR TO SPOKEN LANGUAGE Witten language is probably the mast important human dvelapmen: ofthe last he oF i lane Ba fr he ily ur vy nia ato Vat ars wee peaking languages that were in essence jst ke the anes we speak oiay though with very ferent words, of coursed). The eltvely recent appoarancsof writin ‘os of language means tha language acqutston, for vitualy all four history as species has taken place in the absence of writen language. In fc even the notion ofthe recency’ of writing nthe species thoroughly decepti since the vast majony ofthe spaces did't have access toi uni las than a Funded and ity years ago, when pubic education became generally accessible For ove: 97 percent of the time wring systems have existed theyve been the sos urique property ofthe privileged elites from royal aristocratic and priestly classes. ‘Since you are reading ths book, you are obviously hight trata. Nie probably hard fer yout imagine youre wthout eading and wating. But although we now take these sls so much fo granted we are stil regulary judgod on he basis of our command of eifferent forms o ieracy. Increasingly, education and jb oppor tuntes are clooaly ted to evaluations of candidates’ ll ae readers ane wie, and the economic prospects for those who have not mastered desired forms are notideal. And while the presence a print tracy n physical an virtua forms, has real increased around the world, demands on wae language abies have lsoincreased, and soitssilthe case that ver 770miion adults arecategerzod asiliterate, according to UNESCO figures. ‘Despite ts obvious importance in ourlves, however, need o keepin mind that wring i away of making language physica amadalty of expresson lke ign and speech, rather than constituting language itself Of courses duabity and wider scape of audience give it many advantages as a modality, bul hese very features alco make it a powerful tal of social corcion and control And given that access to the modality has been so long inthe ands of those with power, tis leads to abollt that thir wayof representing tho language istho lang. age Infact ‘writen texts have nly very recent hag an safluenee on how the angeage Faculty is transmitted in our species, and any in some societies. As ciren daveiop tho spoken, signed and writen anguagepractees of those around them meno them do so nependenty of the great dictionaries, sve manual and usage guides of the national eles, Which leads us othe next dead end DEAD END 4: SOME GROUPS OF PEOPLE DON! USE THEIR LANGUAGE PROPERLY "Youcan subttute severl adjectives here for variations onthe same myth Among the mast common: some ways of using your language are tore beautiful ore complex, more plessant, more efficient, more logical more caized...Many such belts arise naturally because of mistrust of the Other, butinlarge pat language |dgements folow ftom the notion ofa ‘standard form ofthe language against inhichallohervaveties can be measured ~ and found wanting. But in hat sense do stancrd languages exist? They catiny seam to exist infos ct ciscoursernooucTion «uch as newspaper editorials, national language policies and schoo textbooks. ‘Standard forms of language are appeales to, often when people fee that ther ‘atonal ragionalidenties or interests are being threatened. Despite the social power ofthe bel standard languages don exist the minds of indidual peak 215 rather, groups of speakers share diferent degrees of awareness of a sot af conventions about whats accepable, prestigious and desirable. Witten language has played perhaps the most important olen fixing these convention as the ‘basis for how others should write and speak ‘Anextensiono his dead.endis the bele that some languagesare better than others, for example that some are harder or easier o lear, some azo closer to God), some are more beautiful, more complex, more pleasant, more efficient, ‘morelogical more civzed etc. Desriptivenguistics and sociolinguistic are useful here to expose the patent nonsense of such beets, by comparing the same linguistic unit in different languages or calacs, This allows us to see how the sae ofa similar element of phonology, fr example, can have diferent ingustic value in diferent languages, without requiing or entaing any measurement of cticiency,complexty, logic or aesthetics. The /V and /+/ sounds of Englsh and many other languages are nat ifferentated by Chinese speakers, for example, |ust as the tonal features of Crinese can seem indstngushable to speakers of ‘atonal languages, such as English And the ilogica” double negative of many English dalecs (Isnt got none) is pat ofthe ‘standard versions of French and parish (One ofthe fundamental tenets of general nguistisis that such diferencas should not be attributed tothe inherent superoiy of one language or dialectal varely over another, but rather are rooted in sus of identity and feelings about other linguistic groups. As the linguist Denis Preston putt Some groups are believed to be decent ard-working, andinteligent (and so Is thei language ovary); some groups are beloved obo le-back romantic, and devi-may-care (and so is thet language or vane) some groups are beloved to belay, insolen, and procrastinating (and so stair language or variety some groups are believed to be har-nosed, aloo, and unsympathetic (God 20 is ther language variety), and s0 on... Germans are harsh just listen to thei harsh, guttural consonants; US Southerners are liback and lan, ust iste to ther ay, crawled vowels. Lowerstalus speakers ae unin- teligent; hey don't even understand that wo negatives make a paste, and (Preston, 2002, pp. 40-41) DEAD END 5: SOME PEOPLE SPEAK THEIR LANGUAGE WITHOUT AN ACCENT Everybody has an accent t's just that we typically dont notice or tin about our ‘own a those of aur imei speech community unt we have been expased to new varictes. Moving across language boundaries physical anc vital, people ue that not everyone sounds the seme. Far over a hundred years, voles haveboon projacted across borders through broadcasting, an so tho Switen standard ‘developed through conto af Iteracy education has been able to dominate the sirvaves as wel as the printed page. nthe UK almost al ofcil broad-ast speach in the fst six or seven decades of the twentieth century was In ReceWved Pronunciation! the ausible version af the Qusens Engh you didnt sauna ia them, you hed an accent ‘Some pope, ike Peter Sellers’ character Inspector Clouseau in the Pink Panther ovis, make us ugh vith ther impressions of forlgnacceats' (where ‘room with aphoneis'arimwit afer), and this pleasure in recognizing language tilferences may be unversal Foreign accents, unfortunately are alsoconsidered boy scm native speakers tobe a sign of generalincompetence lack ofintligence ‘oc unvilogness to assimilate inta the marty group. Routinely, pronunciation Aifrences or people's perceptions ofthe, are associated with soc identi, ‘as Dennis Preston makes clear in the passage quoted on p 8. The myth ofthe noe-accentisalso about power those with powor are the ones lo emulte; they are the rox, DEAD END 6: THE WAY GROUPS USE THEIR LANGUAGE REFLECTS THEIR INTELLIGENCE The tests we al know about from the media school and/or intemet stestyplcally confuse general inteligence wth vocabulary knawladge, competence in the srammar ofthe standardversion ofthe anguagein which the test presented rd faint wth he ingustc discourse of tests None ofthese atbulesare present inthe tose because of ho ineligenceInteligance soften construed so.as tofithe characteris of ha standard version of language, So, when nfefectuals lke Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre use the double negatve considered part of standard! French (Mon roman ne vaat er), their intligence is lett Unguestioned On the other hand, working-class Londoners and African Americans saying something simi in ther own dalcis (What! wrote wasn wort nothing) are judged tobe of fawedinteligence (ures ofcourse there's a mabe fori tke ‘the Roling Stones" cantgetaosatistaction, surely the most uraiveoall double negative). “The popu confltion of intligence with language abit isthe confed bythe fact hat measures of language proficiency for second anguaye leaner, such asthe International English Language Testing System (ELTS) athe Tostaf Engish a a Foregn Language (TOEFL), are used to prec ther academic suc~ cess vaable commonly aesocistd wit intaligence, Because these test ae normed on native speakers ofthe ‘standard version ofthe language is probably ‘more accursta to say that what is realy being measured here i the forms of knonledge valved by the users of standard English snd thatlanguage & thus key ‘vaaleinsecial constuction of irteligence.Addtionaly, and important, the ole oflteracy and culture in these test is fundamental to full understanding of what is actualy being messuredDEAD END 7: PEOPLE WITH TWO LANGUAGES ARE CONFUSED Like thee monolingual counterparts, many bilinguals may wal be confused about lots of things. But rot because they speak mare than one lanquage. Ths myth, reflected ina great deal of educational material in clferent periods has a east ‘wo parts. On the cognitive se there i the notion ofthe miné-asfnte-containr, incapable of halding two or more languages simultaneously, There isa related afon that having to process more than one language slows us down or atherwise impedes the development of conventional forms of speaking Since we can point to welHeoun polgots such as Nelson Mandela Ochosa, English, Afkaans and Zulu) and numerous other examples of biingusl and multingual people who are respected, prosperous and who learned muliple languages from an early age, its clr that bilingual chien’ brain have no patulr dificult in negtiting language acquistion or the word beyond i Indeed, a great deal of research in cexparimental psychology suggests Wa, once socioeconomic vatables are con- ‘ved for eat blingualim brings big cognitive acantages,nchading ear mastery ‘of some ofthe abilities involed in reading (see Chapter 6) Ths relates back of course to dead end 1, according to which language and thought are one an he sama If thaye not and language is separate from though then those who have twoversions of he formar hava go twa ways of acquing, expressing snd ingus tical regulating the late Soe Faure 14). ‘There’ also a secoingstc reason wy this belle is a deal end. In bling communes, speakers know (at an unconscious leveD which language to use and which contests o use it in. Thus, Korean American chikren ving inthe US may use Korean at home and English at schoo, and a combination ofthe two languages inthe broader community, Biingualswhomixelement of mote than one language are often denigrated, but upen claser inspection the speech of fuent code ‘switchers shows that stches from anc to the ater often flow highly systen= ‘abe constraints hat are consistent with core principles ofboth grammatical systems land da nat happen because of ‘incompetence’ in one or both of the lenguages. Switching aso folows sociocuturaly acceptable pattems depending on who's talking about what with whom, No al binguals do but or those thst do, code= ‘sritehng is Tar from "word salad Instead, the highly organized way in which it ctrl contests (C1 and C2) edo express an internal reqs one body ol heughtin we arent ways Code-switehing ‘dovetail languagesIntenweaves elements rom two languages into asngle coherent iscurseresem- es fucion cuisine ins most sophisticated form, DEAD END 8: LANGUAGES GET CONTAMINATED. BY INFLUENCE FROM OTHER LANGUAGES Its one thing, prhaps to accotthetindidual speakers mix two or mor languages, butsurelythe languages themselves should mantain thelrown ntegrty?Isitght and goodthat the Engish word laptop or roamingare row oguary used in Swi Turkish, Spanish and so mary other lnguages around the globe? het Russian ors are sil prevalent in Estaran and Georgian twenty year aftr he alot the Sovet Union? Thal Japanese has a huge number af Chinese words anc that English vocabulary was fundamentally Latrized by Norman French nthe fist cortures Of the last milennium? To most linguists these are absurd questions, because languages are not monalths pure Patoic’ systems somehow separate rm their spatiotemporal users and uses ‘Weve ted fo show sofa in this chapter thatthe falling ways of thinking wil alow us to make progres in applied linguists, both as aeadenies and as practioners ‘5 there's no telepsthy to directly share our thoughts, so concerted belies, concep, actions and identies take shape largey though angsage: 1m Ianguage is locally modulate, zo we end up wih fren languages’ which mould different sets of concerted beets, concepts, atons and denties; 1m languages ae ment! ystems that are independant of thoughts in ndiviua mins: 1m they are athe sam tine social ystems tha xi independent fhe named ‘standard varios used by lt groups and reed n educated witten usage; 1m sctul users languages use thingie resources fr thairowm purposes in theron ways, and may well be unaware of haw these resources compare with th ‘standard variety indoed one has boon promted forthe language) ‘what emerges fom this view i that ‘anguages!' are nat mano aystems ‘esting as ideal systems in grammar books and dctonares but neiber are they the products solely of individual minds. Rather, thay ae sococognte systems, mediating between slated indiduals and named groups lig within ard across regional or national borders, Because ofthis, the ohn bade, in bath he minds of indiuals nd communities of speakers, are very fd indeed Baiovng thet {governments and academies cen rng-fence a language from ouside influence is ‘89 nalve as beeung that evesyone outside the borders of Haly canbe prevented ‘tom eating pizza or that everyone outside the borders of China canbe forced to celebrate the new year without eeworks, ‘And yet language groups feling economic and other socal pressures from ‘others offen ryt legislate or otherwise mandate restictons on the publ use of forms of language that crignate beyond their national borders. Famous, for ‘example signe in Englsh were banned in French-speaking Quebec ir 1977 sftor ‘he electoral triumph ofthe Parti Guébéeos, a8 part of ther campaign or separatetwerRoouctION sovereignty fom the rest of Canada. Likewise, the 1984 Touben Law in France logiltedagainat other languages being used in goverment, commerce, education snd toadeasting Simla’ actions have been taken n Estonia to repel lxcal invaders ‘orn Russa after indoperdenca from the USSR, and in lan to replace foreign ‘words with Pesan ones ater the Islamic revolution (Spolsky, 2004). All these efforts to maintain the fon af monalithic languages shave an underig poltical intetion: to assert national dently through national language. DEAD END 3: A NATION HAS, OR SHOULD HAVE, ONE LANGUAGE Ito coincidence that the historic inguage ofthe English people is called English ‘hat the main language of the Japanese people I called Japanese and that tho principal language af thelcelandc peoples called celandic. The fact that a single language can have diferent names according to who's speaking it should aso ‘come as no surprise: for exampla, Swedish, Norwegian and Danish re basicaly the same language, spoken in Bwee separate nations called Sweden, Norway and ‘Danmar: This state of alfa seems natural tothe populations of counties tke England, Japan leland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark, where manalinguls is, fn the whole, the norm. Canversly in many ofthe nations of Arca, Asia and Oceania, where the imposition of Evpesn monoinguasm has been impeded by the much greater Inguistic versity of peoples ining in these frmery colonized reajons this dead end is much better signposted ‘ut for most ofthe former colonial powers, here smal contusion between language, natonaliy and pace the minds of inguists and laypeople ake. Thus, English paola ara Englh speakers, forignos are speakers of ren languages, and each county has ts language. The myth sso strong tha i's perfect natural fee nguistics students o write sentences tke the folowing (taken fom real under raduate essays) 1 Only around hal of some European counties can actually speak another language, se how do they communicate wth ater counties? 2 Different countries have altomatve rules of granenar. ‘Such imprecision is very easy to commit and we the authors are often guity oft ‘Wo are in goed company, too David Cyst inthe UK, or exarple, states (2002, .1):None knows how many foreign peopl have learned English toa reasonable standard of fueney oF fo any standard a al fo that matter’ (By foreign people, he presumably means non-native speakers, which would incude UK ctzons whose frtanguageis Bish Sign Language ar Benga). And Elaine Chalka in he USA (2008, p28) writs as arto a textbook exerci: 'Listen to. frsign person speak Engich, and write down evey word fo which the Engish word sounds foregn because the wrong [spoech sound] was used” (Were assuming she doesn't have Canadians in mind) “The myth that each nation has only one language is a rather recent one, beginning withthe ise ofthe nation state after the Midale Ages. Cleared tothe political and economic identities of post-Rensissance Europe (Goo Barbour and cy1a Carmichael, 2000), language became an important policy tool n he deve to ‘entralzaton ofpowerin the new nation stata an to succesful domination in the ‘colonization and ministration at Arica Ala, the Americas and Oceana, The my interpreted asa polcy whereby a prestigious language was elevates ver others that were denigrated or banned outright lad to sire eonsequanes fo minor t0ups i the home counties and forthe established populations af the new colonies. Despite is durabily, the future af tis myth is uncertain given the increased contact among previously unconnected groups of language users ‘trough new media (eg, television, movies and music videos), dal information exchange (though te interet, e-mail chat, socal networking, ele) and massive surges in migratio DEAD END 10: LANGUAGES EXIST INDEPENDENTLY OF USERS AND USES Allo these dead ends lead to ane big bee to nowhere: the belie hat English and al othe anguages have abecive existence outside out imagintons, From the bee! that English s out thre folows that: 18 exsts in the Oxford English Dctionay in good erature, on heBEC nthe mouths af educated peop 1 children can have diferent degrees of success at acquiing and any people dnt acquire propery, 1m youth witht sof youhavent acquired proper youl be les intligent ‘= ifyourming shares with another language youl be confused and mixing i wih another language sulles and possibly you: 1 belongs 10 England and, by inheritance also to Australi, Canada, Now Zealand, the USA and other natlonal communities of native speatos; 1 it can rated as a tangible good, a commodity, to be exported promoted, ‘marketed and sod in order to acvance cotan interest Will contstaltheve views inthe chapters to come, butwelalse cartrually bear in mind that mest language users (he clients of applied linguists), old them to besel-evidentian, furthermore tht he belts of users canhave rotund effets ‘onlanguage uses Final welremember tat allthose who work professional with language, cating Ingulsts, il succumb to the lure ofthese atracbe avenues cof bali ...even they do lad nowhere except to fewer spied deussions at fail holidays, the dinner abe, the pub othe coffee house 4.3 APPLIED LINGUISTICS \We should perhaps st clay that genevalingulstes i ferent trom ‘epliod linguistics, General inguistice describes and theorizes about language a lan ‘auages, anid is an umbrela term foranumber of sub-dscplines. Ganerainguisies lanalyses the sound aystems, grammars, vcsbulsties and dscowse-organizing Principles and practices of different languages, lassitying various fetus, and